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compound lava flows similar to those seen at Kīlauea in Hawaii . Images from the Galileo spacecraft revealed that many of Io 's major flows , like those at Prometheus and Amirani , are produced by the build @-@ up of small breakouts of lava on top of older flows . Flow @-@ dominated eruptions differ from explosion @-@ dominated eruptions by their longevity and their lower energy output per unit of time . Lava erupts at a generally steady rate , and flow @-@ dominated eruptions can last for years or decades .
Active flow fields more than 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) long have been observed on Io at Amirani and Masubi . A relatively inactive flow field named Lei @-@ Kung Fluctus covers more than 125 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 48 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , an area slightly larger than Nicaragua . The thickness of flow fields was not determined by Galileo , but the individual breakouts on their surface are likely to be 1 m ( 3 ft ) thick . In many cases , active lava breakouts flow out onto the surface at locations tens to hundreds of kilometres from the source vent , with low amounts of thermal emission observed between it and the breakout . This suggests that lava flows through lava tubes from the source vent to the breakout .
Although these eruptions generally have a steady eruption rate , larger outbreaks of lava have been observed at many flow @-@ dominated eruption sites . For example , the leading edge of the Prometheus flow field moved 75 to 95 kilometres ( 47 to 59 mi ) between observations by Voyager in 1979 and Galileo in 1996 . Although generally dwarfed by explosion @-@ dominated eruptions , the average flow rate at these compound flow fields is much greater than what is observed at similar contemporary lava flows on Earth . Average surface coverage rates of 35 – 60 square metres ( 380 – 650 sq ft ) per second were observed at Prometheus and Amirani during the Galileo mission , compared to 0 @.@ 6 square metres ( 6 @.@ 5 sq ft ) per second at Kīlauea .
= = = Explosion @-@ dominated eruptions ( Pillanian Volcanism ) = = =
Explosion @-@ dominated eruptions are the most pronounced of Io 's eruption styles . These eruptions , sometimes called " outburst " eruptions from their Earth @-@ based detections , are characterized by their short duration ( lasting only weeks or months ) , rapid onset , large volumetric flow rates , and high thermal emission . They lead to a short @-@ lived , significant increase in Io 's overall brightness in the near @-@ infrared . The most powerful volcanic eruption observed in historical times was an " outburst " eruption at Surt , observed by Earth @-@ based astronomers on February 22 , 2001 .
Explosion @-@ dominated eruptions occur when a body of magma ( called a dike ) from deep within Io 's partially molten mantle reaches the surface at a fissure . This results in a spectacular display of lava fountains . During the beginning of the outburst eruption , thermal emission is dominated by strong , 1 – 3 μm infrared radiation . It is produced by a large amount of exposed , fresh lava within the fountains at the eruption source vent . Outburst eruptions at Tvashtar in November 1999 and February 2007 centred on a 25 @-@ kilometre ( 16 mi ) long , 1 @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) tall lava " curtain " produced at a small patera nested within the larger Tvashtar Paterae complex .
The large amount of exposed molten lava at these lava fountains has provided researchers with their best opportunity to measure the actual temperatures of Ionian lavas . Temperatures suggestive of an ultramafic lava composition similar to Pre @-@ Cambrian komatiites ( about 1 @,@ 600 K or 1 @,@ 300 ° C or 2 @,@ 400 ° F ) are dominant at such eruptions , though superheating of the magma during ascent to the surface cannot be ruled out as a factor in the high eruption temperatures .
Although the more explosive , lava @-@ fountaining stage may last only a few days to a week , explosion @-@ dominated eruptions can continue for weeks to months , producing large , voluminous silicate lava flows . A major eruption in 1997 from a fissure north @-@ west of Pillan Patera produced more than 31 cubic kilometres ( 7 @.@ 4 cu mi ) of fresh lava over a 2 1 ⁄ 2- to 5 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ month period , and later flooded the floor of Pillan Patera . Observations by Galileo suggest lava coverage rates at Pillan between 1 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 square metres ( 11 @,@ 000 and 32 @,@ 000 sq ft ) per second during the 1997 eruption . The Pillan flow was found to be 10 m ( 33 ft ) thick , compared to the 1 m ( 3 ft ) thick flows observed at the inflated fields at Prometheus and Amirani . Similar , rapidly emplaced lava flows were observed by Galileo at Thor in 2001 . Such flow rates are similar to those seen at Iceland 's Laki eruption in 1783 and in terrestrial flood basalt eruptions .
Explosion @-@ dominated eruptions can produce dramatic ( but often short @-@ lived ) surface changes around the eruption site , such as large pyroclastic and plume deposits produced as gas exsolves from lava fountains . The 1997 Pillan eruption produced a 400 km ( 250 mi ) wide deposit of dark , silicate material and bright sulfur dioxide . The Tvashtar eruptions of 2000 and 2007 generated a 330 km ( 210 mi ) tall plume that deposited a ring of red sulfur and sulfur dioxide 1 @,@ 200 km ( 750 mi ) wide . Despite the dramatic appearance of these features , without continuous resupply of material , the vent surroundings often revert to their pre @-@ eruption appearance over a period of months ( in the case of Grian Patera ) or years ( as at Pillan Patera ) .
= = Plumes = =
The discovery of volcanic plumes at Pele and Loki in 1979 provided conclusive evidence that Io was geologically active . Generally , plumes form when volatiles like sulfur and sulfur dioxide are ejected skyward from Io 's volcanoes at speeds reaching 1 kilometre per second ( 0 @.@ 62 mi / s ) , creating umbrella @-@ shaped clouds of gas and dust . Additional materials that might be found in the volcanic plumes include sodium , potassium , and chlorine . Although striking in appearance , volcanic plumes are relatively uncommon . Of the 150 or so active volcanoes observed on Io , plumes have only been observed at a couple of dozen of them . The limited area of Io 's lava flows suggests that much of the resurfacing needed to erase Io 's cratering record must come from plume deposits .
The most common type of volcanic plume on Io are dust plumes , or Prometheus @-@ type plumes , produced when encroaching lava flows vaporize underlying sulfur dioxide frost , sending the material skyward . Examples of Prometheus @-@ type plumes include Prometheus , Amirani , Zamama , and Masubi . These plumes are usually less than 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) tall with eruption velocities around 0 @.@ 5 kilometres per second ( 0 @.@ 31 mi / s ) . Prometheus @-@ type plumes are dust @-@ rich , with a dense inner core and upper canopy shock zone , giving them an umbrella @-@ like appearance . These plumes often form bright circular deposits , with a radius ranging between 100 and 250 kilometres ( 62 and 155 mi ) and consisting primarily of sulfur dioxide frost . Prometheus @-@ type plumes are frequently seen at flow @-@ dominated eruptions , helping make this plume type quite long @-@ lived . Four out of the six Prometheus @-@ type plumes observed by Voyager 1 in 1979 were also observed throughout the Galileo mission and by New Horizons in 2007 . Although the dust plume can be clearly seen in sunlit visible @-@ light images of Io acquired by passing spacecraft , many Prometheus @-@ type plumes have an outer halo of fainter , more gas @-@ rich material reaching heights approaching that of the larger , Pele @-@ type plumes .
Io 's largest plumes , Pele @-@ type plumes , are created when sulfur and sulfur dioxide gas exsolve from erupting magma at volcanic vents or lava lakes , carrying silicate pyroclastic material with them . The few Pele @-@ type plumes that have been observed are usually associated with explosion @-@ dominated eruptions , and are short @-@ lived . The exception to this is Pele , which is associated with a long @-@ lived active lava lake eruption , though the plume is thought to be intermittent . The higher vent temperatures and pressures associated with these plumes generate eruption speeds of up to 1 kilometre per second ( 0 @.@ 62 mi / s ) , allowing them to reach heights of between 300 and 500 kilometres ( 190 and 310 mi ) . Pele @-@ type plumes form red ( from short @-@ chain sulfur ) and black ( from silicate pyroclastics ) surface deposits , including large 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 620 mi ) -wide red rings , as seen at Pele . The erupted sulfurous components of Pele @-@ type plumes are thought to be the result of an excess amount of sulfur in Io 's crust and a decrease in sulfur solubility at greater depths in Io 's lithosphere . They are generally fainter than Prometheus @-@ type plumes as a result of the low dust content , causing some to be called stealth plumes . These plumes are sometimes only seen in images acquired while Io is in the shadow of Jupiter or those taken in ultraviolet . The little dust that is visible in sunlit images is generated when sulfur and sulfur dioxide condense as the gases reach the top of their ballistic trajectories . That is why these plumes lack the dense central column seen in Prometheus @-@ type plumes , in which dust is generated at the plume source . Examples of Pele @-@ type plumes have been observed at Pele , Tvashtar , and Grian .
= History of Poland during the Piast dynasty =
The history of Poland during the Piast dynasty is the first major stage in the history of Poland . The Piast period lasted from the 10th through the 14th century , when Poland was established as a state and a nation during the Middle Ages of European history . The history of Poland commences with the founding of the Piast dynasty ( Siemowit , Lestek and Siemomysł were listed by the chronicler as its first dukes ) and the rule of the proper founder of the Polish state Mieszko I , from around 960 AD . The indigenous Piast ruling house was largely responsible for the formation of the state and remained in power until 1370 . Mieszko chose to be baptized in the Western Latin Rite in 966 , which established a major cultural boundary in Europe . He completed the unification of the West Slavic tribal lands fundamental to the existence of the new country of Poland .
Following the emergence of the Polish state , a series of rulers converted the population to Christianity , created a strong kingdom and integrated Poland into the European culture . Mieszko 's son , Bolesław I Chrobry , established a Polish Church province , pursued territorial conquests and was officially crowned in 1025 , becoming the first King of Poland . The first Piast monarchy collapsed with the death of Mieszko II Lambert in 1034 , followed by its restoration under Casimir I. Casimir 's son , Bolesław II the Bold , brought back the military assertiveness of Bolesław I , but became fatally involved in a conflict with Bishop Stanislaus of Szczepanów , and was expelled from the country .
Bolesław III , the last duke of the early period , succeeded in defending his country and recovering territories previously lost . Upon his death in 1138 , Poland was divided among his sons . The resulting internal fragmentation eroded the initial Piast monarchy structure in the 12th and 13th centuries and caused fundamental and lasting changes . Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to help him fight the Baltic Prussian pagans , which led to centuries of Poland 's warfare with the Knights and the German Prussian state .
The Kingdom was restored under Władysław I the Elbow @-@ high , then strengthened and expanded by his son Casimir III the Great . The western provinces of Silesia and Pomerania were lost after the fragmentation , and Poland began expanding to the east . The period ended with the reigns of two members of the Angevin dynasty . The consolidation in the 14th century laid the base for the new powerful Kingdom of Poland that was to follow .
= = 10th – 12th century = =
= = = Mieszko I ; adoption of Christianity ( ca . 960 – 992 ) = = =
The tribe of the Polans ( Polanie , lit . " people of the fields " ) of what is now Greater Poland , gave rise to a tribal predecessor of the Polish state in the early part of the 10th century , with the Polans settling in the flatlands around the emerging strongholds of Giecz , Poznań , Gniezno and Ostrów Lednicki . Accelerated rebuilding of old tribal fortified settlements , construction of massive new ones and territorial expansion took place during 920 – 950 . The process continued and the Polish state developed from tribal roots in the second half of the century . According to the chronicler Gallus Anonymus , the Polans were ruled by the Piast dynasty . In existing sources , Piast ruler Mieszko I was first mentioned by Widukind of Corvey in his Res gestae saxonicae , a chronicle of 10th @-@ century Germany . Widukind reported that Mieszko 's forces were twice defeated in 963 by the Veleti tribes acting in cooperation with the Saxon exile Wichmann the Younger . Under Mieszko 's rule ( ca . 960 to 992 ) , his tribal state accepted Christianity and became the Polish state .
The viability of the emerging state was assured by the persistent territorial expansion of the early Piast rulers . Beginning with a very small area around Gniezno ( before the town itself existed ) , the Piast expansion lasted throughout most of the 10th century , resulting in a territory approximating that of present @-@ day Poland . The Polanie tribe conquered and merged with other Slavic tribes and formed a tribal federation , and later , a centralized state . After the addition of Lesser Poland , the country of the Vistulans , and of Silesia ( both taken by Mieszko from the Czech state during the later part of the 10th century ) , Mieszko 's state reached its mature form , including the main regions regarded as ethnically Polish .
The Piast lands totaled about 250 @,@ 000 km2 ( 96 @,@ 526 sq mi ) in area , with an approximate population of under one million .
Initially a pagan , Mieszko I was the first ruler of the Polans tribal union known from contemporary written sources . A detailed account of aspects of Mieszko 's early reign was given by Ibrâhîm ibn Ya`qûb , a Jewish traveler , according to whom Mieszko was one of four Slavic " kings " established in central and southern Europe in the 960s . In 965 , Mieszko , who was allied with Boleslaus I , Duke of Bohemia at the time , married the duke 's daughter , Doubravka , a Christian princess . Mieszko 's conversion to Christianity in its Western Latin Rite followed on 14 April 966 , and is considered to be the founding event of the Polish state . In the aftermath of Mieszko 's 967 victory over a force of the Velunzani , which was led by Wichmann , the first missionary bishop was appointed . The action counteracted the intended eastern expansion of the Magdeburg Archdiocese , established at about the same time .
Mieszko 's state had a complex political relationship with the German Holy Roman Empire , as Mieszko was a " friend " , ally and vassal of Otto I , paying him tribute from the western part of his lands . It fought wars with the Polabian Slavs , the margraves of the Saxon Eastern March ( Gero in 963 – 964 and Hodo in 972 , see Battle of Cedynia ) , and the Czechs . The victories over Wichmann and Hodo allowed Mieszko to extend his Pomeranian possessions west to the vicinity of the Oder River and its mouth . After the death of Otto I , and then again after the death of Otto II , Mieszko supported Henry the Quarrelsome , a pretender to the imperial crown . After the death of Dobrawa , Mieszko married ca . 980 a German , Oda von Haldensleben , daughter of Dietrich , Margrave of the Northern March . When fighting the Czechs in 990 , Mieszko was helped by the Holy Roman Empire . By about the year 990 , when Mieszko I officially submitted his country to the authority of the Holy See ( Dagome iudex ) , he had transformed Poland into one of the strongest powers in central @-@ eastern Europe .
= = = Bolesław I ; Church province , conquests , Kingdom of Poland ( 992 – 1025 ) = = =
Mieszko I died in 992 . Contrary to what the first ruler of Poland had intended , when Oda with her ( and Mieszko 's ) minor sons lost the power struggle , Bolesław , Mieszko 's oldest son , became the sole ruler of Poland . A man of high ambition and strong personality , Bolesław embarked on further territorial expansion to the west ( Lusatia region ) , south , and east . While often successful , the campaigns and the gains turned out to be of only passing significance and badly strained the resources of the young nation . Bolesław lost the economically crucial Farther Pomerania , together with its new bishopric in Kołobrzeg ; the region had previously been conquered with great effort by Mieszko .
Bolesław Chrobry ( ruled 992 – 1025 ) began his reign by continuing his father 's policy of alliance with the Holy Roman Empire . Bolesław received and helped Wojciech of the Slavník family , a well @-@ connected Czech bishop in exile and missionary who was killed in 997 while on a mission in Prussia . Bolesław skillfully took advantage of Wojciech 's death : the martyrdom of Wojciech gave Poland a patron saint , St. Adalbert , and resulted in the creation of an independent Polish province of the Church with an archbishop in Gniezno . In the year 1000 , the young Emperor Otto III came as a pilgrim to visit St. Adalbert 's grave and lent his support to Bolesław during the Congress of Gniezno ; the Gniezno Archdiocese and several subordinate dioceses were established on this occasion . The Polish ecclesiastical province effectively served as an essential anchor and an institution to fall back on for the Piast state , helping it to survive in the troubled centuries ahead .
Otto died in 1002 and Bolesław 's relationship with his successor Henry II turned out to be much more difficult , resulting in a series of wars ( 1002 – 1005 , 1007 – 1013 , 1015 – 1018 ) . From 1003 – 1004 Bolesław intervened militarily in Czech dynastic conflicts . After his forces were removed from Bohemia in 1018 , Bolesław retained Moravia . In 1013 the marriage between Bolesław 's son Mieszko and Richeza of Lotharingia , the niece of Emperor Otto III and future mother of Casimir I the Restorer , took place . The conflicts with Germany ended in 1018 with the Peace of Bautzen accord , on favorable terms for Bolesław . In the context of the 1018 Kiev expedition , Bolesław took over the western part of Red Ruthenia . In 1025 , shortly before his death , Bolesław I the Brave finally succeeded in obtaining the papal permission to crown himself , and became the first king of Poland .
= = = Mieszko II ; collapse of the reign ( 1025 – 1039 ) = = =
King Mieszko II Lambert ( 990 – 1034 ) tried to continue the politics of his father using Bolesław 's kingdom as an interventionist great power . Mieszko 's actions reinforced old resentment and hostility on the part of Poland 's neighbors , and his two dispossessed brothers took advantage of it , arranging for Rus ' and German invasions in 1031 ; Mieszko was defeated and was forced to leave the country . Later , Mieszko 's brothers Bezprym and Otto were killed and Mieszko partially recovered . The first Piast monarchy collapsed with Mieszko 's death in 1034 . Deprived of a government , Poland was ravaged by an anti @-@ feudal and pagan rebellion , and in 1039 by the forces of Bretislaus I of Bohemia . The country suffered territorial losses , and the functioning of the Gniezno archdiocese was disrupted .
= = = Restoration under Casimir I ( 1039 – 1058 ) = = =
The nation made a recovery under Mieszko 's son , Duke Casimir I ( 1016 – 1058 ) , properly known as the Restorer . After returning from exile in 1039 , Casimir rebuilt the Polish monarchy and the country 's territorial integrity through several military campaigns : in 1047 , Masovia was taken back from Miecław , and in 1054 Silesia from the Czechs . Casimir was aided by the recent adversaries of Poland , the Holy Roman Empire and Kievan Rus ' , both of whom disliked the chaos in Poland . Casimir introduced a more mature form of feudalism and relieved the burden of financing large army units from the duke 's treasury by settling his warriors on feudal estates . Faced with the widespread destruction of Greater Poland after the Czech expedition , Casimir moved his court to Kraków , replacing the old Piast capitals of Poznań and Gniezno ; Kraków functioned as the nation 's capital for several centuries .
= = = Bolesław II ; conflict with Bishop Stanisław ( 1058 – 1079 ) = = =
Casimir 's son Bolesław II the Bold , also known as the Generous ( ruled 1058 – 1079 ) , developed Polish military strength and waged several foreign campaigns between 1058 and 1077 . As an active supporter of the papal side in its feud with the German emperor , Bolesław crowned himself king in 1076 with the blessing of Pope Gregory VII . In 1079 there was an anti @-@ Bolesław conspiracy or conflict that involved the Bishop of Kraków . Bolesław had Bishop Stanislaus of Szczepanów executed ; subsequently Bolesław was forced to abdicate the Polish throne because of the pressure from the Catholic Church and the pro @-@ imperial faction of the nobility . St. Stanislaus was to become the second martyr and patron saint of Poland , canonized in 1253 .
= = = Władysław I Herman ( 1079 – 1102 ) = = =
After Bolesław 's exile the country found itself under the unstable rule of his younger brother Władysław I Herman ( ruled 1079 – 1102 ) . Władysław was strongly dependent on Palatine Sieciech . When Władysław 's two sons , Zbigniew and Bolesław , finally forced Władysław to remove his hated protégé , Poland was divided among the three of them from 1098 , and after the father 's death from 1102 to 1106 between the two brothers .
= = = Bolesław III ( 1102 – 1138 ) = = =
After a power struggle , Bolesław III the Wry @-@ mouthed ( ruled 1102 – 1138 ) became the Duke of Poland by defeating his half @-@ brother in 1106 – 1107 . Zbigniew had to leave the country , but received support from Emperor Henry V , who attacked Bolesław 's Poland in 1109 . Bolesław was able to defend his country because of his military abilities , determination and alliances , and also because of a national mobilization across the social spectrum ( see Battle of Głogów ) ; Zbigniew who later returned was eliminated . Bolesław 's other major achievement was the conquest of all of Mieszko I 's Pomerania ( of which the remaining eastern part had been lost by Poland from after the death of Mieszko II ) , a task begun by his father and completed by Bolesław around 1123 . Szczecin was subdued in a bloody takeover and Western Pomerania up to Rügen , except for the directly incorporated southern part , became Bolesław 's fief , to be ruled locally by Wartislaw I , the first duke of the Griffin dynasty .
At this time , Christianization of the region was initiated in earnest , an effort crowned by the establishment of the Pomeranian Wolin Diocese after Bolesław 's death in 1140 .
= = = Fragmentation of the realm ( 1138 – c . 1314 ) = = =
Before he died , Bolesław Krzywousty divided the country , in a limited sense , among four of his sons . He made complex arrangements intended to prevent fratricidal warfare and preserve the Polish state 's formal unity , but after Bolesław 's death the plan 's implementation had failed and in reality a long period of fragmentation was ushered in . For nearly two centuries the Piasts were to spar with each other , the clergy , and the nobility for the control over the divided kingdom . The stability of the system was supposedly assured by the institution of the senior or high duke of Poland , based in Kraków and assigned to the special Seniorate Province that was not to be subdivided . Following his concept of seniorate , Bolesław divided the country into five principalities : Silesia , Greater Poland , Masovia , Sandomierz and Kraków . The first four provinces were given to his four sons , who became independent rulers . The fifth province , the Seniorate Province of Kraków , was to be added to the senior among the Princes who , as the Grand Duke of Kraków , was the representative of the whole of Poland . This principle broke down already within the generation of Bolesław III 's sons , when Władysław II the Exile , Bolesław IV the Curly , Mieszko III the Old and Casimir II the Just fought for power and territory in Poland , and in particular over the Kraków throne .
The external borders left by Bolesław III at his death closely resembled the borders left by Mieszko I ; this original early Piast monarchy configuration had not survived the fragmentation period .
= = = Culture = = =
From the time of the baptism of Poland 's ruling elite , foreign churchmen had been arriving and the culture of early Medieval Poland was developing as a part of European Christendom . However , it would be a few generations from the time of Mieszko 's conversion until significant numbers of native clergymen appeared . After the establishment of numerous monasteries in the 12th and 13th centuries , Christianization of the populace was accomplished on a larger scale .
Intellectual and artistic activity was concentrated around the institutions of the Church , the courts of the kings and dukes , and emerged around the households of the rising hereditary elite . Written annals began to be generated in the late 10th century ; leaders like Mieszko II and Casimir the Restorer were considered literate and educated . Along with the Dagome iudex act , the most important written document and source of the period is the Gesta principum Polonorum , a chronicle by Gallus Anonymus , a foreign cleric from the court of Bolesław the Wry @-@ mouthed . A number of Pre @-@ Romanesque stone churches were built beginning in the 10th century , often accompanied by palatium ruler residencies ; Romanesque buildings proper followed . The earliest coins were minted by Bolesław I around 995 . The Gniezno Doors ( 1170s ) of Gniezno Cathedral ( bronze low relief ) are the finest example of Romanesque sculpture . Bruno of Querfurt was one of the pioneering Western clergymen spreading Church literacy ; some of his prominent writings had been produced in eremitic monasteries in Poland . Among the preeminent early monastic religious orders were the Benedictines ( the abbey in Tyniec founded in 1044 ) and the Cistercians .
= = 13th century = =
= = = State and society ; German settlement = = =
The 13th century brought fundamental changes to the structure of Polish society and its political system . Because of the fragmentation and constant internal conflicts , the Piast dukes were unable to stabilize Poland 's external borders of the early Piast rulers . Western Farther Pomerania broke its political ties with Poland in the second half of the 12th century and from 1231 became a fief of the Margraviate of Brandenburg , which in 1307 extended its Pomeranian possessions even further east , taking over the Sławno and Słupsk areas . Pomerelia or Gdańsk Pomerania had been independent of the Polish dukes from 1227 . In mid 13th century , Bolesław II the Bald granted Lubusz Land to the Margraviate , which made possible the creation of the Neumark and had far reaching negative consequences for the integrity of the western border . In the south @-@ east , Leszek the White was unable to preserve Poland 's supremacy over the Halych area of Rus ' , a territory that had changed hands on a number of occasions .
The social status was becoming increasingly based on the size of feudal land possessions . Those included the lands controlled by the Piast princes , their rivals the great lay land owners and church entities , all the way down to the knightly class ; the work force ranged from hired " free " people , through serfs attached to the land , to slaves ( purchased or war and other prisoners ) . The upper layer of the feudal lords , first the Church and then others , were able to acquire economic and legal immunity , which made them exempt to a significant degree from court jurisdiction or economical obligations ( including taxation ) , that had previously been imposed by the ruling dukes .
The civil strife and foreign invasions , such as the Mongol invasions in 1240 / 1241 , 1259 / 1260 and 1287 / 1288 , weakened and depopulated the many small Polish principalities , as the country was becoming progressively more subdivided . The depopulation and the increasing demand for labor in the developing economy caused a massive immigration of West European peasants , mostly German settlers into Poland ( early waves from Germany and Flanders in the 1220s ) . The German , Polish and other new rural settlements were a form of feudal tenancy with immunity and German town laws were often utilized as its legal bases . German immigrants were also important in the rise of the cities and the establishment of the Polish burgher ( city dwelling merchants ) class ; they brought with them West European laws ( Magdeburg rights ) and customs which the Poles adopted . From that time the Germans , who created early strong establishments ( led by patriciates ) especially in the urban centers of Silesia and other regions of western Poland , had been an increasingly influential minority in Poland .
In 1228 , the Acts of Cienia were passed and signed into law by Władysław III Laskonogi . The titular Duke of Poland promised to provide a " just and noble law according to the council of bishops and barons . " Such legal guarantees and privileges included the lower level land owners — knights , who were evolving into the lower and middle nobility class known later as szlachta . The fragmentation period weakened the rulers and established a permanent trend in Polish history , whereby the rights and role of the nobility were expanded at the monarch 's expense .
= = = Teutonic Knights = = =
In 1226 Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to help him fight the pagan Baltic Prussian people , who lived in a territory adjacent to his lands ; substantial border warfare was taking place and Konrad 's province was suffering from Prussian invasions . On the other hand , the Old Prussians themselves were at that time being subjected to increasingly forced ( including papacy @-@ sponsored crusades ) , but largely ineffective Christianization efforts . The Teutonic Order soon overstepped the authority and moved beyond the area granted them by Konrad ( Chełmno Land or Kulmerland ) . In the following decades they conquered large areas along the Baltic Sea coast and established their monastic state . As virtually all of the Western Baltic pagans became converted or exterminated ( the Prussian conquests were completed by 1283 ) , the Knights confronted Poland and Lithuania , then the last pagan state in Europe . Teutonic wars with Poland and Lithuania continued for most of the 14th and 15th centuries . The Teutonic state in Prussia , populated by German settlers beginning in the 13th century , had been claimed as a fief and protected by the popes and Holy Roman Emperors .
= = = Reunification attempts ; Przemysł II , Václav II ( 1232 – 1305 ) = = =
As the disadvantages of national division were becoming increasingly apparent in various segments of the society , some of the Piast dukes had begun making serious efforts aimed at the reunification of the Polish state . Important among the earlier attempts were the activities of the Silesian dukes Henry I the Bearded , his son Henry II the Pious , who was killed in 1241 while fighting the Mongols at the Battle of Legnica , and Henry IV Probus . In 1295 Przemysł II of Greater Poland became the first , since Bolesław II , Piast duke crowned as King of Poland , but he ruled over only a part of the territory of Poland ( including from 1294 Gdańsk Pomerania ) and was assassinated soon after his coronation . A more extensive unification of Polish lands was accomplished by a foreign ruler , Václav II of Bohemia of the Přemyslid dynasty , who married Przemysł 's daughter and became King of Poland in 1300 . Václav 's heavy @-@ handed policies soon caused him to lose whatever support he had earlier in his reign ; he died in 1305 .
An important factor in the unification process was the Polish Church , which remained a single ecclesiastical province throughout the fragmentation period . Archbishop Jakub Świnka of Gniezno was an ardent proponent of Poland 's reunification ; he performed the crowning ceremonies for both Przemysł II and Wenceslaus II . Świnka supported Władysław Łokietek at various stages of the duke 's career .
= = = Culture = = =
Culturally , the social impact of the Church was considerably broader in the 13th century , as networks of parishes were established and cathedral @-@ type schools became more common . The Dominicans and the Franciscans were the leading monastic orders at this time , and they interacted closely with the general population . A proliferation of narrative annals characterized the period , as well as other written records , laws and documents . More of the clergy were of local origin ; others were expected to know the Polish language . Wincenty Kadłubek , the author of an influential chronicle , was the most recognized representative in the intellectual sphere . Perspectiva , a treatise on optics by Witelo , a Silesian monk , was one of the finest achievements of medieval science . The construction of churches and castles in the Gothic architecture style predominated in the 13th century ; native elements in art forms were increasingly important , with significant advances taking place in agriculture , manufacturing and crafts .
= = 14th century = =
= = = Reunited kingdom of the last Piast rulers = = =
Władysław the Elbow @-@ high and his son Casimir the Great were the last two rulers of the Piast dynasty in the unified Kingdom of Poland of the 14th century . Their rule was not a return to the Polish state as it existed before the period of fragmentation , because of the loss of internal cohesion and territorial integrity . The regional Piast princes remained strong and for economic and cultural reasons some of them gravitated toward Poland 's neighbors . The Kingdom lost Pomerania and Silesia , the most highly developed and economically important of the original ethnically Polish lands ( a disputable designation in case of Slavic Western Pomerania ) , which left half of the Polish population outside the Kingdom 's borders . The western losses had to do with the failure of the unification efforts undertaken by the Silesian Piast dukes and the German expansion processes . These included the Piast principalities developing ( or falling into ) dependencies in respect to the German political structures , settler colonization and gradual Germanization of the Polish ruling circles . The lower Vistula was controlled by the Teutonic Order . Masovia was not to be fully incorporated into the Polish state anytime soon . Casimir stabilized the western and northern borders , tried to regain some of the lost territories , and partially compensated the losses by his new eastern expansion , which placed within his kingdom regions that were East Slavic , and thus ethnically non @-@ Polish .
Despite the territorial truncation , 14th century Poland experienced a period of accelerated economic development and increasing prosperity . This included further expansion and modernization of agricultural settlements , the development of towns and their greater role in briskly growing trade , mining and metallurgy . A great monetary reform was implemented during the reign of Casimir III .
Jewish settlement was taking place in Poland since very early times . In 1264 Duke Bolesław the Pious of Greater Poland granted the Statute of Kalisz privilege , which specified a broad range of freedoms ( of religious practices , movement , trading ) and rights for the Jews , creating a legal precedent of official protection from local harassment and exclusion . The act also exempted the Jews from enslavement or serfdom and was the foundation of future Jewish prosperity in the Polish Kingdom ; it was later followed by many other comparable legal pronouncements . Following a series of expulsions of Jews from Western Europe , Jewish communities were established in Cracow , Kalisz and elsewhere in western and southern Poland in the 13th century ; at Lviv , Brest @-@ Litovsk and Grodno further east in the 14th century . King Casimir received Jewish refugees from Germany in 1349 , helping accelerate the Jewish expansion in Poland that was to continue until World War II . German urban and rural settlements were another long @-@ lasting ethnic feature .
= = = Władysław I the Elbow @-@ high ( 1305 – 1333 ) = = =
Władysław Łokietek ( ruled 1305 – 1333 ) , who began as an obscure Piast duke from Kuyavia , fought a lifelong , uphill battle with powerful adversaries with persistence and determination . When Łokietek died as the king of a partially reunited Poland , he left the Kingdom in a precarious situation . Although the area under King Władysław 's control was limited and many unresolved issues remained , Łokietek may have saved Poland 's existence as a state .
Supported by his Hungarian allies , Władysław returned from exile and challenged Václav II , and after his death Václav III in 1304 – 1306 . Václav III 's murder terminated the Přemyslid dynasty and their involvement in Poland . Afterwards Władysław Łokietek completed the takeover of Lesser Poland , entering Kraków , and took the lands north of there , through Kuyavia all the way to Gdańsk Pomerania . In 1308 , Pomerania was conquered by the Brandenburg state . In a recovery effort , Łokietek agreed to ask for help the Teutonic Knights ; the Knights brutally took over Gdańsk Pomerania and kept it for themselves .
In 1311 – 1312 , a rebellion in Kraków instigated by the city 's patrician leadership seeking a rule by the House of Luxembourg was put down . This event may have had a limiting impact on the emerging political power of towns .
In 1313 – 1314 Władysław conquered Greater Poland . In 1320 , Władysław I Łokietek became the first King of Poland crowned not in Gniezno , but in Kraków 's Wawel Cathedral . The coronation was hesitantly agreed to by Pope John XXII , despite the opposition from John of Bohemia , who had also claimed the Polish crown . John undertook in 1327 an expedition aimed at Kraków , which he was compelled to abort ; in 1328 , he waged a crusade against Lithuania during which he formalized an alliance with the Teutonic Order . The Order was in a state of war with Poland from 1327 to 1332 ( see Battle of Płowce ) ; the Knights captured Dobrzyń Land and Kujawy . Władysław was helped by his alliances with Hungary ( his daughter Elizabeth was married to King Charles Robert in 1320 ) and Lithuania ( 1325 pact against the Teutonic State and the marriage of Łokietek 's son Casimir to Aldona , daughter of Lithuanian ruler Gediminas ) , and from 1329 by a peace agreement with Brandenburg . A lasting achievement of John of Luxembourg ( and Poland 's greatest loss ) was forcing most of the Piast Silesian principalities , often ambivalent about their loyalties , into allegiance ( 1327 – 29 ) .
= = = Casimir III the Great ( 1333 – 1370 ) = = =
After Łokietek 's death , the old monarch 's 23 @-@ year @-@ old son became King Casimir III , later known as Kazimierz the Great ( ruled 1333 – 1370 ) . Unlike his father the new king had no inclination for the hardships of military life . Casimir 's contemporaries did not give him much of a chance for overcoming the country 's mounting difficulties or succeeding as a leader . But from the beginning , Casimir acted prudently , purchasing in 1335 John 's claims to the Polish throne . In 1343 , Casimir settled several high @-@ level arbitration disputes with the Teutonic Order by a territorial compromise , culminating in the Treaty of Kalisz , a peace treaty that concluded the Polish @-@ Teutonic War of 1326 – 1332 . Dobrzyń Land and Kuyavia were recovered by Casimir . At that time Poland started to expand to the east and through a series of military campaigns between 1340 and 1366 Casimir had annexed the Halych – Volodymyr area of Rus ' . The town of Lviv there attracted newcomers of several nationalities , was granted municipal rights in 1356 , and had thus begun its career as Lwów , the main Polish center in the midst of a Rus ' Orthodox population . Supported by Hungary , the Polish king in 1338 promised the Hungarian ruling house the Polish throne in the event he dies without male heirs .
Casimir , who in 1339 formally gave up his rights to several Silesian principalities , unsuccessfully tried to recover the region by conducting military activities against the Luxembourgs between 1343 and 1348 , but then blocked the attempted separation of Silesia from the Gniezno Archdiocese by Charles IV . Later until his death he pursued the Polish claim to Silesia legally by petitioning the pope ; his successors had not continued his efforts .
Allied with Denmark and Western Pomerania ( Gdańsk Pomerania was granted to the Order as an " eternal charity " ) , Casimir was able to impose some corrections on the western border . In 1365 Drezdenko and Santok became Poland 's fiefs , while Wałcz district was in 1368 taken outright , severing the land connection between Brandenburg and the Teutonic state and connecting Poland with Farther Pomerania .
Casimir the Great considerably solidified the country 's position in both foreign and domestic affairs . Domestically , he integrated and centralized the reunited Polish state and helped develop what was considered the " Crown of the Polish Kingdom " — the state within its actual , as well as past or potential ( legal from the Polish point of view ) boundaries . Casimir established or strengthened kingdom @-@ wide institutions ( such as the powerful state treasury ) , independent of the regional , class , or royal court related interests . Internationally , the Polish king was very active diplomatically , cultivated close contacts with other European rulers and was a staunch defender of the Polish national interest . In 1364 he sponsored the Congress of Kraków , in which a number of monarchs participated , and which was concerned with the promotion of peaceful cooperation and political balance in Central Europe .
= = = Louis I and Jadwiga of the Angevin dynasty ( 1370 – 1399 ) = = =
Immediately after Casimir 's death in 1370 , the heirless king 's nephew , Louis of Hungary of the Angevin dynasty , assumed the Polish throne . As Casimir 's actual commitment to the Angevin succession seemed problematic from the beginning ( in 1368 the Polish king adopted his grandson , Casimir of Słupsk ) , Louis engaged in succession negotiations with Polish knights and nobility starting in 1351 . They supported him , exacting in return further guarantees and privileges for themselves ; the formal act was negotiated in Buda in 1355 . After the coronation , Louis returned to Hungary ; he left his mother and Casimir 's sister Elizabeth in Poland as a regent .
With the death of Casimir the Great , the period of hereditary ( Piast ) monarchy in Poland came to an end . The land owners and nobles did not want a strong monarchy ; a constitutional monarchy was established between 1370 and 1493 ( beginnings of general sejm , the dominant bicameral parliament of the future ) .
During the reign of Louis I , Poland formed a union with Hungary . In the pact of 1374 ( the Privilege of Koszyce ) , the Polish nobility were granted extensive concessions and agreed to extend the Angevin succession to Louis ' daughters , as Louis had no sons . Louis ' neglect of Polish affairs resulted in the loss of Casimir 's territorial gains , including Halych Rus ' , recovered by Queen Jadwiga in 1387 . In 1396 , Jadwiga and her husband Jagiełło ( Jogaila ) forcefully annexed the central Polish lands separating Lesser Poland from Greater Poland , previously granted by King Louis to his Silesian Piast ally , Duke Władysław of Opole .
The Hungarian @-@ Polish union lasted for twelve years and ended in war . After Louis ' death in 1382 and an ensuing power struggle , the Polish nobility decided that Jadwiga , Louis ' youngest daughter , should become the next " King of Poland " ; Jadwiga arrived in 1384 and was crowned at the age of eleven . The failure of the union of Poland and Hungary paved the way for the union of Lithuania and Poland .
= = = Culture = = =
In the 14th century , many large scale brick building projects were undertaken during Casimir 's reign , including the construction of Gothic churches , castles , urban fortifications and homes of wealthy city residents . The most notable architecture of the medieval period in Poland are the many churches representing the Polish Gothic style ; medieval sculpture , painting and ornamental smithery are best expressed in the furnishings of churches and liturgical items . Polish law was first codified in the Statutes of Casimir the Great ( Piotrków – Wiślica Statutes ) from 1346 – 1362 . Accordingly , conflict resolution relied on legal proceedings domestically , while bilateral or multilateral negotiations and treaties were increasingly important in international relations . By this time , the network of cathedral and parish schools had become well developed . In 1364 , Casimir the Great , based on a papal concession , established the University of Kraków , the second oldest university in Central Europe . While many still traveled to southern and western Europe for university studies , the Polish language , along with the predominant Latin , is increasingly present in written documents . The Holy Cross Sermons ( ca. early 14th century ) constitute possibly the oldest extant Polish prose manuscript .
= Welcome Back , Carter =
" Welcome Back , Carter " is the third episode of the ninth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on October 10 , 2010 . The episode follows Peter after he discovers his father @-@ in @-@ law , Carter Pewterschmidt , having an affair with another woman . Deciding to blackmail him , Peter begins taking advantage of his father @-@ in @-@ law 's enormous wealth , before accidentally spilling the beans to Carter 's wife , Barbara , who divorces him soon after . Peter then becomes Carter 's wingman , and helps him in rediscovering his bachelorhood , as he begins navigating through the dating scene .
The episode was written by Wellesley Wild and directed by Cyndi Tang @-@ Loveland . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 02 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Max Burkholder , Christine Lakin and Rachael MacFarlane , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Welcome Back , Carter " was released on DVD along with three other episodes from the season on December 13 , 2011 .
= = Plot = =
After deciding to visit her parents , Carter and Barbara Pewterschmidt , Lois , along with her husband , Peter , discover an old photo album showcasing Barbara and Carter 's love for each other , as well as Barbara 's short @-@ lived affair during the " Great War with Alaska " , during which , after returning home from combat , Carter reclaims his wife , and the two 's love is shown to have lasted ever since . Becoming bored , Peter decides to call his father @-@ in @-@ law to dinner , and soon discovers Carter in his yacht , having sex with another woman of Japanese descent . Questioning his father @-@ in @-@ law 's judgment , he eventually promises to keep the affair a secret from Barbara . The next day , at the Drunken Clam , Peter begins discussing the affair with Quagmire and Joe , who suggest Peter blackmail Carter as revenge for his constant mistreatment .
Visiting his wife 's parents during the middle of the night , Peter informs Carter that he is now his personal slave , and must perform any task he wishes , including having a limousine joust and writing witty catchphrases . Noticing Peter and Carter spending time together , Barbara and Lois soon witness the two taking a high @-@ definition television out of the house . Peter then accidentally spills the beans to Barbara about the affair , who runs out of the room sobbing instantly . At the Griffin family home , Carter announces that he and Barbara are getting a divorce , causing Peter to suggest he meet other people . Taking him to the local club , Peter introduces Carter to the dating scene , where he soon meets Paula , an attractive blonde . Going on to demand an African American patron fetch him a drink , Carter is accused of being a racist by Paula , who leaves him . Continuing to desire Barbara , Carter decides to take a bouquet of roses to his former wife . While there , he discovers that Barbara has begun dating the man she had an affair with during the war ( who sings to her in the tune of ' The Miners Mother ' ) . Announcing he has something important to say to Barbara , Carter confesses his love for her , and apologizes . Barbara then allows Carter to earn her trust by letting him move back in , and the two ultimately embrace in a passionate kiss .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was written by series regular Wellesley Wild and directed by series regular Cyndi Tang @-@ Loveland shortly after the conclusion of the eighth production season . Series veterans Peter Shin and James Purdum , both of whom having previously served as animation directors , served as supervising directors for the episode , with Andrew Goldberg , Alex Carter , Elaine Ko , Spencer Porter and Aaron Blitzstein serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Ron Jones , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " Welcome Back , Carter " . Series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane reprised his role as Carter Pewterschmidt , with main cast member and former series writer Alex Borstein providing the voice of Carter 's wife , Barbara Pewterschmidt .
" Welcome Back , Carter " , along with the two other episodes from Family Guy 's ninth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
In addition to the regular cast , child actor Max Burkholder , actress Christine Lakin , and voice actress Rachael MacFarlane guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actress Alexandra Breckenridge , actor Ralph Garman , and writers Patrick Meighan , Danny Smith , Alec Sulkin and John Viener also made minor appearances . Actor Patrick Warburton appeared in the episode as well .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , Peter notices a painting of a ship in his mother @-@ in @-@ law 's living room , and questions whether or not he can change the channel . Lois goes on to instruct Peter that it is not a television , with Barbara interrupting and telling him it is actually the television channel PBS . Peter then interjects his hatred of PBS , after viewing a nine @-@ part series on traffic signs by director and producer Ken Burns , the fourth of which on the yield sign . Later , after returning to dinner , Peter becomes an embarrassment to Lois , who recalls having dinner with Paul McCartney 's ex @-@ wife , Heather Mills , during which Peter began playing footsie with Mills , whose prosthetic leg ultimately falls off .
In an attempt to make Barbara love Carter again , Peter instructs him that he must befriend a cute child in order to win her over . Peter then invites child actor Jonathan Lipnicki to the Griffin family home , but he is immediately shocked by his change in appearance .
= = Reception = =
" Welcome Back , Carter " was broadcast on October 10 , 2010 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , and was preceded by The Simpsons , and Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's spin @-@ off , The Cleveland Show , and followed by an episode of American Dad ! . It was watched by 7 @.@ 02 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with Desperate Housewives on ABC , The Amazing Race on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC , and falling only 15 % from the previous week 's broadcast . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , American Dad ! and The Cleveland Show in addition to significantly edging out all three shows in total viewership .
Television critics reacted mostly mixed to " Welcome Back , Carter " , calling the storyline " hit @-@ or @-@ miss . " In a simultaneous review of the episodes of The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show that preceded the show , and the broadcast of American Dad ! that followed it , The A.V. Club 's Rowan Kaiser noted the apparent lack of guest stars in the episode , adding , " I can 't help but feel [ it ] is a good thing in for Family Guy . " In the conclusion of his review Kaiser praised the " shock humor " in the limousine jousting scene , but compared Carter 's catchphrases to " the kind of groan @-@ inducing meta @-@ humor that [ ... ] The Cleveland Show aims for . " He ultimately gave the episode a C rating , the second best rating of the night , beating The Cleveland Show episode " How Cleveland Got His Groove Back " and tying with the American Dad ! episode " Son of Stan " . In a slightly more neutral review of the episode , Jason Hughes of TV Squad praised the episode 's cutaways , stating that they " came back with a vengeance this week . " Hughes went on to comment negatively on the scene involving Carter being woken up and hinting at incest with his daughter , noting , " It 's weird that while the pedophile character of Herbert doesn 't bother me at all , this potential admission really does . Maybe because it adds an element of incest , or seemed more genuine than Herbert 's over @-@ the @-@ top antics . But really , it 's just another throwaway gag in the world of Seth MacFarlane . " Actor Jonathan Lipnicki , who was parodied in the episode , responded to his portrayal by stating , " I don 't feel bad about what they said on Family Guy . It was all in good fun , I 've worked on that show [ before ] . "
= Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance =
Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance , known in Japan as Castlevania : Byakuya no Concerto ( キャッスルヴァニア 白夜の協奏曲 , Kyassuruvania Byakuya no Koncheruto , officially translated Castlevania : Concerto of Midnight Sun ) , is a platform @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Konami for the Game Boy Advance . Belonging to Konami 's Castlevania video game series , it is the second installment of the series on the Game Boy Advance . It was released in Japan in June 2002 , in North America in September 2002 , and in Europe in October 2002 . It was the first Castlevania game to be called " Castlevania " in Japan instead of " Akumajō Dracula " .
Harmony of Dissonance occurs in the fictional universe of the Castlevania series ; the premise of the series centers on the eternal conflict between the vampire hunters of the Belmont clan and the immortal vampire Dracula . Set fifty years after Simon Belmont vanquished Dracula 's curse , Harmony of Dissonance focuses on his grandson Juste Belmont and his quest to rescue a kidnapped childhood friend .
Koji Igarashi produced Harmony of Dissonance with the intent of " creat [ ing ] a game that was similar to Castlevania : Symphony of the Night " , the critically acclaimed PlayStation game that he had worked on . Harmony of Dissonance sold 126 @,@ 000 units in the United States and did not become a " huge hit in Japan " . Critics praised it as an entertaining game with improved graphics as compared to its predecessor Castlevania : Circle of the Moon , but criticized its soundtrack . In January 2006 , Harmony of Dissonance was re @-@ released in North America and later Europe , along with Castlevania : Aria of Sorrow , as part of the Castlevania Double Pack .
= = Gameplay = =
Harmony of Dissonance makes use of a 2D side @-@ scrolling style of gameplay , similar to many of the previous Castlevania video games . The objective of the game is to lead the player @-@ character , Juste Belmont , through the monster @-@ filled castle as he searches for his kidnapped friend . The castle consists of two " layers " : Castle A and B. Structurally , each castle has mostly the same room layout , but monster types , items , and other aspects vary between the two versions . Later , the player can use special warp rooms that can teleport Juste to other castle rooms and between castles . The two castles share a connection ; for example , the destruction of a wall in one castle can cause a change in the other . The game further divides the castle into various , named areas : the Shrine of the Apostates , for example . Relics and keys found within the castle allow Juste to reach previously inaccessible areas . Harmony of Dissonance makes use of the forward dash move , which causes Juste to move forward with a short burst of speed . Unique to Harmony of Dissonance is the ability to collect furniture and collectables to furnish a bare room that Juste finds in the castle . This , under certain circumstances , does affect the ending .
Juste primarily attacks at close quarters using the series ' traditional whip weapon , the Vampire Killer . It can be brandished to deflect projectile attacks , reminiscent of Simon Belmont 's usage of the weapon in Super Castlevania IV . A variety of ranged sub @-@ weapons — holy water , a dagger , a holy book , a cross , a gem , an axe , and a thunder gauntlet — are available , one of which can be carried at any given time and combined with one of the five spell books — Fire Book , Ice Book , Bolt Book , Wind Book , and the Summoning Tome — hidden throughout the castle to create a magical attack . Casting a spell renders the player character invincible for a moment .
Harmony of Dissonance also makes use of elements found in role @-@ playing games . Defeating minor enemies and bosses will procure experience points for Juste , who will level up when statistical requirements are met . Leveling up will increase his statistics : hit points , the amount of damage the character can receive before dying ; magic points , which affects how often he can cast a magical attack ; strength , the power of the physical attack ; defense , the reduction of damage taken from an enemy ; intelligence , the strength of the magical attack ; and luck , which determines the rate of items dropped by enemies . Certain relics will also affect his statistics : the Fang of Vlad increases his defense points , for example . Equipment in the form of weapon modifications , armor and accessories can also be found scattered about the castle and will contribute to his statistics . Occasionally , an enemy will drop an item after being killed . Items can also be bought with in @-@ game money from a merchant who appears in various places throughout the castle .
Additional modes can be unlocked in the game . For Boss Rush Mode , the player is required to complete the game once and can then fight the bosses from the game in order with the number of bosses depending on the level of difficulty selected . Maxim Mode requires the player to finish the game with the best ending and allows the player to take control of Maxim . Unlike Juste , Maxim cannot equip items and can only use his boomerang as a weapon . Finishing with the best ending also unlocks an option to listen to the music of the game .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Harmony of Dissonance takes place in 1748 , fifty years after Simon Belmont ended Dracula 's curse . As result of his battle against Dracula was that the villagers changed their opinion of him and the Belmont family . Producer Koji Igarashi explained : " Simon was regarded as a life @-@ saver , and people started to look upon him as a hero ; little by little , the people started to gather around them . A village , therefore , was formed around Belmonts . Juste Belmont grew up in this environment with his childhood friends Maxim Kischine and Lydie Erlanger . "
The protagonist and primary player character is Juste Belmont , the grandson of Simon Belmont and descendant of Sypha Belnades , who at the age of sixteen , gained the Vampire Killer whip . Together with his amnesiac and injured best friend Maxim Kischine , he sets off to rescue his kidnapped childhood friend , Lydie Erlanger . While exploring the castle , he encounters a merchant who stumbled upon the castle and Death , Dracula 's servant .
= = = Story = = =
Juste meets Maxim at a castle where Lydie is being held captive ; after a brief talk , he leaves Maxim outside and begins to explore the castle . Within the castle , Juste encounters Death , who confirms that the castle is Dracula 's . He then meets up with a dazed Maxim , whose memory is slowly returning to him and they split up to cover more of the castle ground . While trekking through the castle , Juste notices that the castle sometimes has different atmospheres . He also meets Maxim several more times , but is baffled by how his friend seems to change personalities periodically . Regardless , in one of their meetings , Maxim reveals that he went on a journey to find and destroy the remains of Dracula , something Simon Belmont had previously done , but when he collected all six , his memory went blank .
Juste encounters Death again , who explains that the castle has been split in two " layers " to accommodate the two spirits living in Maxim 's body : his original spirit and an evil one created from Dracula 's remains and his suppressed jealousy of Juste . Maxim later confirms this and admits to being Lydie 's kidnapper . Juste meets his friend again in the other layer of the castle where he reveals that he lost his memory to protect Lydie . He then gives Juste his bracelet to help him locate her in the castle . However , when Juste finds her , Death kidnaps her to use her blood as a means to unite the two castles by destroying Maxim 's spirit . Juste defeats Death , and proceeds to search for Maxim . Along the way , he accumulates Dracula 's remains , which are scattered throughout the castle . In the center of the castle , he finds Maxim with an unconscious Lydie .
Three endings exist . In the first , Maxim , possessed , has already bitten Lydie . With Maxim 's defeat , Juste escapes the collapsing castle alone and curses his inability to save either friend . In the second , Maxim struggles against the possession and urges Juste to kill him . In his final moments , he thanks Juste for killing him and reveals that he had wished to save him from his fate as a Belmont . Outside the castle , Lydie awakens , unharmed , and tells Juste not to blame himself for Maxim 's death . The third ending begins the same as the first , except that , during the fight , Maxim notices that Juste wore his bracelet and resists the possession . Dracula flees into a weakened form using the gathered remains and fights Juste , planning to use his blood to return himself to full power . Vanquishing him , Juste escapes the castle together with Maxim and Lydie , whose bite marks disappear by the time she regains consciousness . Outside the castle , the three resolve to return home .
= = Development = =
Produced by Koji Igarashi and developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Tokyo , Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance is the second installment of Konami 's Castlevania video game series for the Game Boy Advance ( GBA ) . Its predecessor Castlevania : Circle of the Moon had been developed by a different studio , Konami Computer Entertainment Kobe . Igarashi began the game 's development with the intention of making an installment of the series for GBA that shared similarities with Symphony of the Night ( 1997 ) . Ayami Kojima , who had previously worked on the character designs for Symphony of the Night , designed the characters of Harmony of Dissonance .
Harmony of Dissonance departs from the usual structure of the series , in which Dracula is resurrected and a member of the Belmont clan sets out to defeat him , in favor of a plot that takes place in between Dracula 's resurrections . Harmony of Dissonance incorporates other changes : a fusion @-@ spell system replaced the dual @-@ card system introduced in Circle of the Moon , and the graphics were also brightened and controls improved . In production at the same time was Castlevania : Aria of Sorrow ( 2003 ) , and as a result , the two share similar programming engines and gameplay elements . Originally slated for a mid @-@ June release , Harmony of Dissonance was not released until September 2002 . It was released in Japan on June 6 , 2002 , in North America on September 16 , 2002 , and in Europe on October 11 , 2002 . It was published on the Wii U Virtual Console on October 16 , 2014 , in North America .
= = = Audio = = =
On June 26 , 2002 , Konami published Castlevania : Circle of the Moon & Castlevania : Concerto of Midnight Sun Original Soundtrack ( KMCA @-@ 162 ) . Soshiro Hokkai composed the soundtrack for Harmony of Dissonance with Michiru Yamane creating the additional stage music . Igarashi later noted that the quality of the music had been " sacrifice [ d ] " for the graphics of the game .
Notes
Tracks 1 through 19 from Castlevania : Circle of the Moon
Tracks 20 through 45 from Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance
= = Reception = =
In the United States , about 126 @,@ 000 units of Harmony of Dissonance were sold , and in Japan , it was not considered a " huge hit " by Igarashi . Metacritic assigned it a score of 87 of 100 while GameRankings gave it an 84 %
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@ inch turret was refitted and fire control systems installed for all four main turrets . The elevation of her main and secondary guns was increased , and she was equipped with two Nakajima E8N " Dave " and Kawanishi E7K " Alf " reconnaissance floatplanes . To this end , catapults and launch @-@ rails were also fitted aft of turret # 3 . Fourteen of her 6 @-@ inch guns were refitted , and an antiaircraft suite of eight 5 @-@ inch dual @-@ purpose guns and ten twin mounts of Type 96 25 mm autocannons were mounted . Her superstructure was rebuilt as a prototype of the tower @-@ mast that would eventually be used on the Yamato class , then still in the design phase .
Hiei 's armor was also extensively upgraded . Her main belt was reapplied and strengthened to a uniform thickness of 8 inches ( as opposed to varying thicknesses of 6 – 8 inches before the upgrades ) , while diagonal bulkheads of a depth ranging from 5 to 8 inches ( 127 to 203 mm ) reinforced the main armored belt . The turret armor was strengthened to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) , while 4 inches ( 102 mm ) were added to portions of the deck armor . The armor around her ammunition magazines was also strengthened over the course of the refit . Though still less heavily armored than other Japanese battleships , Hiei was significantly faster . The reconstruction was declared complete on 31 January 1940 . Capable of speeds of up to 30 @.@ 5 knots ( 56 @.@ 5 km / h ; 35 @.@ 1 mph ) , Hiei was reclassified as a fast battleship . She participated in the Imperial Fleet Review in October 1940 , where she was inspected by Emperor Hirohito , members of the royal family , Navy Minister Koshirō Oikawa , and Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto . In November , she was assigned to the Third Battleship Division of the First Fleet .
On 26 November 1941 , Hiei departed Hitokappu Bay , Kurile Islands , in the company of Kirishima and six Japanese fast carriers of the First Air Fleet Striking Force ( Akagi , Kaga , Sōryū , Hiryū , Shōkaku , and Zuikaku ) under the command of Vice @-@ Admiral Chuichi Nagumo . On 7 December 1941 , aircraft from these six carriers attacked the United States Pacific Fleet at their home base of Pearl Harbor , sinking four US Navy battleships and numerous other vessels . Following the attack and the declaration of war by the United States , Hiei returned to Japan .
= = = 1942 : Combat and loss = = =
On 17 January 1942 , Hiei departed Truk Lagoon Naval Base with the Third Battleship Division to support carrier operations against Rabaul and Kavieng . In February , she deployed alongside a force of carriers and destroyers in response to American raids on Japanese bases in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . On 1 March , following carrier operations against Darwin and Java ( in the Dutch East Indies ) , Hiei , Kirishima and Chikuma — which were acting as escorts for the carrier task force — engaged the destroyer USS Edsall , with Hiei firing 210 14 @-@ inch and seventy 6 @-@ inch shells . When the ships failed to score any hits , dive @-@ bombers from three of Admiral Nagumo 's carriers immobilized the destroyer , which was then sunk by gunfire from the three ships .
In April 1942 , Hiei and the Third Battleship Division joined five fleet carriers and two cruisers in a massive raid against British naval forces in the Indian Ocean . On 5 April — Easter Sunday — the Japanese fleet attacked the harbor at Colombo , Ceylon while seaplanes from the cruiser Tone spotted two fleeing British cruisers , both of which were later sunk by aerial attack . On 8 April , Japanese carrier aircraft attacked the Royal Navy base at Trincomalee , only to find that all of Admiral James Somerville 's remaining warships in the British Eastern Fleet had withdrawn the previous night . Returning from the attack , a floatplane from Hiei 's sister ship Haruna spotted the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes , which was quickly sunk by massive aerial attack . The fleet then returned to Japan , arriving at the home bases on 23 April .
On 27 May 1942 , Hiei sortied with Kongō and the heavy cruisers Atago , Chōkai , Myōkō , and Haguro as part of Admiral Nobutake Kondō 's Invasion Force during the Battle of Midway . Following the disastrous loss of four of the Combined Fleet 's fast carriers on 4 June , Kondō 's force withdrew to Japan . In July , Hiei was drydocked for refits to her aircraft complement and the addition of single and twin 25 mm gun mounts . In August , she escorted the Japanese carrier Shōkaku during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons . In October , Hiei sortied as part of Rear Admiral Abe 's Vanguard Force , and maintained distant cover as Kongō and Haruna nearly destroyed Henderson Field on Guadalcanal on the night of 13 October . From 26 – 30 October , Hiei and her sisters participated in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands .
On 10 November 1942 , Hiei departed Truk alongside Kirishima and eleven destroyers in preparation to shell American positions near Henderson Field in advance of a major convoy of Japanese troops . Under the command of Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe , the force was spotted by US Navy reconnaissance aircraft several days in advance . A force of two heavy cruisers , three light cruisers and eight destroyers was deployed under the command of Rear Admiral Daniel J. Callaghan in Ironbottom Sound to meet them . At 01 : 24 on 13 November , the Japanese force was detected 28 @,@ 000 yards ( 26 km ) out by the light cruiser USS Helena . Because Abe had not anticipated resistance , his battleships ' main guns were loaded with high @-@ explosive shells for bombarding Henderson Field , and thus they were unable to open fire immediately while the switch was made to armor @-@ piercing shells . At 01 : 50 , Hiei activated her searchlights and opened fire on the light cruiser USS Atlanta , commencing the First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal . Though Atlanta 's guns succeeded in disabling the searchlight , Hiei was able to concentrate her main batteries on the bridge , crippling the light cruiser and killing Rear Admiral Norman Scott . Hiei and Kirishima then disabled two American destroyers ( one of which later sank ) . In turn , Hiei became the target of the majority of the American firepower , with the American 5 @-@ inch guns inflicting severe damage on Hiei 's superstructure at close range ; Admiral Abe himself was later injured after USS Laffey shelled the bridge with her own guns , killing his chief of staff , Captain Suzuki Masakane . This concentration enabled Kirishima to evade the American barrage and cripple USS San Francisco , killing Admiral Callaghan . However , shells from San Francisco disabled Hiei 's steering machinery .
With one of his battleships crippled , Abe ordered the remainder of the Japanese fleet to withdraw at 02 : 00 . Kirishima attempted to tow Hiei to safety , but water flooded her steering compartments , jamming her rudder to starboard . Throughout the morning of 14 November , Hiei was subjected to attack from American Army B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bombers . She continued circling starboard at 5 knots ( 5 @.@ 8 mph ) . At 11 : 30 , two torpedoes launched from Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo @-@ bombers struck Hiei . After suffering several more torpedo and dive @-@ bomber attacks throughout the day , the order was given for her crew to abandon ship before her escorting destroyers scuttled her . Hiei sank sometime in the evening on 14 November with the loss of 188 of her crew , the first battleship ever lost in action by Japan . She was removed from the Navy List on 20 December 1942 .
= SRI International =
SRI International ( SRI ) is an American nonprofit research institute headquartered in Menlo Park , California . The trustees of Stanford University established SRI in 1946 as a center of innovation to support economic development in the region .
The organization was founded as the Stanford Research Institute . SRI formally separated from Stanford University in 1970 and became known as SRI International in 1977 . SRI describes its mission as creating world @-@ changing solutions to make people safer , healthier , and more productive . It performs client @-@ sponsored research and development for government agencies , commercial businesses , and private foundations . It also licenses its technologies , forms strategic partnerships , sells products , and creates spin @-@ off companies .
SRI 's annual revenue in 2014 was approximately $ 540 million . SRI 's headquarters are located near the Stanford University campus . William A. Jeffrey has served as SRI 's president and CEO since September 2014 .
SRI employs about 2 @,@ 100 people . Sarnoff Corporation , a wholly owned subsidiary of SRI since 1988 , was fully integrated into SRI in January 2011 .
SRI 's focus areas include biomedical sciences , chemistry and materials , computing , Earth and space systems , economic development , education and learning , energy and environmental technology , security and national defense , as well as sensing and devices . SRI has received more than 4 @,@ 000 patents and patent applications worldwide .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation = = =
In the 1920s , Stanford University professor Robert E. Swain proposed creating a research institute in the Western United States . Herbert Hoover , then a trustee of Stanford University , was also an early proponent of an institute , but became less involved with the project after he was elected president of the United States . The development of the institute was delayed by the Great Depression in the 1930s and World War II in the 1940s , with three separate attempts leading to its formation in 1946 .
In August 1945 , Maurice Nelles , Morlan A. Visel , and Ernest L. Black of Lockheed made the first attempt to create the institute with the formation of the " Pacific Research Foundation " in Los Angeles . A second attempt was made by Henry T. Heald , then president of the Illinois Institute of Technology . In 1945 , Heald wrote a report recommending a research institute on the West Coast and a close association with Stanford University with an initial grant of $ 500 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 17 @,@ 099 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . A third attempt was made by Fred Terman , Stanford University 's dean of engineering . Terman 's proposal followed Heald 's , but focused on faculty and student research more than contract research .
The trustees of Stanford University voted to create the organization in 1946 . It was structured so that its goals were aligned with the charter of the university — to advance scientific knowledge and to benefit the public at large , not just the students of Stanford University . The trustees were named as the corporation 's general members , and elected SRI 's directors ( later known as presidents ) ; if the organization were dissolved , its assets would return to Stanford University .
Research chemist William F. Talbot became the first director of the institute . Stanford University president Donald Tresidder instructed Talbot to avoid work that would conflict with the interests of the university , particularly federal contracts that might attract political pressure . The drive to find work and the lack of support from Stanford faculty caused the new research institute to violate this directive six months later through the pursuit of a contract with the Office of Naval Research . This and other issues , including frustration with Tresidder 's micromanagement of the new organization , caused Talbot to repeatedly offer his resignation , which Tresidder eventually accepted . Talbot was replaced by Jesse Hobson , who had previously led the Armour Research Foundation , but the pursuit of contract work remained .
= = = Early history = = =
SRI 's first research project investigated whether the guayule plant could be used as a source of natural rubber . During World War II , rubber was imported into the U.S. and was subject to shortages and strict rationing . From 1942 to 1946 , the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) supported a project to create a domestic source of natural rubber . Once the war ended , the United States Congress cut funding for the program ; in response , the Office of Naval Research created a grant for the project to continue at SRI , and the USDA staff on the project worked through SRI until Congress reauthorized funding in 1947 .
SRI 's first economic study was for the United States Air Force . In 1947 , the Air Force wanted to determine the expansion potential of the U.S. aircraft industry ; SRI found that it would take too long to escalate production in an emergency . In 1948 , SRI began research and consultation with Chevron Corporation to develop an artificial substitute for tallow and coconut oil in soap production ; SRI 's investigation confirmed the potential of dodecylbenzene as a suitable replacement . Later , Procter & Gamble used the substance as the basis for Tide laundry detergent .
The institute performed much of the early research on air pollution and the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere . SRI sponsored the First National Air Pollution Symposium in Pasadena , California , in November 1949 . Experts gave presentations on pollution research , exchanged ideas and techniques , and stimulated interest in the field . The event was attended by 400 scientists , business executives , and civic leaders from the U.S. SRI co @-@ sponsored subsequent events on the subject .
In the early 1950s , Walt and Roy Disney consulted with SRI ( and in particular , Harrison Price ) on their proposal for Disneyland in Burbank , California . SRI provided information on location , attendance patterns , and economic feasibility . SRI selected a larger site in Anaheim , prepared reports about operation , and provided on @-@ site administrative support , and acted in an advisory role as the park expanded . In 1955 , SRI was commissioned to select a site and provide design suggestions for the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts .
In 1952 , the Technicolor Corporation contracted with SRI to develop a near @-@ instantaneous , electro @-@ optical alternative to the manual process of timing during film copying . In 1959 , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences presented the Scientific and Engineering Award jointly to SRI and Technicolor for their work on the design and development of the Technicolor electronic printing timer which greatly benefited the motion picture industry . In 1954 , Southern Pacific asked SRI to investigate ways of reducing damage during rail freight shipments by mitigating shock to railroad box cars . This investigation led to William K. MacCurdy 's development of the Hydra @-@ Cushion technology , which remains standard today .
In the 1950s , SRI worked under the direction of the Bank of America to develop ERMA ( Electronic Recording Machine , Accounting ) and magnetic ink character recognition ( MICR ) . The ERMA project was led by computer scientist Jerre Noe , who was at the time SRI 's assistant director of engineering . As of 2011 , MICR remains the industry standard in automated check processing .
= = = Rapid expansion = = =
Douglas Engelbart , the founder of SRI 's Augmentation Research Center ( ARC ) , was the primary force behind the design and development of the multi @-@ user oN @-@ Line System ( or NLS ) , featuring original versions of modern computer @-@ human interface elements including bit @-@ mapped displays , collaboration software , hypertext , and precursors to the graphical user interface such as the computer mouse . As a pioneer of human @-@ computer interaction , Engelbart is arguably SRI 's most notable alumnus . He was awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation in 2000 .
Bill English , then chief engineer at ARC , built the first prototype of a computer mouse from Engelbart 's design in 1964 . SRI also developed inkjet printing ( 1961 ) and optical disc recording ( 1963 ) . Liquid @-@ crystal display ( LCD ) technology was developed at RCA Laboratories in the 1960s , which later became Sarnoff Corporation in 1988 , a wholly owned subsidiary of SRI . Sarnoff was fully integrated into SRI in 2011 .
In the early 1960s , Hewitt Crane and his colleagues developed the world 's first all @-@ magnetic digital computer , based upon extensions to magnetic core memories . The technology was licensed to AMP Inc . , who then used it to build specialized computers for controlling tracks in the New York City Subway and on railroad switching yards .
In 1966 , SRI 's Artificial Intelligence Center began working on " Shakey the robot " , the first mobile robot to reason about its actions . Equipped with a television camera , a triangulating rangefinder , and bump sensors , Shakey used software for perception , world @-@ modeling , and acting . The project ended in 1972 . SRI 's Artificial Intelligence Center marked its 45th anniversary in 2011 .
On October 29 , 1969 , the world 's first electronic computer network , ARPANET , was established between nodes at Leonard Kleinrock 's laboratory at University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) and Douglas Engelbart 's laboratory at SRI . Interface Message Processors at both sites served as the backbone of the first Internet . The following year , Engelbart 's laboratory installed the first TENEX system outside of BBN where it was developed . In addition to SRI and UCLA , University of California , Santa Barbara and the University of Utah were part of the original four network nodes . By December 5 , 1969 , the entire four @-@ node network was connected . In the 1970s , SRI developed packet @-@ switched radio ( a precursor to wireless networking ) , over @-@ the @-@ horizon radar , Deafnet , vacuum microelectronics , and software @-@ implemented fault tolerance .
This first true Internet transmission occurred on November 22 , 1977 , when SRI originated the first connection between three disparate networks . Data flowed seamlessly through the mobile Packet Radio Van between SRI in Menlo Park , California and the University of Southern California in Los Angeles via London , England , across three types of networks : packet radio , satellite , and the ARPANET . In 2007 , the Computer History Museum presented a 30th anniversary celebration of this demonstration , which included several participants from the 1977 event . SRI would go on to run the Network Information Center under the leadership of Jake Feinler .
= = = Split and diversification = = =
The Vietnam War ( 1955 – 1975 ) was an important issue on college campuses across the United States in the 1960s and 1970s . As a belated response to Vietnam War protesters who believed that funding from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) made the university part of the military – industrial complex , the Stanford Research Institute split from Stanford University in 1970 . The organization subsequently changed its name from the Stanford Research Institute to SRI International in 1977 .
In 1972 , physicists Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ undertook a series of investigations of psychic phenomena sponsored by the CIA , for which they coined the term remote viewing . Among other activities , the project encompassed the work of consulting " consciousness researchers " including artist / writer Ingo Swann , military intelligence officer Joseph McMoneagle , and psychic / illusionist Uri Geller . This ESP work continued with funding from the US intelligence community until Puthoff and Targ left SRI in the mid @-@ 1980s . For more information , see Parapsychology research at SRI .
Social scientist and consumer futurist Arnold Mitchell created the Values , Attitudes and Lifestyles ( VALS ) psychographic methodology in the late 1970s to explain changing U.S. values and lifestyles . VALS was formally inaugurated as an SRI product in 1978 and was called " one of the ten top market research breakthroughs of the 1980s " by Advertising Age magazine .
Throughout the 1980s , SRI developed Zylon , stealth technologies , improvements to ultrasound imaging , two @-@ dimensional laser fluorescence imaging , and order @-@ sorted algebra . In computing and software , SRI developed a multimedia electronic mail system , a theory of non @-@ interference in computer security , a multilevel secure ( MLS ) relational database system called Seaview , LaTeX , Open Agent Architecture ( OAA ) , a network intrusion detection system , the Maude system , a declarative software language , and PacketHop , a peer @-@ to @-@ peer wireless technology to create scalable ad hoc networks . SRI 's research in network intrusion detection led to the patent infringement case SRI International , Inc. v. Internet Security Systems , Inc . The AI center 's robotics research led to Shakey 's successor , Flakey the robot , which focused on fuzzy logic .
In 1986 , SRI.com became the 8th registered " .com " domain . The Artificial Intelligence Center developed the Procedural Reasoning System ( PRS ) in the late 1980s and into the early 1990s . PRS launched the field of BDI @-@ based intelligent agents . In the 1990s , SRI developed a letter sorting system for the United States Postal Service and several education and economic studies .
Military @-@ related technologies developed by SRI in the 1990s and 2000s include ground- and foliage @-@ penetrating radar , the INCON and REDDE command and control system for the U.S. military , and IGRS ( integrated GPS radio system ) — an advanced military personnel and vehicle tracking system . To train armored combat units during battle exercises , SRI developed the Deployable Force @-@ on @-@ Force Instrumented Range System ( DFIRST ) , which uses GPS satellites , high @-@ speed wireless communications , and digital terrain map displays .
SRI created the Centibots in 2003 , one of the first and largest teams of coordinated , autonomous mobile robots that explore , map , and survey unknown environments .
With DARPA @-@ funded research , SRI contributed to the development of speech recognition and translation products and was an active participant in DARPA 's Global Autonomous Language Exploitation ( GALE ) program . SRI developed DynaSpeak speech recognition technology which was used in the handheld VoxTec Phraselator , allowing U.S. soldiers overseas to communicate with local citizens in near real time . SRI also created translation software for use in the IraqComm , a device which allows two @-@ way , speech @-@ to @-@ speech machine translation between English and colloquial Iraqi Arabic .
In medicine and chemistry , SRI developed dry @-@ powder drugs , laser photocoagulation ( a treatment for some eye maladies ) , remote surgery ( also known as telerobotic surgery ) , bio @-@ agent detection using upconverting phosphor technology , the experimental anticancer drugs Tirapazamine and TAS @-@ 108 , ammonium dinitramide ( an environmentally benign oxidizer for safe and cost @-@ effective disposal of hazardous materials ) , the electroactive polymer ( " artificial muscle " ) , new uses for diamagnetic levitation , and the antimalarial drug Halofantrine .
SRI performed a study in the 1990s for Whirlpool Corporation that led to modern self @-@ cleaning ovens . In the 2000s , SRI worked on Pathway Tools software for use in bioinformatics and systems biology to accelerate drug discovery using artificial intelligence and symbolic computing techniques . The software system generates the BioCyc database collection , SRI 's growing collection of genomic databases used by biologists to visualize genes within a chromosome , complete biochemical pathways , and full metabolic maps of organisms .
= = = Early 21st century = = =
SRI researchers made the first observation of visible light emitted by oxygen atoms in the night @-@ side airglow of Venus , offering new insight into the planet 's atmosphere . SRI education researchers conducted the first national evaluation of the growing U.S. charter schools movement . For the World Golf Foundation , SRI compiled the first @-@ ever estimate of the overall scope of the U.S. golf industry 's goods and services ( $ 62 billion in 2000 ) , providing a framework for monitoring the long @-@ term growth of the industry . In April 2000 , SRI formed Atomic Tangerine , an independent consulting firm designed to bring new technologies and services to market .
In 2006 , SRI was awarded a $ 56 @.@ 9 million contract with the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases to provide preclinical services for the development of drugs and antibodies for anti @-@ infective treatments for avian influenza , SARS , West Nile virus and hepatitis . Also in 2006 , SRI selected St. Petersburg , Florida , as the site for a new marine technology research facility targeted at ocean science , the maritime industry and port security ; the facility is a collaboration with the University of South Florida College of Marine Science and its Center for Ocean Technology . That facility created new a method for underwater mass spectrometry , which has been used to conduct " advanced underwater chemical surveys in oil and gas exploration and production , ocean resource monitoring and protection , and water treatment and management " and was licensed to Spyglass Technologies in March 2014 .
In December 2007 , SRI launched a spin @-@ off company , Siri Inc . , which Apple acquired in April 2010 . In October 2011 , Apple announced the Siri personal assistant as an integrated feature of the Apple iPhone 4S . Siri 's technology was born from SRI 's work on the DARPA @-@ funded CALO project , described by SRI as the largest artificial intelligence project ever launched . Siri was co @-@ founded in December 2007 by Dag Kittlaus ( CEO ) , Adam Cheyer ( vice president , engineering ) , and Tom Gruber ( CTO / vice president , design ) , together with Norman Winarsky ( vice president of SRI Ventures ) . Investors included Menlo Ventures and Morgenthaler Ventures .
For the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) , SRI operates the advanced modular incoherent scatter radar ( AMISR ) , a novel relocatable atmospheric research facility . Other SRI @-@ operated research facilities for the NSF include the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico and the Sondrestrom Upper Atmospheric Research Facility in Greenland . In May 2011 , SRI was awarded a $ 42 million contract to operate the Arecibo Observatory from October 1 , 2011 to September 30 , 2016 .
In February 2014 , SRI announced a " photonics @-@ based testing technology called FASTcell " for the detection and characterization of rare circulating tumor cells from blood samples . The test is aimed at cancer @-@ specific biomarkers for breast , lung , prostate , colorectal and leukemia cancers that circulate in the blood stream in minute quantities , potentially diagnosing those conditions earlier .
= = Description = =
= = = Employees and financials = = =
As of February 2015 , SRI employs approximately 2 @,@ 100 people . In 2014 , SRI had about $ 540 million in revenue . In 2013 , the United States Department of Defense consisted of 63 % of awards by value ; the remainder was composed of the National Institutes of Health ( 11 % ) ; businesses and industry ( 8 % ) ; other United States agencies ( 6 % ) ; the National Science Foundation ( 6 % ) ; the United States Department of Education ( 4 % ) ; and foundations ( 2 % ) .
As of February 2015 , approximately 4 @,@ 000 patents have been granted to SRI International and its employees .
= = = Facilities = = =
SRI is primarily based on a 63 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 25 km2 ; 0 @.@ 10 sq mi ) campus located in Menlo Park , California , which is considered part of Silicon Valley . This campus encompasses 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 square feet ( 120 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office and lab space . In addition , SRI has a 254 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 028 km2 ; 0 @.@ 397 sq mi ) campus in Princeton , New Jersey , with 600 @,@ 000 square feet ( 56 @,@ 000 m2 ) of research space . There are also offices in Washington , D.C. , and Tokyo , Japan . In total , SRI has 2 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 square feet ( 210 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office and laboratory space .
= = = Organization = = =
SRI International is organized into seven units ( generally referred to as divisions ) that focus on specific subject areas .
= = Staff members and alumni = =
SRI has had a chief executive of some form since its establishment . Prior to the split with Stanford University , the position was known as the director ; after the split , it is known as the company 's president and CEO . SRI has had nine so far , including William F. Talbot ( 1946 – 1947 ) , Jesse E. Hobson ( 1947 – 1955 ) , E. Finley Carter ( 1956 – 1963 ) , Charles Anderson ( 1968 – 1979 ) , William F. Miller ( 1979 – 1990 ) , James J. Tietjen ( 1990 – 1993 ) , William P. Sommers ( 1993 – 1998 ) Curtis Carlson ( 1998 – 2014 ) and most recently , William A. Jeffrey ( 2014 – present ) .
SRI also has a board of directors since its inception , which has served to both guide and provide opportunities for the organization . The current board of directors includes Samuel Armacost ( Chairman of the Board Emeritus ) , Mariann Byerwalter ( chairman ) , William A. Jeffrey , Charles A. Holloway ( vice chairman ) , Vern Clark , Robert L. Joss , Leslie F. Kenne , Henry Kressel , David Liddle , Philip J. Quigley , Wendell Wierenga and John J. Young , Jr .
Of its researchers , many notable ones were involved with the Augmentation Research Center . These include Douglas Engelbart , the developer of the modern GUI ; William English , the inventor of the mouse ; Jeff Rulifson , the primary developer of the NLS ; Elizabeth J. Feinler , who ran the Network Information Center ; and David Maynard , who would help found Electronic Arts .
The Artificial Intelligence Center has also produced a large number of notable alumni , many of whom contributed to Shakey the robot ; these include project manager Charles Rosen as well as Nils Nilsson , Bertram Raphael , Richard O. Duda , Peter E. Hart , Richard Fikes and Richard Waldinger . AI researcher Gary Hendrix went on to found Symantec . Current Yahoo ! President and CEO Marissa Mayer performed a research internship in the Center in the 1990s . The CALO project ( and its spin @-@ off , Siri ) also produced notable names including C. Raymond Perrault and Adam Cheyer .
Several SRI projects produced notable researchers and engineers long before computing was mainstream . Early employee Paul M. Cook founded Raychem . William K. MacCurdy developed the Hydra @-@ Cushion freight car for Southern Pacific in 1954 ; Hewitt Crane and Jerre Noe were instrumental in the development of Electronic Recording Machine , Accounting ; Harrison Price helped The Walt Disney Company design Disneyland ; James C. Bliss developed the Optacon ; and Robert Weitbrecht invented the first telecommunications device for the deaf .
= = Spin @-@ off companies = =
Working with investment and venture capital firms , SRI and its former employees have launched more than 60 spin @-@ off ventures in a wide range of fields , including Siri ( acquired by Apple ) , Tempo AI ( acquired by Salesforce.com ) , Redwood Robotics ( acquired by Google ) , Desti ( acquired by HERE ) , Grabit , Kasisto , Artificial Muscle , Inc . ( acquired by Bayer MaterialScience ) , Nuance Communications , Intuitive Surgical , and Orchid Cellmark .
Former SRI staff members have also established new companies . In engineering and analysis , for example , notable companies formed by SRI alumni include Weitbrecht Communications , Exponent and Raychem . Companies in the area of legal , policy and business analysis include Fair Isaac Corporation , Global Business Network and Institute for the Future .
Research in computing and computer science @-@ related areas led to the development of many companies , including Symantec , the Australian Artificial Intelligence Institute , E @-@ Trade , and Verbatim Corporation . Wireless technologies spawned Firetide and venture capital firm enVia Partners . Health systems research inspired Telesensory Systems .
= = = SRI history = = =
Carlson , Curtis R. ; Wilmot , William W. ( 2006 ) . Innovation : The Five Disciplines for Creating What Customers Want . New York : Crown Publishing Group . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 307 @-@ 33669 @-@ 9 .
Lento , Thomas V ( 2006 ) . Inventing the Future : 60 Years of Innovation at Sarnoff . Princeton , New Jersey : Sarnoff Corporation . ISBN 0 @-@ 9785463 @-@ 0 @-@ X.
Gibson , Weldon B. ( 1986 ) . SRI : The Take @-@ Off Days . Los Altos , California : Stanford Research Institute . ISBN 0 @-@ 86576 @-@ 103 @-@ 5 .
= = = Specific topics = = =
Crane , Hewitt ; Kinderman , Edwin ; Malhotra , Ripudaman ( June 2010 ) . A Cubic Mile of Oil . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press USA . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 532554 @-@ 6 .
Markoff , John ( 2005 ) . What the Dormouse Said : How the 60s Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry . New York : Viking Adult . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 03382 @-@ 9 .
Hafner , Katie ( 1996 ) . Where Wizards Stay Up Late : The Origins of the Internet ( with Matthew Lyon ) . New York : Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 @-@ 684 @-@ 83267 @-@ 4 .
Bowden , Mark ( 2011 ) . WORM : The First Digital World War [ about the Conficker computer worm ] . New York : Atlantic Monthly Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8021 @-@ 1983 @-@ 2 .
= Asad ibn Abdallah al @-@ Qasri =
Asad ibn Abdallah ibn Asad al @-@ Qasri ( died 738 ) was a prominent official of the Umayyad Caliphate , serving twice as governor of Khurasan under the Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik . The descendant of a prominent Arab family , he was the brother of Khalid al @-@ Qasri , the powerful governor of Iraq for most of Hisham 's reign . Asad 's first tenure in 724 – 727 came in the wake of the " Day of Thirst " , a severe defeat at the hands of the Turgesh Turks in Transoxiana . Asad tried to reconcile the local Soghdians to Muslim rule , initiated tax reforms to address the grievances of the native converts to Islam ( mawali ) , and enjoyed good relations with many local nobles , who began to convert to Islam under his influence . His military expeditions during his first tenure were targeted mainly against restive local princes , and avoided a direct confrontation with the Turgesh .
After his dismissal , his successors reversed his policy of reconciliation , resulting in a large @-@ scale anti @-@ Arab rebellion among the Soghdians . Another major defeat against the Turgesh in the Battle of the Defile was followed by the almost complete collapse of the Arab position in Trasoxiana and the outbreak of a major rebellion in Khurasan itself , led by al @-@ Harith ibn Surayj . Appointed for a second time to Khurasan in late 734 , Asad brought in fresh troops to the province and managed to suppress Harith 's uprising in 735 – 736 , although the rebel leader himself escaped capture . An expedition in Khuttal in 737 brought about the intervention of the Turgesh khagan at the head of an army . Despite initial Arab setbacks and the Turgesh invasion of Khurasan , Asad succeeded in inflicting a defeat upon the khagan in person in the Battle of Kharistan and turning back the Turgesh army . Despite Asad 's death a few months later , this success was instrumental in preserving Muslim rule in Central Asia , as the blow to the khagan 's prestige led to his murder soon thereafter and the collapse of Turgesh power . At the same time , Asad 's conciliatory policy towards the native population laid the foundations for its eventual acceptance of Muslim rule and the Islamization of Central Asia .
= = Origin = =
Asad was a member of the Qasr clan , a subtribe of the Banu Bajila . His great @-@ grandfather Asad ibn Kurz al @-@ Qasri is said by some traditions to have been the chief of the Bajila in the times of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , and is accounted as one of Muhammad 's companions . Other traditions , however , hostile to the family , report that Asad was a Jew and a runaway slave . Asad 's grandfather Yazid was an early and prominent supporter of the Umayyads in the First Fitna , while Asad 's father Abdallah sided with Ibn al @-@ Zubayr in the Second Fitna , but was eventually pardoned by the Caliph Abd al @-@ Malik ( reigned 685 – 705 ) .
= = First governorship of Khurasan = =
In 724 , immediately after the rise of Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik ( r . 724 – 743 ) to the throne , Asad 's brother Khalid al @-@ Qasri was appointed to the important post of governor of Iraq , with responsibility over the entire Islamic East , which he held until 738 . Khalid in turn named Asad as governor of Khurasan . The two brothers thus became , according to Patricia Crone , " among the most prominent men of the Marwanid period " . Asad 's arrival in Khurasan found the province in peril : his predecessor , Muslim ibn Sa 'id al @-@ Kilabi , had just attempted a campaign against Ferghana and suffered a major defeat , the so @-@ called " Day of Thirst " , at the hands of the Turgesh Turks and the Soghdian principalities of Transoxiana that had risen up against Muslim rule .
As the historian H.A.R. Gibb wrote , this Muslim defeat " marks a period in the history of the Arab conquests . It was practically the last aggressive expedition of the Arabs into Transoxania for fifteen years , but of much greater importance was the blow which it struck at Arab prestige . The roles were reversed ; from now onwards the Arabs found themselves on the defensive and were gradually ousted from almost every district across the Oxus " . In this situation , Asad followed a policy of consolidation and limited military activity , focusing on enforcing Muslim control on the minor local potentates and avoiding a direct confrontation with the Muslims ' main enemy , the Turgesh . Thus in 107 AH ( 725 or 726 AD ) Asad campaigned against Namrun , King of al @-@ Gharshistan ( northeast of Herat ) , whom he forced to submit and convert to Islam , before going on to subdue the region of Ghur ( central Afghanistan ) . In the next year , Asad campaigned in Khuttal in Tokharistan , where he was confronted by the khagan , who was called upon for aid by the local ruler , al @-@ Sabal . One tradition holds that he retreated over the Oxus and went on to campaign with success in Ghur in the next year , but according to another he suffered a heavy defeat by the Turgesh . Whatever the true events , Asad 's military ventures were only moderately successful , and most importantly failed to address the growing danger of the Turgesh , who with the support of the local princes threatened to expel the Arabs back beyond the Oxus .
At the same time , Asad tried to conciliate the local population , hoping to prevent them from supporting the Turgesh . He continued his predecessor 's policy of appointing men known for their honesty as his fiscal agents . His reforms tried to stop the discrimination especially against the mawali , the native converts to Islam , stopping the collection of the jizya from them . This measure was vehemently opposed by the Arab settlers of Khurasan , but according to Khalid Yahya Blankinship " it may have helped to discourage the Turks for a couple of years by keeping the Transoxianans on the Muslims ' side " . Despite Asad 's efforts and his good relations with the local Iranian land @-@ owning class , the dihqans , taxation remained a heavy burden for the subject populations , and the greed and cruelty of Arab and Iranian tax collectors alike meant that Khurasan became a fertile field for the Shi 'ite and Abbasid missionaries ( da 'wa ) . Among the local nobility , Saman Khuda , the ancestor of the Samanid dynasty , is said to have been converted to Islam by Asad at this time , and Saman 's eldest son was named Asad in the governor 's honour .
In 726 Asad rebuilt the city of Balkh , which had been destroyed by Qutayba ibn Muslim following a revolt , and transferred there the Arab garrison troops from nearby Barukhan . Asad also resumed , after almost a decade , the practice of sending envoys to the Chinese court . This move was obviously linked to the Turgesh threat , as the Turks were Chinese vassals and were regarded by the Transoxianians as the agents of the Chinese emperor , sent to deliver them from Arab rule . Asad is also said to have built the village of Asadabad near Nishapur , which his descendants held until Tahirid times .
Asad was dismissed from his office in Ramadan 109 AH ( December 727 or January 728 AD ) , when in an outburst of anger he had the chief representatives of the four greatest Arab tribes in Khurasan , the Ahl al- ' Aliyah , Azd , Tamim , and Bakr , publicly flogged . Caliph Hisham demanded his dismissal , and after naming al @-@ Hakam ibn ' Awana al @-@ Kalbi as his deputy , Asad returned to his brother in Iraq .
= = Second governorship of Khurasan = =
Asad was replaced by Ashras ibn Abdallah al @-@ Sulami ( 727 – 730 ) . At first he continued Asad 's policy of conciliation , but then reversed it , leading to the outbreak of a full @-@ scale rebellion in Transoxiana , which , coupled with renewed Turgesh attacks , reduced the Arab presence there to Samarkand and its environs . Ashras was able to recover Bukhara , but his successor , Junayd ibn Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Murri , presided over the disaster of the Battle of the Defile in 731 , which crippled the Khurasani army . By the time of Junayd 's death in 734 , the Muslim holdings in Transoxiana had been reduced to Bukhara and parts of Tokharistan . These military defeats , the long @-@ held grievances against the Umayyad government , and the forcible requisition of food by Junayd during the famine of 733 led to the outbreak of a rebellion in early 734 , led by al @-@ Harith ibn Surayj . Harith 's uprising involved both Arabs and native princes , especially from the hitherto loyal principalities of Tokharistan , and spread quickly , with the rebels capturing Balkh . The new governor , Asim ibn Abdallah al @-@ Hilali , managed to check Harith 's advance on the capital , Marw , and forced him to seek terms . Asim 's position remained precarious , however , and he wrote to the Caliph , asking for the placement of Khurasan once again under the purview of Iraq , the appointment of a new governor and the substantial reinforcement of the province with Syrian troops . Hisham accepted the recommendations , and instructed Khalid al @-@ Qasri to send Asad once again as governor to Khurasan . Early in 735 , Harith renewed his rebellion . This time , whether due to pressure from local sympathizers in Marw or as an expedient way to gain time for Asad to arrive , Asim agreed to a truce with Harith , in which he also promised to support Harith 's demands against the Caliph .
Thus , in early 735 Asad arrived once more to take up the governorship of Khurasan , this time accompanied by 20 @,@ 000 Syrian troops , according to the 11th @-@ century historian Gardizi . He imprisoned Asim for embezzling money and failing to campaign against the rebels , and immediately took the field himself . He soon gained the upper hand in a succession of victorious , if costly , battles with Harith 's supporters . Asad 's success was aided by his long @-@ standing personal relations with the local Arab tribal leaders , as well as by the continuing tribal rivalries : as a Yamani opposed to the Mudari Harith , he could count on the support of his fellow tribesmen — thus most of the Rabi 'ah , the traditional enemies of Harith 's Tamim tribe , soon defected to him . Asad divided his forces , sending the Kufan and Syrian troops under Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Na 'yum towards Marw Rudh , where Harith 's main army was located , while he himself with the Basrans and remaining Khurasanis marched on the fortresses of Amul and Zamm . The rebel forces at Amul surrendered and were pardoned , and the garrison of Balkh followed soon after . Harith himself abandoned Marw Rudh and retreated across the Oxus before Abd al @-@ Rahman , finding refuge with the princes of Tokharistan . With their aid , he laid siege to the major crossing point over the Oxus at Tirmidh . In the face of Harith 's forces , Asad 's troops could not cross the Oxus but retreated to Balkh . However , the Tirmidh garrison managed to defeat Harith , who now retired eastwards to the mountains of Badakhshan . Asad followed up this success by persuading the garrison of Zamm to surrender on promises of amnesty and double pay . Asad then led an expedition to recover Samarkand , which had been lost in the aftermath of the Defile . He failed to take the city , and returned to Balkh after destroying the sluices of the city 's irrigation canals .
In the next year , 736 , Asad 's forces cleared the mountains of Upper Tokharistan from the remnants of Harith 's supporters . Many of the latter , including some of Harith 's relatives , were blockaded in the fortress of Tabushkhan by Asad 's commander Juday ' al @-@ Kirmani with 6 @,@ 000 men , until they surrendered . According to al @-@ Tabari , 400 of the men were executed , and the other defenders , including women and children , were sold into slavery . In the same year , Asad moved the capital of Khurasan to Balkh . This decision was influenced by a number of factors : Balkh was the traditional , pre @-@ Islamic capital and remained so in the eyes of the local population ; it lay closer to Tokharistan , where Asad concentrated his military activities ; and was settled by reliable Syrians and removed from the factional politics of the Khurasani Arabs of Marw . At this time , Asad also captured and executed one of the leaders of the Khurasani Hashimiyya movement , Ammar ibn Yazid , known as Khidash , by crucifixion .
In 737 , Asad led his troops again north of the Oxus in a retaliatory campaign against Khuttal , whose ruler had allied himself with both Harith and the Turgesh . While Asad captured a few fortresses and pillaged the land , the Khuttalan regent , Ibn al @-@ Sa 'iji , called for aid from the Turgesh khagan , Suluk . The Turgesh army 's arrival caught the Arab troops , widely dispersed while ravaging the countryside , by surprise , and precipitated a headlong flight across the Oxus . The Turgesh followed after them and attacked and almost annihilated the Arab baggage train , which Asad had sent ahead . The timely arrival of Asad 's main army saved the baggage train 's remnants , before both sides settled for winter quarters . Ominously for the Arabs , the khagan remained in Khurasan instead of retiring north , and Harith now emerged from hiding and joined him . Harith now counselled the khagan to take advantage of the dispersal of the Arab army to its winter quarters , and resume his advance . In early December the khagan led the Turgesh army , 30 @,@ 000 strong and comprising contingents from virtually every native ruler of Transoxiana and Upper Tokharistan , south . They bypassed Balkh and marched into Juzjan , hoping to raise the Hephthalite princes of Lower Tokharistan in revolt as well . In this the Turgesh failed , as the king of Juzjan joined Asad , who was approaching with what forces he could muster . Asad 's advance caught the khagan and Harith off guard ; Asad came upon them near Kharistan when they were accompanied by only 4 @,@ 000 men , the rest having scattered to plunder and forage . In the ensuing Battle of Kharistan , Asad routed the Turgesh . Harith and the khagan barely escaped themselves and fled north over the Oxus . The Turgesh detachments south of the Oxus were largely destroyed piecemeal by Juday ' al @-@ Kirmani , ending the threat to Khurasan .
After his victory over the Turgesh , Asad sent an expedition against Badr Tarkhan , possibly a prince of Bamiyan in Ghur , who in the turmoil of the previous year had taken the opportunity of capturing Khuttal . The expedition was successful , and Khuttal returned to Arab rule . A short while later , in February 738 , Asad died at Balkh after a brief illness . Ja 'far ibn Hanzala al @-@ Bahrani succeeded him temporarily , until , in July , Nasr ibn Sayyar was named to the governorship .
= = Legacy = =
Asad 's second governorship was of crucial importance to the future of Central Asia . His victory at Kharistan averted a possible collapse of Muslim rule and ended the Turgesh threat to Khurasan and Transoxiana . As Gibb writes , it was not only " the turning @-@ point in the fortunes of the Arabs in Central Asia , but gave the signal for the downfall of Turgesh power " . The khagan ′ s defeat was a serious blow to his prestige , encouraging his domestic rivals ; backed secretly by the Chinese , they assassinated him in early 738 . The Turgesh realm collapsed in civil war , leaving the Muslims without a serious opponent in the region . At the same time , Asad 's excellent personal relationship with the native nobility strengthened their ties to the Arab government . As Gibb writes , " he was able to attract to his side many of the more influential elements in Lower Tokharistan and the Hephthalite lands — to this , in fact , was largely due his success in the struggle with the Turks . " His influence led to the conversion to Islam of several local rulers , like Saman Khuda and possibly also the Barmak . Even though as yet " practically confined to the ruling classes " and limited to the territories under direct Arab control , Gibb credits Asad with beginning a process of " true reconciliation " . For this achievement he was greatly honoured later generations , as attested in the work of the 10th @-@ century Bukharan historian Narshakhi . His successor , Nasr ibn Sayyar , was able to build upon Asad 's work and restore the Arab position over much of Transoxiana ; Muslim pre @-@ eminence over western Central Asia was sealed with the Battle of Talas in 751 , and the withdrawal of Chinese influence after the outbreak of the An Lushan Rebellion .
= Euphoria ( Usher song ) =
" Euphoria " is a song recorded by American singer Usher for his seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . It was written by Axel Hedfors , Juan Najera , Klas Åhlund , Ryon Lovett , Sebastian Ingrosso , Steve Angello , Terry Lewis and Usher himself . The production of the song was done by Axwell , Angello and Ingrosso under their stage name Swedish House Mafia . After their joint performance at the 2011 American Music Awards , Usher and Swedish House Mafia managed to start working on recording sessions for Usher 's seventh studio album in Atlanta .
" Euphoria " is a dance @-@ pop and euro @-@ trance song which " include the DJs ' glimmering synths while Usher croons in his coolly @-@ controlled falsetto . " The track received generally mixed to positive reviews from contemporary music critics with many of them praising its Ibiza sound which is also present on Usher 's previous singles " OMG " and " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " . Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , the song debuted at number 60 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart , with sales of 6 @,@ 029 digital copies . This song appears as DLC along with " Twisted " in Dance Central 3 with choreography from both Usher and his choreographer Aakomon “ AJ ” Jones .
= = Production = =
Speaking to The BoomBox , Usher explained that he wanted to work with Swedish House Mafia ever since they both performed together at the 2011 American Music Awards . The group agreed to work with Usher , saying " We 'll see if we can come to Atlanta , and if we can , we 'll start to work on some tracks , writing , and moving the ball forward . " In an interview with MTV News , regarding the collaboration with Usher , Steve Angello commented , [ sic ] " We met Usher couple of years ago , we did the AMA 's together and then we came to hang @-@ out in Ibiza . We were in Atlanta and we were all working together for five days . He has always been a great artist and he always knows what he wants so it is a good collaboration all in all . We rather work with somebody who we respect , than to rather work with just big name . "
= = Composition = =
" Euphoria " is a dance @-@ pop and euro @-@ trance song with a length of four minutes and 20 seconds . It was written by Axel Hedfors , Juan Najera , Klas Åhlund , Ryon Lovett , Sebastian Ingrosso , Steve Angello , Terry Lewis and Usher himself . The production of the song was helmed by Hedfors , Angello and Ingrosso under their stage name Swedish House Mafia . Swedish House Mafia together with disc jockey Alesso also co @-@ produced one more song from Looking 4 Myself entitled " Numb " . According to Lewis Corner of Digital Spy both " Euphoria " and " Numb " " include the DJs ' glimmering synths while he [ Usher ] croons in his coolly @-@ controlled falsetto . " Jim Farber of The New York Daily News wrote that the songs which were produced by Swedish House Mafia propose a possible crossover point from electronica to R & B like Usher ’ s biggest hit " Yeah ! " did from crunk to soul . Mark " Exit " Goodchild recorded the song at Silent Sound Studios in Atlanta and Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank , while Jorge Velasco , Kory Aaron and Randy Warnken served as recording assistants . It was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studio , Universal City , with Chris Galland and Delbert Bowers serving as mixing assistants . Natural did the vocal production of the song while the track 's producers Hedfors , Ingrosso and Angello provided the complete instrumentation of " Euphoria " .
= = Reception = =
In a review of Looking 4 Myself , Matt Cibula of PopMatters commented that Usher " absolutely rips ' Climax ' and ' What Happened to U ' , nails party anthems like ' Scream ' and ' Euphoria ' to the wall , and puts across harder things even while multitracking himself 35 times over with the greatest of ease . " Nathan S. of DJ Booth wrote that " ' Euphoria ' hews even closer to the 4 AM in Ibiza template , as does the essentially identical Scream . " People 's Chuck Arnold wrote that Usher " is an Ibiza @-@ ready club kid on electro thumpers like current single ' Scream ' and the Swedish House Mafia @-@ produced ' Euphoria ' that build on the success of ' OMG ' , ' DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love ' and ' Without You ' ( with David Guetta ) . " Regarding the song Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush wrote that " Euphoria " " comes out with a great Ibiza @-@ style dance track that should help him crack the European market . It sounds big and brings euphoria to our ears . "
Erika Ramirez of Billboard concluded that " Euphoria " is grittier , more startling and arguably more powerful than " Numb " and commented that it " leaves listeners with a feeling that reflects the song 's uplifting title " . Alex Macpherson of guardian.co.uk was more critical to the song and labeled it as " eurotrash trance " , while Danny Walker of RWD Magazine called the song pacy . According to Carrie Battan of Pitchfork Media Usher " sounds most uncomfortable and the least sharp on overblown club tracks ' Euphoria ' and ' Numb ' , and the presence of rote numbers is almost comically predictable . " Katherine St Asaph of Popdust stated that the track would sound great in the clubs , however it isn 't standout by any means , further stating " Usher and Swedish House Mafia talk about euphoria , but what they deliver is perfectly passable excitement . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and mixing
Recorded at Silent Sound Studios , Atlanta , Georgia ; Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , California ; mixed at Larrabee Sound Studio , Universal City , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Looking 4 Myself , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , due to digital downloads " Euphoria " charted in the lower regions on the singles chart in South Korea . It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 60 on June 10 , 2012 , with sales of 6 @,@ 029 digital copies .
= Hispanic Americans in World War II =
Hispanic Americans , also referred to as Latinos , served in all elements of the American armed forces in the war . They fought in every major American battle in the war . Between 250 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 Hispanic Americans served in the U.S. Armed Forces during World War II , out of a total of 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , constituting 2 @.@ 3 % to 4 @.@ 7 % of the U.S. Armed Forces . The exact number is unknown as , at the time , Hispanics were not tabulated separately , but were generally included in the general white population census count . Separate statistics were kept for African Americans and Asian Americans .
On December 7 , 1941 , when the United States officially entered the war , Hispanic Americans were among the many American citizens who joined the ranks of the Army , Navy and Marine Corps as volunteers or through the draft . Not only did Hispanics serve as active combatants in the European and Pacific Theatres of war , but they also served on the home front as civilians . Hundreds of Hispanic women joined the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps ( WAACs ) and Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service ( WAVES ) , serving as nurses and in administrative positions . Many worked in traditionally male labor jobs in the manufacturing plants that produced munitions and materiel , replacing men who were away at war .
When conscription was increased , some Puerto Ricans from the island were assigned as replacements to units in the Panama Canal Zone and British Caribbean islands , which were made up mostly of continental ( United States mainland ) soldiers . Most Puerto Ricans and Hispanics residing in Puerto Rico were assigned to the 65th Infantry Regiment or to the Puerto Rico National Guard . These were the only all @-@ Hispanic units whose statistics were kept . More than 53 @,@ 000 Puerto Ricans and Hispanics who resided on the island served in the war . According to Senator Robert Menendez , more than 9 @,@ 000 Latinos died in the defense of the United States in World War II . Because of lack of separate documentation , the total number of Hispanic Americans who died in the conflict is unknown .
= = Terminology = =
Hispanic American is an ethnic term used to categorize any citizen or resident of the United States , of any racial background , and of any religion , who has at least one ancestor from the people of Spain or any of the Spanish @-@ speaking countries of the Americas . The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are the Mexican Americans , Puerto Ricans , and Cuban Americans . Hispanic Americans are also referred to by others , and some Hispanics prefer to be known as " Chicano " .
= = Prelude to World War II = =
Before the United States entered World War II , Hispanic Americans were already fighting on European soil in the Spanish Civil War . The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted coup d 'état by parts of the army , led by the Nationalist General Francisco Franco , against the government of the Second Spanish Republic . Hispanic Americans fought on behalf of both of the factions involved , the " Nationalists " as members of the Spanish Army and the " Loyalists " ( Republicans ) either as members of the Abraham Lincoln International Brigade or as aviators in the Yankee Squadron led by Bert Acosta ( 1895 – 1954 ) .
General Manuel Goded Llopis ( 1882 – 1936 ) , who was born in San Juan , Puerto Rico , was a high @-@ ranking officer in the Spanish Army . Llopis was among the first generals to join General Francisco Franco in the uprising against the government of the Second Spanish Republic . Llopis led the fight against the Anarchists in Catalonia , but his troops were outnumbered . He was captured and sentenced to die by firing squad .
Lieutenant Carmelo Delgado Delgado ( 1913 – 1937 ) was among the many Hispanics who fought on behalf of the Second Spanish Republic as members of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade . Delgado fought in the Battle of Madrid , but was captured and sentenced to die by firing squad on April 29 , 1937 . He was amongst the first United States ( US ) citizens to die in that conflict .
= = Pearl Harbor = =
On December 7 , 1941 , when the Empire of Japan attacked the United States Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor , many sailors with Hispanic surnames were among those who perished . PFC Richard I. Trujillo of the United States Marine Corps was serving aboard the Battleship USS Nevada ( BB @-@ 36 ) when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor . The Nevada was among the ships which were in the harbor that day . As her gunners opened fire and her engineers got up steam , she was struck by torpedoes and bombs from the Japanese attackers . Fifty men were killed and 109 wounded . Among those killed was Trujillo , who became the first Hispanic Marine casualty of World War II .
When the United States officially entered World War II , Hispanic Americans were among the many American citizens who joined the ranks of United States Armed Forces as volunteers or through the draft .
In 1941 , Commander Luis de Florez played an instrumental role in the establishment of the Special Devices Division of the Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics ( what would later become the NAWCTSD ) . He was later assigned as head of the new Special Devices Desk in the Engineering Division of the Navy ’ s Bureau of Aeronautics . De Florez , who has been credited with over sixty inventions , urged the Navy to undertake development of " synthetic training devices " to increase readiness . During World War II , he was promoted to Captain and in 1944 , to Rear Admiral .
= = European Theatre = =
The European Theatre of World War II was an area of heavy fighting between the Allied forces and the Axis powers from September 1 , 1939 , to May 8 , 1945 . The majority of Hispanic Americans served in regular units ; some active combat units recruited from areas of high Hispanic population , such as the 65th Infantry Regiment from Puerto Rico and the 141st Regiment of the 36th Texas Infantry , were made up mostly of Hispanics .
Hispanics of the 141st Regiment of the 36th Infantry Division were some of the first American troops to land on Italian soil at Salerno . Company E of the 141st Regiment was entirely Hispanic . The 36th Infantry Division fought in Italy and France , enduring heavy casualties during the crossing of the Rapido River near Cassino , Italy . This was a controversial event over which military analysts have argued .
= = = 65th Infantry Regiment = = =
A small detachment of insular troops from Puerto Rico was sent to Cuba in late March as a guard for Batista Field . In 1943 , the 65th Infantry was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus and the Panama Canal , critical to oceangoing ships . An increase in the Puerto Rican induction program was immediately authorized . Continental troops such as the 762nd Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion , 766th AAA Gun Battalion and the 891st AAA Gun Battalions were replaced by Puerto Ricans in Panama . They also replaced troops in the bases on British Islands , to the extent permitted by the availability of trained Puerto Rican units . The 295th Infantry Regiment followed the 65th Infantry in 1944 , departing from San Juan , Puerto Rico to the Panama Canal Zone .
That same year , the 65th Infantry was sent to North Africa , where they underwent further training . By April 29 , 1944 , the Regiment had landed in Italy and moved on to Corsica . On September 22 , 1944 , the 65th Infantry landed in France and was committed to action in the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava . On December 13 , 1944 , the 65th Infantry , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila , relieved the 2nd Battalion of the 442nd Infantry Regiment , a regiment which was made up of Japanese Americans under the command of Col. Virgil R. Miller , a native of Puerto Rico .
The 3rd Battalion fought against and defeated Germany 's 34th Infantry Division 's 107th Infantry Regiment . There were 47 battle casualties , including Pvt. Sergio Sanchez @-@ Sanchez and Sergeant Angel Martinez from Sabana Grande , who were the first two Puerto Ricans from the 65th Infantry to be killed in combat action . On March 18 , 1945 , the regiment was sent to the District of Mannheim and assigned to military occupation duties after the end of the war . The regiment suffered 23 soldiers killed in action .
In March 1943 , Private First Class Joseph ( Jose ) R. Martinez , member of Patton 's Seventh Army , destroyed a German Infantry unit and tank in Tunis by providing heavy artillery fire , saving his platoon from being attacked in the process . He received the D
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istinguished Service Cross , second to the Medal of Honor , from General George S. Patton , thus becoming the first Puerto Rican recipient of said military decoration .
Sergeant First Class Agustín Ramos Calero , a member of the 65th Infantry who was reassigned to the 3rd U.S. Infantry Division because of his ability to speak and understand English , was one of the most decorated Hispanic soldiers in the European Theater . Calero was born and raised in Isabela , in the northern region of Puerto Rico . He joined the U.S. Army in 1941 and was assigned to Puerto Rico 's 65th Infantry Regiment at Camp Las Casas in Santurce , where he received training as a rifleman . At the outbreak of World War II , Calero was reassigned to the 3rd U.S. Infantry Division and sent to Europe .
In 1945 , Calero 's company engaged in combat against a squad of German soldiers in what is known as the Battle of Colmar Pocket in the vicinity of Colmar , France . Calero attacked the enemy squad , killing 10 and capturing 21 before being wounded . For these actions , he was awarded the Silver Star Medal and nicknamed " One @-@ Man Army " by his comrades . Calero was wounded four times during combat in Europe . He was awarded 22 decorations and medals for his actions , making him one of the most decorated Hispanic soldiers in the U.S. military during World War II . Among his many decorations were the Silver Star Medal , four Purple Hearts and the French Croix de guerre .
= = Pacific Theatre = =
The Pacific Theatre of Operations ( PTO ) is the term used in the United States for all military activity between the Allies and Japan , from 1937 to 1945 , in the Pacific Ocean and the countries bordering it , during World War II . Three units of mostly Hispanic Americans served in the Pacific Theatre battlefields : the 200th Coast Artillery and the 515th Anti @-@ Aircraft Artillery Battalions from New Mexico , whose members participated in the infamous Bataan Death March , and the 158th Regimental Combat Team from Arizona .
= = = Bataan Death March = = =
Two National Guard units : the 200th and the 515th Battalions , were activated in New Mexico in 1940 . Made up mostly of Spanish @-@ speaking Hispanics from New Mexico , Arizona and Texas , the two battalions were sent to Clark Field in the Philippine Islands . Shortly after the Imperial Japanese Navy launched its surprise attack on the American Naval Fleet at Pearl Harbor , Japanese forces attacked the American positions in the Philippines . General Douglas MacArthur moved his forces , which included the 200th and 515th , to the Bataan Peninsula , where they fought alongside Filipinos in a three @-@ month stand against the invading forces .
By April 9 , 1942 , rations , medical supplies , and ammunition became scarce ; officers ordered the starving and outnumbered troops of the 200th and 515th Battalions to lay down their arms and surrender to the Japanese . These Hispanic and non @-@ Hispanic soldiers endured the 12 @-@ day , 85 @-@ mile ( 137 km ) Bataan Death March from Bataan to the Japanese prison camps . They were force @-@ marched in scorching heat through the Philippine jungle . Survivors remained interned for 34 months in a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war ( POW ) camp . Others were wounded or killed when unmarked enemy ships transporting prisoners of war to Japan were sunk by U.S. air and naval forces .
Colonel Virgilio N. Cordero , Jr . ( 1893 – 1980 ) was the Battalion Commander of the 31st Infantry Regiment on December 8 , 1941 , when Japanese planes attacked the U.S. military installations in the Philippines . Cordero and his men underwent brutal torture and humiliation during the Bataan Death March and nearly four years of captivity . Cordero was one of nearly 1 @,@ 600 members of the 31st Infantry who were taken as prisoners . Half of these men perished while prisoners of the Japanese forces . After Cordero gained his freedom when the Allied troops defeated the Japanese returned to the United States . Cordero , who retired with the rank of Brigadier General , wrote about his experiences as a prisoner of war and what he went through during the Bataan Death March . He authored My Experiences during the War with Japan , which was published in 1950 . In 1957 , he authored a revised Spanish version titled Bataan y la Marcha de la Muerte ; Volume 7 of Colección Vida e Historia .
Private ( Pvt. ) Ralph Rodriguez , age 25 , of the 200th Coast Artillery Battalion was a Bataan Death March survivor . According to Rodriguez , the Japanese ordered the American soldiers to begin marching . Soldiers who faltered during the march were prodded with bayonets , while those unable to continue were killed . He remembered a sense of brotherhood among the Hispanic soldiers who marched together in groups , and assisted each other along the way . When the soldiers reached their detention center , they were forced into a 30 @-@ by @-@ 100 foot fenced area . Later , the soldiers were forced into boxcars . One hundred soldiers were crammed into a car built to hold 40 or 50 men . The train took the soldiers on a four @-@ hour ride to Camp O 'Donnell where they became prisoners of war .
Corporal Agapito E. " Gap " Silva ( 1919 – 2007 ) , was another member of the 200th Coast Artillery Battalion who survived the Bataan Death March . He was held at Cabanatuan prison camp in the Philippines and assigned to the " burial details " when hundreds of prisoners were dying each month of disease and starvation . He was later transported to Fukuoka POW Camp # 17 , a Japanese prison camp near Omuta , Japan . There he was forced to work as a slave laborer in a coal plant . Silva narrated the following about his experiences as a prisoner of war :
" The POWs ( prisoner of war ) faced constant danger working in the coal mines . It was so unbearable that many of the men would resort to self @-@ inflicted injuries such as breaking their arms and legs to avoid working 10 to 12 hour days . "
Silva and more than 1 @,@ 900 American POWs were forced to work in coal mine camps encircled by electrical fences . Silva would spend 3 ½ years in the Japanese POW camps before the war ended in September 1945 . He was the recipient of the Bronze Star and Purple Heart Medal .
= = = 158th Regimental Combat Team = = =
The 158th Regimental Combat Team , an Arizona National Guard unit of mostly Hispanic soldiers , also fought in the Pacific Theatre . Early in the war , the 158th , nicknamed the " Bushmasters " , had been deployed to protect the Panama Canal and had completed jungle training . The unit later fought the Japanese in the New Guinea area in heavy combat and was involved in the liberation of the Philippine Islands . General MacArthur referred to them as " the greatest fighting combat team ever deployed for battle . " The 158th was selected to spearhead the invasion of Japan and was sent to attack the island of Tanega Shima to silence Japanese air warning stations . The planned invasion of Japan was never realized ; after Japan 's surrender , the unit was sent on October 13 , 1945 to Yokohama , Japan as part of the United States Army of occupation .
= = = PFC Guy Gabaldon = = =
Private First Class Guy Gabaldon was a young Marine who single @-@ handedly persuaded more than 1 @,@ 000 enemy civilians and troops to surrender .
PFC Guy Gabaldon ( 1926 – 2006 ) was adopted at the age of 12 by parents of Japanese @-@ American heritage . At the outbreak of World War II , his adoptive family was placed in a relocation camp . Gabaldon joined the Marines when he was only 17 years old ; he was a Private First Class ( PFC ) when his unit was engaged in the Battle of Saipan in 1944 . Gabaldon , who acted as the Japanese interpreter for the Second Marines , working alone in front of the lines , entered enemy caves , pillboxes , buildings , and jungle brush , frequently in the face of hostile fire , and succeeded not only in obtaining vital military information , but in convincing over 1 @,@ 500 enemy civilians and troops to surrender . He was nominated for the Medal of Honor , but was awarded the Silver Star instead . His medal was later upgraded to the Navy Cross , the Marines second @-@ highest decoration for heroism . He turned in more enemy soldiers than Sergeant Alvin York , who was awarded the Medal of Honor during World War I for having captured 132 enemy German soldiers . Gabaldon 's actions on Saipan were later memorialized in the film Hell to Eternity , in which he was portrayed by actor Jeffrey Hunter .
= = = Guarding the atomic bomb = = =
In 1945 , when Kwajalein of the Marshall Islands was secured by the U.S. forces , Sergeant Fernando Bernacett from Puerto Rico was among the Marines who were sent to guard various essential military installations . Bernacett , a combat veteran of the Battle of Midway , guarded the airport and POWs , as well as the atomic bomb as it was transported to Japan .
= = United States Coast Guard = =
Many Hispanics also served in the United States Coast Guard . Joseph B. Aviles , Sr. , the first Hispanic to be promoted to chief petty officer in the Coast Guard was also the first Hispanic to be promoted to chief warrant officer . He spent most of the war in St. Augustine , Florida training recruits .
Valentin R. Fernandez was awarded a Silver Lifesaving Medal for " maneuvering a Marine landing party ashore under constant Japanese attack " during the invasion of Saipan .
Louis Rua was awarded the Bronze Star Medal for " meritorious achievement at sea December 5 – 6 , 1944 , while serving aboard a U.S. Army large tug en route to the Philippines . His craft went to the rescue of another ship which had been torpedoed by enemy action and saved 277 survivors from the abandoned ship . " Rua was the first known Hispanic @-@ American Coast Guardsman to be awarded with a Bronze Star Medal .
Gunner 's Mate Second Class Joseph Tezanos was awarded a Navy & Marine Corps Medal during World War II for " ... distinguished heroism while serving as a volunteer member of a boat crew engaged in rescue operations during a fire in Pearl Harbor , Oahu , T.H. on 21 May 1944 . Under conditions of great personal danger from fire and explosions and with disregard of his own safety he assisted in the rescuing of approximately 42 survivors some of whom were injured and exhausted from the water and from burning ships . " He was also the first known Hispanic @-@ American to complete OCS training at the Coast Guard Academy .
Not everyone served aboard ships during the war . Some men like Jose R. Zaragoza served on missions on some lonely atolls . When 19 @-@ year @-@ old Zaragoza , a native of Los Angeles , California , joined the Coast Guard , he was sent on patrols in the Pacific coast of the United States defending against sabotage and invasion from the Japanese . Later he received instructions in the then @-@ emerging and secretive field of Loran navigation and sent to Ulithi atoll , located between Guam and the Philippines where he worked in Long Range Aids to Navigation , which is akin to radar work . He served on Ulithi Island for 15 months .
= = Aviators = =
Hispanics not only served in ground and seabound combat units , they also distinguished themselves as fighter pilots and as bombardiers . In 1944 , Puerto Rican aviators were sent to the Tuskegee Army Air Field in Tuskegee , Alabama to train the famed 99th Fighter Squadron of the Tuskegee Airmen . The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African @-@ American military aviators in the United States armed forces . Puerto Ricans were also involved in clerical positions with the Tuskegee unit . Among the Puerto Ricans who helped make the Tuskegee experiment a successful one were T / Sgt. Pablo Diaz Albortt , an NCO ( Non Commissioned Officer ) in charge of the Special Service Office , and Eugene Calderon , who was assigned to the " Red Tail " unit , as the Company Clerk . By the end of the war , the Tuskegee Airmen were credited with 109 Luftwaffe aircraft shot down , a patrol boat run aground by machine @-@ gun fire , and destruction of numerous fuel dumps , trucks and trains .
A " flying ace " or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat . The term " ace in a day " is used to designate a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more enemy aircraft in a single day . Since World War I , a number of pilots have been honored as " Ace in a Day " ; however , the honor of being the last " Ace in a Day " for the United States in World War II belongs to First Lieutenant Oscar Francis Perdomo of the 464th Fighter Squadron , 507th Fighter Group .
First Lieutenant Perdomo , ( 1919 – 1976 ) , the son of Mexican parents , was born in El Paso , Texas . When the war broke out , Perdomo joined the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) as an aviation cadet and was trained to pilot the P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt . After receiving his pilot training , he was assigned to the 464th Fighter Squadron , which was part of the 507th Fighter Group that was sent to the Pacific Island of Ie Shima off the west coast of Okinawa .
The atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki , Japan on August 9 , 1945 , but while the Allies awaited Japan 's response to the demand to surrender , the war continued . On August 13 , 1945 , 1st Lt. Perdomo shot down four Nakajima Ki @-@ 43 " Oscar " fighters and one Yokosuka K5Y " Willow " Type 93 biplane trainer . This action took place near Keijo / Seoul , Korea when 38 Thunderbolts of the 507th Fighter Wing encountered approximately 50 enemy aircraft . This action was Lt. Perdomo 's tenth and final combat mission , and the five confirmed victories made him an " Ace in a Day " and earned him the distinction of being the last " Ace " of World War II . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism in action and the Air Medal with one oak leaf cluster .
Other Hispanics served with distinction in aerial combat , among which are the following men whose names are placed in accordance to their ranks : Commander Eugene A. Valencia , Jr . , Lieutenant Colonel Donald S. Lopez , Sr. , Captain Michael Brezas , Captain Mihiel " Mike " Gilormini , Captain Alberto A. Nido , Captain Robert L. Cardenas , 2nd Lieutenant César Luis González , First Lieutenant Francisco Mercado , Jr , Lieutenant Richard Gomez Candelaria , Lieutenant José Antonio Muñiz , Lieutenant Arthur Van Haren , Jr . , Technical Sergeant Clement Resto and Corporal Frank Medina .
Commander Eugene A. Valencia , Jr . , United States Navy ( USN ) fighter ace , is credited with 23 air victories in the Pacific during World War II . Valencia 's decorations include the Navy Cross , five Distinguished Flying Crosses , and six Air Medals .
Lieutenant Colonel Donald S. Lopez , Sr. , USAAF fighter ace was assigned to the 23rd Fighter Group under the command of General Claire Chennault . The mission of the fighter group ( the " Flying Tigers " ) was to help defend Chinese nationals against Japanese invaders . During 1943 – 1944 , Lopez was credited with shooting down five Japanese fighters , four in a Curtiss P @-@ 40 and one in a North American P @-@ 51 .
Captain Michael Brezas , USAAF fighter ace , arrived in Lucera , Italy during the summer of 1944 , joining the 48th Fighter Squadron of the 14th Fighter Group . Flying the P @-@ 38 aircraft , Lt. Brezas downed 12 enemy planes within two months . He received the Silver Star Medal , the Distinguished Flying Cross , and the Air Medal with eleven oak leaf clusters .
Captain Mihiel " Mike " Gilormini , Royal Air Force and USAAF , was a flight commander whose last combat mission was attacking the airfield at Milano , Italy . His last flight in Italy gave air cover for General George C. Marshall 's visit to Pisa . Gilormini was the recipient of the Silver Star Medal , five Distinguished Flying Crosses , and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters . Gilormini later founded the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and retired as Brigadier General .
Captain Alberto A. Nido , Royal Canadian Air Force , the British Royal Air Force and the USAAF . He flew missions as a bomber pilot for the RCAF and as a Supermarine Spitfire fighter pilot for the RAF . As member of the RAF , he belonged to 67th Reconnaissance Squadron who participated in 275 combat missions . Nido later transferred to the USAAF 's 67th Fighter Group as a P @-@ 51 Mustang fighter pilot . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross with four oak leaf clusters and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters . Nido co @-@ founded the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and , as Gilormini , retired a Brigadier General .
Captain Robert L. Cardenas , USAAF , served as a B @-@ 24 aircraft pilot in the European Theater of Operations with the 506th Bombardment Squadron . He was awarded the Air Medal and two oak leaf clusters for bombing missions before being shot down over Germany in March 1944 . Despite head wounds from flak , he made his way back to Allied control . On October 14 , 1947 , Cardenas flew the B @-@ 29 launch aircraft that released the X @-@ 1 experimental rocket plane in which Charles E. Yeager became the first man to fly faster than the speed of sound . Cardenas retired as Brigadier General .
2nd Lieutenant César Luis González , USAAF , the co @-@ pilot of a C @-@ 47 , was the first Puerto Rican pilot in the United States Army Air Forces . He was one of the initial participants of the invasion of Sicily on July 10 , 1943 also known as Operation Husky . During the invasion of Sicily , he flew on two night missions , the first on July 9 , where his mission was to release paratroops of 82nd Airborne Division on the area of Gela and the second on July 11 , when he dropped reinforcements in the area . His unit was awarded a " DUC " for carrying out this second mission in spite of bad weather and heavy attack by enemy ground and naval forces . González died on November 22 , 1943 , when his plane crashed during training off the end of the runway at Castelvetrano . He was posthumously promoted to First Lieutenant .
Lieutenant Richard Gomez Candelaria , USAAF , was a P @-@ 51 Mustang pilot from the 435th Fighter Squadron of the 479th Fighter Group . With six aerial victories to his credit , Candelaria was the only pilot in his squadron to make " ace " . Most of his victories were achieved on a single mission on April 7 , 1945 , when he found himself the lone escort protecting a formation of USAAF B @-@ 24 Liberators . Candelaria defended the bombers from at least 15 German fighters , single @-@ handedly destroying four before help arrived . He was also credited with a probable victory on an Me 262 during this engagement . Six days later , Candelaria was shot down by ground fire , and spent the rest of the war as a POW . After the war , Candelaria served in the Air National Guard , reaching the rank of Colonel prior to his retirement .
Lieutenant Francisco Mercado , Jr . , USAAF , flew 35 combat missions as a Bombardier over enemy occupied Continental Europe as a member of the 853rd Bomb Squadron , 491st Bomb Group , 8th Air Force . He was awarded the Air Medal with four Oak Leaf Cluster and the Distinguished Flying Cross . He flew ten missions as the Squadron Lead Bombardier , and one as the Group Lead Bombardier on December 30 , 1944 , on a mission to the Railroad Bridge at Altenahr , Germany . On July 21 , 1944 , he earned a membership into the exclusive " Caterpillar Club " after he parachuted over England while returning from a mission with a crippled B @-@ 24 .
Lieutenant José Antonio Muñiz , USAAF , served with distinction in the China @-@ Burma @-@ India Theater . During his tour of duty he flew 20 combat mission against the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force and shot down a Mitsubishi A6M Zero . In 1960 , Muñiz was flying a formation of F @-@ 86s celebrating the 4th of July festivities in Puerto Rico and upon take off his airplane flamed out and crashed . In 1963 , the Air National Guard Base , at the San Juan International airport in Puerto Rico , was renamed " Muñiz Air National Guard Base " in his honor .
Lieutenant Arthur Van Haren , Jr . , USN , was a fighter pilot who was considered the top fighter ace of World War II from Arizona . He was part of the infamous U.S. Navy Fighting Squadron Two ( VF @-@ 2 " Rippers " ) . Based on the USS Hornet , a United States Navy aircraft carrier of the Essex class , Lt. Van Haren , Jr . , flew the F6F Hellcat . He downed nine confirmed enemy planes during grueling combat in the Pacific Theater skies , and had three additional unconfirmed kills . Three of his nine kills occurred in the Marianas Turkey Shoot . Additionally , Van Haren , Jr. was awarded two Distinguished Flying Cross ( United States ) medals .
Technical Sergeant Clement Resto , USAAF , was not an " ace " but served with the 303rd Bomb Group and participated in numerous bombing raids over Germany . During a bombing mission over Duren , Germany , Resto 's plane , a B @-@ 17 , was shot down . He was captured by the Gestapo and sent to Stalag XVII @-@ B where he spent the rest of the war as a prisoner of war . Resto , who lost an eye during his last mission , was awarded a Purple Heart , a POW Medal and an Air Medal with one battle star after he was liberated from captivity .
Corporal Frank Medina , USAAF , was an air crew member on a B @-@ 24 that was shot down over Italy . He was the only crewmember to evade capture . Medina explained that his ability to speak Spanish had allowed him to communicate with friendly Italians who helped him avoid capture for eight months behind enemy lines .
= = Servicewomen = =
Prior to World War II , traditional Hispanic cultural values expected women to be homemakers , thus they rarely left the home to earn an income . As such , women were discouraged from joining the military . Only a small number of Hispanic women joined the military before World War II . However , with the outbreak of World War II , cultural prohibitions began to change . With the creation of the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps ( WAAC ) , predecessor of the Women 's Army Corps ( WAC ) , and the U.S. Navy Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service ( WAVES ) , women could attend to certain administrative duties left open by the men who were reassigned to combat zones . While most women who served in the military joined the WAACs , a smaller number of women served in the Naval Women 's Reserve ( the WAVES ) . One of the first Hispanic women to serve in the USAAF was Staff Sergeant Eva Romero Jacques . Romero Jacques , who spoke Spanish and English and had three years of college spent two years in the Pacific Theater , 1944 in New Guinea and 1945 in the Philippines , as an administrative aide . She survived a plane disaster when the craft in which she was on crashed in the jungles of New Guinea .
In 1944 , the Army recruited women in Puerto Rico for the Women 's Army Corps ( WAC ) . Over 1 @,@ 000 applications were received for the unit , which was to be composed of only 200 women . After their basic training at Fort Oglethorpe , Georgia , the Puerto Rican WAC unit , Company 6 , 2nd Battalion , 21st Regiment of the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps , a segregated Hispanic unit , was assigned to the New York Port of Embarkation to work in military offices that planned the shipment of troops around the world . Among them was PFC Carmen García Rosado , who in 2006 , authored and published a book titled " LAS WACS @-@ Participacion de la Mujer Boricua en la Segunda Guerra Mundial " ( The WACs @-@ The participation of the Puerto Rican women in the Second World War ) , the first book to document the experiences of the first 200 Puerto Rican women who participated in said conflict . However , not all of the WAAC units were stationed in the mainland USA . In January 1943 , the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company became the first WAAC unit to go overseas when they went to North Africa . Serving overseas was dangerous for women ; if captured , WAACs , as " auxiliaries " serving with the Army rather than in it , did not have the same protections under international law as male soldiers .
One of the members of the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company was Tech4 Carmen Contreras @-@ Bozak , who served in Algiers within General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's theatre headquarters . Contreras joined the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps ( WAAC ) in 1942 and was sent to Fort Lee , Virginia for training . Contreras volunteered to be part of the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company , thus becoming the first Hispanic to serve as an interpreter and in numerous administrative positions . The unit was the first WAAC unit to go overseas , setting sail from New York Harbor for Europe on January 1943 .
Contreras ' unit arrived in Northern Africa on January 27 , 1943 , and rendered overseas duties in Algiers within General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's theatre headquarters , dealing with nightly German air raids . Contreras remembers that the women who served abroad were not treated like the regular Army servicemen . They did not receive overseas payment nor could they receive government life insurance . They had no protection if they became ill , wounded or captured . She served until 1945 and earned the European @-@ African Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with 2 Battle Stars , World War II Victory Medal , American Campaign Medal , Women 's Army Corps Service Medal and the Army Good Conduct Medal .
Mercedes O. Cubria , born in Guantanamo , Cuba , became a United States Citizen in 1924 . She joined the WAC 's in 1943 and served in the U.S. Counter Intelligence gathering information against the enemy . She retired in 1973 with the rank of Lieutenant Colonel .
Other Hispanic servicewomen like Contreras and Cubria served either in the WAACs , WAVES or MCWR ( Marine Corps Women 's Reserve ) ; among them Lieutenant Junior Grade Maria Rodriguez @-@ Denton . The Navy assigned Rodriguez @-@ Denton as a library assistant at the Cable and Censorship Office in New York City . It was Rodriguez @-@ Denton who forwarded the news ( through channels ) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended .
= = = Female nurses = = =
When the United States entered World War II , the military was in need of nurses . Hispanic female nurses wanted to volunteer for service , however they were not accepted into the Army Nurse Corps or Navy Nurse Corps . As a result , many women went to work in the factories which produced military equipment . As more Hispanic men joined the armed forces , a need for bilingual nurses became apparent and the Army started to recruit Hispanic nurses . In 1944 , the Army Nurse Corps ( ANC ) decided to accept Puerto Rican nurses . Thirteen women submitted applications , were interviewed , underwent physical examinations , and were accepted into the ANC . Eight of these nurses were assigned to the Army Post at San Juan , Puerto Rico where they were valued for their bilingual abilities . Five nurses were assigned to work at the hospital at Camp Tortuguero in Puerto Rico . One of these nurses was Second Lieutenant Carmen Lozano Dumler .
Second Lieutenant Carmen Lozano Dumler was born and raised in San Juan , Puerto Rico , where she also received her primary and secondary education . After graduating from high school , she enrolled in the Presbyterian Hospital School of Nursing in San Juan where she became a certified nurse in 1944 . On August 21 , 1944 , she was sworn in as a Second Lieutenant and assigned to the 161st General Hospital in San Juan , where she received further training . Upon completing her advanced training , she was sent to Camp Tortuguero where she also assisted as an interpreter .
In 1945 , Lozano Dumler was reassigned to the 359th Station Hospital of Ft . Read , Trinidad and Tobago , British West Indies , where she attended wounded soldiers who had returned from Normandy , France . After the war , Lozano , like so many other women in the military , returned to civilian life . She continued her nursing career in Puerto Rico until she retired in 1975 .
Another Hispanic nurse who distinguished herself in service was Lieutenant Maria Roach . Roach , a recipient of two Bronze Star Medals and an Air Medal , served as a flight nurse with the Army Nurse Corps in the China @-@ Burma @-@ India Theater of Operations .
= = Senior Officers = =
Most of the Hispanics serving as senior military officers during World War II were graduates of the United States Naval Academy . The three highest ranking Hispanic officers who played an instrumental role in the war were Major General ( later Lieutenant General ) Pedro Augusto del Valle — the first Hispanic to reach the rank of General in the U.S. Marine Corps — , Brigadier General ( later Lieutenant General ) Elwood R. " Pete " Quesada of the Army Air Forces and Army Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen .
= = = Generals = = =
Major General del Valle
Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle ( 1893 – 1978 ) , as a Colonel was the Commanding Officer of the 11th Marine Regiment ( artillery ) . Upon the outbreak of World War II , del Valle led his regiment during the seizure and defense of Guadalcanal , providing artillery support for the 1st Marine Division . In the Battle of the Tenaru , the firepower provided by del Valle 's artillery units killed many assaulting Japanese soldiers — almost to the last man — before they reached the Marine positions . As a result of the outcome of the battle Japanese commander , Colonel Ichiki Kiyonao , committed seppuku shortly afterwards . General Alexander Vandegrift , impressed with del Valle 's leadership , recommended his promotion and on October 1 , 1942 , del Valle became a Brigadier General . Vandegrift retained del Valle as head of the 11th Marines , the only time that the 11th Marines has ever had a general as their commanding officer . In 1943 , he served as Commander of Marine Forces overseeing Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and the Russell and Florida Islands .
On April 1 , 1944 , del Valle , as Commanding General of the Third Corps Artillery , III Marine Amphibious Corps , took part in the Battle of Guam and was awarded a Gold Star in lieu of a second Legion of Merit . The men under his command did such a good job with their heavy artillery that no one man could be singled out for commendation . Instead each man was given a letter of commendation by del Valle , which was carried in his record books .
In late October 1944 , del Valle succeeded Major General William Rupertus as Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division , being personally greeted to his new command by Colonel Lewis Burwell " Chesty " Puller . At the time , the 1st Marine Division was training on the island of Pavuvu for the invasion of Okinawa . On May 29 , 1945 , del Valle participated in one of the most important events that led to victory in Okinawa . After five weeks of fighting , del Valle ordered Company A of the 1st Battalion 5th Marines to capture Shuri Castle , a medieval fortress of the ancient Ryukyuan kings . Seizure of Shuri Castle represented a morale blow for the Japanese and was a milestone in the Okinawa campaign . The fighting in Okinawa would continue for 24 more days . Del Valle was awarded a Distinguished Service Medal for his leadership during the battle and the subsequent occupation and reorganization of Okinawa .
Brigadier General Quesada
Lieutenant General Elwood R. " Pete " Quesada , ( 1904 – 1993 ) was assigned as a Brigadier General in October 1940 to intelligence in the Office of the Chief of Air Corps . He became commanding general of the 9th Fighter Command where he established advanced headquarters on the Normandy beachhead on D @-@ Day plus one , and directed his planes in aerial cover and air support for the Allied invasion of the European continent . He was the foremost proponent of " the inherent flexibility of air power " , a principle he helped prove during World War II .
In December 1942 , Quesada took the First Air Defense Wing to North Africa . Shortly thereafter , he was given command of the XII Fighter Command and in this capacity would work out the mechanics of close air support and Army @-@ Air Force cooperation .
The successful integration of air and land forces in the Tunisia campaign forged by Quesada and the Allied leaders became a blueprint for operations incorporated into Army Air Forces field regulations — FM 100 @-@ 20 , " Command and Employment of Air Power " , first published on July 21 , 1943 — and provided the Allies with their first victory in the European war . Principles such as the co @-@ equality of ground and air force commanders , centralized command of tactical aircraft to exploit " the inherent flexibility of air power " , and the attainment of air superiority over the battlefield as a prerequisite for successful ground operations formed the core of tactical air doctrine . In October 1943 , Quesada assumed command of the IX Fighter Command in England , and his forces provided air cover for the landings on Normandy Beach . Among Quesada 's many military decorations were the Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster ; Distinguished Flying Cross ; Purple Heart and an Air Medal with two silver star devices .
Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen
Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen , Sr. ( 1888 – 1969 ) was the son of Colonel Samuel Edward Allen and Conchita Alvarez de la Mesa . During World War II he was the commanding general of the 1st Infantry Division in North Africa and Sicily , and was made commander of the 104th Infantry Division . While in North Africa Allen and his deputy 1st Division Commander , Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt Jr. distinguished themselves as combat leaders . Allen was reassigned to the 104th Infantry Division . The 104th Infantry Division landed in France on September 7 , 1944 and fought for 195 consecutive days during World War II . The division 's nickname came from its timberwolf shoulder insignia . Some 34 @,@ 000 men served with the division under Allen who came to be nicknamed " Terrible Terry " . The division was particularly renowned for its night fighting prowess .
= = = Commanders = = =
In 1941 , Commander Luis de Florez played an instrumental role in the establishment of the Special Devices Division of the Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics ( what would later become the NAWCTSD ) . He was later assigned as head of the new Special Devices Desk in the Engineering Division of the Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics . De Florez , who has been credited with over sixty inventions , urged the Navy to undertake development of " synthetic training devices " to increase readiness . During World War II , he was promoted to Captain and in 1944 , to Rear Admiral .
A number of Hispanics served in senior leadership positions during World War II , including Admiral Horacio Rivero , Jr . ( USN ) , Rear Admiral Jose M. Cabanillas ( USN ) , Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest García ( USN ) , Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl ( USN ) , Rear Admiral Henry G. Sanchez ( USN ) , Colonel Louis Gonzaga Mendez , Jr . ( USA ) , Colonel Virgil R. Miller ( USA ) , Colonel Jaime Sabater , Sr. ( USMC ) and Lieutenant Colonel Chester J. Salazar ( USMC ) .
Admiral Horacio Rivero , Jr . , USN , served aboard the USS San Juan , providing artillery cover for Marines landing on Guadalcanal , Marshall Islands , Iwo Jima , and Okinawa . Rivero eventually reached the rank of Full @-@ Admiral ( four @-@ stars ) and in October 1962 , found himself in the middle of the Cuban Missile Crisis . As Commander of amphibious forces , Atlantic Fleet , he was on the front line of the vessels sent to the Caribbean by President Kennedy to stop the Cold War from escalating into World War III .
Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest García , USN , was the commander of the destroyer USS Sloat and saw action in the invasions of Africa , Sicily , and France .
Rear Admiral Jose M. Cabanillas , USN , was an Executive Officer of the USS Texas , which participated in the invasions of North Africa and Normandy ( D @-@ Day ) during World War II . In 1945 , he became the first Commanding officer of the USS Grundy ( APA @-@ 111 ) .
Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl , USN , was a World War I Navy Cross recipient who served as Captain of the USS Vincennes during World War II . The Vincennes was engaged in combat against a fleet of Japanese ships just off Guadalcanal and received 85 direct hits . Riefkohl ordered his men to abandon ship . The sailors manned the life rafts ; among them was Ensign C. Kenneth Ruiz , who later become a submarine commander .
Rear Admiral Henry G. Sanchez , USN , commanded ( as a Lieutenant Commander ) VF @-@ 72 , an F4F squadron of 37 aircraft , on board the USS Hornet from July to October 1942 . His squadron was responsible for shooting down 38 Japanese airplanes during his command tour , which included the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands .
Colonel Virgilio N. Cordero , Jr . , USA , was the Battalion Commander of the 31st Infantry Regiment in the Philippines . Survivor of the infamous Bataan Death March , he was awarded three Silver Star Medals and a Bronze Star Medal .
Colonel Louis Gonzaga Mendez , Jr . , USA , was dropped behind German lines as a parachute infantry battalion commander in the Army 's elite 82nd Airborne " All American " Division . For leading the attack that captured the town of Pretot , France , Colonel Mendez was awarded the Army 's Distinguished Service Cross . He was also the recipient of 3 Bronze Star Medals .
Colonel Virgil R. Miller , USA , native of San German , Puerto Rico , was the Regimental Commander of the 442d Regimental Combat Team , a unit which was composed of " Nisei " ( second generation Americans of Japanese descent ) , during World War II . He led the 442nd in its rescue of the Lost Texas Battalion of the 36th Infantry Division , in the forests of the Vosges Mountains in northeastern France .
Colonel Jaime Sabater , Sr. , USMC , commanded the 1st Battalion , 9th Marines during the Bougainville amphibious operations of World War II . Sabater also participated in the Battle of Guam ( July 21 , 1944 – August 10 , 1944 ) as Executive officer of the 9th Marines . On July 21 , 1944 , he was wounded in action and awarded the Purple Heart .
Lieutenant Colonel Chester J. Salazar , USMC , Salazar was the Commanding Officer of the 2d Battalion , 18th Marines . Salazar served as commanding officer the unit in the Gilbert Islands which fought in the Battle of Tarawa and later in the Battles of Saipan and Tinian .
= = = Submarine commanders = = =
Captain Marion Frederic Ramírez de Arellano , ( 1913 – 1999 ) USN , the first Hispanic submarine commanding officer , participated in five war patrols . He led the effort to rescue five navy pilots and one enlisted gunner off Wake Island , and contributed to the sinking of two Japanese freighters and damaging a third . For his actions , he was awarded a Silver Stars Medal and a Legion of Merit Medal .
After a brief stint at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard , he was reassigned to the USS Skate , a Balao @-@ class submarine . He participated in the Skate 's first three war patrols and was awarded a second Silver Star Medal for his contribution in sinking the Japanese light cruiser Agano on his third patrol . The Agano had survived a previous torpedo attack by submarine USS Scamp .
In April 1944 , Ramirez de Arellano was named Commanding Officer of the USS Balao . He participated in his boat 's war patrols 5 , 6 and 7 . On July 5 , 1944 , Ramirez de Arellano led the rescue of three downed wavy pilots in the Palau area . On December 4 , 1944 , the Balao departed from Pearl Harbor to patrol in the Yellow Sea . The Balao engaged and sunk the Japanese cargo ship Daigo Maru on January 8 , 1945 . Ramirez de Arellano was awarded a Bronze Star Medal with Combat V and a Letter of Commendation .
Among the Hispanic submarine commanders were Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez and Captain C. Kenneth Ruiz .
Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez , USN , was a lieutenant commander who saw action aboard submarines and on various occasions weathered depth charge attacks . For his actions , he was awarded the Silver and Bronze Star Medals . Benitez would go on to play an important role in the first American undersea spy mission of the Cold War as commander of the submarine USS Cochino in what became known as the " Cochino Incident " .
Captain Charles Kenneth Ruiz , USN , was a crew member of the cruiser USS Vincennes , during the Battle of Savo Island . After being rescued at sea and sent to Pearl Harbor , he was invited by Admiral Chester Nimitz to join the Submarine Service . He served with distinction aboard the submarine USS Pollack and participated in eight war patrols in the hostile waters of the Pacific during World War II and on .
= = Military honors = =
= = = Recipients of the Medal of Honor = = =
The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration in the United States bestowed " for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of life , above and beyond the call of duty , in actual combat against an armed enemy force . " The medal is awarded by the President of the United States on behalf of the Congress . Joe P. Martinez was the first of 17 Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients during World War II . His posthumous award was the first for combat heroism on American soil ( other than Pearl Harbor ) since the American Indian Wars .
Private Joe P. Martinez , whose birth name was Joseph Pantillion Martinez , was one of nine children born to a family of Mexican immigrants . His family moved to Ault , Colorado and on August 1942 , he was drafted into the United States Army and sent to Camp Roberts , California , where he received his basic training .
On May 26 , 1943 , the 32nd Infantry Regiment was pinned down by enemy fire in the vicinity of Fish Hook Ridge , in the Aleutian Islands . On his own account , Martinez led two assaults , firing into the Japanese foxholes and occasionally stopping to urge on his comrades . His example inspired the men of his unit to follow . Martinez was shot in the head as he approached one final foxhole after the second assault , dying of the wound the following day . Because of his actions the pass was taken , and its capture was an important preliminary to the end of organized hostile resistance . Martinez was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor .
Prior to March 18 , 2014 , 13 was the total of Medals of Honor awarded to Hispanics for their actions in World War II . On April 28 , 1951 , President Barack Obama announced that on March 18 , 2014 , 4 Hispanics who served in World War II will have their Distinguished Service Cross Medal 's upgraded to the Medal of Honor in a ceremony in the White House . They are : Pvt. Pedro Cano , Pvt. Joe Gandara , Pfc. Salvador J. Lara and Staff Sgt. Manuel V. Mendoza . The award comes through the Defense Authorization Act which called for a review of Jewish American and Hispanic American veterans from WWII , the Korean War and the Vietnam War to ensure that no prejudice was shown to those deserving the Medal of Honor .
Of the 17 Medals of Honor awarded to Hispanics , ten were awarded posthumously . Texas accounted for the most Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients in World War II with a total of five ( Marcario Garcia was raised in Sugar Land , Texas ) . The 17 recipients are :
Lucian Adams : United States Army . Born in Port Arthur , Texas . Place and Date of Action : St. Die , France , October 1944 .
Pedro Cano * : United States Army . Born in La Morita , Mexico . For courageous actions during combat operations in Schevenhutte , Germany , on Dec. 3 , 1944 .
Rudolph B. Davila : United States Army . Born in El Paso , Texas . Place and Date of Action : Artena , Italy , May 28 , 1944 . Davila was of Hispanic @-@ Filipino descent and the only person of Filipino ancestry to receive the medal for his actions in the war in Europe .
Joe Gandara * : United States Army . Born in Santa Monica , California . For courageous actions during combat operations in Amfreville , France , on June 9 , 1944 .
Marcario Garcia : United States Army . Born in Villa de Castano , Mexico . Place and Date of Action : Near Grosshau , Germany , November 27 , 1944 . Garcia was the first Mexican national Medal of Honor recipient .
Harold Gonsalves * : United States Marine Corps . Born in Alameda , California . Place and Date of Action : Ryūkyū Chain , Okinawa , April 15 , 1945 .
David M. Gonzales * : United States Army . Born in Pacoima , California . Place and Date of Action : Villa Verde Trail , Luzon , Philippine Islands , April 25 , 1945 .
Silvestre S. Herrera : United States Army . Born in Camargo , Chihuahua , Mexico . Place and Date of Action : Near Mertzwiller , France , March 15 , 1945 . At the time of his death , Herrera had been the only living person authorized to wear the Medal of Honor and Mexico 's equivalent Premier Merito Militar ( Order of Military Merit ) , Mexico 's highest award for valor . Herrera was a Mexican citizen by birth .
Salvador J. Lara * : United States Army . From Riverside , California . For courageous actions during combat operations in Aprilia , Italy , May 27 – 28 , 1944 .
Jose M. Lopez : United States Army . Born in Mission , Texas . Place and Date of Action : Near Krinkelt , Belgium , December 17 , 1944 .
Joe P. Martinez * : United States Army . Born in Taos , New Mexico . Place and Date of Action : Attu , Aleutians , May 26 , 1943 . Martinez was the first Hispanic American posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for combat heroism on American soil during World War II .
Manuel V. Mendoza * : United States Army . Born in Miami , Arizona . For courageous actions during combat operations on Mount Battaglia , Italy , on Oct. 4 , 1944 .
Manuel Perez Jr . * : United States Army . Born in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma . Place and Date of Action : Fort William McKinley , Luzon , Philippine Islands , February 13 , 1945 .
Cleto L. Rodriguez : United States Army . Born in San Marcos , Texas . Place and Date of Action : Paco Railroad Station , Manila , Philippine Islands , February 9 , 1945 .
Alejandro R. Ruiz : United States Army . Born in Loving , New Mexico . Place and Date of Action : Okinawa , Japan , April 28 , 1945 .
Jose F. Valdez * : United States Army . Born in Governador , New Mexico . Place and Date of Action : Rosenkrantz , France , January 25 , 1945 .
Ysmael R. Villegas * : United States Army . Born in Casa Blanca , California . Place and Date of Action : Villa Verde Trail , Luzon , Philippine Islands , March 20 , 1945 .
* Awarded posthumously .
= = = Top military decorations = = =
Hispanics were recipients of every major U.S. military decoration during World War II ; they have also been honored with military awards from other countries . Thirty @-@ one Hispanic @-@ Americans were awarded the Belgian Croix de guerre and three Hispanic @-@ Americans received the French Croix de guerre . The figures in the following table were derived from the book Undaunted Courage Mexican American Patriots Of World War II published in 2005 by Latino Advocates for Education , Inc. and according to Rogelio C. Rodriguez of the LAE , the figures are based on listings of military service personnel that have been complied from military records , historical documentation , or personal accounts .
= = = Hero Street , USA = = =
In the Midwest town of Silvis , Illinois , the former Second Street is now known as Hero Street USA . The muddy block and a half long street was home to Mexican immigrants who worked for the Rock Island Railroad . The 22 families who lived on the street were a close @-@ knit group . From this small street , 84 men served in World War II , Korea , and Vietnam . The street contributed more men to military services in World War II and Korea than any other street of comparable size in the U.S. In total , eight men from Hero Street gave their lives during World War II — Joseph Gomez , Peter Macias , Johnny Muños , Tony Pompa , Frank Sandoval , Joseph " Joe " Sandoval , William " Willie " Sandoval and Claro Solis . Second Street 's name was changed to Hero Street in honor of these men and their families .
Of the 22 families on Second Street , the two Sandoval families had a total of thirteen men who served in the armed forces . Three died in service during World War II . The Sandovals were two families of Mexican immigrants , with the same surname and lived on Second Street .
Eduvigis and Angelina Sandoval immigrated to the U.S. from Romita , Mexico . Their son , Frank , was a combat engineer assigned to help build the Ledo Road in Burma . He was killed when his unit was sent unexpectedly to the front to fight for control of a key airbase . His older brother , Joe , was assigned to the 41st Armored Infantry Division in Europe . He was killed in April 1944 , just days before the war ended .
Joseph and Carmen Sandoval also immigrated to the United States from Mexico . When the war broke out , their son Willie asked for permission to enlist in the Army and both parents consented to their son 's request . Willie Sandoval was trained as a paratrooper and was assigned to the 82nd Airborne Division . He fought in Italy and Germany , and was killed on October 6 , 1944 , during a combat mission related to Operation Market @-@ Garden , the largest airborne operation of all time .
Other families like the Sandovals had multiple members join the Armed Forces . The Banuelo family , originally from Mexico and who resided in Los Angeles , California , the Garcia family from Los Angeles , California , and the Mora family from Laredo , Texas , each had six siblings who served in the military during the war . The Nevarez family , from Los Angeles , California , had a total of eight siblings serving in the Armed Forces . Seven brothers of the Medina family known as " The fighting Medinas " , fought in the war . They came from Rio Grande , Puerto Rico and Brooklyn , New York .
= = Home front = =
Some Hispanics in the entertainment business served in the United Service Organizations ( USO ) , which provided entertainment to help troop morale . One notable USO entertainer was Desi Arnaz , the Cuban bandleader who starred opposite Lucille Ball in the television show I Love Lucy . When he was drafted into the army in 1943 , he was classified for limited service because of a prior knee injury . As a result , he was assigned to direct the U.S.O. programs at a military hospital in the San Fernando Valley , California , where he served until 1945 .
Hispanic Americans who lived in the mainland benefited from the sudden economic boom as a result of the war , and the doors opened for many of the migrants who were searching for jobs . After the war , many Puerto Ricans migrated to the United States to find work .
Hispanic women were discouraged from working outside the home prior to World War II , even more than other American women . During World War II , the broad changes in the role of women caused by a need for labor on the home front affected the role of Hispanic women , who worked as secretaries and nurses , helped build airplanes , made ammunition in factories , and worked in shipyards .
Isabel Solis @-@ Thomas and Elvia Solis were born in Veracruz , Veracruz , Mexico . The Solis family immigrated to the United States and moved to Brownsville , Texas . When World War II broke out , both sisters volunteered to become " Rosies " , welding pipes and repairing cargo ships by the war 's end with women of all races from all over the country . Mrs. Solis @-@ Thomas said recruiters wanted women who were small , short and thin for crawling into dangerous places in the ships . She said she worked nine @-@ hour days , six days a week , striking and sealing steel rods with precision and purpose .
Josephine Ledesma , from Austin , Texas , was 24 when the war broke out and worked as an airplane mechanic from 1942 to 1944 . When her husband , Alfred , was drafted she decided to volunteer to work as an airplane mechanic . Even though the army waived her husband 's duty , she was sent to train at Randolph Air Force Base , Texas , where she was the only Mexican @-@ American woman on the base . After her training , she was sent to Bergstrom Air Field . There were two other women , both non @-@ Hispanic , at Bergstrom Air Field , and several more in Big Spring , all working in the sheet metal department . At Big Spring , she was the only woman working in the hangar . She worked as a mechanic between from 1942 to 1944 .
= = Discrimination = =
= = = In the military = = =
During World War II , the United States Army was segregated , and Hispanics were categorized as white . Hispanics , including the Puerto Ricans who resided on the mainland , served alongside their " white " counterparts , while those who were " black " served in units mostly made up of African @-@ Americans . The majority of the Puerto Ricans from the island served in Puerto Rico 's segregated units , like the 65th Infantry and the Puerto Rico National Guard 's 285th and 296th regiments .
Discrimination against Hispanics has been documented in several first @-@ person accounts by Hispanic soldiers who fought in World War II . Private First Class Raul Rios Rodriguez , a Puerto Rican , said that one of his drill instructors was particularly harsh on the Hispanic and black soldiers in his unit during his basic training at Fort Bragg . Private First Class Felix Lopez @-@ Santos , another Puerto Rican , said that he observed some racial discrimination against African Americans , but that he never experienced discrimination himself because of his light eyes and fair complexion . Private First Class Norberto Gonzalez , a Cuban @-@ born New Yorker , experienced discrimination in his all @-@ white battalion , where he was frequently asked about his name and place of birth , and found he was treated differently once fellow soldiers learned he was Hispanic . After being transferred to a black battalion on request , he no longer faced the same problems . Corporal Alfonso Rodriguez , a Mexican @-@ American born in Santa Fe , New Mexico , said that he first experienced racial discrimination during recruit training . A white soldier once demanded that the Rodriguez and other Latinos stop speaking Spanish and speak English , " like Americans " , and Rodriguez was involved in several physical altercations stemming from the incident . Rodriguez was also often referred to using racial insults such as " smart @-@ ass Mexican . "
= = = After returning home = = =
After returning home , Hispanic soldiers experienced the same discrimination felt by other Hispanic Americans . According to one former Hispanic soldier , " There was the same discrimination in Grand Falls ( Texas ) , if not worse " than when he had departed . While Hispanics could work for $ 2 per day , whites could get jobs working in petroleum fields that earned $ 18 per day . In his town , signs read " No Mexicans , whites only " , and only one restaurant would serve Hispanics . The American GI Forum was started to ensure the rights of Hispanic World War II veterans .
Discrimination also extended to those killed during the war . In one notable case , the owner of a funeral parlor refused to allow the family of Private Felix Longoria , a soldier killed in action in the Philippines , to use his facility because " whites would not like it " . Then @-@ U.S. Senator Lyndon B. Johnson and Hector P. Garcia , the Mexican @-@ American World War II veteran who founded the American G.I. Forum , intervened on Longoria 's behalf . Johnson , Lady Bird Johnson , Congressman John Lyle , and President Truman 's military aide Gen. Harry H. Vaughan joined the Longoria family for a full military burial with honors at Arlington National Cemetery on February 16 , 1949 . Johnson stated of the incident , " This injustice and prejudice is deplorable . I am happy to have a part seeing that this Texas hero is laid to rest with the honor and dignity his service deserves . "
= = Post @-@ war commemoration = =
The memory of Hispanic American heroes has been honored in various ways : some of their names can be found on ships , in parks and inscribed on monuments . Captain Linda Garcia Cubero ( USAF ) , while serving as Special Assistant to the Deputy Secretary of Defense , supervised the development of a United States commemorative stamp to honor Hispanics who served in America 's defense . The stamp was designed to honor the ten Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients still alive and was unveiled on October 31 , 1984 .
Latino organizations and writers documented the Hispanic experience in World War II , most notably the U.S. Latino & Latina WWII Oral History Project , launched by Professor Maggie Rivas @-@ Rodriguez of the University of Texas .
The failure of the Ken Burns World War II documentary The War , which aired on PBS in September 2007 , to mention Hispanic contributions to the war spurred protests by the Hispanic community . Officials in PBS announced that Burns ' documentary would include additional content incorporating the Hispanic contributions to the war effort as result of public pressure .
= 3rd Division ( Australia ) =
The 3rd Division was an infantry division of the Australian Army . Existing during various periods between 1916 and 1991 , it is considered the " longest serving Australian Army division " . It was first formed during World War I , as an infantry division of the Australian Imperial Force and saw service on the Western Front in France and Belgium . During this time it fought major battles at Messines , Broodseinde Ridge , Passchendaele , Amiens , and the St Quentin Canal .
After the war the division was demobilised in 1919 before being re @-@ raised in 1921 as part of the Citizen Forces , based in central Victoria . Throughout the 1920s and 1930s , the division 's establishment fluctuated due to the effects of the Great Depression and a general apathy towards military matters .
During World War II , the division was mobilised for war in December 1941 and initially undertook defensive duties in Australia before being deployed to New Guinea in 1943 where they took part in the Salamaua – Lae campaign against the Japanese in 1943 – 44 , before returning to Australia for rest and reorganisation . In late 1944 they were sent to Bougainville to take part in their final campaign of the war . There they undertook a series of advances across the island before the war came to an end in August 1945 .
Following the end of hostilities the division was disbanded in December 1945 as part of the demobilisation process , but was it later re @-@ raised in 1948 as part of the Citizens Military Force . It subsequently served through the Cold War as a reserve formation until 1991 when the division was disbanded for a final time as the Australian Army was restructured and the focus of Australian field force operations shifted from the divisional @-@ level to brigades .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
= = = = Formation and training = = = =
In early 1916 , following the unsuccessful Gallipoli campaign , the decision was made to expand the size of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . At the time there were two divisions in Egypt — the 1st and 2nd — and of these , one of them ( the 1st ) was split up to provide a cadre upon which to raise the 4th and 5th Divisions . Around this time the decision to raise a fifth division from fresh volunteers in Australia was also made and as a result the 3rd Division was officially raised on 2 February 1916 .
Upon formation , the division drew its personnel from all Australian states and consisted of three four @-@ battalion infantry brigades — the 9th , 10th and the 11th — and a number of supporting elements including engineers , artillery and medical personnel . Only rudimentary initial training was undertaken before elements of the division began the embarkation process in May and June 1916 as they were moved to the United Kingdom , where the individual sub units concentrated for the first time , received arms and other equipment and began the task of undertaking further training at Lark Hill , on Salisbury Plain . In July the division 's artillery component was formed , consisting of three batteries of 18 @-@ pounders and one 4 @.@ 5 inch howitzer battery . The process of raising and training took some time and consequently the division was not transferred to France until mid November 1916 . Prior to this , however , the division endured proposals to break it up to provide reinforcements to the other four Australian divisions that were already in France . Although these threats passed , in early September 1916 , following losses around Pozières , almost 3 @,@ 000 men from the 3rd Division were transferred . Throughout October it seemed likely that further drafts would be siphoned away from the division , however , this did not occur and in early November two divisional exercises were undertaken . Finally , on 21 November 1916 , the 3rd Division crossed the English Channel and arrived in France .
Under the command of Major General John Monash , the division was assigned to II ANZAC Corps . For the next two years they would take part in most of the major battles that the Australians fought on the Western Front . Initially they were deployed around Armentières in a " quiet " sector of the line , where they gained their first experiences of trench warfare , conducting patrols into No Man 's Land and minor raids on the German trenches opposite them during the winter months .
= = = = Early engagements , 1917 = = = =
By January 1917 the 3rd Division 's artillery had been reorganised so that it consisted of two field artillery brigades , each of which consisted of three six @-@ gun 18 @-@ pounder batteries and twelve 4 @.@ 5 inch howitzers . These brigades were the 7th ( consisting of the 25th , 26th , 27th and 107th Batteries ) and the 8th ( 29th , 30th , 31st and 108th Batteries ) . In April 1917 the division was moved to the Messines – Wytschaete Ridge section of the line in Belgium , taking up a position on the extreme right of II ANZAC Corps , with the New Zealand Division to its left . It was here , in early June 1917 , that the division undertook its first major engagement of the war when it was committed to the fighting during the Battle of Messines . Monash tasked the 9th and 10th Brigades to provide the
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screen that the American defenders at Ticonderoga were unaware of either the exact location or strength of the force moving along the lake . While en route , Burgoyne authored a proclamation to the Americans , written in the turgid , pompous style for which he was well @-@ known , and frequently criticized and parodied .
= = = American defences = = =
American forces had occupied the forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point since they captured them in May 1775 from a small garrison . In 1776 and 1777 , they undertook significant efforts to improve the defenses surrounding Ticonderoga . A peninsula on the east side of the lake , renamed Mount Independence , was heavily fortified . To the north of old Fort Ticonderoga , the Americans built numerous redoubts , a large fort at the site earlier French fortifications , and a fort on Mount Hope . A quarter @-@ mile long floating bridge was constructed across the lake to facilitate communication between Ticonderoga and Mount Independence .
Command at Ticonderoga went through a variety of changes early in 1777 . Until 1777 , General Philip Schuyler had headed the Continental Army 's Northern Department , with General Horatio Gates in charge of Ticonderoga . In March 1777 the Continental Congress gave command of the whole department to Gates . Schuyler protested this action , which Congress reversed in May , at which point Gates , no longer willing to serve under Schuyler , left for Philadelphia . Command of the fort was then given to General Arthur St. Clair , who arrived only three weeks before Burgoyne 's army .
The entire complex was manned by several under @-@ strength regiments of the Continental Army and militia units from New York and nearby states . A war council held by Generals St. Clair and Schuyler on 20 June concluded that " the number of troops now at this post , which are under 2 @,@ 500 effectives , rank and file , are greatly inadequate to the defense " , and that " it is prudent to provide for a retreat " . Consequently , plans were made for retreat along two routes . The first was by water to Skenesboro , the southernmost navigable point on the lake . The second was overland by a rough road leading east toward Hubbardton in the New Hampshire Grants ( present @-@ day Vermont ) .
= = = Sugar Loaf = = =
A height called Sugar Loaf ( now known as Mount Defiance ) overlooked both Ticonderoga and Independence , and large cannons on that height would make the fort impossible to defend . This tactical problem had been pointed out by John Trumbull when Gates was in command . It was believed to be impossible for the British to place cannons on the heights , even though Trumbull , Anthony Wayne , and an injured Benedict Arnold climbed to the top and noted that gun carriages could probably be dragged up .
The defence , or lack thereof , of Sugar Loaf was complicated by the widespread perception that Fort Ticonderoga , with a reputation as the " Gibraltar of the North " , had to be held . Neither abandoning the fort nor garrisoning it with a small force ( sufficient to respond to a feint but not to an attack in strength ) was viewed as a politically viable option . Defending the fort and the associated outer works would require all the troops currently there , leaving none to defend Sugar Loaf . Furthermore , George Washington and the Congress were of the opinion that Burgoyne , who was known to be in Quebec , was more likely to strike from the south , moving his troops by sea to New York City .
Following the war council of 20 June , Schuyler ordered St. Clair to hold out as long as he could , and to avoid having his avenues of retreat cut off . Schuyler took command of a reserve force of 700 at Albany , and Washington ordered four regiments to be held in readiness at Peekskill , further down the Hudson River .
= = Battle = =
= = = British advance = = =
On 1 July , General St. Clair was still unaware of the full strength of Burgoyne 's army , which lay just 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away . Burgoyne had deployed Fraser 's advance force and right column on the west side of the lake , hoping to cut off the defences at Mount Hope . Riedesel and the German column were deployed on the east side of the lake , where their objective was Mount Independence and the road to Hubbardton . Burgoyne gave the order to advance on 2 July .
On the morning of 2 July , St. Clair decided to withdraw the men occupying the defence post at Mount Hope , which was exposed and subject to capture . The detachment there set fire to the works and retreated to the old French lines ( so called because they were the site of the French defence in the 1758 Battle of Carillon ) , getting away not long before the arrival of Burgoyne 's advance guard . That afternoon , a company of British soldiers and Indians came toward those lines , but not near enough to do significant damage , and opened fire . St. Clair ordered his men to hold their fire until the enemy was closer , but James Wilkinson fired at a British soldier , spurring the untrained defenders to follow suit . The soldier Wilkinson fired at fell , and the British troops fled . When the man was captured , it turned out he was uninjured , and that he had fallen down because he was drunk . Through the deception of placing him with a man posing as a captured Loyalist , St. Clair learned the nature of the opposing forces .
Fraser 's advance forces occupied Mount Hope on 3 July . Burgoyne ordered some of the scouts and Indians over to the east side of the lake for reconnaissance ahead of the German column , and brought some of the Germans over to the west side . Some of the British camp was placed close enough to the American lines that they were harassed by gunfire . This did not prevent the British from making repairs to the bridges on the portage road between Ticonderoga and Lake George .
British engineers discovered the strategic position of Sugar Loaf , and realized that the American withdrawal from Mount Hope gave them access to it . Starting on 2 July , they began clearing and building gun emplacements on top of that height , working carefully to avoid notice by the Americans . They spent several days drawing some of their larger guns up the slope . Burgoyne 's objective was to spring the trap only when Riedesel 's Germans were in position to cut off the American retreat .
= = = American retreat = = =
On 4 July , the Americans held a quiet celebration with some toasts to commemorate the previous year 's Declaration of Independence . That night the British lost their element of surprise when some Indians lit fires on Sugar Loaf , alerting the Americans to their presence there . On the morning of 5 July , St. Clair held a war council in which the decision was made to retreat . Since their position was completely exposed , they delayed departure until nightfall , when their movements would be concealed . In a conversation with one of his quartermasters , St. Clair observed that he could " save his character and lose the army " by holding the fort , or " save the army and lose his character " if he retreated , giving a clear indication of the political reaction he was expecting to his decision .
All possible armaments , as well as invalids , camp followers , and supplies were loaded onto a fleet of more than 200 boats that began to move up the lake toward Skenesboro , accompanied by Colonel Pierse Long 's regiment . Owing to a shortage of boats , four invalids were left behind , as were the very largest cannons and a variety of supplies — everything from tents to cattle . The rest of the army crossed to Mount Independence and headed down the Hubbardton road , which Riedesel 's forces had not yet reached . A handful of men were left at the pontoon bridge with loaded cannons to fire on British attempts to cross it , but they were drunk when the British arrived the next morning .
The British occupied the forts without firing a single shot , and detachments from Fraser 's and Riedesel 's troops set out in pursuit of the retreating Americans on the Hubbardton road , while Burgoyne hurried some of his troops up the lake toward Skenesboro .
= = Aftermath = =
At least seven Americans were killed and 11 wounded in skirmishing prior to the American retreat . British casualties were not tallied , but at least five were killed in skirmishes .
The Americans made good time on the Hubbardton road . Most of the force reached Castleton — a march of 30 miles ( 50 km ) — on the evening of 6 July . The British pursuit resulted in the Battle of Hubbardton when they caught up with the rear guard on the morning of 7 July , but this enabled the main American body to escape , eventually joining forces with Schuyler at Fort Edward . The smaller American force that had fled by boat to Skenesboro fought off Burgoyne 's advance force in the Battle of Fort Anne , but was forced to abandon equipment and many sick and wounded in skirmishing at Skenesboro .
The confrontation at Ticonderoga did not substantially slow Burgoyne 's advance , but he was forced to leave a garrison of more than 900 men in the Ticonderoga area , and wait until 11 July for the dispersed elements of his army to regroup at Skenesboro . He then encountered delays in traveling the heavily wooded road between Skenesboro and Fort Edward , which General Schuyler 's forces had effectively ruined by felling trees across it and destroying all its bridges in the swampy terrain . Burgoyne 's campaign ultimately failed and he was forced to surrender after the Battles of Saratoga . General Gates reported to Governor George Clinton on 20 November that Ticonderoga and Independence had been abandoned and burned by the retreating British .
= = = Political and public outcry = = =
The political and public outcry after the withdrawal was significant . The Congress was appalled , and criticized both Schuyler and St. Clair for the loss . John Adams wrote , " I think we shall never be able to defend a post until we shoot a general " , and George Washington said it was " an event of chagrin and surprise , not apprehended nor within the compass of my reasoning " . Rumors circulated that St. Clair and Schuyler were traitors who had taken bribes in exchange for the retreat .
Schuyler was eventually removed as commander of the Northern Department , replaced by General Gates ; the fall of Ticonderoga was among the reasons cited . St. Clair was removed from his command and sent to headquarters for an inquiry . He maintained that his conduct had been honorable , and demanded a review by court martial . The court martial was not held until September 1778 due to political intrigues against Washington ; St. Clair was completely exonerated , although he was never given another field command . Schuyler was also cleared of any wrongdoing by a court martial .
The news made headlines in Europe . King George is reported to have burst into the chambers of the scantily clad Queen , exclaiming , " I have beat them ! I have beat all the Americans ! " The French and Spanish courts were less happy with the news , as they had been supporting the Americans , allowing them to use their ports , and engaging in trade with them . The action emboldened the British to demand that France and Spain close their ports to the Americans ; this demand was rejected , heightening tensions between the European powers .
= Dante ( Devil May Cry ) =
Dante ( ダンテ ) is a fictional character and the primary protagonist of the Devil May Cry series created and published by Capcom . In the first four games , Dante is a mercenary , private investigator , and demon hunting vigilante dedicated to exterminating them and other malevolent supernatural foes , a mission he follows in pursuit of those that killed his mother and corrupted his brother . He is the son of Sparda , a demon of great power and as a result of his heritage , he possesses numerous powers beyond that of any human , which he uses in combination with a variety of weapons to accomplish his goals . The character also appears in several Devil May Cry novels and manga volumes ; and is featured in the 2007 anime TV series . A reboot of the series by Ninja Theory features him in an alternate universe as a young adult fighting against demons . Dante has also appeared as a guest character in multiple crossover games .
Named after the Italian poet Dante Alighieri , the character was designed to fit Devil May Cry game designer Hideki Kamiya 's vision of a " cool and stylish " man , and his personality was based on the title character of the manga series Cobra . Across the series , Dante 's portrayal has been modified to appeal to criticism aimed towards his role in the first sequel with Devil May Cry 3 featuring a younger and cockier Dante while Devil May Cry 4 offered an older yet cocky characterization . While Capcom handled the character in the first four games , Ninja Theory was in charge of his persona in the reboot .
Dante has become one of the most popular characters in gaming , having been recognized for his role in the Devil May Cry series and various characteristics that have attracted gamers . However , Dante 's redesign and characterization in the reboot was the subject of controversy amongst gamers .
= = Characteristics = =
Dante is a mercenary and private investigator specializing in paranormal cases , preferring those that call for demon slaying . He is muscular , has white / silver hair , icy @-@ blue eyes and is usually seen wearing red dusters / trench coats . Dante 's arsenal usually consists of firearms and melee weapons , including " Ebony and Ivory " , twin handguns that never need reloading , as well as a variety of swords such as the " Rebellion " and " Force Edge " , Devil Arms created by his father . The guns are handmade with " For Tony Redgrave , By.45 Art Warks " written on them ( Tony Redgrave is the alias used by Dante ) . He possesses superhuman strength , agility , stamina , reflexes , coordination , and resistance to injury that approaches invulnerability as a result of his half @-@ demon heritage . This gives him the ability to enter a heightened state called " Devil Trigger " . In this state , Dante possesses greater strength and speed , his health regenerates at a steady pace , and further abilities with his equipped melee weapon , including flight .
Dante is one of the twin sons of Sparda , the demon knight who sided with humanity and drove back an invasion of the human world by demons roughly 2 @,@ 000 years prior to the events of the series . After Sparda 's death , Dante and his identical twin brother Vergil were raised by their human mother , Eva . When Dante and Vergil were children , the family was attacked by demons , resulting in Eva 's death . This event led to Dante 's commitment to hunting demons in pursuit of those that killed his mother . Dante is confident in his encounters with opponents , and frequently taunts enemies before battling them . With the exception of Devil May Cry 4 , Dante says the phrase " Devils never cry " in every game , implying that no matter how much of a demon he may prove to be , his ability to cry makes his human side precious to him .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Devil May Cry video games = = =
In the original Devil May Cry , Dante is hired by Trish , a mysterious woman who looks similar to his deceased mother , to stop the return of the devil king Mundus . However , she is actually setting up events for Mundus ' agents to kill Dante as he makes his way to Mundus himself . During the course of the game Dante is also reunited with his brother Vergil , who , under the control of Mundus , attempts to kill him . Trish eventually betrays Mundus to save Dante , and the pair work together to lock Mundus in the demon world . Afterwards , they become partners in Dante 's demon @-@ slaying business , now renamed " Devil Never Cry " .
In the first sequel , Devil May Cry 2 , Dante is shown to have a habit of flipping a coin to make his decisions , although it is revealed at the end of the game that both sides of the coin are heads . Set some time after the first game , Devil May Cry 2 focuses on aiding the character Lucia in defeating Arius , an international businessman who uses demonic power and seeks to conquer the world . At the end of the game , Dante must go into the demon world to stop a demon lord from escaping , but the gate closes behind him and he is trapped . With no way back to the human world , Dante heads even deeper into the demon world on his motorcycle .
The third game , Devil May Cry 3 : Dante 's Awakening , serves as a prequel to the first game and features a cockier and younger Dante . In the story , Dante is drawn out by his brother Vergil , who is attempting to reopen the portal to the demon world in order to obtain the full power of Sparda , which remains on the other side contained within the sword Force Edge . Along the way , Dante encounters Lady , who is in pursuit of her father Arkham , who is working with Vergil , but has plans of his own . In the end , Dante claims ownership of the Force Edge , while Vergil chooses to remain in the demon world . Inspired by Lady 's courage and commitment to her own family , Dante continues his business with a greater sense of purpose . They become friends , and he decides to call his shop " Devil May Cry " , after something Lady had said to comfort him .
Released in 2008 , Devil May Cry 4 is the first game in the series not to feature Dante as the primary character . Dante is seen as an antagonist by the game 's lead character , Nero , after he presumably kills Sanctus , the leader from The Order of the Sword in charge of hunting demons . Across the story , Dante befriends Nero when he decides to face The Order . When Nero is kidnapped by Sanctus , the player controls Dante once again as he continues his fight against the Order . After Nero is saved and Sanctus defeated , Dante entrusts Nero with Vergil 's sword he has been wielding .
= = = Reboot = = =
A reboot of Devil May Cry franchise , DmC : Devil May Cry , features an alternative universe Dante with a very different appearance . Dante is featured as a young adult in his early twenties who is attacked by a seemingly sentient town known as Limbo City populated by demons . During the reboot , Dante meets his brother Vergil , who is the leader of The Order – a rogue vigilante group trying to free the world from the demons . The city is controlled by the demon king , Mundus , who killed Dante 's mother Eva ( an angel ) and later imprisoned his father ( Sparda , a demon and Mundus ' former lieutenant ) in an attempt to kill the children , since Nephilim ( half @-@ angel , half @-@ demon offspring ) held the power to kill Mundus . Dante joins Vergil 's group to oppose Mundus , eventually taking him down and freeing humanity from the demons ; however , Vergil 's intentions to take Mundus ' place cause a fight between the brothers which Dante wins and Vergil escapes . In the downloadable content sequel , Vergil 's Downfall , a replica of Dante appears to oppose Vergil in his quest for power but is killed in combat .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Dante has playable appearances in several games outside of the Devil May Cry series of games . In the Viewtiful Joe series , also created by Hideki Kamiya , Dante is playable in the PlayStation 2 version of Viewtiful Joe and the PSP version of Viewtiful Joe : Red Hot Rumble . In both games , he frequently has dialogue with Alastor , who is revealed to be the embodiment of the identically @-@ named sword from Devil May Cry . He appears as an enemy and optional ally in the director 's cut release of Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne . His inclusion was suggested by the Atlus staff due to how well Dante would fit in the game 's plot and convinced Capcom to include him . There is a Dante character card in SNK vs. Capcom : Card Fighters DS . He makes his second fighting game appearance as a playable character in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds . He was also set to appear in Soulcalibur III , but did not make it into the final game . He appears as a playable character in the tactical role @-@ playing game Project X Zone , with Demitri Maximoff from Darkstalkers as his partner . He will return in the sequel , Project X Zone 2 , with Vergil as his partner . Hideki Kamiya , now in Platinum Games , has stated he was approached about having Sega character Bayonetta included in this game , to which he refused as he wanted Bayonetta and Dante from Devil May Cry to meet " on his own terms " . However , he has stated he has come to regret this decision due to realizing how the fans would have loved the two interacting , and that if there is a Project X Zone 3 he would be all for Bayonetta 's inclusion . Dante is a playable character in PlayStation All @-@ Stars Battle Royale , using his appearance from DmC : Devil May Cry . The inclusion of his DmC persona over the classic one generated criticism by fans and SuperBot Entertainment responded to them expecting them to enjoy the character 's gameplay mechanics .
Dante also appears in many other pieces of media based on the video games . These include two light novels written by Shinya Goikeda featuring original stories ; The first has a young Dante under the alias of " Tony Redgrave " as he is chased by assassins and Devil May Cry 2 prequel that has him searching for a demonic statue known as the Beastheads . A Devil May Cry 4 novel by writer Bingo Morihashi reprises Dante 's role from the game but reveals his interest in Nero after finding him very similar to his brother , Vergil . There is also a Devil May Cry 3 manga that follows Dante before the game 's events , a comic of the first game published by Dreamwave Productions , and an anime titled Devil May Cry : The Animated Series that follows his daily life as he solves cases involving demons . The reboot version of Dante also appears in the prequel comic The Chronicles of Vergil when he receives the sword Rebellion to fight demons . In the Sengoku Basara vs. Devil May Cry stage he will be portrayed by Hiroki Suzuki .
The popularity of the Devil May Cry series lead to a line of action figures produced by Toycom . Japanese company Kaiyodo produced a similar line for Devil May Cry 2 and a Devil May Cry 3 Dante action figure .
= = Conception and design = =
Dante debuted in Devil May Cry , a game originally intended to be a part of Capcom 's Resident Evil franchise . Series ' creator Hideki Kamiya wrote his name after rewriting the story and took it from Dante Alighieri 's poem Divine Comedy . Kamiya has said that the title character from the manga series Cobra by Buichi Terasawa served as the basis for Dante 's personality . Kamiya based his idea of Dante on what he perceived as " Stylish " – wearing a long coat to make the character " showy " and a non @-@ smoker , as Kamiya saw that as " more cool " . The character wears red because in Japan it is a traditional color for a heroic figure . Kamiya has also stated he perceives Dante as " a character that you would want to go out drinking with " , someone who was not a show @-@ off but would instead " pull some ridiculous , mischievous joke " to endear people to him . He added that this aspect was intended to make the character feel familiar to audiences . Although Kamiya was not the main writer from the first two Devil May Cry novels he viewed Shinya Goikeda 's depiction of Dante similar to the one he wrote .
In the prequel game Devil May Cry 3 , Dante 's attitude was emphasized to reflect a younger and more arrogant character than in previous installments . The Devil Trigger forms for Dante was designed by Kazuma Kaneko from Atlus . Gameplay @-@ wise he was made to be easy to control contrasting Vergil who was harder yet stronger . Devil May Cry 4 's producer Hiroyuki Kobayashi noted prior to the release of that game that they wanted to make Dante seem significantly more powerful than the game 's other protagonist , Nero . This was done in order to create an evident difference between the strength of a " veteran " when compared to a " rookie " . Another reason for this portrayal is based on the series ' continuity , which dictated that Dante display the power he would possess after the events of the first game and its prequel , Devil May Cry 3 . In this game Dante was designed by Tatsuya Yoshikawa who enjoyed the character in his original appearance to the point of calling him " the ultimate Hollywood action superstar . " Yoshikawa discussed with the staff to make Dante older , more mature and more experienced to and have him look between his 30s and 40s . The design included multiple details such as Dante 's stubble that reflected his cool personality as he did not care about shaving .
For both Devil May Cry 3 and Devil May Cry 4 Dante was voiced by Reuben Langdon who also did the motion capture for certain scenes . During the development of Devil May Cry 3 , Langdon found that doing the motion capture of Dante was difficult to the multiple moves the character makes . Langdon often discussed with the staff about Dante 's characterization that was different from the original one as they wanted " a different spin . " Eventually , Langdon decided to do his own rendition of Dante as he was confused with the staff 's suggestions . In retrospective , Langdon finds Dante " the most difficult , frustrating and yet rewarding character " he has ever played and stated he grew attached with him . Langdon was told to make Devil May Cry 4 's Dante similar to his Devil May Cry 3 persona albeit more mature . Despite the staff 's concerns for the difficulties of such portrayal , Langdon had no issues after choosing Roy Focker from the anime series The Super Dimension Fortress Macross as his character model and noting he had almost the same age as Dante during production of the game .
= = = Redesign = = =
For DmC : Devil May Cry , a reboot of the series , Dante was completely redesigned as a result of comments by the Capcom staff . Dante 's original design was originally meant to be similar to the ones from previous games , but Capcom told the Ninja Theory staff it had to be completely different in order to appeal to a younger demographic . Motohide Eshiro stated this Dante was completely set apart from the previous Dantes which they expected would generate major criticism . While the original Dante was design from a Japanese perspective , the new one was made from a Western perspective . After several drafts of Dante 's new character , the designers settled on a look as inspired by Christopher Nolan 's film The Dark Knight . Dante 's coat is not long , only coming down to his lower @-@ back , his hair is shorter and is black ; he has a Devil Trigger form which makes him look close to the classic Dante . Art designer Alessandro Taini drew the character as a child and explain with reboot 's origin story why he has white hair . Director Tameem Antoniades denied rumors that his design was modelled after him .
For this game , Dante was made young , consumed by hatred and inexperienced resulting in a fighting style similar to a street brawler rather than that of a skilled swordsman . As a result of the reboot 's theme being " rebellion " most of Dante 's actions are based around it . Antoniades stated that Dante is about " being cool and making you feel cool when you 're playing it , " and , as such , they felt that his attire from previous games would be found comical . Antoniades added he felt the classic Dante was not appealing anymore and when comparing the new Dante with the title character from Bayonetta he did not see her style to be what he wanted for the reboot . Antoniades responded to criticism stating they would not change it as it is supposed to fit within the game 's setting . Additionally , he stated he would have liked this Dante in response to the criticism .
= = Reception = =
Dante 's confident and fearless attitude has gained him widespread popularity . When first introduced , Game Informer described him as " one of the most bad @-@ ass characters around , " citing the contrast between his character and those previously seen in the Resident Evil series . His design and personality received praise from numerous reviews , such as IGN , who referred to him as " a dark antihero kind of guy even a down @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dumps , disgruntled teenager would love . " GameSpy described his appearance as " awe @-@ inspiring to look at " , feeling his attire was reminiscent of Vincent Price . Empire also ranked Dante on their list of the 50 greatest video game characters as 38th , adding Dante is " surely one of the coolest " ones in the history of video gaming .
GamesRadar named him " Mister 2001 " in their article on the sexiest new characters of the decade , stating that compared to the female characters in Devil May Cry , Dante was the " hottest " of them all , due to his muscular build , hair , his fighting abilities , and his attitude . Dante was ranked third in ScrewAttack 's list of the " coolest " video game characters in 2007 . GameDaily named him one of their favorite Capcom characters , ranking him seventh and stating that the various aspects of the character made him an " unstoppable force " . GamesRadar also listed him as one of the 25 best new characters of the decade , calling him " unforgettable " , as well as stating that he had set the template for " smartass action heroes " . In 2010 , Dante came 23rd in a Famitsu poll featuring the most popular video game characters in Japan . He was also voted by Game Informer as the 13th best character from the 2000s . In 2012 , GamesRadar stated that despite Dante 's multiple characterizations " he 's a guy who you 'll always have a hell of a time playing with . " Dante and Trish were also included in The Inquirer 's list of the most memorable video game love teams , with comments focused on how the two join forces to defeat their enemies . In 2014 , La Nueva España included this " ephebe that exudes testosterone from every pore " among the top ten sexiest video game characters of both genders .
Additionally , Dante has also often been compared with the title character from Bayonetta especially in his Devil May Cry 4 persona based on their personalities and actions that made the two of them appealing . Reuben Langdon 's performance as Dante in Devil May Cry 3 and Devil May Cry 4 received praise by GamesRadar for being the character 's best voice actor noting that the two actors did not fit the character well .
On the other hand , Dante 's characterization has often resulted in criticism . In Devil May Cry 2 , Dante 's cocky attitude was largely absent , which was one of the main criticisms of the game . Fan reactions to the new design of Dante in DmC : Devil May Cry were mostly negative . Hideki Kamiya found him based on the modern 's rebellious youth and said he missed the original Dante , but he still hoped that people would try it . Dave Riley from Anime News Network compared the reboot 's Dante with the young Dante from Devil May Cry 3 but criticized him for being " pretty generic adolescent power fantasy " as well as his use of swearing when confronting enemies . Dante 's voice actor , Reuben Langdon , expressed disappointment with Dante 's characterization in the reboot despite his anticipation to it . On the other hand , several websites writers criticized the fanbase 's negative reactions stating they were solely influenced by the character 's look and that his personality was very close to the classic Dante .
= Danny Deever =
" Danny Deever " is an 1890 poem by Rudyard Kipling , one of the first of the Barrack @-@ Room Ballads . It received wide critical and popular acclaim , and is often regarded as one of the most significant pieces of Kipling 's early verse . The poem , a ballad , describes the execution of a British soldier in India for murder . His execution is viewed by his regiment , paraded to watch it , and the poem is composed of the comments they exchange as they see him hanged .
= = Context = =
The poem was first published on 22 February 1890 in the Scots Observer , in America later in the year , and printed as part of the Barrack @-@ Room Ballads shortly thereafter .
It is generally read as being set in India , though it gives no details of the actual situation . Some research has suggested that the poem was written with a specific incident in mind , the execution of one Private Flaxman of The Leicestershire Regiment , at Lucknow in 1887 . A number of details of this execution correspond to the occasion described by Kipling in the poem , and he later used a story similar to that of Flaxman 's as a basis for the story Black Jack .
Kipling apparently wrote the various Barrack @-@ Room Ballads in early 1890 , about a year since he had last been in India , and three years since Flaxman 's execution . Though he wrote large amounts of occasional verse , he usually added a note beneath the title giving the context of the poem . Danny Deever does not have any such notes , but " Cleared " ( a topical poem on the Parnell Commission ) , written in the same month as Danny Deever , does . This suggests that it was not thought by Kipling to be inspired by a specific incident , though it is quite possible that he remembered the Flaxman case .
= = Summary = =
The form is a dialogue , between a young and inexperienced soldier ( or soldiers ; he is given as " Files @-@ on @-@ Parade " , suggesting a group ) and a more experienced and older NCO ( " the Colour @-@ Sergeant " ) . The setting is an execution , generally presumed to be somewhere in India ; a soldier , one Danny Deever , has been tried and sentenced to death for murdering a fellow soldier in his sleep , and his battalion is paraded to see the hanging . This procedure strengthened discipline in the unit , by a process of deterrence , and helped inure inexperienced soldiers to the sight of death .
The young soldier is unaware of what is happening , at first – he asks why the bugles are blowing , and why the Sergeant looks so pale , but is told that Deever is being hanged , and that the regiment is drawn up in " [ h ] ollow square " to see it . He presses the Sergeant further , in the second verse – why are people breathing so hard ? why are some men collapsing ? These signs of the effect that watching the hanging has upon the men of the regiment are explained away by the Sergeant as being due to the cold weather or the bright sun . The voice is reassuring , keeping the young soldier calm in the sight of death , just as the Sergeant will calm him with his voice in combat . In the third verse , Files thinks of Deever , saying that he slept alongside him , and drank with him , but the Sergeant reminds him that Deever is now alone , that he sleeps " out an ' far to @-@ night " , and reminds the soldier of the magnitude of Deever 's crime –
For ' e shot a comrade sleepin ' – you must look ' im in the face ;
Nine ' undred of ' is county an ' the regiment 's disgrace ,
( Nine hundred was roughly the number of men in a single infantry battalion , and as regiments were formed on local lines , most would have been from the same county ; it is thus emphasised that his crime is a black mark against both the regiment , as a whole , and against his comrades . ) The fourth verse comes to the hanging ; Files sees the body against the sun , and then feels his soul as it " whimpers " overhead ; the term reflects a shudder in the ranks as they watch Deever die . Finally , the Sergeant moves the men away ; though it is not directly mentioned in the poem , they would be marched past the corpse on the gallows – reflecting that the recruits are shaking after their ordeal , and that " they 'll want their beer to @-@ day " .
= = Structure = =
The poem is composed of four eight @-@ line verses , containing a dialogue between two ( or three ) voices :
" What are the bugles blowin ' for ? " said Files @-@ on @-@ Parade .
" To turn you out , to turn you out " , the Colour @-@ Sergeant said .
" What makes you look so white , so white ? " said Files @-@ on @-@ Parade .
" I 'm dreadin ' what I 've got to watch " , the Colour @-@ Sergeant said .
For they 're hangin ' Danny Deever , you can hear the Dead March play ,
The regiment 's in ' ollow square – they 're hangin ' him to @-@ day ;
They 've taken of his buttons off an ' cut his stripes away ,
An ' they 're hangin ' Danny Deever in the mornin ' .
It is immediately noticeable that the poem is written in a vernacular English . Though the Barrack @-@ Room Ballads have made this appear a common feature of Kipling 's work , at the time it was quite unusual ; this was the first of his published works to be written in the voice of the common soldier . The speech is not a direct representation of any single dialect , but it serves to give a very clear effect of a working class English voice of the period . Note the " taken of his buttons off " , a deliberate error , to add to the stylised speech ; it refers to the ceremony of military degradation , where the man to be executed is formally stripped of any marks of rank , such as his stripes , or of significant parts of his uniform – the buttons bore the regimental crest .
The four verses each consist of two questions asked by " Files " and answered by the Sergeant- a call @-@ and @-@ response form – and then another four lines of the Sergeant explaining , as above . In some interpretations , the second four lines are taken to be spoken by a third voice , another " file @-@ on @-@ parade " . Both the poem 's rhythm and its rhyme scheme reinforce the idea of drilling infantry by giving the effect of feet marching generally but not perfectly in unison : Although the poem 's overall meter is iambic , each line in the verses and , to the slightly lesser extent , the chorus features syllables with additional grammatical and phonetic emphasis that fit the rhythm of the " left , left , left right left " marching cadence . The first four lines always end with the same word , and the last four feature an aaab rhyme scheme with slightly lighter syllables that force the pace into a brisk march despite its somber mood ( cf. the text of the poem 's final chorus ) . Eliot noted the imperfect rhyme scheme – parade and said do not quite rhyme – as strongly contributing to this effect , with the slight interruption supporting the feel of a large number of men marching together , not quite in harmony .
= = Critical reaction = =
Danny Deever is often seen as one of Kipling 's most powerful early works , and was greeted with acclaim when first published . David Masson , a professor of literature at the University of Edinburgh , is often reported ( perhaps apocryphally ) to have waved the magazine in which it appeared at his students , crying " Here 's literature ! Here 's literature at last ! " . William Henley , the editor of the Scots Observer , is even said to have danced on his wooden leg when he first received the text .
It was later commented on by William Butler Yeats , who noted that " [ Kipling ] interests a critical audience today by the grotesque tragedy of Danny Deever " . T. S. Eliot called the poem " technically ( as well as in content ) remarkable " , holding it up as one of the best of Kipling 's ballads . Both Yeats and Eliot were writing shortly after Kipling 's death , in 1936 and 1941 , when critical opinion of his poetry was at a low point ; both , nonetheless , drew out Danny Deever for attention as a significant work .
Discussing that low critical opinion in a 1942 essay , George Orwell considered Danny Deever as an example of Kipling " at his worst , and also his most vital ... almost a shameful pleasure , like the taste for cheap sweets that some people secretly carry into middle life " . He felt the work was an example of what he described as " good bad poetry " ; verse which is essentially vulgar , yet undeniably seductive and " a sign of the emotional overlap between the intellectual and the ordinary man . "
= = Music = =
The Barrack @-@ Room Ballads , as the name suggests , are songs of soldiers . Written by Kipling , they share a form and a style with traditional Army songs . Kipling was one of the first to pay attention to these works ; Charles Carrington noted that in contrast to the songs of sailors , " no @-@ one had thought of collecting genuine soldiers ' songs , and when Kipling wrote in this traditional style it was not recognised as traditional " . Kipling himself was fond of singing his poetry , of writing it to fit the rhythm of a particular tune . In this specific case , the musical source has been suggested as the Army 's " grotesque bawdy song " Barnacle Bill the Sailor , but it is possible that some other popular tune of the period was used .
However , the ballads were not published with any music , and though they were quickly adapted to be sung , new musical settings were written ; a musical setting by Walter Damrosch was described as " Teddy Roosevelt 's favourite song " , and is sometimes encountered on its own as a tune entitled They 're Hanging Danny Deever in the Morning . To date , at least a dozen published recordings are known , made from 1893 to 1985 .
The tune " They 're Hanging Danny Deever in the Morning " was played from the Campanile at UC Berkeley at the end of the last day of classes for the Spring Semester of 1930 , and has been repeated every year since , making it one of the oldest campus traditions .
The song is referenced in the book Starship Troopers when the Mobile Infantry hangs Dillinger for murder while the main character is in basic training .
= Spyro : Year of the Dragon =
Spyro : Year of the Dragon is a platform video game developed by Insomniac Games and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation in 2000 . Year of the Dragon is the third installment in the Spyro series and the last Spyro game to be released for the first generation PlayStation . The game was also the last Spyro game Insomniac developed ; their next title would be Ratchet & Clank for the PlayStation 2 .
Named after the animal of the Chinese zodiac , which was the symbol at the time of the game 's release , Year of the Dragon follows the titular purple dragon Spyro as he travels to the " Forgotten Worlds " after 150 magical dragon eggs are stolen from the land of the dragons by an evil sorceress . Players travel across thirty different worlds gathering gems and eggs . Year of the Dragon introduced new characters and minigames to the series , as well as offering improved graphics and music .
Upon release , the game sold more than two million units in the United States and received positive critical response . Reviewers noted the game built on the successful formula of its predecessors by adding more games and expansive environments . It was followed by the multiplatform title Spyro : Enter the Dragonfly , and was later released for download on the PlayStation Store in 2009 in North America and in 2012 in Europe , the latter date coincidentally being another Year of the Dragon in the real @-@ world Chinese zodiac .
= = Gameplay = =
Year of the Dragon is set primarily in the third @-@ person ; its gameplay makes few deviations from that of its predecessors . The main objective of the game is to collect special dragon eggs which are scattered across 37 worlds . These eggs are hidden , or are given as rewards for completing certain tasks and levels . The worlds of Spyro are linked together by " homeworlds " or " hubs " , large worlds which contain gateways to many other levels . To proceed to the next hub , the character must complete five worlds , gather a certain number of eggs , and defeat a boss . Players do not need to gather every egg to complete the main portion of the game or gain access to new levels ; in fact , certain eggs can only be found by returning to the world at a later time . Gems are scattered across the worlds , hidden in crates and jars . These gems are used to bribe a bear named Moneybags to release captured " critters " and activate things which help Spyro progress through levels ( Such as bridges ) . Gems , along with the number of eggs collected , count to the total completion percentage of the game .
For most of the game , the player controls the dragon Spyro . Spyro 's health is measured by his companion , a dragonfly named Sparx ; Sparx changes color and then disappears after taking progressively more damage . If the player has no Sparx , then the next hit would cause the player to lose a life and restart at the last saved checkpoint . Consuming small wildlife known as " fodder " regenerates Sparx . Spyro has several abilities , including breathing fire , swimming and diving , gliding , and headbutting , which he can use to explore and combat a variety of enemies , most of which are rhinoceros @-@ like creatures called Rhynocs . Some foes are only vulnerable to certain moves . Spyro can run into " Powerup Gates " , which give him special abilities for a limited period .
Year of the Dragon introduced playable characters other than Spyro , known as " critters " , which are gradually unlocked as the player proceeds through the game . Critters can be found blocking the level they are played in until released from Moneybags . Subsequently , the player plays as the character in specially marked sections of levels . Each homeworld features one world which is played through entirely by a non @-@ Spyro character . There are a total of seven playable characters , which all have their own special moves and abilities . Sheila the Kangaroo , for example , can double jump , while Sgt. Byrd is armed with rocket launchers and can fly indefinitely .
Besides the primary quest to find dragon eggs , Year of the Dragon features an extensive set of minigames , which are split off from the levels into smaller zones . Some of the minigames were featured in Spyro 2 : Ripto 's Rage ! and were subsequently expanded for Year of the Dragon , while others are entirely new to the series . These minigames are played by Spyro or the other playable characters .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Spyro is assisted by many characters during the course of Year of the Dragon . Spyro is the game 's protagonist , and Sparx is his dragonfly sidekick . Sparx functions as the player 's health meter and assists the player in gathering gems ; Sparx is a playable character in certain levels . Also aiding Spyro is Hunter the Cheetah , who teaches the player game mechanics and is a playable character at special racing levels . Four other playable characters are freed from Moneybags during the game ; Sheila the kangaroo , Sergeant Byrd the penguin , Bentley the yeti , and Agent 9 the space monkey . The primary antagonist of the game is the Sorceress , a tyrant who rules over the Forgotten Worlds with her forces . Aiding her is the apprentice Bianca the Rabbit , who attempts to hinder Spyro on his mission .
= = = Story = = =
The game opens with a celebration in the land of the dragons , where Spyro and his kin are celebrating the " Year of the Dragon " , an event that occurs every twelve years when new dragon eggs are brought to the realm . During the celebration however , a cloaked rabbit girl named Bianca invades the Dragon Realms with an army of creatures called Rhynocs and steals all of the Dragon eggs , bringing them back to the Sorceress , who scatters the eggs throughout several worlds . The worlds are split up into four realms : Sunrise Spring , Midday Gardens , Evening Lake , and Midnight Mountain . Spyro , along with Sparx and Hunter , are sent down a hole to find the thieves and recover the dragon eggs .
While pursuing the thief , Spyro discovers a world once inhabited by the dragons , but long abandoned and forgotten . This world is ruled by the Sorceress and her Rhynoc army . Only a few creatures stand and fight against the Sorceress ' rule . Spyro learns from one such inhabitant named Sheila the Kangaroo that when the dragons left the realm , the magic of the world began to dry up . Spyro travels through each world in the forgotten realm , acquiring aid from the local inhabitants and rescuing the dragon eggs . It is revealed that the Sorceress is seeking not the baby dragons themselves , but merely their wings to concoct a spell that can grant her immortality . Once Bianca discovers this , she sympathizes for the baby dragons and decides to side with Spyro and his allies . Spyro eventually fights and defeats the Sorceress and celebrations occur throughout the realm .
The Sorceress survives her battle with Spyro , however , and waits for Spyro with the last of the dragon eggs . Spyro and the Sorceress battle again where the Sorceress is finally defeated , allowing Spyro to return all the baby dragons to the Dragon Realms .
= = Development = =
Development of Spyro : Year of the Dragon spanned about ten and a half months , from November 1999 to September 2000 ; the development team was influenced by a host of other games , including Doom and Crash Bandicoot . Among the new features touted before the game 's release was " Auto Challenge Tuning " , which Insomniac CEO Ted Price described as " invented to even out the gameplay difficulty curve for players of different abilities " . The levels were made much larger than those in Spyro 2 , so that more areas for minigames could be added ; to prevent player confusion on where to go next , these areas were designed to load separately from the main hubs . Price stated that the addition of critters was a way to make the game more enjoyable and varied , instead of just adding more moves for Spyro . The game was named " Year of the Dragon " simply because it was released during 2000 , the year of the Dragon in the Chinese zodiac .
In previews , publications such as IGN and GameSpot noted that the graphics had been improved , and that there were many new characters and locations . The new minigames were previewed , and IGN pointed out that they offered enough complexity to back up the simple gameplay . In an interview with GameSpot , Ted Price stated that the emphasis for the title was on the new critters , but that Spyro would not be left behind in the story . Year of the Dragon also implemented crack protection , in addition to the copy protection previous games had contained . This helped prevent hackers from cracking the game until two months after release .
Despite the positive response the game would go on to receive , Year of the Dragon was developer Insomniac Games ' last Spyro title . In an interview , CEO Ted Price said that the company stopped producing the games because they couldn 't do anything new with the character , and that after five years of development on a single series the team wanted to do something different . Future Spyro games were produced by , among other developers , Digital Eclipse , Equinox Digital Entertainment , Eurocom , Krome Studios , Étranges Libellules , and Tantalus Media .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Year of the Dragon was composed and produced by Stewart Copeland , former drummer for the rock band The Police , with additional contributions by Ryan Beveridge . During the band 's hiatus , Copeland composed several movie soundtracks , and composed the scores for the previous Spyro titles ; Price stated that Copeland 's offering for the third installment was his best work to date .
In an interview , Copeland stated his creative process for writing the music for the Spyro series always began by playing through the levels , trying to get a feel for each world 's " atmosphere " . Copeland noted the challenge of writing for games was to create music that would both be interesting to listen to and complemented the gameplay ; his approach was to incorporate more complicated harmonies and basslines so that the music could seem fresh for players , even after repeated listening . He complimented the compact disc format of the PlayStation and its support for high quality audio ; there were no technical constraints that stopped him from producing the sound he wanted . Copeland recorded entire orchestral scores for extra flourish when the visuals called for an expansive sound , but used more percussive and beat @-@ driven melodies for " high @-@ energy " moments in the game .
= = Release = =
Year of the Dragon was critically acclaimed , with the game receiving an average ranking of 91 % at Game Rankings , and a similar score based on fifteen reviews at Metacritic . According to GameRankings , Year of the Dragon is the fourteenth highest rated PlayStation game of all time . The game sold more than two million units in the United States .
GameSpot noted that while Year of the Dragon made no significant changes to the formula of its predecessors , the combination of new playable characters , more detailed graphics , and the variety of minigames made the game worth the buy . IGN praised the game 's appeal to all ages and the polished levels , as well as the successful multi @-@ character focus . Game Revolution thought that while the game 's premise itself was simply a rehash of previous titles , " the story that unfolds as you actually play the game is flawlessly interwoven and quite entertaining " . GamePro noted that the ability of the game to automatically drop the difficulty if players get stuck was an excellent feature . Next Generation Magazine 's Kevin Rice provided one of the most positive reviews in which he stated the top @-@ notch level design , intuitive controls and excellent graphics made the title the best Spyro game to date , and arguably the best PlayStation game overall .
Copeland 's score was generally well @-@ received , though several critics sharply disagreed with the general consensus . Publications like PSXExtreme thought the music helped bring atmosphere to the varied worlds , and Allgame enthused that " Insomniac should be commended for realizing the importance of music in games ; it seems to enhance the whole experience . " Others , such as Joseph Parazen of Game Revolution , thought the background music sounded " identical to every other 3D , cartoony , action platformer I 've ever played " . Other points of praise were the voice acting and character development . Among the few complaints aside from the story included the game camera , which could be difficult to control and led to unjustified enemy attacks . Some publications warned that the game might feel too much like its predecessors , with a similar plot and objectives .
= Gordon Gollob =
Gordon Mac Gollob ( 16 June 1912 – 7 September 1987 ) was a German Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II , a fighter ace credited with 150 enemy aircraft shot down in over 340 combat missions . Originally from Austria , he claimed the majority of his victories over the Eastern Front , and six over the Western Front , five of which he claimed as a Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighter pilot .
Gollob volunteered for military service in the Austrian Austrian Armed Forces in 1933 . In March 1938 , following the Anschluss , the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany , Gollob was transferred to the Luftwaffe . In 1939 , Gollob was posted to Zerstörergeschwader 76 ( ZG 76 — 76th Destroyer Wing ) , a twin @-@ engined heavy fighter wing . Following the outbreak of World War II , he claimed his first aerial victory on 5 September 1939 during the invasion of Poland . Gollob claimed one victory during the Battle of the Heligoland Bight and two victories during the Norwegian Campaign . He then transferred to Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) , flying the single @-@ engined Messerschmitt Bf 109 . In the aftermath of the Battle of Britain on the Channel Front , he claimed his sixth and final victory on the Western Front .
Gollob then fought in the aerial battles of Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . On 27 June 1941 , Gollob was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of the II . Gruppe ( 2nd group ) of JG 3 . He claimed 18 aerial victories in August , and following his 42nd victory was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 18 September . On 26 October 1941 , his total then at 85 aerial victories , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves . In December 1941 , Gollob was temporarily transferred to a Luftwaffe test facility at Rechlin . Following a commander @-@ in @-@ training assignment to the Stabsschwarm ( headquarters unit ) of Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 — 54th Fighter Wing ) on 13 March 1942 , Gollob was appointed Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 — 77th Fighter Wing ) on 16 May 1942 . He claimed his 100th victory on 20 May , and on 23 June he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords following his 107th aerial victory . On 29 August , Gollob became the first fighter pilot to claim 150 enemy aircraft destroyed and was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds the next day . At the time of its presentation to Gollob it was Germany 's highest military decoration .
Due to concerns that he would be killed in action , Gollob was prohibited from flying further combat missions . On 15 October 1942 , he was appointed as Jagdfliegerführer 3 on the Western Front , then on 6 September 1943 he was appointed as Jagdfliegerführer 5 , responsible for the tactical fighter command of northwestern France . In April 1944 , he was transferred to the staff of the Inspector of Fighters . In January 1945 , he succeeded Generalleutnant ( Major General ) Adolf Galland as Inspector of Fighters , a position he held until the end of hostilities . Following World War II , he became General Secretary of the Federation of Independents , a political party in Austria . He then worked in a sales position for the Deutz AG . Gollob , married and father of three children , died on 7 September 1987 .
= = Early life and career = =
Gollob was born on 16 June 1912 in Vienna , the capital of Austria @-@ Hungary . His father , Heinrich Gollob , worked as an academic painter . His mother , Johanna ( née Reininghaus ) , was the daughter of Zoe von Karajan , a distant relative of Herbert von Karajan and wife of Carl Reininghaus . Gollob was the first of five children . Both his parents had studied at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna , where they mutually befriended Gordon Mallet McCouch , an American artist of Scottish descent . McCouch was his godfather and the namesake for his first and middle names , Gordon Mac . In his youth , Gollob already wanted to become an engineer and pilot . In 1930 , as a student at an Oberrealschule , a secondary school , he built his first primary glider in Tirol , experimenting with it at the old airfield at Innsbruck . He also completed his A- and B @-@ license to fly glider aircraft and became an instructor as well as a construction and airframe inspector .
Following four semesters of mechanical engineering at the University of Graz , Gollob joined the Austrian Bundesheer ( Austrian Armed Forces ) in 1933 as an officer cadet in the artillery . For three years he was trained at the Maria Theresia Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt and was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 September 1936 . He then served as an instructor in the Luftstreitkräfte ( Austrian Air Force ) and commander of Schulstaffel A ( Training Squadron A ) . Following the Anschluss in March 1938 , the forced incorporation of Austria into Nazi Germany , Gollob was transferred to the Luftwaffe ( the Nazi German Air Force ) . There , he was promoted to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) on 1 June 1938 . On 15 March 1939 , Gollob was posted to the 3 . Staffel ( 3rd squadron ) of Zerstörergeschwader 76 ( ZG 76 — 76th Destroyer Wing ) flying the Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin @-@ engined heavy fighter .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on Friday , 1 September 1939 , when German forces invaded Poland . ZG 76 had been stationed at the Polish border prior to the invasion . Gollob scored the first of his aerial victories over Poland on 5 September 1939 , shooting down a PWS 56 ( Podlaska Wytwórnia Samolotów — Podlasie Aircraft Factory ) biplane . He also flew a number of ground support missions , attacking an airfield and destroying a number of aircraft on the ground . On 21 September 1939 , Gollob was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz zweiter Klasse ) for his service in Poland . Following the campaign in Poland , ZG 76 was moved to Germany to defend the Reich . The 1 . Gruppe of ZG 76 first relocated to the Stuttgart area on 29 September 1939 to defend the western border against the French and British , who had declared war with Germany on 3 September 1939 . From early October to middle December , I. Gruppe operated from a number of airfields in the Stuttgart and Ruhr regions before relocating north to Jever on 16 December 1939 . There , on 18 December 1939 , Gollob claimed his second aerial victory
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for the Ardennes offensive and the ill @-@ fated Operation Bodenplatte .
Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler had suggested to Hitler that he appoint Gollob as General der Jagerflieger . Himmler 's intervention in Luftwaffe affairs had been an irritation to Reichsmarschall ( Marshal of the Reich ) Hermann Göring , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( Air Force High Command ) . Himmler had ambitions to expand his influence and power base into the Luftwaffe . One aspect of this was to put jet fighter units under control of the SS and later , Göring ordered Galland to prepare a report on Gollob . Galland 's conclusion was that Gollob required close supervision in a responsible post . In early January 1945 , Göring summoned Gollob to Karinhall , Göring 's estate northeast of Berlin , and read out selected excerpts from Galland 's report to him and Gollob became infuriated with Galland . Göring then ordered Galland to Karinhall and informed him of his dismissal . During the meeting , Göring postponed his decision as to what position Galland would receive and sent Galland on vacation . News of Galland 's dismissal soon spread , leading to the failed Fighter Pilots ' Revolt , an insurrection of a small group of high @-@ ranking Luftwaffe pilots , including Oberst Johannes Steinhoff who after the war became Chairman of the NATO Military Committee , aimed at re @-@ instating Galland as General der Jagerflieger . On 31 January 1945 , Gollob was officially appointed as General der Jagerflieger .
In his new role , Gollob worked with General der Flieger Josef Kammhuber , responsible for fighting against the enemy four @-@ engined bombers , and SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Hans Kammler , responsible for air armament and manufacturing of the Me 262 . Gollob 's objective was to deploy and arm the Me 262 as a defensive weapon against the Allied air offensive . Hitler 's decision to use the Me 262 in a fighter bomber role had not been revised . Gollob gathered data and hoped to meet Hitler in order to convince him that the Me 262 was better suited as a fighter aircraft and not as a fighter bomber , but this meeting never occurred . On 7 April 1945 , frustrated over the lack of progress made , Gollob submitted his written request to be released from office as General der Jagerflieger , but the request was not approved by Göring . Gollob left Berlin on 10 April 1945 after his staff had left for southern Germany . At that time he needed urgent hospitalization to treat his appendicitis . Gollob underwent surgery by Prof. Dr. Burghard Breitner at a hospital in Igls , in the present @-@ day a borough of Innsbruck , eight days after his departure from Berlin . On 24 April , he was transferred to the Luftwaffe hospital at Kitzbühel , which was in the middle of the so called Alpenfestung ( Alpine Fortress ) . At Kitzbühel , he met with the last Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Luftwaffe , Generalfeldmarschall Greim and the female pilot Hanna Reitsch . Greim was convalescing from an injury sustained during a flight by Reitsch into the encircled city of Berlin on 26 April . At Kitzbühel , Gollob was taken prisoner of war by elements of the 36th Infantry Division of the United States Army under the command of General John E. Dahlquist . Shortly after , he was transferred into the custody of the US 42nd Infantry Division commanded by Major General Harry J. Collins .
= = Prisoner of war and later life = =
On 1 June 1945 , Gollob , who had been released on parole , was arrested at his home by the Austrian Gendarmerie acting for the US authorities . From Kitzbühel , he was taken via Pass Strub , and other internment camps , to Ludwigsburg in Württemberg , and then flown to England . In England , he was held at Latimer and interrogated at the Combined Services Detailed Interrogation Centre regarding combat operations . He was released by US forces in 1946 and was then imprisoned by the French , as his home region of North Tyrol had become part of the French Occupation Zone . After finally being released from captivity , Gollob made a living as a contributor to aircraft magazines and lecturing . In 1948 , he became General Secretary of the Federation of Independents ( VDU — Verband der Unabhängigen ) , an Austrian political party . In 1950 , the VDU dismissed Gollob from the party following the internal strife between the more liberal approach of the founders Herbert Kraus and Viktor Reimann and the German nationalist faction centered on Gollob .
Gollob and his wife Elisabeth Lüning , had married on 14 February 1943 , and had two sons and a daughter . Their first son , Ulrik , was born on 30 November 1943 in Kitzbühel , their second son , Gerald was born on 9 January 1946 , also in Kitzbühel , and their daughter Cornelia was born on 16 March 1954 in Sulingen . Following his dismissal from the VDU , the family had moved to his wife 's hometown of Sulingen . There , from November 1951 , he started working in a sales role for the Klöckner Humboldt Deutz AG , a company making motors and vehicles . Until a myocardial infarction impeded his health in 1975 , he regularly flew powered and glider aircraft . Gollob died in Sulingen , Diepholz , Lower Saxony on 7 September 1987 .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
Gollob was credited with 150 aerial victories claimed in 340 combat missions , 144 of which were on the Eastern Front . He never lost a wingman in combat , nor was he shot down .
This and the ♠ ( Ace of spades ) indicates those aerial victories which made Gollob an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " , a term which designates a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more airplanes in a single day .
= = Awards = =
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 21 September 1939 )
1st Class ( 13 June 1940 )
Narvik Shield ( 30 January 1941 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold ( 11 May 1941 )
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ( 21 July 1941 )
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds
Knight 's Cross on 18 September 1941 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of II . / Jagdgeschwader 3
38th Oak Leaves on 26 October 1941 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of II . / Jagdgeschwader 3
13th Swords on 23 June 1942 as Hauptmann and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 77
3rd Diamonds on 30 August 1942 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 77
Mentioned three times in the Wehrmachtbericht ( 25 October 1941 , 20 June 1942 and 31 August 1942 )
Crimea Shield ( 15 March 1943 )
= Rusty Kuntz =
Russell Jay Kuntz ( / ˈkuːnts / ; born February 4 , 1955 ) is a retired American Major League Baseball ( MLB ) outfielder . He played for the Chicago White Sox , Minnesota Twins and Detroit Tigers between 1979 and 1985 . He never appeared in more than 84 games in any season during his playing career . In the final game of the 1984 World Series , Kuntz hit a pop fly to the second baseman that became the deciding run batted in ( RBI ) .
Kuntz grew up in Kansas and California , playing three sports in high school and community college . He went to the Division III World Series twice with California State University , Stanislaus before being selected by the White Sox in the 11th round of the 1977 MLB Draft . After the 1984 season , Kuntz was unable to return to form the next year . He was demoted to the minor leagues early in the 1985 season and was out of professional baseball as a player shortly thereafter .
Since his playing career ended , Kuntz has worked with several MLB organizations , including the Houston Astros , Seattle Mariners , Florida Marlins , Kansas City Royals , Atlanta Braves and Pittsburgh Pirates . He has worked as an assistant to the general manager , minor league coach , roving instructor and major league base coach . Since 2012 , he has served as the first base coach for the Kansas City Royals , and has received substantial praise for his contributions to the team 's success during that period . " Rusty Kuntz , " Royals manager Ned Yost has said , " is the best first base coach in baseball . "
= = Early life = =
Kuntz was born on February 4 , 1955 in Orange , California . He was born to Chet and Willie Kuntz . His father was a bricklayer who later became an auto mechanic . The family moved from Orange to Wichita , Kansas when Rusty was young , then moved to Paso Robles , California a few years later . He attended Paso Robles High School in California , where he played baseball , basketball , and football . He said that baseball was his least favorite of the three sports at the time and that he was drawn to basketball because of the game 's pace .
Continuing his education , Kuntz attended Cuesta College and California State University , Stanislaus . At Cuesta College , Kuntz played center field on the baseball team , quarterbacked the football team and was the center on the basketball team . After hitting for .402 and .442 batting averages in two seasons at Cuesta , Kuntz 's father encouraged him to focus on baseball . At CSU Stanislaus , Kuntz played on two teams that went to the Division III World Series . He was later inducted into the university 's Warrior Athletics Hall of Fame . Kuntz was drafted by the Chicago White Sox as the first pick in the 11th round of the 1977 MLB Draft .
Kuntz played 51 games for the rookie @-@ level Gulf Coast League White Sox in the 1977 season . He hit for .287 as the team finished first in the Gulf Coast League standings . The next season , Kuntz was promoted to the Class AA team , the Knoxville Sox . He bypassed the Class A affiliate because the Knoxville center fielder was suffering from migraine headaches , and he won the starting center field position . He hit .263 for Knoxville with 10 home runs in 113 games ; the team was managed by Tony LaRussa for part of the season and won first place in the Southern League . Starting the 1979 season with Chicago 's Class AAA affiliate , the Iowa Oaks , Kuntz played 122 games , batted .294 and hit 15 home runs in 394 at bats .
= = MLB playing career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Kuntz stood 6 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) and weighed 190 pounds ( 86 kg ) during his playing career . He batted and threw right @-@ handed . Kuntz made his MLB debut with the White Sox on September 1 , 1979 . He spent all of the 1980 and 1981 seasons with the White Sox , but he was used sparingly , registering less than 120 plate appearances in the two seasons combined . He started 1982 in the minor leagues with the Edmonton Trappers of the Pacific Coast League , hitting .269 with 7 home runs and 34 RBI in 193 at bats . He walked 50 times in 249 plate appearances for Edmonton . He was called back up to the major league team near the end of that season .
He was traded to the Minnesota Twins in June 1983 , with the White Sox receiving minor leaguer Mike Sodders in exchange . He was traded to the Detroit Tigers for pitcher Larry Pashnick after the 1983 season . The Pashnick @-@ Kuntz trade was prompted because future Baseball Hall of Fame outfielder Kirby Puckett was playing in the minor leagues for Minnesota 's Class AA affiliate and was expected to quickly join the Twins as an impact player . In 1984 with Detroit , Kuntz had the best numbers of his career : a .286 average and a .393 on @-@ base percentage . He appeared in a career @-@ high 84 major league games that season , mostly as a pinch @-@ hitter and outfielder .
= = = 1984 World Series = = =
In the fifth and deciding game of the 1984 World Series against the San Diego Padres , Kuntz pinch @-@ hit for designated hitter Johnny Grubb with the bases loaded and the score tied at three . Kuntz hit a pop @-@ up to short right field that Tony Gwynn was unable to see . Second baseman Alan Wiggins made the catch , but was unable to prevent Kirk Gibson from racing home from third with the go @-@ ahead run . The Tigers maintained their lead after that , giving Kuntz an unlikely game @-@ winning RBI .
The 1984 American League Championship Series and the ensuing World Series represented Kuntz 's only career postseason appearances . In a 2010 Baseball Prospectus article , Steven Goldman wrote that the 1984 Tigers were " a great team that relied on a lot of fluke elements ... The club had no regular first baseman , no regular third baseman , and the primary left fielder hit .239 / .302 / .342 against right @-@ handers . The club made up for this in part by getting terrific production out of role players like Ruppert Jones , Johnny Grubb , and Rusty Kuntz , players who wouldn 't synch up again ... "
= = = Later career = = =
Kuntz returned to the Tigers in 1985 but appeared in just five games ( last on April 24 , 1985 ) before being sent back to the minor leagues . After batting .222 for Detroit 's AAA affiliate , the Nashville Sounds , he was released by the Detroit organization . He signed with the Oakland Athletics a couple of months later , but he did not play any games with them . Kuntz retired as a player with 277 games played , a .236 career batting average , 5 home runs and 38 RBI .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
Kuntz was out of baseball in 1986 , working for the United Parcel Service . He worked as a coach in the Houston Astros organization during the 1987 and 1988 seasons , then moved to the Seattle Mariners . With Seattle , he served as a first @-@ base coach between 1989 and 1992 . Kuntz joined the Florida Marlins organization in 1993 as a minor league baserunning and outfield coach . He became the team 's first @-@ base coach after the 1994 season . In 1997 , Kuntz moved into a role as roving instructor with the Marlins organization . In August of that year he worked on defensive skills with Gary Sheffield when the major league slugger was struggling with injuries .
In late 2000 , Kuntz decided not to return to his role as first @-@ base coach and outfield instructor . Instead , he went back to his position as a roving instructor with the team , which allowed for more time to be spent with his family . At that time , Marlins players including Cliff Floyd and Mark Kotsay praised Kuntz for the amount of preparation that he put into his coaching . Kotsay gave Kuntz credit for the stolen bases he had accrued . Floyd said , " " I don 't know what I 'm going to do . I 'm telling you , he 's meant everything . He tells me about every pitcher we 're facing . He keeps me going when I 'm down . You don 't get that too often in this game . You 're expected just to be strong , handle everything . But it ain 't that easy sometimes . He 's a players ' man . He loves us . "
Kuntz was dismissed from his position with the Marlins before spring training in 2002 . The move was part of a mass firing of Marlins personnel in player development and scouting after the team 's change in ownership . Kuntz , who was paid for the 2002 season in any case due to the terms of his contract , kept a job working on the grounds crew at the team 's spring training site . He had performed ground crew duties at the site for several years in the offseasons . Late in the 2002 season , the Atlanta Braves hired Kuntz as a roving instructor . After the season , he was hired by the Pittsburgh Pirates as a first @-@ base coach . In October 2005 , the Pirates offered minor league positions to Kuntz and fellow coaches Gerald Perry and Alvaro Espinoza . He spent the next two seasons coaching between the Class AAA Indianapolis Indians and the major league club .
After the 2007 season , the Kansas City Royals named him their first @-@ base coach . In October 2009 , the team reassigned him , designating him field instructor and special assistant to the team 's general manager , Dayton Moore . In August 2012 , he was named the Royals ' first base coach after the dismissal of Doug Sisson . Sisson had replaced Kuntz as the Royals ' first base coach after the 2010 season . At the conclusion of the 2012 season , the Royals announced that they would retain Kuntz for the 2013 season . In a January 2014 article , the Boston Globe listed Kuntz as one of the baserunning / outfield coaches who had the most respect among his peers in the major leagues . " Kuntz ’ s outfielders are fundamentally sound and get great jumps on balls . Kuntz has been able to improve arm accuracy " .
= = Personal = =
Kuntz 's son Kevin was drafted by the Royals in the 2009 MLB Draft but he chose to play baseball at the University of Kansas . He was selected again by the Royals in the 28th round of the 2013 MLB Draft . Kevin spent the 2013 season in the minor leagues at the team 's rookie @-@ level affiliate , the Burlington Royals .
The coach 's name has been the subject of some media coverage . A 2010 Bleacher Report article said that his name was " hands down the best name ever . So many jokes , so little time . " In April 2013 , The Big Lead wrote about the name after a photo depicted Kuntz standing to the right of White Sox first baseman Paul Konerko and Royals baserunner Chris Getz . The resulting image seemed to display the phrase " Konerko Getz Kuntz " on the backs of their uniform jerseys .
= Pelvic inflammatory disease =
Pelvic inflammatory disease or pelvic inflammatory disorder ( PID ) is an infection of the upper part of the female reproductive system namely the uterus , fallopian tubes , and ovaries , and inside of the pelvis . Often there may be no symptoms . Signs and symptoms , when present may include lower abdominal pain , vaginal discharge , fever , burning with urination , pain with sex , or irregular menstruation . Untreated PID can result in long term complications including infertility , ectopic pregnancy , chronic pelvic pain , and cancer .
The disease is caused by bacteria that spread from the vagina and cervix . Infections by Neisseria gonorrhoeae or Chlamydia trachomatis are present in 75 to 90 percent of cases . Often multiple different bacteria are involved . Without treatment about 10 percent of those with a chlamydial infection and 40 percent of those with a gonorrhea infection will develop PID . Risk factors are similar to those of sexually transmitted infections generally and include a high number of sexual partners and drug use . Vaginal douching may also increase the risk . The diagnosis is typically based on the presenting signs and symptoms . It is recommended that the disease be considered in all women of childbearing age who have lower abdominal pain . A definitive diagnosis of PID is made by finding pus involving the fallopian tubes during surgery . Ultrasound may also be useful in diagnosis .
Efforts to prevent the disease include not having sex or having few sexual partners and using condoms . Screening women at risk for chlamydial infection followed by treatment decreases the risk of PID . If the diagnosis is suspected , treatment is typically advised . Treating a woman 's sexual partners should also occur . In those with mild or moderate symptoms a single injection of the antibiotic ceftriaxone along with two weeks of doxycycline and possibly metronidazole by mouth is recommended . For those who do not improve after three days or who have severe disease intravenous antibiotics should be used .
Globally about 106 million cases of chlamydia and 106 million cases of gonorrhea occurred in 2008 . The number of cases of PID however , is not clear . It is estimated to affect about 1 @.@ 5 percent of young women yearly . In the United States PID is estimated to affect about one million people yearly . A type of intrauterine device ( IUD ) known as the Dalkon shield led to increased rates of PID in the 1970s . Current IUDs are not associated with this problem after the first month .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Symptoms in PID range from none to severe . If there are symptoms , then fever , cervical motion tenderness , lower abdominal pain , new or different discharge , painful intercourse , uterine tenderness , adnexal tenderness , or irregular menstruation may be noted .
Other complications include endometritis , salpingitis , tubo @-@ ovarian abscess , pelvic peritonitis , periappendicitis , and perihepatitis .
= = Cause = =
Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae are usually the main cause of PID . Data suggest that PID is often polymicrobial . Isolated anaerobes and facultative microorganisms have been obtained from the upper genital tract . N. gonorrhoeae has been isolated from fallopian tubes , facultative and anaerobic organisms were recovered from endometrial tissues .
The anatomical structure of the internal organs and tissues of the female reproductive tract provides a pathway for pathogens to ascend from the vagina to the pelvic cavity thorough the infundibulum . The disturbance of the naturally occurring vaginal microbiota associated with bacterial vaginosis increases the risk of PID .
N. gonorrhoea and C. trachomatis are the most common organisms . The least common were infections caused exclusively by anaerobes and facultative organisms . Anaerobes and facultative bacteria were also isolated from 50 percent of the patients from whom Chlamydia and Neisseria were recovered ; thus , anaerobes and facultative bacteria were present in the upper genital tract of nearly two @-@ thirds of the PID patients . PCR and serological tests have associated extremely fastidious organism with endometritis , PID , and tubal factor infertility . Microorganisms associated with PID are listed below .
= = = Bacteria involved = = =
= = Diagnosis = =
Upon a pelvic examination , cervical motion , uterine , or adnexal tenderness will be experienced . Mucopurulent cervicitis and or urethritis may be observed . In severe cases more testing may be required such as laproscopy , intra @-@ abdominal bacteria sampling and culturing , or tissue biopsy .
Laproscopy can visualize " violin @-@ string " adhesions , characteristic of Fitz @-@ Hugh – Curtis perihepatitis and other absesses that may be present .
Other imaging methods , such as ulstrasonography , computed tomography ( CT ) , and magnetic imaging ( MRI ) , can aid in diagnosis . Blood tests can also help identify the presence of infection : the erythrocyte sedimentation rate ( ESR ) , the C @-@ reactive protein ( CRP ) level , and chlamydial and gonococcal DNA probes .
Nucleaic acid amplification tests ( NAATs ) , direct fluorescein tests ( DFA ) , and enszyme linked immunosorbent assays ( ELISA ) are highly sensitive tests that can identify specific pathogens present . Serology testing for antibodies is not as useful since the presence of the microorganisms in healthy people can confound interpreting the antibody titer levels , although antibody levels can indicate whether an infection is recent or long term .
Definitive criteria include histopathologic evidence of endometritis , thickened filled Fallopian tubes , or laparoscopic findings . Gram stain / smear becomes definitive in the identification of rare , atypical or and possibly more serious organisms . Two thirds of patients with laparoscopic evidence of previous PID were not aware they had PID , however even asymptomatic PID can cause serious harm .
Laparoscopic identification is helpful in diagnosing tubal disease ; a 65 percent to 90 percent positive predictive value exists in patients with presumed PID .
Upon gynecologic ultrasound , a potential finding is tubo @-@ ovarian complex , which is edematous and dilated pelvic structures as evidenced by vague margins , but without abscess formation .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
A number of other causes may produce similar symptoms including appendicitis , ectopic pregnancy , hemorrhagic or ruptured ovarian cysts , ovarian torsion , and endometriosis and gastroenteritis , peritonitis , and bacterial vaginosis among others .
Pelvic inflammatory disease is more likely to reoccur when there is a prior history of the infection , recent sexual contact , recent onset of menses , or an IUD ( intrauterine device ) in place or if the partner has a sexually transmitted infection .
Acute pelvic inflammatory disease is highly unlikely when recent intercourse has not taken place or an IUD is not being used . A sensitive serum pregnancy test is typically obtained to rule out ectopic pregnancy . Culdocentesis will differentiate hemoperitoneum ( ruptured ectopic pregnancy or hemorrhagic cyst ) from pelvic sepsis ( salpingitis , ruptured pelvic abscess , or ruptured appendix ) .
Pelvic and vaginal ultrasounds are helpful in the diagnosis of PID . In the early stages of infection , the ultrasound may appear normal . As the disease progresses , nonspecific findings can include free pelvic fluid , endometrial thickening , uterine cavity distension by fluid or gas . In some instances the borders of the uterus and ovaries appear indistinct . Enlarged ovaries accompanied by increased numbers of small cysts correlates with PID .
Laparoscopy is infrequently used to diagnose pelvic inflammatory disease since it is not readily available . Moreover , it might not detect subtle inflammation of the fallopian tubes , and it fails to detect endometritis . Nevertheless , laparoscopy is conducted if the diagnosis is not certain or if the person has not responded to antibiotic therapy after 48 hours .
No single test has adequate sensitivity and specificity to diagnose pelvic inflammatory disease . A large multisite U.S. study found that cervical motion tenderness as a minimum clinical criterion increases the sensitivity of the CDC diagnostic criteria from 83 percent to 95 percent . However , even the modified 2002 CDC criteria do not identify women with subclinical disease .
= = Prevention = =
Regular testing for sexually transmitted infections is encouraged for prevention . The risk of contracting pelvic inflammatory disease can be reduced by the following :
Using barrier methods such as condoms ; see human sexual behavior for other listings .
Seeking medical attention if you are experiencing symptoms of PID .
Using hormonal combined contraceptive pills also helps in reducing the chances of PID by thickening the cervical mucosal plug & hence preventing the ascent of causative organisms from the lower genital tract .
Seeking medical attention after learning that a current or former sex partner has , or might have had a sexually transmitted infection .
Getting a STI history from your current partner and strongly encouraging they be tested and treated before intercourse .
Diligence in avoiding vaginal activity , particularly intercourse , after the end of a pregnancy ( delivery , miscarriage , or abortion ) or certain gynecological procedures , to ensure that the cervix closes .
Sexual monogamy that restricts sexual activities to two ' virgins ' or partners remaining sexually exclusive with each other and having no outside sex partners .
Abstinence
= = Treatment = =
Treatment is often started without confirmation of infection because of the serious complications that may result from delayed treatment . Treatment depends on the infectious agent and generally involves the use of antibiotic therapy . If there is no improvement within two to three days , the patient is typically advised to seek further medical attention . Hospitalization sometimes becomes necessary if there are other complications . Treating sexual partners for possible STIs can help in treatment and prevention .
For women with PID of mild to moderate severity , parenteral and oral therapies appear to be effective . It does not matter to their short- or long @-@ term outcome whether antibiotics are administered to them as inpatients or outpatients . Typical regimens include cefoxitin or cefotetan plus doxycycline , and clindamycin plus gentamicin . An alternative parenteral regimen is ampicillin / sulbactam plus doxycycline . Another alternative is to use a parenteral regimen with ceftriaxone or cefoxitin plus doxycycline . Clinical experience guides decisions regarding transition from parenteral to oral therapy , which usually can be initiated within 24 – 48 hours of clinical improvement .
= = Prognosis = =
Even when the PID infection is cured , effects of the infection may be permanent . This makes early identification essential . Treatment resulting in cure is very important in the prevention of damage to the reproductive system . Formation of scar tissue due to one or episodes of PID can lead to tubal blockage , increasing the risk of the inability to get pregnant and long @-@ term pelvic / abdominal pain . Since certain occurrences such as a post pelvic operation , the period of time immediately after childbirth ( postpartum ) , miscarriage or abortion increases the risk of acquiring another infection leading to PID .
= = = Complications = = =
PID can cause scarring inside the reproductive system , which can later cause serious complications , including chronic pelvic pain , infertility , ectopic pregnancy ( the leading cause of pregnancy @-@ related deaths in adult females ) , and other complications of pregnancy . Occasionally , the infection can spread to in the peritoneum causing inflammation and the formation of scar tissue on the external surface of the liver ( Fitz @-@ Hugh – Curtis syndrome ) .
= = Epidemiology = =
Globally about 106 million cases of chlamydia and 106 million cases of gonorrhea occurred in 2008 . The number of cases of PID ; however , is not clear . It is estimated to affect about 1 @.@ 5 percent of young women yearly . In the United States PID is estimated to affect about one million people yearly . Rates are highest with teenagers and first time mothers . PID causes over 100 @,@ 000 women to become infertile in the US each year .
= Phellinus ellipsoideus =
Phellinus ellipsoideus ( formerly Fomitiporia ellipsoidea ) is a species of polypore fungus in the family Hymenochaetaceae , a specimen of which produced the largest fungal fruit body ever recorded . Found in China , the fruit bodies produced by the species are brown , woody basidiocarps that grow on dead wood , where the fungus feeds as a saprotroph . The basidiocarps are perennial , allowing them to grow very large under favourable circumstances . They are resupinate , measuring 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) or more in length , though typically extending less than a centimetre from the surface of the wood . P. ellipsoideus produces distinct ellipsoidal spores , after which it is named , and unusual setae . These two features allow it to be readily differentiated microscopically from other , similar species . Chemical compounds isolated from the species include several steroidal compounds . These may have pharmacological applications , but further research is needed .
The species was named in 2008 by Bao @-@ Kai Cui and Yu @-@ Cheng Dai based on collections made in Fujian Province . It was placed in the genus Fomitiporia , but later analysis suggests that it is more closely related to Phellinus species . It was revealed in 2011 that a very large fruit body , measuring up to 1 @,@ 085 cm ( 427 in ) in length , had been found on Hainan Island . The specimen , which was 20 years old , was estimated to weigh between 400 and 500 kilograms ( 880 and 1 @,@ 100 lb ) . This was markedly larger than the previously largest recorded fungal fruit body , a specimen of Rigidoporus ulmarius found in the United Kingdom that had a circumference of 425 cm ( 167 in ) . The findings were formally published in September 2011 , but attracted international attention from the mainstream press prior to this .
= = Taxonomy and phylogenetics = =
The species was first described in 2008 by Bao @-@ Kai Cui and Yu @-@ Cheng Dai , both of the Beijing Forestry University . Five specimens of the then @-@ unknown species were collected during field work in the Wanmulin Nature Reserve ( 27 ° 03 ′ N 118 ° 08 ′ E ) , Jian 'ou , Fujian Province . The pair named the species Fomitiporia ellipsoidea in an article in the journal Mycotaxon . The specific name ellipsoidea is from the Latin meaning " ellipsoid " , and refers to the shape of the spores . Species of the order Hymenochaetales , to which this taxon belongs , make up 25 % of the over 700 species of polypore found in China .
Phylogenetic analysis of large subunit and internal transcribed spacer DNA sequence data , the results of which were published in 2012 , concluded that the species then known as F. ellipsoidea was closely related to Phellinus gabonensis , P. caribaeo @-@ quercicolus and the newly described P. castanopsidis . The four species share morphological characteristics , and form a monophyletic clade . This clade resolved more closely with the Phellinus type species P. igniarius than it did with the Fomitiporia type species F. langloisii , and so the authors proposed a transference of F. ellipsoidea to Phellinus , naming the new combination Phellinus ellipsoideus . While the taxonomic database Index Fungorum follows the 2012 study , MycoBank continues to list Fomitiporia ellipsoidea as the correct binomial . Some mycologists consider Fomitiporia to be a synonym of Phellinus anyway .
= = Description = =
Phellinus ellipsoideus produces resupinate fruit bodies that are hard and woody , whether fresh or dry . The original description characterized them as measuring up to 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) " or more " in length , 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) in width , and extending 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) from the wood on which they grow at their thickest point . The outermost layer is typically yellow to yellowish @-@ brown , measuring 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 in ) in thickness . The shiny surface of the hymenium , the spore @-@ producing section of the fruit body , is covered in pores and ranges in colour from yellow @-@ brown to rust @-@ brown . There are between 5 and 8 pores per millimetre . The tubes are up to 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) in depth , have the same colouration as the surface of the hymenium , and are distinctively layered . They are also hard and woody . The very thin yellow @-@ brown layer of flesh measures less than 0 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 in ) in width . As with much of the rest of the fruit body , it is firm , solid , and reminiscent of wood . The fruit bodies lack any odour or taste .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
Phellinus ellipsoideus produces basidiospores that are ellipsoidal or broadly ellipsoidal in shape . The spore shape is one of the features that makes the species readily recognisable microscopically , and the spores measure from 4 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 1 by 3 @.@ 5 to 5 micrometres ( μm ) . The average spore length is 5 @.@ 25 μm , while the average width is 4 @.@ 14 μm . The spores have thick cell walls , and are hyaline . They are strongly cyanophilous , meaning that the cell walls will readily absorb methyl blue stain . In addition , they are weakly dextrinoid , meaning that they will stain slightly reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's solution . The spores are borne on barrel @-@ shaped basidia , with four spores per basidium , measuring 8 to 12 by 6 to 7 μm . There are also basidioles , which are similar in shape to the basidia , but slightly smaller .
In addition to the spore shape , the species is readily identified with the use of a microscope because of its setae . Setae are a kind of unusual cystidia unique to the family Hymenochaetaceae , and , in P. ellipsoideus , are found in the hymenium . In shape , the setae are ventricose , with distinctive hooks on their tips . In colour , they are yellow @-@ brown , and they have thick cell walls . They measure 20 to 30 by 10 to 14 μm . Neither more standard cystidia nor cystidioles ( underdeveloped cystidia ) can be found in the species , but there are a number of rhomboid crystals throughout the hymenium and the flesh .
Most of the tissue of a fungal fruit body is made up of hyphae , which can be of three forms : generative , skeletal and binding . In P. ellipsoideus , the tissue is dominated by skeletal hyphae , but also has generative hyphae ; it lacks binding hyphae . For this reason , the hyphal structure of P. ellipsoideus is referred to as " dimitic " . The hyphae are divided into separate cells by septae , and lack clamp connections . The skeletal hyphae do not react with Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's solution , and are not cyanophilous . While the hyphae will darken when a solution of potassium hydroxide is applied ( the KOH test ) , they remain otherwise unchanged .
The main structure of the fruit body consists primarily of an agglutination ( mass ) of interwoven skeletal hyphae , which are golden- to rust @-@ brown . The hyphae are unbranched , forming long tubes 2 to 3 @.@ 6 μm in diameter , enveloping a lumen of variable thickness . There are also hyaline generative hyphae . These hyphae have thinner walls than the skeletal hyphae , and are also septate ( possessing of septa ) , but are sometimes branched . They measure 2 to 3 μm in diameter . The flesh , again , is primarily made up of skeletal hyphae with some generative hyphae . The thick @-@ walled skeletal hyphae are a yellow @-@ brown to rust brown , and are slightly less agglutinate . The hyphae in the flesh are a little smaller ; the skeletal hyphae measure 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 4 μm in diameter , while the generative hyphae measure 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 6 μm in diameter .
= = = Similar species = = =
A cogeneric species potentially similar to Phellinus ellipsoideus is P. caribaeo @-@ quercicola . The latter species shares the hooked hymenial setae and ellipsoidal to broadly ellipsoidal spores . However , details of the fruit body differ , and the spores are hyaline to yellowish , and not dextrinoid . Further , the species is known only from tropical America , where it grows on the Cuban oak . P. castanopsidis , newly described in 2013 , is not perennial , and has a pale greyish @-@ brown pore surface . The spores are also slightly larger than those of P. ellipsoideus .
Phellinus ellipsoideus differs from species of Fomitiporia in two key respects . Its spores are less dextrinoid than those of the genus and their shape is atypical . Other than this , it is typical of the genus , according to the original description . Five species of Fomitiporia , F. bannaensis , F. pseudopunctata , F. sonorae , F. sublaevigata and F. tenuis , share with P. ellipsoideus the resupinate fruit bodies and the setae in the hymenium . Despite this , all of them but P. ellipsoideus have straight hymenial setae , and all of them have spores that are spherical or almost spherical , which is much more typical of the genus . F. uncinata ( formerly Phellinus uncinatus ) has hooked hymenial setae , and the spores are , as with P. ellipsoideus , thick @-@ walled and dextrinoid . The species can be differentiated by the fact the spores are spherical or nearly so , and somewhat larger than those of P. ellipsoideus , measuring 5 @.@ 5 to 7 by 5 to 6 @.@ 5 μm . The species is also known only from tropical America , where it grows on bamboo .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Phellinus ellipsoideus has been recorded growing on the fallen wood of oaks of the subgenus Cyclobalanopsis , as well as the wood of other flowering plants . The species favours the trunks of trees , where it feeds as a saprotroph , causing white rot . P. ellipsoideus fruit bodies are perennial growers , allowing them to , in the correct circumstances , grow very large . The species is found in the tropical and subtropical areas of China ; it has been recorded in Fujian Province and Hainan Province . It is not a common species , and fruit bodies are only occasionally encountered .
= = = Largest fruit body = = =
In 2010 , Cui and Dai were performing field work in tropical woodland on Hainan Island , China , studying wood @-@ rotting fungi . The pair uncovered a very large P. ellipsoideus fruit body on a fallen Quercus asymetrica log , which turned out to be the largest fungal fruit body ever documented . The fruit body was found at an altitude of 958 metres ( 3 @,@ 143 ft ) , in old @-@ growth forest . They were initially unable to identify the specimen as P. ellipsoideus , because of its large size , but tests revealed its identity after samples were taken for analysis . After their initial encounter with the large fruit body , Cui and Dai returned to it on two subsequent occasions , so that they could study it further . Nicholas P. Money , executive editor of Fungal Biology , in which the findings were published , praised the pair for not removing the fruit body , thereby allowing it " to continue its business and to marvel visitors to Hainan Island " . The discovery was formally published in Fungal Biology in September 2011 , but gained attention in the mainstream press worldwide prior to this .
The fruit body was 20 years old , and up to 1 @,@ 085 cm ( 35 @.@ 60 ft ) long . It was between 82 and 88 cm ( 32 and 35 in ) wide , and between 4 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 and 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The total volume of the fruit body was somewhere between 409 @,@ 000 and 525 @,@ 000 cubic centimetres ( 25 @,@ 000 and 32 @,@ 000 in3 ) . It was estimated to weigh between 400 and 500 kilograms ( 880 and 1 @,@ 100 lb ) , based on three samples from different areas of the fruit body . The specimen had an average of 49 pores per square millimetre , roughly equivalent to 425 million pores . Money estimated that , based on spore output from other polypore species , the fruit body would be able to release a trillion spores a day .
Prior to this discovery , the largest recorded fruit body of any fungus was a specimen of Rigidoporus ulmarius , found in Kew Gardens , United Kingdom . It measured 150 by 133 cm ( 59 by 52 in ) in diameter , and had a circumference of 425 cm ( 167 in ) . While the largest individual fruit bodies belong to polypores , individual organisms belonging to certain Armillaria species can grow extremely large . In 2003 , a large specimen of A. solidipes ( synonymous with A. ostoyae ) was recorded in the Blue Mountains , Oregon , covering an area of 965 hectares ( 2 @,@ 380 acres ) . At the time , the organism was estimated to be 8650 years old . Prior to this , an A. gallica ( synonymous with A. bulbosa ) organism was the largest recorded , covering 15 hectares ( 37 acres ) , weighing approximately 9 @,@ 700 kilograms ( 21 @,@ 400 lb ) . However , whilst these organisms cover a large area , the individual fruit bodies ( the mushrooms ) are not remarkably large , typically with stems of up to 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in height and caps less than 15 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , weighing from 40 to 100 grams ( 1 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 5 oz ) each .
= = Medicinal uses and biochemistry = =
The fruit bodies of both Phellinus and Fomitiporia species have seen use in traditional medicine for gastrointestinal cancer and heart disease . P. ellipsoideus fruit bodies are used for medicinal purposes as " sanhhuang " ( a name which typically refers to P. linteus ) in the north of Fujian Province .
In 2011 , research into the chemistry of P. ellipsoideus was published in the journal Mycosystema by Cui , along with Hai @-@ Ying Bao and Bao @-@ Kai Liu of the Jilin Agricultural University . The research discussed how several chemical compounds could be isolated from P. ellipsoideus with petroleum ether and ( after defatting ) chloroform . The nine compounds isolated from these extracts included the common ergosterol and its derivative ergosterol peroxide . Two of the compounds , ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @,@ 25 @-@ triene @-@ 3 @-@ one and benzo [ 1 @,@ 2 @-@ b : 5 @,@ 4 @-@ b ' ] difuran @-@ 3 @,@ 5 @-@ dione @-@ 8 @-@ methyl formate , were new to science . All of these chemicals were steroidal ; such compounds play important physiological roles in cell membranes . P. ellipsoideus has been used as a source of ergosterol for biochemical research .
Steroidal compounds , like those isolated from P. ellipsoideus , can have pharmacological or taxonomical applications ; for instance , some can act as anti @-@ inflammatories ( including ergosterol ) or inhibit tumour growth . The 2011 study concluded that , as P. ellipsoideus contained a large number of diverse steroidal compounds , there may be comparatively high pharmacological activity in the fungus ; however , more research would be needed to confirm this . Later publications echoed this research , claiming that the fungus has " potential medicinal functions " . Research published in 2012 named fomitiporiaester A , a natural furan derivative isolated from methanolic extract of P. ellipsoideus fruit bodies . The chemical , methyl 3 @,@ 5 @-@ dioxo @-@ 1 @,@ 3 @,@ 5 @,@ 7 @-@ tetrahydrobenzo [ 1 @,@ 2 @-@ c : 4 @,@ 5 @-@ c ' ] difuran @-@ 4 @-@ carboxylate , displayed significant antitumour ability in a mouse model .
= Kanak people =
Kanak ( French spelling : Kanak since 1984 ; earlier Canaque ) are the indigenous Melanesian inhabitants of New Caledonia , an overseas collectivity of France in the southwest Pacific . According to the 2009 census , they constitute 40 @.@ 3 % of the total population of New Caledonia with 99 @,@ 078 people . Though Melanesian settlement is recorded on Grande Terre 's Presqu 'île de Foué peninsula as far back as the Lapita culture , the origin of Kanak people is unclear . Ethnographic research has shown that Polynesian seafarers have intermarried with the Kanaks over the centuries . The Kanaks refer to the European inhabitants of New Caledonia as Caldoches .
New Caledonia was annexed to France in 1853 , and became an overseas territory of France in 1956 . An independence movement led to a failed revolt in 1967 , and was restarted in 1984 , pursuing total independence status from the French rule . A 2014 referendum will decide whether or not the territory will achieve sovereign status . When the 1988 Matignon agreements were signed between the representatives of France and New Caledonia to decide on holding the referendum for independence , Jean @-@ Marie Tjibaou , the Kanak leader of the independence movement , had mooted a proposal to set up an Agency for the Development of Kanak Culture ( ADCK ) . After Tjibaou 's assassination in 1989 , the French President François Mitterrand ordered that a cultural centre on the lines suggested by Tjibaou be set up in Nouméa , the capital of New Caledonia ; it was to be the last of Mitterrand 's Grands Projets . The Jean @-@ Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre was formally established in May 1998 .
Although ancient Lapita potteries date back to 1500 BC , and the people of the island have long been involved in the arts , since the establishment of the ADCK , Kanak arts and crafts have become more popular in New Caledonia . Wooden carvings in the shape of hawks , ancient gods , serpents and turtles are popular as is flèche faîtière , a carving which resembles a small totem pole with symbolic shapes . Music , dance and singing are part of many a Kanak ceremonial function and dances are performed during the traditional Kanak gatherings with the objective of cementing relationships within the clan and with ancestors .
= = Etymology = =
The word ' Kanak ' is derived from kanaka maoli , a Hawaiian word which was at one time applied indiscriminately by European explorers , traders and missionaries in Oceania to any non @-@ European Pacific islander . Prior to European contact , there were no unified states in New Caledonia , and no single self @-@ appellation used to refer to its inhabitants . Other words have been coined from Kanak in the past few generations : Kanaky is an ethno @-@ political name for the island or the entire territory . Kanéka is a musical genre associated with the Kanak , stylistically a form of reggae with added flutes , percussion and harmonies . Kaneka often has political lyrics and is sung in Drehu , Paici or other Melanesian languages , or in French . The word " kanak " is grammatically invariable . The German racial epithet Kanake — which is now applied to all non @-@ whites , even southern Europeans in some cases , and especially to Turkish immigrants — also derives from the same source , and was originally applied to people from German colonial possessions in Oceania .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
Melanesian settlement on Grande Terre dates back at least as far as the Lapita culture . However , the origin of Kanak people is unclear . Obsidian transported from New Guinea was found with the earliest New Caledonian Lapita pottery . In addition , some researchers have claimed there is evidence of New Caledonian human habitation dating from 3000 BC ( predating Lapita culture by 1500 years ) , while others claim to have found pre @-@ Lapita pottery . At the Fourth Lapita Conference , held in June 2000 , in Canberra , Australia , the question was posed : " Is Lapita Kanak , or is Lapita the oldest and first ancestor of a later culture that is labelled Kanak ? " Still another problem in determining the origin and early history of Kanak people is that the archaeological interpretation is in conflict with the views of Kanak people which have become politicized subsequent to colonial rule .
= = = Early colonial rule = = =
The earliest history of Europeans arriving on these islands is when Captain Cook of the United Kingdom landed in these islands in 1775 at a time when there were reportedly 70 @,@ 000 Kanaks living in the archipelago . Cook gave the name " New Caledonia " to these islands , after Caledonia , his Scottish highlands .
Fifty years later , the Protestants of London Missionary Society came to New Caledonia , which was followed by entry of the French Catholics to the island , in 1843 . This resulted in a conflict between the two religious factions and eventually the French Catholics ' control of the islands prevailed . The island nation was thereafter annexed by France , in 1853 .
During the colonial period , in the 19th century , Kanaks were recruited or enslaved , to perform unfree labour in places such as Australia , California , Canada , Chile and Fiji ( with the inter @-@ Asian slave trade to India , Japan , South Africa , and what is now Malaysia ) . During the 3 @,@ 000 years that Kanaks lived in the remote islands , they were unprepared for the arrival of European viruses and bacteria . The Kanaks were uprooted from the land and were employed as forced labour on French plantations , ranches and public works .
= = = Revolt = = =
When Kanaks were forced to move to reserve areas of the island , closer to the mountains , they occupied only 10 percent of the area of their ancestral territories given that their population had declined so dramatically due to disease , and their living conditions became very hard . This situation arose consequent to induction of 20 @,@ 000 convicts by the French government between 1864 and 1897 , most of whom settled permanently in the country , and who were employed to extract nickel ( beginning with 1864 ) and copper from 1875 onwards . This caused serious resentment among the Kanaks who revolted in 1878 against the French colonial rule , which was suppressed by the French who were better armed . The Kanak leader was decapitated , and his head was put on display in the Museum of Natural History .
= = = After World War II = = =
After World War II , the Kanak independence movement again picked up momentum when the United Nations placed New Caledonia on its Decolonisation List of Non @-@ Self @-@ Governing Territories in 1946 . A major progression occurred when Kanaks and French settlers in the country obtained voting rights in 1951 , shortly before it became an overseas territory of France in 1956 . The Kanaks were then also allowed to move out of their reserve areas . This was followed by the establishment of the Territorial Assembly in 1957 , but this was short @-@ lived ; Charles de Gaulle abolished it after he became the President of France , in 1958 .
= = = Agitation for independence = = =
In 1981 the movement for Independence began , following the murder of Pierre Declercq , the secretary general of the Caledonian Union ( French : Union calédonienne , UC ) on 19 September 1981 . A national forum titled " Front de Liberation Nationale Kanak Socialiste ( FLNKS ) ” was established in 1984 . This forum refused to participate in elections to the Territorial Assembly and even declared its own Provincial Government ; it met with opposition by the French . FLNKS " organized a boycott of the territorial elections in New Caledonia , smashing ballot boxes and setting up roadblocks to prevent people from voting . " The FLNKS persisted with their agitation and unilaterally announced on 7 January 1985 that a referendum on independence would be conducted in July 1985 . After the death of Kanak leader Eloi Machoro in 1985 , Kanak activists took 27 gendarmes hostage on the island of Ouvea , igniting a French response .
The Kanak movement proposed a self @-@ government in January 1986 . An interim arrangement was announced by Mitterrand who moved to give greater autonomy in the colony . However , the French prime minister Chirac stationed troops in the islands and the autonomy issue was shelved . The FLNKS , backed in their campaign for a referendum by regional organizations such as the " Groupe du fer de lance mélanesien " ( the Melanesian Spearhead Group ) , the Pacific Forum , and the Nonaligned Countries Movement , were successful in getting the UN Resolution 41 @-@ 41 A of 2 December 1986 passed ; it re @-@ inscribed New Caledonia on the Decolonisation List of Non @-@ Self @-@ Governing Territories . But this resolution did not mitigate the violence as what ensued was more confrontations with the authorities : the " Ouvéa cave hostage taking " resulted in 21 deaths including 19 Kanaks . Following the battle , there was an international outcry that resulted in initiation of talks for settlement between the French government , the Kanaks and the French settlers .
= = = Matignon Accord = = =
An agreement called the Matignon Accord followed on 6 November 1988 between the French and the Kanaks , which had the majority support of 80 % of the French people . According to the Matignon Accord ( or Matignon Agreement ) a referendum on independence was proposed to be held by 1998 . However , two of the Kanak leaders who had signed the agreement , Jean @-@ Marie Tjibaou and Yeiwene Yeiwene , were assassinated on 4 May 1989 by a Kanak activist . The Kanak independence activists were unhappy with the situation as they felt that France would never allow them independence .
= = = Nouméa Accord = = =
A subsequent agreement , the " Nouméa Accord " , was signed between the FLNKS President and the French Government on 5 May 1998 , allowing for a degree of autonomy to New Caledonia over a transition period of up to 20 years . A referendum for independence from France is to be held between 2014 and 2019 . Progressive changes that were expected of this agreement were in the local political control and structure ; the Kanaks would have greater say over internal and regional affairs while France would retain sovereign rights including control over military and foreign affairs . In a speech made before the Fourth Commission of the United Nations on 10 October 2005 , the FLNKS Vice President , Léopold Jorédié , urged the UN " to establish a monitoring and follow @-@ up system for the previous contracts signed between multinationals and municipalities , by drawing on the initiatives of Global Witness and asking the UN to put in place an ad hoc commission in order to protect the wealth of New Caledonia , following the example of what was done for Congo . "
= = = Present status = = =
The Caledonian Union , one of the political parties within the pro @-@ independence FLNKS group had , in 2010 , appealed for a national committee to evaluate progress and prepare New Caledonia for the change in leadership before the planned referendum in 2014 . In this appeal , the UC also argued that , according to the Nouméa Accord , it was obligatory for the French government to train and build the capacity of Kanaks to be able to take over the government in 2014 and urged them to respond swiftly .
= = Population = =
= = = Demographics = = =
New Caledonia or Territoire des Nouvelle @-@ Caledonie et Dependances , is approximately 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 mi ) off the northeast coast of Australia . Of its 500 islands , the five main ones are inhabited , are spread across an area 30 miles ( 48 km ) wide and over 250 miles ( 400 km ) in length . As of 2009 , the Melanesian Kanak people constituted 40 @.@ 3 % ( 99 @,@ 078 ) of the population of 245 @,@ 580 in New Caledonia , a minority in their ancestral land . The other groups consist of Europeans ( mostly French ) at 29 % , Wallisian 9 % , people of mixed ancestry ( 8 % ) , and other groups including Polynesians , Indonesians , Vietnamese and those ( believed to be chiefly of European ancestry ) who identified simply as " Caledonian . " In 1774 , Cook landed in Balade and estimated a population of around 50 @,@ 000 for the whole island . A minimum of 100 @,@ 000 is more likely , considering the amount of land that can be shown to have been cultivated pre @-@ colonially . This declined to 27 @,@ 000 during early colonial rule as a result of disease . Kanaks were historically associated with tribes , including the Bwaarhat , Tiendanite , Goa , and Goosana , as well as clans , such as the Poowe .
There are significant populations of ethnic Kanaks living in Australia , particularly in sugar cane growing areas in Queensland , where they were brought to work in the fields . There are many social links and intermarriages between these people and local Australian Aboriginal groups .
= = = Languages = = =
Kanak languages are extremely diverse , and French serves as the official language of New Caledonia . There are 28 distinct Kanak languages , as well as many dialects , out of the 1 @,@ 200 Melanesian languages spoken throughout the Pacific . They are mutually incomprehensible . All are a part of the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian family . They all belong to the New Caledonian subgroup – except for Fagauvea , which is a Polynesian language .
New Caledonia languages are divided into several groups . The Northern language group is tonal and includes 12 languages : Caac , Cemuhî , Fwâi , Jawe , Kumak , Nemi , Paicî , Pije , Pwaamei , Pwapwa , Yalayu , and Yuaga . Approximately 60 @,@ 000 residents of New Caledonia speak at least one of the Kanak languages . Most of these languages are only in spoken form . There is no one unified language among the Kanaks ; however , the largest group of Kanaks speak Drehu .
Coming from an oral tradition , the written word was nonexistent until the missionary arrival . Kanak knowledge was passed orally in the form of poems , legends , and stories . Children 's oral history is provided by parents and other relatives who also use tickling and onomatopoeic noise to hold the child 's attention . Of the Kanak authors , some of the notable ones are Tjibaou who wrote La Présence Kanak ; Susanna Ounei @-@ Small , a Kanak author from Ouvéa who wrote about the Matignon Accords ; and Kaloombat Tein , author of Hwanfalik – Sayings from the Hienghene Valley which provides insight into Hienghène legends and is written in Hienghène , with English language translation .
Tjibaou was involved in the establishment of the Écoles populaires kanak , which was taught in a local Kanak language and educated children in spiritual and practical knowledge , while including French and English language instruction . Since 2006 , pre @-@ school children have been given the opportunity to learn indigenous Kanak languages . While the Kanak languages have been taught in high schools across the Loyalty Islands and North Province , the language education has not been as common in the more European South Province . The establishment of the Kanak Language Academy ( KLA ) was a provision of the Nouméa Accord .
= = Culture = =
= = = Traditional beliefs and religion = = =
The Kanaks were known to worship their ancestors . This worship was embodied in the sepulchre , sacred stones , and devotional hearths where they offered sacrifices . Today , most Kanaks are Christians . Religion is an important aspect of Kanaks ' life . Kanaks attend the Catholic Church in Nouméa. and they form nearly 50 percent of the population of Catholics in New Caledonia , next only to the Europeans . Also , the majority of Protestants are Kanaks . However , there are a few who follow traditional beliefs .
According to the traditional beliefs of the Kanak people , the sea is sacred as it provides them with " fish for food " , so they treat it with great reverence . The folk stories created by the Kanak people not only attest to this fact but are also strictly followed as unwritten laws . Some of the important aspects of the oral laws relate to environmental protection and conservation , such as the closure of fishing operations when the fish stocks are on the decline , and fishing rights in certain areas are strictly observed with respect to locals .
= = = Conservation = = =
Following these beliefs and traditions , Kanak people and Conservation International ( CI ) have been jointly involved in conserving the ancestral waters and natural resources . According to a rapid assessment survey conducted with help from the Kanaks , 42 coral reefs have been identified for protection near Nord 's Mont Pani Province . Its rich biodiversity reserves also include sea cucumbers , molluscs , crustaceans , herrings , groupers , and snappers . Supporting Kanak traditions , the Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific 's ( CRISP ) partnership with CI provided recommendations and underwater species guides to the Kanak people . In 2004 , a proposal was put forward to promote the entire coastal region as a World Heritage Site . Further work on this initiative has been pursued by CI 's Center for Applied Biodiversity Science , the Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific ( CRISP ) , and the French Government , in collaboration with WWF to assess marine resources used by both Kanak tribes and people of European descent across three coastlines of the Nord Province .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Bougna is a traditional Kanak casserole , considered a national food by many Kanaks . It is made of sliced root vegetables which might include taro , manioc , yams and coconut milk . Pork , chicken or seafood may be used in the filling which is then wrapped in poingo banana leaves before being cooked over hot stones in an earthen oven . Other local ingredients used in Kanak cuisine include Rousettus ( flying foxes ) and local deer ; marine staples such as lagoon and coral reef fish ( including dawa ) , as well as crabs and lobsters . Paita beans are locally grown haricots , while custard @-@ apple , lime and saffron are other local ingredients .
= = = Fine arts = = =
The Kanak arts of sculpture , dance , music and theatre have become more popular since the 1990s with the efforts of the Agency for Development of Kanak Culture ADCK . Art forms in Kanak culture comprise :
Lapita pottery
The ancient Lapita potteries date to 1500 BC . Essentially a women ’ s craft , the pottery is generally decorated with geometric patterns and stylised human faces , although there is variation between northern and southern New Caledonian pottery . The various handles and glazes have pinhole @-@ incised designs made from tooth combs . The pottery was made from clay deposits found in the islands .
Paintings
Painting is a recent art form common among women artists . Famous artists include Yvette Bouquet from Koumac who has produced paintings with Pacific and Oceania themes , Paula Boi , whose paintings are of more abstract scenes , and Denise Tuvouane and Maryline Thydjepache who use mixed art forms . Bus stop shelters are common places where their paintings are illustrated .
Wood sculpture
Wood sculpture represents the spirit of Kanak culture of which the Flèche faîtière , which resembles a small totem pole with symbolic shapes , is the most common . A mini Stonehenge @-@ looking religious memorial near the village in L 'Île @-@ des @-@ Pins has a display of religious carvings . Other wooden objects include war clubs carved from the strongest wood , made in the form of a phallic head ( casse @-@ tete ) , a lethal bird 's beak club ( bec d 'oiseau ) , and spears made from niaouli trees
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in the dispersal of white water @-@ lily seeds . The turtle consumes the hard @-@ coated seeds , which remain viable after passing through the turtle , and disperses them through its feces .
= = = Predators = = =
Painted turtles are most vulnerable to predators when young . Nests are frequently ransacked and the eggs eaten by garter snakes , crows , chipmunks , thirteen @-@ lined ground and gray squirrels , skunks , groundhogs , raccoons , badgers , gray and red fox , and humans . The small and sometimes bite @-@ size , numerous hatchlings fall prey to water bugs , bass , catfish , bullfrogs , snapping turtles , three types of snakes ( copperheads , racers and water snakes ) , herons , rice rats , weasels , muskrats , minks , and raccoons . As adults , the turtles ' armored shells protect them from many potential predators , but they still occasionally fall prey to alligators , ospreys , crows , red @-@ shouldered hawks , bald eagles , and especially raccoons .
Painted turtles defend themselves by kicking , scratching , biting , or urinating . In contrast to land tortoises , painted turtles can right themselves if they are flipped upside down .
= = Life cycle = =
= = = Mating = = =
The painted turtles mate in spring and fall in waters of 10 – 25 ° C ( 50 – 77 ° F ) . Males start producing sperm in early spring , when they can bask to an internal temperature of 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) . Females begin their reproductive cycles in mid @-@ summer , and ovulate the following spring .
Courtship begins when a male follows a female until he meets her face @-@ to @-@ face . He then strokes her face and neck with his elongated front claws , a gesture returned by a receptive female . The pair repeat the process several times , with the male retreating from and then returning to the female until she swims to the bottom , where they copulate . As the male is smaller than the female , he is not dominant . The female stores sperm , to be used for up to three clutches , in her oviducts ; the sperm may remain viable for up to three years . A single clutch may have multiple fathers .
= = = Egg @-@ laying = = =
Nesting is done , by the females only , between late May and mid @-@ July . The nests are vase @-@ shaped and are usually dug in sandy soil , often at sites with southern exposures . Nests are often within 200 m ( 220 yd ) of water , but may be as far away as 600 m ( 660 yd ) , with older females tending to nest further inland . Nest sizes vary depending on female sizes and locations but are about 5 – 11 cm ( 2 – 4 in ) deep . Females may return to the same sites several consecutive years , but if several females make their nests close together , the eggs become more vulnerable to predators .
The female 's optimal body temperature while digging her nest is 29 – 30 ° C ( 84 – 86 ° F ) . If the weather is unsuitable , for instance a too hot night in the Southeast , she delays the process until later at night . Painted turtles in Virginia have been observed waiting three weeks to nest because of a hot drought .
While preparing to dig her nest , the female sometimes exhibits a mysterious preliminary behavior . She presses her throat against the ground of different potential sites , perhaps sensing moisture , warmth , texture , or smell , although her exact motivation is unknown . She may further temporize by excavating several false nests as the wood turtles also do .
The female relies on her hind feet for digging . She may accumulate so much sand and mud on her feet that her mobility is reduced , making her vulnerable to predators . To lighten her labors , she lubricates the area with her bladder water . Once the nest is complete , the female deposits into the hole . The freshly laid eggs are white , elliptical , porous , and flexible . From start to finish , the female 's work may take four hours . Sometimes she remains on land overnight afterwards , before returning to her home water .
Females can lay five clutches per year , but two is a normal average after including the 30 – 50 % of a population 's females that do not produce any clutches in a given year . In some northern populations , no females lay more than one clutch per year . Bigger females tend to lay bigger eggs and more eggs per clutch . Clutch sizes of the subspecies vary , although the differences may reflect different environments , rather than different genetics . The two more northerly subspecies , western and midland , are larger and have more eggs per clutch — 11 @.@ 9 and 7 @.@ 6 , respectively — than the two more southerly subspecies , southern ( 4 @.@ 2 ) and eastern ( 4 @.@ 9 ) . Within subspecies , also , the more northerly females lay larger clutches .
= = = Growth = = =
Incubation lasts 72 – 80 days in the wild and for a similar period in artificial conditions . In August and September , the young turtle breaks out from its egg , using a special projection of its jaw called the egg tooth . Not all offspring leave the nest immediately , though . Hatchlings north of a line from Nebraska to northern Illinois to New Jersey typically arrange themselves symmetrically in the nest and overwinter to emerge the following spring .
The hatchling 's ability to survive winter in the nest has allowed the painted turtle to extend its range further north than any other American turtle . The painted turtle is genetically adapted to survive extended periods of subfreezing temperatures with blood that can remain supercooled and skin that resists penetration from ice crystals in the surrounding ground . The hardest freezes nevertheless kill many hatchlings .
Immediately after hatching , turtles are dependent on egg yolk material for sustenance . About a week to a week and a half after emerging from their eggs ( or the following spring if emergence is delayed ) , hatchlings begin feeding to support growth . The young turtles grow rapidly at first , sometimes doubling their size in the first year . Growth slows sharply at sexual maturity and may stop completely . Likely owing to differences of habitat and food by water body , growth rates often differ from population to population in the same area . Among the subspecies , the western painted turtles are the quickest growers .
Females grow faster than males overall , and must be larger to mature sexually . In most populations males reach sexual maturity at 2 – 4 years old , and females at 6 – 10 . Size and age at maturity increase with latitude ; at the northern edge of their range , males reach sexual maturity at 7 – 9 years of age and females at 11 – 16 .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Daily routine and basking = = =
A cold @-@ blooded reptile , the painted turtle regulates its temperature through its environment , notably by basking . All ages bask for warmth , often alongside other species of turtle . Sometimes more than 50 individuals are seen on one log together . Turtles bask on a variety of objects , often logs , but have even been seen basking on top of common loons that were covering eggs .
The turtle starts its day at sunrise , emerging from the water to bask for several hours . Warmed for activity , it returns to the water to forage . After becoming chilled , the turtle re @-@ emerges for one to two more cycles of basking and feeding . At night , the turtle drops to the bottom of its water body or perches on an underwater object and sleeps .
To be active , the turtle must maintain an internal body temperature between 17 – 23 ° C ( 63 – 73 ° F ) . When fighting infection , it manipulates its temperature up to 5 ° C ( 8 ° F ) higher than normal .
= = = Seasonal routine and hibernation = = =
In the spring , when the water reaches 15 – 18 ° C ( 59 – 64 ° F ) , the turtle begins actively foraging . However , if the water temperature exceeds 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , the turtle will not feed . In fall , the turtle stops foraging when temperatures drop below the spring set @-@ point .
During the winter , the turtle hibernates . In the north , the inactive season may be as long as from October to March , while the southernmost populations may not hibernate at all . While hibernating , the body temperature of the painted turtle averages 6 ° C ( 43 ° F ) . Periods of warm weather bring the turtle out of hibernation , and even in the north , individuals have been seen basking in February .
The painted turtle hibernates by burying itself , either on the bottom of a body of water , near water in the shore @-@ bank or the burrow of a muskrat , or in woods or pastures . When hibernating underwater , the turtle prefers shallow depths , no more than 2 m ( 7 ft ) . Within the mud , it may dig down an additional 1 m ( 3 ft ) . In this state , the turtle does not breathe , although if surroundings allow , it may get some oxygen through its skin . The species is one of the best @-@ studied vertebrates able to survive long periods without oxygen . Adaptations of its blood chemistry , brain , heart , and particularly its shell allow the turtle to survive extreme lactic acid buildup while oxygen @-@ deprived .
= = = Movement = = =
Searching for water , food , or mates , the painted turtles travel up to several kilometers at a time . During summer , in response to heat and water @-@ clogging vegetation , the turtles may vacate shallow marshes for more permanent waters . Short overland migrations may involve hundreds of turtles together . If heat and drought are prolonged , the turtles will bury themselves and , in extreme cases , die .
Foraging turtles frequently cross lakes or travel linearly down creeks . Daily crossings of large ponds have been observed . Tag and release studies show that sex also drives turtle movement . Males travel the most , up to 26 km ( 16 mi ) , between captures ; females the second most , up to 8 km ( 5 mi ) , between captures ; and juveniles the least , less than 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , between captures . Males move the most and are most likely to change wetlands because they seek mates .
The painted turtles , through visual recognition , have homing capabilities . Many individuals can return to their collection points after being released elsewhere , trips that may require them to traverse land . One experiment placed 98 turtles varying several @-@ kilometer distances from their home wetland ; 41 returned . When living in a single large body of water , the painted turtles can home from up to 6 km ( 4 mi ) away . Females may use homing to help locate suitable nesting sites .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Range = = =
The most widespread North American turtle , the painted turtle is the only turtle whose native range extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific . It is native to eight of Canada 's ten provinces , forty @-@ five of the fifty United States , and one of Mexico 's thirty @-@ one states . On the East Coast , it lives from the Canadian Maritimes to the U.S. state of Georgia . On the West Coast , it lives in British Columbia , Washington , and Oregon and offshore on southeast Vancouver Island . The northernmost American turtle , its range includes much of southern Canada . To the south , its range reaches the U.S. Gulf Coast in Louisiana and Alabama . In the southwestern United States there are only dispersed populations . It is found in one river in extreme northern Mexico . It is absent in a part of southwestern Virginia and the adjacent states as well as in north @-@ central Alabama .
The borders between the four subspecies are not sharp , because the subspecies interbreed . Many studies have been performed in the border regions to assess the intermediate turtles , usually by comparing the anatomical features of hybrids that result from intergradation of the classical subspecies . Despite the imprecision , the subspecies are assigned nominal ranges .
= = = = Eastern painted turtle = = = =
The eastern painted turtle ranges from southeastern Canada to Georgia with a western boundary at approximately the Appalachians . At its northern extremes , the turtle tends to be restricted to the warmer areas closer to the Atlantic Ocean . It is uncommon in far north New Hampshire and in Maine is common only in a strip about 50 miles from the coast . In Canada , it lives in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia but not in Quebec or Prince Edward Island . To the south it is not found in the coastal lowlands of southern North Carolina , South Carolina , or Georgia , or in southern Georgia in general or at all in Florida .
The eastern subspecies 's range extends slightly into east central Alabama , where it intergrades with the southern subspecies . In the northeast , there is extensive mixing with the midland subspecies , and some writers have called these turtles a " hybrid swarm " . In the southeast , the border between the eastern and midland is more sharp as mountain chains separate the subspecies to different drainage basins .
= = = = Midland painted turtle = = = =
The midland painted turtle lives from southern Ontario and Quebec , through the eastern U.S. Midwest states , to Kentucky , Tennessee and northwestern Alabama , where it intergrades with the southern painted turtle . It also is found eastward through West Virginia , western Maryland and Pennsylvania . The midland painted turtle appears to be moving east , especially in Pennsylvania . To the northeast it is found in western New York and much of Vermont , and it intergrades extensively with the eastern subspecies .
= = = = Southern painted turtle = = = =
The southern painted turtle ranges from extreme southern Illinois and Missouri , roughly along the Mississippi River Valley , to the south . In Arkansas , it branches out to the west towards Texas , where it is found in the far northeast part of that state ( Caddo Lake region ) as well as extreme southeastern Oklahoma ( McCurtain County ) . It is found in much of Louisiana , where it reaches the Gulf of Mexico ( in fresh water ) . Eastward it is found in western Tennessee , northern Mississippi and much of Alabama , including the Gulf Coast city of Mobile An isolated population in central Texas has been reported but is now believed to be non @-@ native .
= = = = Western painted turtle = = = =
The western painted turtle 's northern range includes southern parts of western Canada from Ontario through Manitoba , Saskatchewan , Alberta and British Columbia . In Ontario , the western subspecies is found north of Minnesota and directly north of Lake Superior , but there is a 130 km ( 80 mi ) gap to the east of Lake Superior ( in the area of harshest winter climate ) where no painted turtles of any subspecies occur . Thus Ontario 's western subspecies does not intergrade with the midland painted turtle of southeastern Ontario . In Manitoba , the turtle is numerous and ranges north to Lake Manitoba and the lower part of Lake Winnipeg . The turtle is also common in south Saskatchewan , but in Alberta , there may only be 100 individuals , all found very near the U.S. border , mostly in the southeast .
In British Columbia , populations exist in the interior in the vicinity of the Kootenai , Columbia , Okanagan , and Thompson river valleys . At the coast , turtles occur near the mouth of the Fraser and a bit further north , as well as the bottom of Vancouver Island , and some other nearby islands . Within British Columbia , the turtle 's range is not continuous and can better be understood as northward extensions of the range from the United States . High mountains present barriers to east @-@ west movement of the turtles within the province or from Alberta . Some literature has shown isolated populations much further north in British Columbia and Alberta , but these were probably pet @-@ releases .
In the United States , the western subspecies forms a wide intergrade area with the midland subspecies covering much of Illinois as well as a strip of Wisconsin along Lake Michigan and part of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan ( UP ) . Further west , the rest of Illinois , Wisconsin and the UP are part of the range proper , as are all of Minnesota and Iowa , as well as all of Missouri except a narrow strip in the south . All of North Dakota is within range , all of South Dakota except a very small area in the west , and all of Nebraska . Almost all of Kansas is in range ; the border of that state with Oklahoma is roughly the species range border , but the turtle is found in three counties of north central Oklahoma .
To the northwest , almost all of Montana is in range . Only a narrow strip in the west , along most of the Idaho border ( which is at the Continental Divide ) lacks turtles . Wyoming is almost entirely out of range ; only the lower elevation areas near the eastern and northern borders have painted turtles . In Idaho , the turtles are found throughout the far north ( upper half of the Idaho Panhandle ) . Recently , separate Idaho populations have been observed in the southwest ( near the Payette and Boise rivers ) and the southeast ( near St. Anthony ) . In Washington state , turtles are common throughout the state within lower elevation river valleys . In Oregon , the turtle is native to the northern part of the state throughout the Columbia River Valley as well as the Willamette River Valley north of Salem .
To the southwest , the painted turtle 's range is fragmented . In Colorado , while range is continuous in the eastern , prairie , half of the state , it is absent in most of the western , mountainous , part of the state . However , the turtle is confirmed present in the lower elevation southwest part of the state ( Archuleta and La Plata counties ) , where a population ranges into northern New Mexico in the San Juan River basin . There are also some unconfirmed sightings in parts of the far west of the state ( e.g. Mesa County ) . In New Mexico , the main distribution follows the Rio Grande and the Pecos River , two waterways that run in a north @-@ south direction through the state . Within the aforementioned rivers , it is also found in the northern part of Far West Texas . In Utah , the painted turtle lives in an area to the south ( Kane County ) in streams draining into the Colorado River , although it is disputed if they are native . In Arizona , the painted turtle is native to an area in the east , Lyman Lake . The painted turtle is not native to Nevada or California .
In Mexico , painted turtles have been found about 50 miles south of New Mexico near Galeana in the state of Chihuahua . There , two expeditions found the turtles in the Rio Santa Maria which is in a closed basin .
= = = = Human @-@ introduced range = = = =
Pet releases are starting to establish the painted turtle outside its native range . In California , it is an invasive species that endangers the local western pond turtle , although competition from similarly released red @-@ eared sliders is a greater threat . It has also been introduced into waterways near Phoenix , Arizona , and Miami , Florida , and to Germany , Indonesia , the Philippines , and Spain .
= = = Habitat = = =
To thrive , painted turtles need fresh waters with soft bottoms , basking sites , and aquatic vegetation . They find their homes in shallow waters with slow @-@ moving currents , such as creeks , marshes , ponds , and the shores of lakes . The subspecies have evolved different habitat preferences .
The eastern painted turtle is very aquatic , leaving the immediate vicinity of its water body only when forced by drought to migrate . Along the Atlantic , painted turtles have appeared in brackish waters .
The midland and southern painted turtles seek especially quiet waters , usually shores and coves . They favor shallows that contain dense vegetation and have an unusual toleration of pollution .
The western painted turtle lives in streams and lakes , similar to the other painted turtles , but also inhabits pasture ponds and roadside pools . It is found as high as 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) .
= = = Population features = = =
Within much of its range , the painted turtle is the most abundant turtle species . Population densities range from 10 to 840 turtles per hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) of water surface . Warmer climates produce higher relative densities among populations , and habitat desirability also influences density . Rivers and large lakes have lower densities because only the shore is desirable habitat ; the central , deep waters skew the surface @-@ based estimates . Also , lake and river turtles have to make longer linear trips to access equivalent amounts of foraging space .
Adults outnumber juveniles in most populations , but gauging the ratios is difficult because juveniles are harder to catch ; with current sampling methods , estimates of age distribution vary widely . Annual survival rate of painted turtles increases with age . The probability of a painted turtle surviving from the egg to its first birthday is only 19 % . For females , the annual survival rate rises to 45 % for juveniles and 95 % for adults . The male survival rates follow a similar pattern , but are lower overall than females , creating an average male age lower than that of the female . Natural disasters can confound age distributions . For instance , a hurricane can destroy many nests in a region , resulting in fewer hatchlings the next year . Age distributions may also be skewed by migrations of adults .
To understand painted turtle adult age distributions , researchers require reliable methods . Turtles younger than four years ( up to 12 years in some populations ) can be aged based on " growth rings " in their shells . For older turtles , some attempts have been made to determine age based on size and shape of their shells or legs using mathematical models , but this method is more uncertain . The most reliable method to study the long @-@ lived turtles is to capture them , permanently mark their shells by notching with a drill , release the turtles , and then recapture them in later years . The longest @-@ running study , in Michigan , has shown that painted turtles can live more than 55 years .
Adult sex ratios of painted turtle populations average around 1 : 1 . Many populations are slightly male @-@ heavy , but some are strongly female @-@ imbalanced ; one population in Ontario has a female to male ratio of 4 : 1 . Hatchling sex ratio varies based on egg temperature . During the middle third of incubation , temperatures of 23 – 27 ° C ( 73 – 81 ° F ) produce males , and anything above or below that , females . It does not appear that females choose nesting sites to influence the sex of the hatchlings ; within a population , nests will vary sufficiently to give both male and female @-@ heavy broods .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The painted turtle ( C. picta ) is the only species in the genus Chrysemys . The parent family for Chrysemys is Emydidae : the pond turtles . Emydidae is split into two sub families ; Chrysemys is part of the Deirochelyinae ( Western Hemisphere ) branch . The four subspecies of the painted turtle are the eastern ( C. p. picta ) , midland ( C. p. marginata ) , southern ( C. p. dorsalis ) , and western ( C. p. bellii ) .
The painted turtle 's generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek words for " gold " ( chryso ) and " freshwater tortoise " ( emys ) ; the species name originates from the Latin for " colored " ( pictus ) . The subspecies name , marginata , derives from the Latin for " border " and refers to the red markings on the outer ( marginal ) part of the upper shell ; dorsalis is from the Latin for " back " , referring to the prominent dorsal stripe ; and bellii honors zoologist Thomas Bell , a collaborator of Charles Darwin . An alternate East Coast common name for the painted turtle is " skilpot " , from the Dutch for turtle , schildpad .
= = = Classification = = =
Originally described in 1783 by Johann Gottlob Schneider as Testudo picta , the painted turtle was called Chrysemys picta first by John Edward Gray in 1855 . The four subspecies were then recognized : the eastern by Schneider in 1783 , the western by Gray in 1831 , and the midland and southern by Louis Agassiz in 1857 .
Until the 1930s many of the subspecies of the painted turtle were labeled by biologists as full species within Chrysemys , but this varied by the researcher . The painted turtles in the border region between the western and midland subspecies were sometimes considered a full species , treleasei . In 1931 , Bishop and Schmidt defined the current " four in one " taxonomy of species and subspecies . Based on comparative measurements of turtles from throughout the range , they subordinated species to subspecies and eliminated treleasei .
Since at least 1958 , the subspecies were thought to have evolved in response to geographic isolation during the last ice age , 100 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 years ago . At that time painted turtles were divided into three different populations : eastern painted turtles along the southeastern Atlantic coast ; southern painted turtles around the southern Mississippi River ; and western painted turtles in the southwestern United States . The populations were not completely isolated for sufficiently long , hence wholly different species never evolved . When the glaciers retreated , about 11 @,@ 000 years ago , all three subspecies moved north . The western and southern subspecies met in Missouri and hybridized to produce the midland painted turtle , which then moved east and north through the Ohio and Tennessee river basins .
Biologists have long debated the genera of closely related subfamily @-@ mates Chrysemys , Pseudemys ( cooters ) , and Trachemys ( sliders ) . After 1952 , some combined Pseudemys and Chrysemys because of similar appearance . In 1964 , based on measurements of the skull and feet , Samuel B. McDowell proposed all three genera be merged into one . However , further measurements , in 1967 , contradicted this taxonomic arrangement . Also in 1967 , J. Alan Holman , a paleontologist and herpetologist , pointed out that , although the three turtles were often found together in nature and had similar mating patterns , they did not crossbreed . In the 1980s , studies of turtles ' cell structures , biochemistries , and parasites further indicated that Chrysemys , Pseudemys , and Trachemys should remain in separate genera .
David E. Starkey and collaborators advanced a new view of the subspecies in 2003 . Based on a study of the mitochondrial DNA , they rejected the glacial development theory and argued that the southern painted turtle should be elevated to a separate species , C. dorsalis , while the other subspecies should be collapsed into one and not differentiated . However , this proposition was largely unrecognized because successful breeding between all subspecies was documented wherever they overlapped . Nevertheless , in 2010 , the IUCN recognized both C. dorsalis and C. p. dorsalis as valid names for the southern painted turtle .
= = = Fossils = = =
Although its evolutionary history — what the forerunner to the species was and how the close relatives branched off — is not well understood , the painted turtle is common in the fossil record . The oldest samples , found in Nebraska , date to about 15 million years ago . Fossils from 15 million to about 5 million years ago are restricted to the Nebraska @-@ Kansas area , but more recent fossils are gradually more widely distributed . Fossils newer than 300 @,@ 000 years old are found in almost all the United States and southern Canada .
= = = DNA = = =
The turtle 's karyotype ( nuclear DNA , rather than mitochondrial DNA ) consists of 50 chromosomes , the same number as the rest of its subfamily @-@ mates and the most common number for Emydidae turtles in general . Less well @-@ related turtles have from 26 to 66 chromosomes . Little systematic study of variations of the painted turtle 's karotype among populations has been done . ( However , in 1967 , research on protein structure of offshore island populations in New England , showed differences from mainland turtles . )
Comparison of subspecies chromosomal DNA has been discussed , to help address the debate over Starkey 's proposed taxonomy , but as of 2009 had not been reported . Interestingly , the complete sequencing of the genetic code for the painted turtle was at a " draft assembled " state in 2010 . The turtle was one of two reptiles chosen to be first sequenced .
= = Interaction with humans = =
= = = Conservation = = =
The decline in painted turtle populations is not a simple matter of dramatic range reduction , like that of the American bison . Instead the turtle is classified as G5 ( demonstrably widespread ) in its Natural Heritage Global Rank , and the IUCN rates it as a species of least concern . The painted turtle 's high reproduction rate and its ability to survive in polluted wetlands and artificially made ponds have allowed it to maintain its range , but the post @-@ Columbus settlement of North America has reduced its numbers .
Only within the Pacific Northwest is the turtle 's range eroding . Even there , in Washington , the painted turtle is designated S5 ( demonstrably widespread ) . However , in Oregon , the painted turtle is designated S2 ( imperiled ) , and in British Columbia , the turtle 's populations in the Coast and Interior regions are labeled " endangered " and " of special concern " , respectively .
Much is written about the different factors that threaten the painted turtle , but they are unquantified , with only inferences of relative importance . A primary threat category is habitat loss in various forms . Related to water habitat , there is drying of wetlands , clearing of aquatic logs or rocks ( basking sites ) , and clearing of shoreline vegetation , which allows more predator access or increased human foot traffic . Related to nesting habitat , urbanization or planting can remove needed sunny soils .
Another significant human impact is roadkill — dead turtles , especially females , are commonly seen on summer roads . In addition to direct killing , roads genetically isolate some populations . Localities have tried to limit roadkill by constructing underpasses , highway barriers , and crossing signs . Oregon has introduced public education on turtle awareness , safe swerving , and safely assisting turtles across the road .
In the West , human @-@ introduced bass , bullfrogs , and especially snapping turtles , have increased the predation of hatchlings . Outside the Southeast , where sliders are native , released pet red @-@ eared slider turtles increasingly compete with painted turtles . In cities , increased urban predators ( raccoons , canines , and felines ) may impact painted turtles by eating their eggs .
Other factors of concern for the painted turtles include over @-@ collection from the wild , released pets introducing diseases or reducing genetic variability , pollution , boating traffic , angler 's hooks ( the turtles are noteworthy bait @-@ thieves ) , wanton shooting , and crushing by agricultural machines or golf course lawnmowers or all @-@ terrain vehicles . Gervais and colleagues note that research itself impacts the populations and that much funded turtle trapping work has not been published . They advocate discriminating more on what studies are done , thereby putting fewer turtles into scientists ' traps . Global warming represents an uncharacterized future threat .
= = = Pets and other uses = = =
According to a trade data study , painted turtles were the second most popular pet turtles after red @-@ eared sliders in the early 1990s . As of 2010 , most U.S. states allow , but discourage , painted turtle pets , although Oregon forbids keeping them as pets , and Indiana prohibits their sale . U.S. federal law prohibits sale or transport of any turtle less than 10 cm ( 4 in ) , to limit human contact to salmonella . However , a loophole for scientific samples allows some small turtles to be sold , and illegal trafficking also occurs .
Painted turtle pet @-@ keeping requirements are similar to those of the red @-@ eared slider . Keepers are urged to provide them with adequate space and a basking site , and water that is regularly filtered and changed . According to Petco , the animals are described as being somewhat unsuitable for children as they do not enjoy being held . Hobbyists have kept turtles alive for decades .
The painted turtle is sometimes eaten but is not highly regarded as food , as even the largest subspecies , the western painted turtle , is inconveniently small and larger turtles are available . Schools frequently dissect painted turtles , which are sold by biological supply companies ; specimens often come from the wild but may be captive @-@ bred . In the Midwest , turtle racing is popular at summer fairs .
= = = Capture = = =
Commercial harvesting of painted turtles in the wild is controversial and , increasingly , restricted . Wisconsin formerly had virtually unrestricted trapping of painted turtles but based on qualitative observations forbade all commercial harvesting in 1997 . Neighboring Minnesota , where trappers collected more than 300 @,@ 000 painted turtles during the 1990s , commissioned a study of painted turtle harvesting . Scientists found that harvested lakes averaged half the painted turtle density of off @-@ limit lakes , and population modeling suggested that unrestricted harvests could produce a large decline in turtle populations . In response , Minnesota forbade new harvesters in 2002 and limited trap numbers . Although harvesting continued , subsequent takes averaged half those of the 1990s . As of 2009 , painted turtles faced virtually unlimited harvesting in Arkansas , Iowa , Missouri , Ohio , and Oklahoma ; since then , Missouri has prohibited their harvesting .
Individuals who trap painted turtles typically do so to earn additional income , selling a few thousand a year at $ 1 – 2 each . Many trappers have been involved in the trade for generations , and value it as a family activity . Some harvesters disagree with limiting the catch , saying the populations are not dropping .
Many U.S. state fish and game departments allow non @-@ commercial taking of painted turtles under a creel limit , and require a fishing ( sometimes hunting ) license ; others completely forbid the recreational capture of painted turtles . Trapping is not allowed in Oregon , where western painted turtle populations are in decline , and in Missouri , where there are populations of both southern and western subspecies . In Canada , Ontario protects both subspecies present , the midland and western , and British Columbia protects its dwindling western painted turtles .
Capture methods are also regulated by locality . Typically trappers use either floating " basking traps " or partially submerged , baited " hoop traps " . Trapper opinions , commercial records , and scientific studies show that basking traps are more effective for collecting painted turtles , while the hoop traps work better for collecting " meat turtles " ( snapping turtles and soft @-@ shell turtles ) . Nets , hand capture , and fishing with set lines are generally legal , but shooting , chemicals , and explosives are forbidden .
= = = Culture = = =
Indian tribes were familiar with the painted turtle — young braves were trained to recognize its splashing into water as an alarm — and incorporated it in folklore . A Potawatomi myth describes how the talking turtles , " Painted Turtle " and allies " Snapping Turtle " and " Box Turtle " , outwit the village women . Painted Turtle is the star of the legend and uses his distinctive markings to trick a woman into holding him so he can bite her . An Illini myth recounts how Painted Turtle put his paint on to entice a chief 's daughter into the water .
As of 2010 , four U.S. states designated the painted turtle as official reptile . Vermont honored the reptile in 1994 , following the suggestion of Cornwall Elementary School students . In 1995 , Michigan followed , based on the recommendation of Niles fifth graders , who discovered the state lacked an official reptile . Illinois citizens , in 2004 , voted to select the painted turtle as their state reptile and the legislature made it official in 2005 . Colorado chose the western painted turtle in 2008 , following the efforts of two succeeding years of Jay Biachi 's fourth grade classes . In New York , the painted turtle narrowly lost ( 5 @,@ 048 to 5 @,@ 005 , versus the common snapping turtle ) a 2006 statewide student election for state reptile .
In the border town of Boissevain , Manitoba , a 10 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) western painted turtle , Tommy the Turtle , is a roadside attraction . The statue was built in 1974 to celebrate the Canadian Turtle Derby , a festival including turtle races that ran from 1972 – 2001 .
Another Canadian admirer of the painted turtle is Jon Montgomery , who won the 2010 Olympic gold medal in skeleton ( a form of sled ) racing , while wearing a painted turtle painting on the crown of his helmet , prominently visible when he slid downhill . Montgomery , who also iconically tattoed his chest with a maple @-@ leaf , explained his visual promotion of the turtle , saying that he had assisted one to cross the road . BC Hydro referred to Montgomery 's action when describing its own sponsorship of conservation research for the turtle in British Columbia .
Several private entities use the painted turtle as a symbol . Wayne State University Press operates an imprint " named after the Michigan state reptile " that " publishes books on regional topics of cultural and historical interest " . In California , The Painted Turtle is a camp for ill children , founded by Paul Newman . Painted Turtle Winery of British Columbia trades on the " laid back and casual lifestyle " of the turtle with a " job description to bask in the sun " . Also , there are two Internet companies in Michigan , a guesthouse in British Columbia , and a café in Maine that use the painted turtle commercially .
In children 's books , the painted turtle is a popular subject , with at least seven books published between 2000 and 2010 . " Painted turtle : state reptile of Michigan " is a short song for children .
= Chen Guangcheng =
Chen Guangcheng ( born 12 November 1971 ) is a Chinese civil rights activist who has worked on human rights issues in rural areas of the People 's Republic of China . Blind from an early age and self @-@ taught in the law , Chen is frequently described as a " barefoot lawyer " who advocates for women 's rights , land rights , and the welfare of the poor . He is best known for accusing people of abuses in official family @-@ planning practices , often involving claims of violence and forced abortions .
In 2005 , Chen gained international recognition for organising a landmark class @-@ action lawsuit against authorities in Linyi , Shandong province , for the excessive enforcement of the one @-@ child policy . As a result of this lawsuit , Chen was placed under house arrest from September 2005 to March 2006 , with a formal arrest in June 2006 . On 24 August 2006 , Chen was sentenced to four years and three months for " damaging property and organising a mob to disturb traffic . " He was released from prison in 2010 after serving his full sentence , but remained under house arrest or " soft detention " at his home in Dongshigu Village . Chen and his wife were reportedly beaten shortly after a human rights group released a video of their home under intense police surveillance in February 2011 .
Chen 's case received sustained international attention , with the U.S. State Department , the British Foreign Secretary , Human Rights Watch , and Amnesty International issuing appeals for his release ; the latter group designated him a prisoner of conscience . Chen is a 2007 laureate of the Ramon Magsaysay Award and in 2006 was named to the Time 100 .
In April 2012 , Chen escaped his house arrest and fled to the U.S. Embassy in Beijing . After negotiations with the Chinese government , he left the embassy for medical treatment in early May 2012 , and it was reported that China would consider allowing him to travel to the United States to study . On 19 May 2012 , Chen , his wife , and his two children were granted U.S. visas and departed Beijing for New York City . In October 2013 , Chen accepted a position with the conservative research group Witherspoon Institute , and a position at the Catholic University of America .
= = Early life and family = =
Chen is the youngest of five brothers of a peasant family from the village of Dongshigu , Yinan County , Shandong Province , approximately 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) from the city of Jinan . When Chen was about six months old , he lost his sight due to a fever that destroyed his optical nerves . In an interview for the New York Review of Books , Chen said that although his family did not identify with an organized religion , his upbringing was informed by a " traditional belief in virtue that ’ s present in Chinese culture — that might have some Buddhist content , but not necessarily that one believes in Buddhism . " His village was poor , with many families living at a subsistence level . " When I went to school I ’ d be happy if I just got enough to eat , " he recalled .
Chen 's father worked as an instructor at a Communist Party school , earning the equivalent of about $ 60 annually . When Chen was a child , his father would read literary works aloud to him , and reportedly helped impart to his son an appreciation of the values of democracy and freedom . In 1991 , Chen 's father gave him a copy of " The Law Protecting the Disabled , " which elaborated on the legal rights and protections in place for disabled persons in the PRC .
In 1989 , at the age of 18 , Chen began attending school as a grade one student at the Elementary School for the Blind in Linyi city . In 1994 , he enrolled at the Qingdao High School for the Blind , where he studied until 1998 . He had already begun developing an interest in law , and would often ask his brothers to read legal texts to him . He earned a position at the Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine in 1998 but because his family was poor , they had to borrow $ 340 to cover tuition costs . They still fell short of the required $ 400 and university authorities reportedly had to be pleaded with before allowing Chen to enroll . He studied in Nanjing from 1998 to 2001 , specializing in acupuncture and massage — the only programs available to the blind . Chen also audited legal courses , gaining a sufficient understanding of the law to allow him to aid his fellow villagers when they sought his assistance . After graduation he returned to his home region and found a job as
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a masseur in the hospital of Yinan County .
Chen met his wife , Yuan Weijing , in 2001 , after listening to a radio talk show . Yuan had called into the show to discuss her difficulties in landing a job after graduating from the foreign language department of Shandong 's Chemistry Institute . Chen , who listened to the program , later contacted Yuan and relayed his own story of hardship as a blind man living on just 400 Yuan per year . Yuan was moved by the exchange , and later that year , she traveled to Chen 's village to meet him . The couple eloped in 2003 . Their son , Chen Kerui , was born later that year . In 2005 they had a second child — a daughter named Chen Kesi — in violation of China 's one @-@ child policy . Yuan , who had been working as an English teacher at the time of the marriage , left her job in 2003 in order to assist her husband in his legal work .
= = Activism = =
Chen first petitioned authorities in 1996 , when he traveled to Beijing to complain about taxes that were incorrectly being levied on his family ( people with disabilities , such as Chen , are supposed to be exempt from taxation and fees ) . The complaint was successful , and Chen began petitioning for other individuals with disabilities . With funding from a British foundation , Chen became an outspoken activist for disability rights within the China Law Society . His reputation as a disability rights advocate was solidified when agreed to advocate for an elderly blind couple whose grandchildren suffered from paralysis . The family had been paying all of the regular taxes and fees , but Chen believed that , under the law , the family should have received government assistance and exemption from taxation . When the case went to court , blind citizens from surrounding counties were in attendance as a show of solidarity . The case was successful , and the outcome became well @-@ known .
In 1997 , the leaders of Chen 's village began implementing a land use plan that gave authorities control over 60 percent of land , which they then rented out at high cost to the villages . The plan , known as the " two @-@ field system , " was a major source of enrichment for the local government . While studying in Nanjing the following year , however , Chen learned that the program was illegal , and he petitioned central authorities in Beijing to end the system , thereby irritating local officials .
In 2000 , Chen returned from his studies in Nanjing to his village of Dongshigu in an effort to confront environmental pollution . A paper mill constructed in 1988 had been dumping toxic wastewater into the Meng river , destroying crops and harming wildlife . The chemicals also reportedly caused skin and digestive problems among villagers living downstream from the mill . Chen organized villagers in his hometown and 78 other villages to petition against the mill . The effort was successful , and resulted in the suspension of the paper mill . In addition , Chen contacted the British embassy in Beijing , informing them of the situation and requesting funding for a well to supply clean water to locals . The British government responded by providing £ 15 @,@ 000 towards a deep water well , irrigation systems and water pipelines .
In March 2004 , more than 300 residents from Chen 's village of Dongshigu filed a petition to the village government demanding that they release the village accounts — which hadn 't been made public for over ten years — and address the issue of illegal land requisitions . When village authorities failed to respond , villagers escalated their appeals to the township , county and municipal governments , still without response . Village authorities then began to publicly threaten villagers . In November 2004 , Chen acted on behalf of villagers to file a lawsuit in the Qi 'nan County Court against the local Public Security Bureau for negligence . The case was accepted , and proceedings began in early 2005 .
In 2005 , Chen spent several months surveying residents of Shandong Province , collecting accounts of forced , late @-@ term abortions and forced sterilization of women who stood in violation of China ’ s one @-@ child policy . His survey was based in Linyi and included surrounding rural suburbs . Chen later recalled that his survey would have been significantly larger in scope were he not limited by a lack of financial resources .
Though Chinese central authorities have sought to curb the coercive enforcement of the one @-@ child policy since 1990 by replacing measures such as forced abortions and sterilizations with a system of financial incentives and fines , Chen found that coercive practices remained widespread , and he documented numerous cases of abuse . One of the women he interviewed in Maxiagou village , 36 @-@ year @-@ old Feng Zhongxia , said that local officials detained and beat her relatives , and indicated they would not be released until she turned herself in and submitted to a forced abortion . She said she was later subjected to forced sterilization . Chen also solicited the help of prominent legal scholar Teng Biao , who conducted his own interviews in Linyi . Teng and Chen later released a report claiming that an estimated 130 @,@ 000 residents in the city had been forced into ' study sessions ' for refusing abortions or violating the one @-@ child policy ; residents would be held for days or weeks in the study sessions , and were allegedly beaten .
In 2005 , Chen filed a class @-@ action lawsuit on behalf of women from Linyi against the city 's family planning staff . And in June , he traveled to Beijing to file the complaint and meet with foreign reporters to publicize the case . Although there had been prior instances of Chinese citizens filing complaints about abuses under the one @-@ child policy , Chen ’ s initiative was the first class @-@ action lawsuit to challenge its implementation .
Although the suit he filed was rejected , the case garnered international media attention . Responding to questions about Chen ’ s allegation , a senior official with the National Population and Family Planning Commission told the Washington Post that the practice of forced abortions and sterilizations was “ definitely illegal , ” and indicated that the complaints were being investigated . “ If the Linyi complaints are true , or even partly true , it 's because local officials do not understand the new demands of the Chinese leadership regarding family planning work , ” said the official . In September 2005 , the Commission announced that several Linyi officials had been detained . But local authorities in Linyi retaliated against Chen , placing him under house arrest in September 2005 and embarking on a campaign to undermine his reputation ; the Linyi officials portrayed him as working for " foreign anti @-@ China forces " , pointing out that he had received foreign funding for his advocacy on behalf of the disabled .
= = Detention and trial = =
On 7 September 2005 , while Chen was in Beijing to publicize his class action lawsuit against the Linyi city family planning staff , he was reportedly abducted by security agents from Linyi and held for 38 hours . Recounting the incident to foreign journalists , Chen said that authorities threatened to levy criminal charges against him for providing state secrets or intelligence to foreign organizations . After Chen refused negotiations with local officials to cease his activism , Linyi authorities placed him under effective house arrest beginning in September 2005 . When he attempted to escape in October , he was beaten .
Xinhua , the news agency of the Chinese government , stated that on 5 February 2006 , Chen instigated others " to damage and smash cars belonging to the Shuanghou Police Station and the town government " as well as attack local government officials . Time reported that witnesses to Chen 's protest disputed the government 's version of events , and his lawyers argued that it was unlikely he could have committed the crimes due to his constant surveillance by police . Chen was removed from his house in March 2006 and was formally detained in June 2006 by Yinan county officials . He was scheduled to stand trial on 17 July 2006 on charges of destruction of property and assembling a crowd to disrupt traffic , but this was delayed at the request of the prosecution . According to Radio Free Asia and Chinese Human Rights Defenders , the prosecution delayed the trial because a crowd of Chen supporters gathered outside the courthouse . With only a few days ' notice , authorities rescheduled Chen 's trial for 18 August 2006 .
On the eve of his trial , all three of his lawyers , including Xu Zhiyong of the Yitong Law Firm , were detained by Yinan police ; two were released after being questioned . Neither Chen 's lawyers nor his wife were allowed in the courtroom for the trial . Authorities appointed their own public defender for Chen just before the trial began . The trial lasted only two hours . On 24 August 2006 , Chen was sentenced to four years and three months for " damaging property and organizing a mob to disturb traffic " .
As a result of Chen 's trial , British Foreign Secretary Margaret Beckett selected his case for the cover of the British government 's 2006 human rights report , stating concern over the handling of Chen 's case and calling for the Chinese government " to prove its commitment to building rule of law . " A Globe and Mail columnist also criticized the verdict , writing that " Even assuming [ Chen ] did damage ' doors and windows , ' as well as cars , and interrupt traffic for three hours , it is difficult to argue a four @-@ year prison sentence is somehow proportionate to the offence . "
On 30 November 2006 , Yinan County court upheld Chen 's sentence , and on 12 January 2007 , the Linyi Intermediate Court in Shandong Province rejected his final appeal . The same court had overturned his original conviction in December 2006 , citing lack of evidence . However , Chen was convicted in a second trial on identical charges and given an identical sentence by the Yinan court . Following the trial , Amnesty International declared him to be a prisoner of conscience , " jailed solely for his peaceful activities in defence of human rights " .
= = House arrest = =
After his release from prison in 2010 , Chen was placed under house arrest against Chinese law , and was closely monitored by security forces . Legally , he was proclaimed by the government to be a free man , but in reality the local government offered no explanation for the hundreds of unidentified agents monitoring his house and preventing visitors or escape . The national propaganda organ , the Global Times , expressed confusion over the issue , and suggested that the local government may not know how to handle it , but no disciplinary action was taken at the national level .
He and his wife attempted to communicate with the outside world via video tape and letters . Letters described beatings Chen and his wife were subjected to , seizure of documents and communication devices , cutting off of electric power to their residence , and placing of metal sheets over the windows of their house . Harassment of Chen 's family continued throughout his house arrest , and extended to Chen 's six @-@ year @-@ old daughter , who was briefly banned from attending school and had her toys confiscated by guards , and to Chen 's mother , who was harassed while working in the fields . Authorities reportedly told Chen that they had spent 60 million yuan ( $ 9 @.@ 5 million ) to keep him under house arrest .
In 2011 , The New York Times reported that a number of supporters and admirers had attempted to penetrate the security monitoring Chen 's home , but were unsuccessful . In some instances , his supporters were pummeled , beaten , or robbed by security agents . U.S. Congressman Chris Smith attempted to visit Chen in November 2011 , but was not granted permission . U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton described the U.S. government as " alarmed " by Chen 's continued detention and called on China " to embrace a different path " . Human Rights Watch described his house arrest as " unlawful " and called on authorities to give Chen his freedom .
In December 2011 , actor Christian Bale attempted to visit Chen along with a CNN crew , but was punched , shoved , and denied access by Chinese security guards . Bale later stated that he had wanted " to meet the man , shake his hand and say what an inspiration he is . " Video footage also showed Bale and the CNN crew having stones thrown at them , and being pursued in their minivan for more than 40 minutes .
= = Escape and emigration = =
On 22 April 2012 , Chen escaped from house arrest . Chen 's fellow activist Hu Jia stated that Chen had been planning escape for a long time , and had previously attempted to dig a tunnel for escape . In the weeks leading up to his escape , Chen gave his guards the impression that he was ill in bed , and stopped appearing outside the house , which allowed him several days before any absence would be discovered . Under cover of darkness and with the help of his wife , Chen climbed over the wall around his house , breaking his foot in the process .
When he came upon the Meng River , he found it to be guarded , but crossed anyway and was not stopped ; he later stated that he believed the guards had been asleep . Though he recollected his immediate surroundings from his childhood explorations , he eventually passed into less familiar territory ; he later told his supporters that he fell more than 200 times during his escape . Communicating with a network of activists via a cell phone , he reached a pre @-@ determined rendezvous point where He Peirong , an English teacher and activist , was waiting for him . A chain of human rights activists then escorted him to Beijing . Several of the activists reported to be involved were detained or disappeared in the days following the announcement of Chen 's escape .
Chen was given refuge at the U.S. Embassy in Beijing , though the Embassy initially declined to confirm or deny reports that they were sheltering him . The Embassy later said they had accepted Chen on humanitarian grounds and offered him medical assistance . On 27 April , Chen appeared in an internet video in which he expressed his concern that the authorities would carry out " insane retribution " on his family and made three demands of Premier Wen Jiabao : 1 ) that local officials who allegedly assaulted his family be prosecuted ; 2 ) that his family 's safety be guaranteed ; and 3 ) that the Chinese government prosecute corruption cases under the law .
The New York Times described the situation as a " diplomatic quandary " at a time when the U.S. was seeking to improve relations with China and seeks its support with respect to crises in Iran , Sudan , Syria , and North Korea . BBC News described Chen 's escape as coming at " an unwelcome time for China 's leaders , " who were still dealing with a high @-@ profile corruption scandal that resulted in the removal of politburo member Bo Xilai . Within twenty @-@ four hours , Chen 's name as well as the phrases " CGC " and " the blind man " had been blocked by Chinese online censors in an effort to quell Internet discussion of the case . On the day Chen announced his escape , Chinese state media did not carry " a single line of news " referring to it . The New York Times wrote that news of the escape " electrified China ’ s rights activists " .
= = = Negotiations and exit from U.S. embassy = = =
Kurt M. Campbell , an assistant secretary of state , quietly arrived in Beijing on 29 April for negotiations with representatives of China 's Ministry of Foreign Affairs . After several days of media speculation as to his whereabouts , Chen was confirmed on 2 May to have been under U.S diplomatic protection at the Embassy . According to embassy representatives , the agreement brokered with Chinese authorities provided that Chen would be freed from soft detention , relocated , and be permitted to finish his legal education at one of several law schools in China . Chinese officials also promised to investigate " extra @-@ legal activities " taken by Shandong province authorities against Chen and his family . Chen left the embassy of his own accord on 2 May , was reunited with his family , and admitted to Beijing 's Chaoyang Hospital for medical treatment .
During the initial negotiations in the U.S. embassy , Chen did not request asylum in the United States or considered leaving China , but instead demanded to remain there as a free man . However , soon after leaving the embassy , Chen feared that Chinese authorities would renege on their promises or take punitive actions against his family members . While in the hospital , Chinese security personnel barred U.S. diplomatic staff from meeting with him . Rumors emerged that Chinese officials had coerced Chen into leaving the embassy by threatening his family . U.S. negotiators stated that while in the embassy , Chen had been told by Chinese officials that if he sought asylum in the United States , his wife and daughter would likely remain under house arrest in Shandong . However , they maintained that they had not heard of the threats from local officials that his family would be beaten , and that they had not communicated such a message to Chen . On 3 May , Chen clarified to the BBC that he had become aware of the threats against his family after leaving the embassy , and at that point changed his mind about wishing to stay in China .
On 2 May , a spokesperson of China 's Ministry of Foreign Affairs demanded that the U.S. apologize for the Chen incident , investigate its acts and never interfere in China 's domestic matters in such a way again . In an editorial on 4 May , Beijing Daily described Chen as " a tool and a pawn for American politicians to denigrate China " . The daily also accused US Ambassador Gary Locke of stirring up trouble by sheltering Chen , and questioned Locke 's motives .
On 4 May , after Chen made clear his desire to leave China for the United States , a Chinese foreign ministry spokesperson indicated that , if he wished to study abroad , he could " apply through normal channels to the relevant departments in accordance with the law , just like any other Chinese citizen . " On the same day , Chen was offered a visiting scholar position at New York University . On 19 May , Chen , his wife , and his two children , having been granted U.S. visas , departed Beijing on a commercial flight for Newark , New Jersey .
= = = Treatment of family and associates = = =
While Chen was living under house arrest , several of his family members also reportedly faced harassment and confinement by authorities . His elderly mother , Wang Jinxiang , recalled being continuously followed by three security agents . The BBC reported in May 2012 that she remained under house arrest . Before leaving China in the spring of 2012 , Chen expressed concern that his relatives and other activists who had helped him evade capture would be punished by Chinese officials after his departure .
On 27 April 2012 , soon after Chen escaped house arrest , plainclothes security agents forced entry into the home of his eldest brother , Chen Guangfu . Believing that the elder brother had information on Chen 's escape , police took him to a police station for interrogation , and reportedly chained his feet , slapped him , and struck him with a belt . Police officers then allegedly returned to the family 's home and proceeded to beat Guangfu 's wife and son . His son , Chen Kegui , pulled a knife and slashed at three of the officers , causing minor injuries . He was taken into custody and faces criminal charges for attempted murder . On 24 May , it was reported that Chen Guangfu had escaped to Beijing from his guarded village to advocate on behalf of his son . In November 2012 , Chen Kegui was sentenced to more than three years in prison .
On 4 November 2013 , Chen Guangfu said he would fly to New York City with his mother two days later for a reunion with his brother Chen Guangcheng .
= = In the United States = =
Following his arrival in the U.S. , Chen , his wife , and the couple 's two children settled in a housing complex for students and faculty of New York University , located in Greenwich Village . He reportedly began studying English for two hours per day , in addition to having regular meetings with American legal scholars . His memoir , The Barefoot Lawyer , was published in March 2015 by Henry Holt and Company .
On 29 May 2012 , Chen published an editorial in the New York Times criticizing the Chinese government and the Communist Party for the " lawless punishment inflicted on ( himself ) and ( his ) family over the past seven years . " He said that " those who handled my case were able to openly flout the nation ’ s laws in many ways for many years . " In an April 2013 testimony before the House Foreign Affairs Committee , Chen said that Chinese authorities had failed to deliver on promises to investigate allegations of mistreatment against him and his family . Chen issued a statement in June saying NYU is forcing him to leave at the end of June because of pressure from the Chinese government . This claim was denied by the university , as well as by professor Jerome A. Cohen , Chen 's mentor who arranged for his placement at NYU . Chen 's close association with conservative Christian and pro @-@ life figures since coming to the United States , including representative Chris Smith , pastor Bob Fu , and media consultant Mark Corallo , has concerned old supporters like Cohen .
In October 2013 , Chen accepted an offer from the Witherspoon Institute in Princeton , New Jersey , which opposes abortion and gay marriage . Chen will serve as Distinguished Senior Fellow in Human Rights at the Witherspoon Institute , as well as Visiting Fellow of the Institute for Policy Research and Catholic Studies at the Catholic University of America and Senior Distinguished Advisor to the Lantos Foundation for Human Rights and Justice .
On 16 October 2013 , Chen made his first public appearance in his role as a Distinguished Senior Fellow at the Witherspoon Institute . He delivered a public lecture at Princeton University entitled " China and the World in the 21st Century : The Next Human Rights Revolution , " which was co @-@ sponsored by the Witherspoon Institute and the James Madison Program in American Ideals and Institutions . The text of Chen 's speech , translated into English , was then published online . In the speech , Chen called on the American people to support the Chinese people by fighting against the oppressive Communist government of China . He reminded the audience that even small actions undertaken in defense of human rights can have a large impact , because “ Every person has infinite strength . Every action has an important impact . We must believe in the value of our own actions . ”
= = Awards and recognition = =
Chen began attracting international media attention for his civil rights activism in the early 2000s . In March 2002 , Newsweek magazine ran a cover story on Chen and the " barefoot lawyer " movement in China , detailing his advocacy on behalf of villagers and the disabled . His profile rose further in 2005 when he filed a landmark class @-@ action suit taking on abuses of the one @-@ child policy . In 2007 , Chen Guangcheng was named one of the Time 100 , Time 's annual list of " 100 men and women whose power , talent or moral example is transforming our world " . The citation stated , " He may have lost his sight as a child , but Chen Guangcheng 's legal vision has helped illuminate the plight of thousands of Chinese villagers . "
Later that year , Chen won the Ramon Magsaysay Award while still in detention . The award , often called the " Asian Nobel Prize " , was bestowed for " his irrepressible passion for justice in leading ordinary Chinese citizens to assert their legitimate rights under the law " . According to AIDS activist Hu Jia , Chen 's wife Yuan Weijing attempted to attend the Magsaysay Award ceremony on her husband 's behalf , her passport was revoked and her mobile phone was confiscated by Chinese authorities at Beijing Capital International Airport .
The National Endowment for Democracy honored Chen with the 2008 Democracy Award . Chen was one of seven Chinese lawyers and civil rights activists to be named as recipients of the award .
In 2012 , Chen was chosen as the recipient of the Human Rights Award from the New York @-@ based NGO Human Rights First . In explaining the choice , the organization 's president Elisa Massimino stated , " Mr. Chen 's activism has reignited an international conversation about the need to protect human rights lawyers around the world who face great danger for their courageous work . " In 2014 he received the Geneva Summit Courage Award .
= Sea Cloud =
Sea Cloud is a sailing cruise ship of the Sea Cloud Cruises line . Initially built as a private yacht , it subsequently served as a weather ship for the United States Coast Guard and United States Navy during World War II . The ship served as the first racially integrated warship in the United States Armed Forces since the American Civil War . Following the war , Sea Cloud was returned to private ownership , serving as a yacht for numerous people , including as presidential yacht of the Dominican Republic . The ship currently sails in Europe and the Caribbean as part of a fleet of sail cruise ships operated by Sea Cloud Cruises GmbH of Hamburg , Germany , often under contract to the National Geographic Society .
= = Private yacht = =
Sea Cloud was built in Kiel , Germany , as a barque for Marjorie Merriweather Post and her second husband Edward F. Hutton of Wall Street fame E. F. Hutton & Co .. She was launched in 1931 as Hussar II ; at the time of her construction , she was the largest private yacht in the world . In 1935 , the United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union , Joseph E. Davies , married Marjorie Merriweather Post . Mr. and Mrs. Davies renamed the ship Sea Cloud . Although Mrs. Davies owned the ship , she allowed Mr. Davies to claim ownership of the vessel . As a man with political influence , Davies entertained many high profile people on the ship , including Queen Elisabeth of Belgium . The ship even served as an informal embassy , as Soviet and United States officials stayed and met on the vessel .
= = Coast Guard service = =
Mrs. Davies had first offered the ship to the U.S. Department of the Navy in 1941 , but the Navy turned her down . President Franklin Delano Roosevelt objected to the ship entering service , remarking that she was too beautiful to be sacrificed . However , on January 7 , 1942 , the Navy reassessed their position , chartering the ship for $ 1 per year . The Navy sent Sea Cloud from Georgetown , South Carolina , to the United States Coast Guard Yard in Curtis Bay , Maryland , to be refitted as a " weather observation station vessel " , and had its four masts removed and hull painted battleship gray . Sea Cloud was commissioned as a United States Coast Guard Cutter on April 4 , 1942 , and assigned to the Eastern Sea Frontier , with a permanent home port in Boston .
During 1942 , Sea Cloud mostly served as a weather ship at Weather Patrol Station Number Two ( position 52 ° 0 ′ N 42 ° 30 ′ W ) . On June 6 , 1942 , the ship rescued eight survivors from the schooner Maria da Gloria . On August 3 , 1942 and August 4 , 1942 , Sea Cloud served at Weather Patrol Station Number One while USS Manhasset was converted to a weather ship .
= = Naval service = =
In 1943 , the Navy asked for control of Sea Cloud and Nourmahal , another former yacht converted into a weather ship . On April 9 , 1943 , the United States Navy commissioned Sea Cloud as USS Sea Cloud ( IX @-@ 99 ) , though she maintained a Coast Guard crew . She was assigned to Task Force 24 .
Relieving USCGC Conifer in February 1944 , Sea Cloud patrolled a 100 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 260 km2 ) area near the New England coast , generating weather reports for the First Naval District . On February 27 , 1944 , Sea Cloud traveled to be refurbished at Atlantic Yard in East Boston , afterwards taking over a new one @-@ hundred square mile area at Weather Station Number One .
On April 5 , 1944 , Sea Cloud received radar indication of a small target at position 39 ° 27 ′ N 62 ° 30 ′ W , bearing 350 ° at 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) . General quarters were sounded and battle stations manned , but contact was lost ten minutes later . The target was identified as a submarine , but after Sea Cloud carried out standard anti @-@ submarine drills with no evidence of damage being inflicted , she returned to port .
After minor repairs , Sea Cloud was rebased to Argentia , Newfoundland , where she was assigned to Weather Station Number Three . While patrolling the area on June 11 , 1944 , the crew spotted a Navy Grumman TBF Avenger , exchanging recognition signals . Sea Cloud received orders to report to the escort carrier Croatan and join the five other escort ships under her command . The envoy searched for a raft reported in the area , but returned with no sightings . After this event , Sea Cloud was once again reassigned to Weather Station Number Four . After a search for a downed aircraft , she returned to port in Boston . Sea Cloud was decommissioned on November 4 , 1944 , at the Bethlehem Steel Atlantic Yard and returned to Davies , along with $ 175 @,@ 000 for conversion to pre @-@ war appearance .
For her wartime service , Sea Cloud was awarded the American Campaign Medal and the World War Two Victory Medal .
= = = Racial integration = = =
In late 1944 , Lieutenant Carlton Skinner took command of the ship , after previously serving as executive officer in November 1944 . At that time , black seamen were only permitted to serve as ship stewards . After witnessing a black man save the crew of Northland yet still be denied promotion because of the rule , Skinner proposed an experiment . Skinner submitted his plan to the U.S. Secretary of the Navy and was allowed to sail his first weather patrol with a fully integrated crew . Within a few months , fifty black sailors , including two officers , were stationed aboard Sea Cloud . Skinner requested that the experiment not be publicized and the ship not be treated differently from other ships in the task force . Skinner showed that his integrated crew could work just as efficiently as a segregated crew , if not more so , when his crew passed two fleet inspections with no deficiencies .
Under Skinner 's command when the ship was integrated , American painter Jacob Lawrence served on the Sea Cloud . He was able to paint and sketch while in the Coast Guard , notably his War Series .
= = Return to civilian service = =
Following its return , Sea Cloud received a reassembled rigging in 1947 , and a new set of twenty @-@ nine sails in 1949 . The vessel was painted white , and a gold eagle painted on the bow . The ship 's reconstruction took nearly four years . Marjorie Merriweather Post retained ownership of Sea Cloud in the aftermath of her divorce from Mr. Davies , since she had originally brought the ship into the marriage . After evaluating the cost of running a year round crew of seventy @-@ two , Marjorie Merriweather Post decided to sell the ship .
In the beginning Sea Cloud featured royal @-@ sails over single topgallant- and double top @-@ sails on the fore and mizzen masts . The main mast was equipped with a royal @-@ sail over double topgallant- and double top @-@ sails . Today the first three masts are rigged with double top @-@ sails , single topgallants , royals and a main skysail .
= = = Presidential yacht Angelita = = =
Rafael Trujillo , ruler of the Dominican Republic , purchased Sea Cloud in 1955 , trading a secondhand Vickers Viscount for it . He renamed the ship Angelita after his daughter . The yacht served as a houseboat and government office . Following Trujillo 's assassination on May 30 , 1961 , his family attempted to smuggle themselves and Trujillo 's body to the Canary Islands aboard Angelita , but were forced back by the Dominican Republic 's new government .
= = = School ship Patria = = =
Five years after Trujillo 's death , the ship , now named Patria , was sold to Operation Sea Cruises , Inc. in 1966 . Company president John Blue registered her in Panama and sent her to Naples , Italy , to recondition and outfit her for charters . Sold to Antarna Inc . , Miami , in 1969 the ship was renamed Antarna . Blue brought the vessel to the United States , but port authorities docked the boat after a dispute in Colón , Panama . Charles and Stephanie Gallagher paid the fees to get the ship free and set her to sea , even though Blue still held the ship 's papers . The two dreamed of making the ship an " oceanic school " where students would supplement their traditional learning with at @-@ sea education . Blue eventually retrieved his ship after a confrontation in Panama .
= = = Cruise ship Sea Cloud = = =
After the ship stayed in port for eight years , Hartmut Paschberg and a group of Hamburg associates purchased her , once again naming her Sea Cloud . Paschberg and thirty @-@ eight other men sailed the ship to Europe , arriving in the Port of Hamburg on November 15 , 1978 . Sea Cloud spent eight months undergoing repairs in the now @-@ named Howaldtswerke @-@ Deutsche Werft shipyard , the very yard she was built in . She was redesigned with a sixty @-@ four passenger capacity for a crew of sixty . The ship set sail on her first cruise in 1979 , and has since been described by the Berlitz Complete Guide to Cruising & Cruise Ships as " the most romantic sailing ship afloat " . In 2011 , the Sea Cloud underwent extensive renovations at the MWB @-@ Werft , Bremerhaven . She is still operating as a cruise ship .
= Second Crusade =
The Second Crusade ( 1147 – 1149 ) was the second major crusade launched from Europe as Catholic ( ' Latin ' ) holy war against Islam . The Second Crusade was started in response to the fall of the County of Edessa the previous year to the forces of Zengi . The county had been founded during the First Crusade ( 1096 – 1099 ) by King Baldwin of Boulogne in 1098 . While it was the first Crusader state to be founded , it was also the first to fall .
The Second Crusade was announced by Pope Eugene III , and was the first of the crusades to be led by European kings , namely Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany , with help from a number of other European nobles . The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe . After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia , both armies were separately defeated by the Seljuk Turks . The main Western Christian source , Odo of Deuil , and Syriac Christian sources claim that the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos secretly hindered the crusaders ' progress , particularly in Anatolia , where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them . Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and participated in 1148 in an ill @-@ advised attack on Damascus . The crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a great victory for the Muslims . It would ultimately have a key influence on the fall of Jerusalem and give rise to the Third Crusade at the end of the 12th century .
The only Christian success of the Second Crusade came to a combined force of 13 @,@ 000 Flemish , Frisian , Norman , English , Scottish , and German crusaders in 1147 . Travelling from England , by ship , to the Holy Land , the army stopped and helped the smaller ( 7 @,@ 000 ) Portuguese army in the capture of Lisbon , expelling its Moorish occupants .
= = Background : the fall of Edessa = =
After the First Crusade and the minor Crusade of 1101 there were three crusader states established in the east : the Kingdom of Jerusalem , the Principality of Antioch and the County of Edessa . A fourth , the County of Tripoli , was established in 1109 . Edessa was the most northerly of these , and also the weakest and least populated ; as such , it was subject to frequent attacks from the surrounding Muslim states ruled by the Ortoqids , Danishmends and Seljuq Turks . Count Baldwin II and future count Joscelin of Courtenay were taken captive after their defeat at the Battle of Harran in 1104 . Baldwin and Joscelin were both captured a second time in 1122 , and although Edessa recovered somewhat after the Battle of Azaz in 1125 , Joscelin was killed in battle in 1131 . His successor Joscelin II was forced into an alliance with the Byzantine Empire , but in 1143 both the Byzantine emperor John II Comnenus and the King of Jerusalem Fulk of Anjou died . Joscelin had also quarreled with the Count of Tripoli and the Prince of Antioch , leaving Edessa with no powerful allies .
Meanwhile , the Seljuq Zengi , Atabeg of Mosul , had added to his rule in 1128 Aleppo , the key to power in Syria , contested between the rulers of Mosul and Damascus . Both Zengi and King Baldwin II turned their attention towards Damascus ; Baldwin was defeated outside the great city in 1129 . Damascus , ruled by the Burid Dynasty , later allied with King Fulk when Zengi besieged the city in 1139 and 1140 ; the alliance was negotiated by the chronicler Usamah ibn Munqidh .
In late 1144 , Joscelin II allied with the Ortoqids and marched out of Edessa with almost his entire army to support the Ortoqid army against Aleppo . Zengi , already seeking to take advantage of Fulk 's death in 1143 , hurried north to besiege Edessa , which fell to him after a month on 24 December 1144 . Manasses of Hierges , Philip of Milly and others were sent from Jerusalem to assist , but arrived too late . Joscelin II continued to rule the remnants of the county from Turbessel , but little by little the rest of the territory was captured by Muslims or sold to the Byzantines . Zengi himself was praised throughout Islam as " defender of the faith " and al @-@ Malik al @-@ Mansur , " the victorious king " . He did not pursue an attack on the remaining territory of Edessa , or the Principality of Antioch , as was feared . Events in Mosul compelled him to return home , and he once again set his sights on Damascus . However , he was assassinated by a slave in 1146 and was succeeded in Aleppo by his son Nur ad @-@ Din .
= = = Quantum praedecessores = = =
The news of the fall of Edessa was brought back to Europe first by pilgrims early in 1145 , and then by embassies from Antioch , Jerusalem and Armenia . Bishop Hugh of Jabala reported the news to Pope Eugene III , who issued the bull Quantum praedecessores on 1 December of that year , calling for a second crusade . Hugh also told the Pope of an eastern Christian king , who , it was hoped , would bring relief to the crusader states : this is the first documented mention of Prester John . Eugene did not control Rome and lived instead at Viterbo , but nevertheless the Second Crusade was meant to be more organized and centrally controlled than the First : the armies would be led by the strongest kings of Europe and a route would be planned beforehand .
The initial response to the new crusade bull was poor , and it in fact had to be reissued when it was clear that Louis VII of France would be taking part in the expedition . Louis VII had also been considering a new expedition independently of the Pope , which he announced to his Christmas court at Bourges in 1145 . It is debatable whether Louis was planning a crusade of his own or in fact a pilgrimage , as he wanted to fulfil a vow made by his dead brother Philip to go to the Holy Land . It is probable that Louis had made this decision independently of hearing about Quantum Praedecessores . In any case , Abbot Suger and other nobles were not in favour of Louis ' plans , as he would be gone from the kingdom for several years . Louis consulted Bernard of Clairvaux , who referred him back to Eugene . By now Louis would have definitely heard about the papal bull , and Eugene enthusiastically supported Louis ' crusade . The bull was reissued on 1 March 1146 , and Eugene authorized Bernard to preach the news throughout France .
= = Saint Bernard of Clairvaux = =
The Pope commissioned Bernard to preach the Second Crusade , and granted the same indulgences for it which Pope Urban II had accorded to the First Crusade . A parliament was convoked at Vezelay in Burgundy in 1146 , and Bernard preached before the assembly on March 31 . Louis VII of France , his wife , Eleanor of Aquitaine , and the princes and lords present prostrated themselves at the feet of Bernard to receive the pilgrims ' cross . Bernard then passed into Germany , and the reported miracles which multiplied almost at his every step undoubtedly contributed to the success of his mission . At Speyer , Conrad III of Germany and his nephew , Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa , received the cross from the hand of Bernard . Pope Eugene came in person to France to encourage the enterprise .
For all his overmastering zeal , Bernard was by nature neither a bigot nor a persecutor . As in the First Crusade , the preaching inadvertently led to attacks on Jews ; a fanatical French monk named Rudolf was apparently inspiring massacres of Jews in the Rhineland , Cologne , Mainz , Worms and Speyer , with Rudolf claiming Jews were not contributing financially to the rescue of the Holy Land . Bernard , the Archbishop of Cologne and the Archbishop of Mainz were vehemently opposed to these attacks , and so Bernard traveled from Flanders to Germany to deal with the problem and quiet the mobs . Bernard then found Rudolf in Mainz and was able to silence him , returning him to his monastery .
= = Wendish Crusade = =
When the Second Crusade was called , many south Germans volunteered to crusade in the Holy Land . The north German Saxons were reluctant . They told St Bernard of their desire to campaign against the Slavs at an Imperial Diet meeting in Frankfurt on 13 March 1147 . Approving of the Saxons ' plan , Eugenius issued a papal bull known as the Divina dispensatione on 13 April . This bull stated that there was to be no difference between the spiritual rewards of the different crusaders . Those who volunteered to crusade against the Slavs were primarily Danes , Saxons and Poles , although there were also some Bohemians . The Papal legate , Anselm of Havelberg , was placed in overall command . The campaign itself was led by Saxon families such as the Ascanians , Wettin and Schauenburgers .
Upset by German participation in the crusade , the Obotrites preemptively invaded Wagria in Holstein in June 1147 , leading to the march of the crusaders in late summer 1147 . After expelling the Obodrites from Christian territory , the crusaders targeted the Obodrite fort at Dobin and the Liutizian fort at Demmin . The forces attacking Dobin included those of the Danes Canute V and Sweyn III , Adalbert II , Archbishop of Bremen and Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony . When some crusaders advocated ravaging the countryside , others objected by asking , " Is not the land we are devastating our land , and the people we are fighting our people ? " The Saxon army under Henry the Lion withdrew after the pagan chief , Niklot , agreed to have Dobin 's garrison undergo baptism .
After an unsuccessful siege of Demmin , a contingent of crusaders was diverted by the margraves to attack Pomerania instead . They reached the already Christian city Stettin , whereupon the crusaders dispersed after meeting with Bishop Adalbert of Pomerania and Prince Ratibor I of Pomerania . According to Bernard of Clairvaux , the goal of the crusade was to battle the pagan Slavs " until such a time as , by God 's help , they shall either be converted or deleted " .
However , the crusade failed to achieve the conversion of most of the Wends . The Saxons achieved largely token conversions at Dobin , as the Slavs resorted to their pagan beliefs once the Christian armies dispersed . Albert of Pomerania explained , " If they had come to strengthen the Christian faith ... they should do so by preaching , not by arms " .
By the end of the crusade , the countryside of Mecklenburg and Pomerania was plundered and depopulated with much bloodshed , especially by the troops of Henry the Lion . This was to help bring about more Christian victories in the future decades . The Slavic inhabitants also lost much of their methods of production , limiting their resistance in the future .
= = Reconquista and the fall of Lisbon = =
In the spring of 1147 , the Pope authorized the expansion of the crusade into the Iberian peninsula , in the context of the Reconquista . He also authorized Alfonso VII of León and Castile to equate his campaigns against the Moors with the rest of the Second Crusade . In May 1147 , the first contingents of crusaders left from Dartmouth in England for the Holy Land . Bad weather forced the ships to stop on the Portuguese coast , at the northern city of Porto on 16 June 1147 . There they were convinced to meet with King Afonso I of Portugal .
The crusaders agreed to help the King attack Lisbon , with a solemn agreement that offered to them the pillage of the city 's goods and the ransom money for expected prisoners . The Siege of Lisbon lasted from 1 July to 25 October 1147 when , after four months , the Moorish rulers agreed to surrender , primarily due to hunger within the city . Most of the crusaders settled in the newly captured city , but some of them set sail and continued to the Holy Land . Some of them , who had departed earlier , helped capture Santarém earlier in the same year . Later they also helped to conquer Sintra , Almada , Palmela and Setúbal , and they were allowed to stay in the conquered lands , where they settled down and had offspring .
Elsewhere on the Iberian peninsula , almost at the same time , Alfonso VII of León , Ramon Berenguer IV , Count of Barcelona , and others led a mixed army of Catalans , Leonese , Castilians and French crusaders against the rich port city of Almería . With support from a Genoese – Pisan navy , the city was occupied in October 1147 .
Ramon Berenger then invaded the lands of the Almoravid taifa kingdom of Valencia and Murcia . In December 1148 , he captured Tortosa after a five @-@ month siege again with the help of French , Anglo @-@ Normans and Genoese crusaders . The next year , Fraga , Lleida and Mequinenza in the confluence of the Segre and Ebro rivers fell to his army .
= = Forces = =
= = = Islamic = = =
Muslim forces in this period comprised small bodies of professional troops , which were augmented by volunteers and conscripts in times of war . The largest of the Muslim states at the time , the Turkish Great Seljuk Sultanate , which ruled most of what is modern Iran and Iraq had about 10 @,@ 000 full @-@ term soldiers . The number of troops available to the Syrian states was much smaller . The core of the professional troops were the ghulam or mamluk , who were trained for war since childhood . The cost of raising and training a mamluk was about 30 dinars ( by contrast , a good horse in Syria went for about 100 dinars ) .
To compensate for their quantitative weaknesses , the Muslim states sought qualitative superiority . The professional soldiers of the Muslim states , who were usually ethnic Turks , tended to be very well @-@ trained and equipped . The basis of the military system in the Islamic Middle East was the iqta ' system of fiefs , which supported a certain number of troops in every district . In the event of war , the ahdath militias , based in the cities under the command of the ra ’ is ( chief ) , and who were usually ethnic Arabs , were called upon to increase the number of troops . The ahdath militia , though less well trained than the Turkish professional troops , were often very strongly motivated by religion , especially the concept of jihad . Further support came from Turkoman and Kurdish auxiliaries , who could be called upon in times of war , though these forces were prone to indiscipline .
The principal Islamic commander was Mu 'in al @-@ Din Anur , the atabeg of Damascus from 1138 to 1149 . Damascus was supposedly ruled by the Burid amirs of Damascus , but Anur , who commanded the military , was the real ruler of the city . The historian David Nicolle described Anur as an able general and diplomat , also well known as a patron of the arts . Because the Burid dynasty was displaced in 1154 by the Zangid dynasty , Anur 's role in repulsing the Second Crusade has been largely erased with historians and chroniclers loyal to the Zangids giving the credit to Anur 's rival , Nur ad @-@ Din Zangi , the amir of Aleppo .
= = = Christian Crusaders = = =
The German contingent comprised about 2 @,@ 000 knights ; the French contingent had about 700 knights from the king ’ s lands while the nobility raised smaller numbers of knights ; and the Kingdom of Jerusalem had about 550 knights and 6 @,@ 000 infantrymen .
Both the French and German contingents had a huge numbers of camp followers , most of whom did not survive the Crusade . As the monk , Odo of Deuil , noted " the weak and helpless are always a burden to their commanders and a source of prey to their enemies " .
The French knights preferred to fight on horseback , while the German knights liked to fight on foot . The Roman chronicler John Kinnamos wrote " the French are particularly capable of riding horseback in good order and attacking with the spear , and their cavalry surpasses that of the Germans in speed . The Germans , however , are able to fight on foot better than the French and excel in using the great sword " .
Conrad III was considered to be a brave knight , though often described as indecisive in moments of crisis . Louis VII was a devout Christian with a sensitive side who was often attacked by contemporaries like Bernard of Clairvaux for being more in love with his wife , Eleanor of Aquitaine , than being interested in war or politics .
= = Crusade in the East = =
Joscelin tried to take back Edessa following Zengi 's murder , but Nur ad @-@ Din defeated him in November 1146 . On 16 February 1147 , the French crusaders met at Étampes to discuss their route . The Germans had already decided to travel overland through Hungary , as the sea route was politically impractical because Roger II , King of Sicily , was an enemy of Conrad . Many of the French nobles distrusted the land route , which would take them through the Byzantine Empire , the reputation of which still suffered from the accounts of the First Crusaders . Nevertheless , it was decided to follow Conrad , and to set out on 15 June . Roger II was offended and refused to participate any longer . In France , Abbot Suger and Count William II of Nevers were elected as regents while the king would be on crusade . In Germany , further preaching was done by Adam of Ebrach , and Otto of Freising also took the cross . The Germans planned to set out at Easter , but did not leave until May .
= = = German route = = =
The German crusaders , accompanied by the papal legate and cardinal Theodwin , intended to meet the French in Constantinople . Ottokar III of Styria joined Conrad at Vienna , and Conrad 's enemy Géza II of Hungary allowed them to pass through unharmed . When the German army of 20 @,@ 000 men arrived in Byzantine territory , Emperor Manuel I Komnenos feared they were going to attack him , and Byzantine troops were posted to ensure that there was no trouble . There was a brief skirmish with some of the more unruly Germans near Philippopolis and in Adrianople , where the Byzantine general Prosouch fought with Conrad 's nephew , the future emperor Frederick . To make matters worse , some of the German soldiers were killed in a flood at the beginning of September . On 10 September , however , they arrived at Constantinople , where relations with Manuel were poor , resulting in a battle , after which the Germans were convinced that they should cross into Asia Minor as quickly as possible . Manuel wanted Conrad to leave some of his troops behind , to assist in defending against attacks from Roger II , who had taken the opportunity to plunder the cities of Greece , but Conrad did not agree , despite being a fellow enemy of Roger .
In Asia Minor , Conrad decided not to wait for the French , and marched towards Iconium , capital of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rûm . Conrad split his army into two divisions . Much of the authority of the Byzantine Empire in the western provinces of Asia Minor was more nominal than real , with much of the provinces being a no @-@ man 's land controlled by Turkish nomads . Conrad underestimated the length of the march against Anatolia , and anyhow assumed that the authority of Emperor Manuel was greater in Anatolia than was in fact the case . Conrad took the knights and the best troops with himself to march overland while sending the camp followers with Otto of Freising to follow the coastal road . The king led one of these , which was almost totally destroyed by the Seljuqs on 25 October 1147 at the second battle of Dorylaeum .
In battle , the Turks used their typical tactic of pretending to retreat , and then returning to attack the small force of German cavalry which had separated from the main army to chase them . Conrad began a slow retreat back to Constantinople , and his army was harassed daily by the Turks , who attacked stragglers and defeated the rearguard . Even Conrad was wounded in a skirmish with them . The other division , led by the King 's half @-@ brother , Bishop Otto of Freising , had marched south to the Mediterranean coast and was similarly defeated early in 1148 . The force led by Otto ran out of food while crossing inhospitable countryside and was ambushed by the Seluq Turks near Laodicea on 16 November 1147 . The majority of Otto 's force were either killed in battle or captured and sold into slavery .
= = = French route = = =
The French crusaders had departed from Metz in June 1147 , led by Louis , Thierry of Alsace , Renaut I of Bar , Amadeus III , Count of Savoy and his half @-@ brother William V of Montferrat , William VII of Auvergne , and others , along with armies from Lorraine , Brittany , Burgundy and Aquitaine . A force from Provence , led by Alphonse of Toulouse , chose to wait until August , and to cross by sea . At Worms , Louis joined with crusaders from Normandy and England .
They followed Conrad 's route fairly peacefully , although Louis came into conflict with king Geza of Hungary when Geza discovered Louis had allowed an attempted Hungarian usurper to join his army . Relations within Byzantine territory were also grim , and the Lorrainers , who had marched ahead of the rest of the French , also came into conflict with the slower Germans whom they met on the way .
Since the original negotiations between Louis and Manuel I , Manuel had broken off his military campaign against the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm , signing a truce with his enemy Sultan Mesud I. This was done so that Manuel would be free to concentrate on defending his empire from the Crusaders , who had gained a reputation for theft and treachery since the First Crusade and were widely suspected of harbouring sinister designs on Constantinople . Nevertheless , Manuel 's relations with the French army were somewhat better than with the Germans , and Louis was entertained lavishly in Constantinople . Some of the French were outraged by Manuel 's truce with the Seljuqs and called for an alliance with Roger II and an attack on Constantinople , but they were restrained by Louis .
When the armies from Savoy , Auvergne and Montferrat joined Louis in Constantinople , having taken the land route through Italy and crossing from Brindisi to Durazzo , the entire army was shipped across the Bosporus to Asia Minor . The Greeks were encouraged by rumours that the Germans had captured Iconium ( Konya ) , but Manuel refused to give Louis any Byzantine troops . Byzantium had just been invaded by Roger II of Sicily , and all of Manuel 's army was needed in the Peloponnese . Both the Germans and French therefore entered Asia without any Byzantine assistance , unlike the armies of the First Crusade . In the tradition set by his grandfather Alexios I , Manuel also had the French swear to return to the Empire any territory they captured .
The French met the remnants of Conrad 's army at Lopadion , and Conrad joined Louis ' force . They followed Otto of Freising 's route , moving closer to the Mediterranean coast , and they arrived at Ephesus in December , where they learned that the Turks were preparing to attack them . Manuel also sent ambassadors complaining about the pillaging and plundering that Louis had done along the way , and there was no guarantee that the Byzantines would assist them against the Turks . Meanwhile , Conrad fell sick and returned to Constantinople , where Manuel attended to him personally , and Louis , paying no attention to the warnings of a Turkish attack , marched out from Ephesus with the French and German survivors . The Turks were indeed waiting to attack , but in a small battle outside Ephesus , the French were victorious . The French fended off another Turkish ambush at the Meander River .
They reached Laodicea on the Lycus early in January 1148 , around the same time Otto of Freising 's army had been destroyed in the same area . Resuming the march , the vanguard under Amadeus of Savoy became separated from the rest of the army at Mount Cadmus , and Louis ’ troops suffered heavy losses from the Turks . Louis himself , according to Odo of Deuil , climbed a rock and was ignored by the Turks , who did not recognize him . The Turks did not bother to attack further and the French marched on to Adalia , continually harassed from afar by the Turks , who had also burned the land to prevent the French from replenishing their food , both for themselves and their horses . Louis no longer wanted to continue by land , and it was decided to gather a fleet at Adalia and sail for Antioch . After being delayed for a month by storms , most of the promised ships did not arrive at all . Louis and his associates claimed the ships for themselves , while the rest of the army had to resume the long march to Antioch . The army was almost entirely destroyed , either by the Turks or by sickness .
= = = Journey to Jerusalem = = =
Louis eventually arrived in Antioch on March 19 after being delayed by storms ; Amadeus of Savoy had died on Cyprus along the way . Louis was welcomed by Eleanor 's uncle Raymond of Poitiers . Raymond expected him to help defend against the Turks and to accompany him on an expedition against Aleppo , the Muslim city that was the gateway to Edessa , but Louis refused , preferring instead to finish his pilgrimage to Jerusalem rather than focus on the military aspect of the crusade . Eleanor enjoyed her stay , but her uncle implored her to remain to enlarge family lands and divorce Louis if the king refused to help what was assuredly the military cause of the Crusade . During this period , there were rumours of an affair between Raymond and Eleanor , which caused tensions in the marriage between Louis and Eleanor . Louis quickly left Antioch for Tripoli with Eleanor in arrest .
Meanwhile , Otto of Freising and the remnant of his troops arrived in Jerusalem early in April , and Conrad soon after . Fulk , Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem , was sent to invite Louis to join them . The fleet that had stopped at Lisbon arrived around this time , as well as the Provençals who had left Europe under the command of Alfonso Jordan , Count of Toulouse . Alphonso himself did not make it to Jerusalem as he died at Caesarea . He was supposedly poisoned by Raymond II of Tripoli , the nephew who feared his political aspirations in the county . The claim that Raymond had poisoned Alphonso caused much of the Provençal force to turn back and go home . The original focus of the crusade was Edessa , but the preferred target of King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar was Damascus .
In response to the arrival of the Crusaders , the regent of Damascus , Mu 'in ad @-@ Din Unur , started making feverish preparations for war , strengthening the fortifications of Damascus , ordering troops to his city and having the water sources along the road to Damascus destroyed or diverted . Anur sought help from the Zangid rulers of Aleppo and Mosul ( who were normally his rivals ) , though forces from these states did not arrive in time to see combat outside of Damascus . It is almost certain that the Zangid rulers delayed sending troops to Damascus out of the hope that their rival Anur might lose his city to the Crusaders .
= = = Council of Acre = = =
The nobility of Jerusalem welcomed the arrival of troops from Europe , and it was announced that a council should meet to decide on the best target for the crusaders . This took place on 24 June 1148 , when the Haute Cour of Jerusalem met with the recently arrived crusaders from Europe at Palmarea , near Acre , a major city of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem . This was the most spectacular meeting of the Court in its existence . " it seems well worth while and quite in harmony with the present history that the names of the nobles who were present at the council ... should be recorded here for the benefit of posterity . " He lists these and numerous others ; " to name each one individually would take far too long . "
In the end , the decision was made to attack the city of Damascus , a former ally of the Kingdom of Jerusalem that had shifted its allegiance to that of the Zengids , and attacked the Kingdom 's allied city of Bosra in 1147 . Historians have long seen the decision to besiege Damascus rather than Edessa as " an act of inexplicable folly " . Noting the tensions between Anur , the atabeg of Damascus , and the growing power of the Zangids , many historians have argued that it would have been better for the Crusaders to focus their energy against the Zangids . More recently , historians such as David Nicolle have defended the decision to attack Damascus , arguing that Damascus was the most powerful Muslim state in southern Syria , and that if the Christians held Damascus , they would have been in a better position to resist the rising power of Nur ad @-@ Din . Since Anur was clearly the weaker of the two Muslim rulers , it was believed that it was inevitable that Nur ad @-@ Din would take Damascus sometime in the near future , and thus it was better for the Crusaders to hold that city rather than the Zangids . In July their armies assembled at Tiberias and marched to Damascus , around the Sea of Galilee by way of Banyas . There were perhaps 50 @,@ 000 troops in total .
= = = Siege of Damascus = = =
The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west , where orchards would provide them with a constant food supply . They arrived at Daraiya on 23 July . The following day , the Muslims were prepared for the attack and constantly attacked the army advancing through the orchards outside Damascus . The defenders had sought help from Saif ad @-@ Din Ghazi I of Mosul and Nur ad @-@ Din of Aleppo , who personally led an attack on the crusader camp . The crusaders were pushed back from the walls into the orchards , where they were prone to ambushes and guerrilla attacks .
According to William of Tyre , on 27 July the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city , which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water . It was recorded by some that Unur had bribed the leaders to move to a less defensible position , and that Unur had promised to break off his alliance with Nur ad @-@ Din if the crusaders went home . Meanwhile , Nur ad @-@ Din and Saif ad @-@ Din had by now arrived . With Nur ad @-@ Din in the field it was impossible to return to their better position . The local crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege , and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city . First Conrad , then the rest of the army , decided to retreat to Jerusalem on 28 July , though for their entire retreat they were followed by Turkish archers who constantly harassed them .
= = Aftermath = =
Each of the Christian forces felt betrayed by the other . A new plan was made to attack Ascalon and Conrad took his troops there , but no further help arrived , due to the lack of trust that had resulted from the failed siege . This mutual distrust would linger for a generation due to the defeat , to the ruin of the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land . After quitting Ascalon , Conrad returned to Constantinople to further his alliance with Manuel . Louis remained behind in Jerusalem until 1149 . The discord also extended to the marriage of Louis and Eleanor , which had been falling apart during the course of the Crusade . In April 1149 , Louis and Eleanor , who were barely on speaking terms by this time , pointedly boarded separate ships to take them back to France .
Back in Europe , Bernard of Clairvaux was humiliated by the defeat . Bernard considered it his duty to send an apology to the Pope and it is inserted in the second part of his Book of Consideration . There he explains how the sins of the crusaders were the cause of their misfortune and failures . When his attempt to call a new crusade failed , he tried to disassociate himself from the fiasco of the Second
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record . When you have one guy doing most of the writing you only get one perspective . A lot of Jeff 's stuff has a very punky vibe this time ; the stuff I write sounds thrashy but with a hint of punk , and when Jeff writes the stuff is more punk with a hint of thrash . It works together well . " Unlike 2006 's Christ Illusion , the band was " under @-@ ready " with their lyrics and music .
The album was recorded in Los Angeles , California with producer Greg Fidelman during October 2008 and then recorded from late January and March 2009 . There were 13 songs recorded for the album , but only 11 appear on the album . In May 2009 , King said of the album : " I think this one has a little bit of everything — more so than anything we 've done since Seasons . So I would imagine people are gonna compare it to that one . " The band had recorded thirteen songs for the album , seven written by lead guitarist Jeff Hanneman and six by King , although not all of them were included . King later confirmed the album 's release date was pushed back to late summer 2009 . An article on Slayer 's website confirmed the album 's name . On August 20 , 2009 , Roadrunner Records confirmed the track listing . Thom Jurek of Allmusic said the production " takes a different tack altogether for this guitar @-@ manic crew . " A listening party for World Painted Blood was held on October 30 , 2009 at Duff 's Brooklyn in Williamsburg , New York . The event started at 9 : 00 pm
During the recording of World Painted Blood , King used BC Rich Guitars , Marshall Amplifiers and Cabs , Dunlop strings and picks , EMG pickups , and Korg tuners . Hanneman used ESP guitars , Marshall Amplifiers and Cabs , Dunlop strings and picks , Monster Cables , and Shure Wireless System . Vocalist / bassist Araya used ESP basses , Marshall Bass Amplifiers and Cabs , EMG Pick @-@ Ups , Dunlop Picks and accessories , and MXR Effects . Lombardo used Tama Drums , Paiste cymbals , Pro @-@ Mark drum sticks , and Evans drum heads .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Record producer Greg Fidelman said that " the fact that the songs were still new and fresh to them , and they hadn 't been playing them for six months in rehearsal , kept the vibe and excitement in the studio very high . " Vocalist Tom Araya said that there " are two principal music writers in this band , so you 're going to get a combination of speed and heaviness , " and later said that the " writing is really aggressive and fast , while Jeff likes things to be fast , but with melodies and grooves . In making this album , we seemed to share the same vision from song ideas to titles ; when we get together as Slayer , it just happens , nothing is contrived , it 's not thought out , we just do it , and we did that with this new album . " Lombardo said that Hanneman 's writing and performance had " gone back to this great punk energy , especially with ' Psychopathy Red ' . "
Allmusic said that it expressed moods such as Harshness , Fiery , Confidence , Rowdiness , Aggressiveness , Rebellious , Cathartic , Anger , and Hostility . It also is categorized in genres like speed metal and heavy metal . Thom Jurek said Lombardo 's percussion beats " are WAAAAAAAY up in the mix , " and said that " you can understand every word , even on the thrashers " about Tom Araya 's vocal style . " [ T ] he guitars are simply further down in the mix and sometimes it becomes difficult to discern Araya 's bass . Therefore , the first listen or two to World Painted Blood might be a bit confusing for the seasoned Slayer fan , but that changes quickly , and the sound of those drums blasting in one 's head will become a more than welcome presence in the mix . "
The album 's title track was said by band members to be the continuation of " Final Six " , which was an outtake from their previous album . " Final Six " origins deal with the apocalypse . " Human Strain " deals with apocalyptic origins as well . The track was explained by guitarist Jeff Hanneman to initially be about the human race dying off by a mutative disease . The title of " Public Display of Dismemberment " refers to the consequences that countries outside of the United States give to citizens for crimes . Tom Araya said that " Unit 731 " is " very similar to Josef Mengele in the sense that it was a medical unit in the military , which was a Japanese military unit , actually . They did kind of the same thing ; they tested the limits of the human body and recorded it for scientific purposes . " " Playing With Dolls " is about a child witnessing a serial killer . " Beauty Through Order " is about Elizabeth Báthory , the most prolific female serial killer . Jeff Hanneman explained : " I 've been meaning to write a song about that for a long time . I couldn 't figure out the angle , I was thinking , ' How does a woman write ? I can 't write like a woman I 'm a guy ! ' Then I just figured , ' Well , she 's evil ; she has lots of power and killed people . ' So I just started writing and the lyrics and they came out . " Slayer revealed to Revolver that the track " Snuff " has no lyrical concept . " Psychopathy Red " was inspired by the Russian serial killer Andrei Chikatilo .
= = Singles = =
" Psychopathy Red " , a song inspired by the Soviet serial killer Andrei Chikatilo , was made available as a " limited edition , blood @-@ red vinyl seven @-@ inch vinyl " disc on April 18 , 2009 as part of the third annual Record Store Day . The song premiered on October 29 , 2008 , on a YouTube stream . Originally , " Psychopathy Red " was going to be a b @-@ side of World Painted Blood , but after there was access to it on the internet , they decided to add it to the album 's track list .
On July 28 , the song " Hate Worldwide " was released as a CD @-@ single , exclusively available at Hot Topic stores . The song was available on the internet before November 2008 and until July 2009 , it had been streamed more than a half @-@ million times . " Hate Worldwide " was released as a limited @-@ edition single on October 20 , 2009 , through Columbia Records as a CD . The song was made available exclusively at Hot Topic stores and was streamed at Hot Topic 's ShockHound.com. The composition was written by Kerry King who said " It 's a really cool track , and Tom 's voice sounds incredible on it . The last line in the song 's chorus is ' .. spread a little hate worldwide , ' and that 's what we 've been doing for 25 years . " Along with five other songs , " Hate Worldwide " was nominated for a Best Metal Performance Grammy Award , but lost to " Dissident Aggressor " by Judas Priest .
The title track , " World Painted Blood " , was released as a seven @-@ inch single on November 26 , 2010 , and was limited to 2500 copies . It included the b @-@ side " Atrocity Vendor " . A music video for the song had already been released on June 16 , 2010 . The single was exclusively released through the Metal Club record store chain . The song itself was said by the band to be a continuation of " Final Six " , a bonus track on the special edition of Slayer 's 2006 album Christ Illusion , and deals with the end of the world . Araya and Hanneman have said " World Painted Blood " is " one of the more classic Slayer songs " .
A music video has been made for " Beauty Through Order " , however , it has been removed from most online sources .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
World Painted Blood generally received positive reviews from critics . On Metacritic , it has been given a score of 78 out of 100 based on 11 reviews .
Greg Moffitt from the BBC said that the album " is their best in years . " He also noted that " a few of the songs command the attention with the insistence of old , but quite frankly we were beginning to wonder if they still had an album like this left in them . " Moffitt also said the album was " a deliciously wicked ride . " Thom Jurek of AllMusic rewarded the album three and a half stars , saying " in many ways it could be Reign In Blood Revisited " , and later said that " some compositions on this new recording have more of the band 's early – style melody in them , with lightning flare – up riffs between verses : quick unexpected guitar pyrotechnics ; and blastbeat power drumming from Dave Lombardo pushing it all into red . " Blabbermouth.net 's Ryan Ogle gave the album 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 and said that it " jumps into fairly aggressive thrash gallop , but doesn 't really have that ' straight @-@ for @-@ the @-@ throat ' feel you 'd expect from track one . "
Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club described the album as " burden " , and said it " weighs particularly heavy on bands that made their reps with intensity and innovation ; Slayer , in particular , was perceived as wandering in the wilderness during the years Paul Bostaph sat behind the drum kit , and expectations were high for the group . " Pierce rewarded the album with an A – , and said that the album was " eclectic , but never self @-@ consciously so . It rarely flags in intensity , and it 's good enough that if it were inserted in Slayer ’ s discography right after Seasons In The Abyss — the record it most resembles — it would be an almost seamless transition . " Adrien Begrand from PopMatters gave the album eight out of ten stars , saying " it 's a slight improvement on Christ Illusion , as more than on any of their previous five albums , the foursome of guitarists Jeff Hanneman and Kerry King , bassist / vocalist Tom Araya , and drummer Dave Lombardo find themselves revisiting the seminal styles of their 1986 – 88 heyday . " About.com 's Chad Bowar and MusicOMH gave the album four out of five stars .
= = = Commercial = = =
World Painted Blood sold 41 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week , landing it a number twelve spot on the Billboard 200 . It has sold 160 @,@ 000 copies in the United States as of February 2015 .
The album peaked number seven on the German music chart . The album also debuted number forty – one on the UK Albums Chart . " Hate Worldwide " was nominated for Best Metal Performance in 2009 , and the title track " World Painted Blood " was nominated for the same award a year later , but lost to Iron Maiden 's " El Dorado " .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing and artwork = = =
In June 2009 , it was announced that the album would be released in the late summer of 2009 . The album was released on November 3 , 2009 . The album 's artwork was revealed on September 15 , 2009 . Four different covers were equally shipped for a standard that when put together , they create a world map covered in blood . The album has four special collector 's edition CD covers , and each of them " display one @-@ fourth of a provocative continental map illustrated with human skulls and bones ; when placed together , the four images form a complete and grisly map of the world . " Each album has a blood @-@ red , transparent top panel , with the map displayed beneath it . The full map is also seen in a sleeve of the double @-@ digipak edition of World Painted Blood .
= = = Release history = = =
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
= = = Band members = = =
Tom Araya – bass , lead vocals
Jeff Hanneman – lead and rhythm guitar
Kerry King – lead and rhythm guitar
Dave Lombardo – drums
= = = Production = = =
Greg Fidelman – production , engineering , mixing
Rick Rubin – executive production
Dana Nielsen - engineer
Sara Killion – assistant engineer
Vlado Meller – mastering
Rick Sales , Kristen Mulderig , and Andrew Stuart – manager
Dan Monti – digital editor
= = Charts = =
= Main Quad ( Stanford University ) =
The Main Quadrangle , or more commonly Main Quad or simply Quad , is the heart and oldest part of Stanford University in California . The collection of connected buildings was started in 1887 and completed in 1906 . The Quad was damaged in the 1906 earthquake , repaired , less severely damaged in an 1989 earthquake , and repaired again . The exteriors have remained almost the same since the beginning , though the interiors of most of the buildings have changed radically . The Main Quad is still used for its original purposes of teaching , research , and administration .
= = Description = =
The Main Quad is built on a slight slope so that though the back of the structure is level with the ground , the front is elevated . It is oriented slightly east of north along the Memorial Church – Memorial Court – Palm Drive axis . The front approach is at the end of a mile @-@ long road , Palm Drive , which leads from the main entrance onto the university grounds and is lined with Canary Island palm trees . At its southwestern ( campus ) end , Palm Drive becomes a one @-@ way loop that encircles a large lawn called the Oval . Immediately in front perpendicular to Palm Drive is Serra Street , which is restricted to official vehicles and bicycles . Between Serra Street and the Main Quad are another lawn , some bicycle parking , a long sandstone balustrade originally built in 1902 , and steps up to the level of the quad : the main steps to Memorial Court , the east steps to Wallenberg Hall ( building 160 ) , and the west steps to Jordan Hall ( building 420 ) .
The Inner Quad consists of a large courtyard surrounded by twelve connected buildings ( numbered clockwise , 1 through 110 ) and Stanford Memorial Church . Around that are 14 additional connected buildings ( 120 through 460 ) that make up the Outer Quad . The Outer Quad buildings create several additional courtyards . Memorial Court , the most important , is the front entrance of the structure . Besides the front entrance there are also the east and west entrances with gatehouses over them where they enter the inner courtyard . The four corners of the Outer Quad are named , clockwise from Memorial Court , the History Corner with its courtyard of citrus trees , the Engineering Corner with the Oregon Courtyard of flowering cherry trees , the Geology Corner with a garden designed by Thomas Church , and the Math Corner . Other than Engineering , which now houses the Division of Literatures , Cultures , and Languages ( hence is often now referred to as the Language Corner ) , the respective disciplines are still in their corners . Besides the gardens in the minor courtyards , the main inner courtyard has eight large raised planting circles with a variety of trees and bushes .
The Main Quad also has open covered walkways around the Inner Quad courtyard , Memorial Court , and around the exterior of the entire structure except for the main entrance , the east and west gateways , and part of the back . Each year 's graduating class buries a time capsule and marks it with a plaque in the walkway around Inner Quad , starting with the class of 1896 right in front of Memorial Church ( the classes of 1892 to 1895 put theirs in later ) ; the plaques now reach nearly halfway up the western walkway . Under the west gatehouse is a time capsule and plaque marking the centennial of the opening of the university , and the cornerstone ( building 60 ) also has a time capsule .
= = = Points of interest = = =
Wallenberg Hall ( building 160 ) on east side of the front ( History Corner ) is named for the Wallenberg family who gave much of the money for renovating it in 1999 . In the early days it housed the University library and was originally built in 1900 with funds from Thomas Welton Stanford , brother of university founder Leland Stanford and uncle of Leland Stanford Junior for whom the university is named . The second story has two white statues of Benjamin Franklin and Johann Gutenberg . The corresponding building on the west side ( Math Corner ) , Jordan Hall , is named for David Starr Jordan , the first president of the university . It has statues of Louis Agassiz and Alexander von Humboldt . The original statues were created by Antonio Frilli , but Franklin and Gutenberg went missing after renovation work in 1949 and were never found ; recreations were done by a local sculptor , Oleg Lobykin , and installed in 2013 .
Only a few of the other buildings have names . Building 200 is officially the Lane History Corner , named for Bill and Jean Lane in 1998 . At about the same time Building 320 ( aka Geology Corner ) became Braun Corner after the Braun family and Building 260 ( aka Language Corner ) became Pigott Hall after the Pigott family ; both families have long connections with Stanford University . Building 460 is Margaret Jacks Hall , named in 1980 for the daughter ( who died in 1962 and left a bequest to the university ) of David Jacks . Building 120 is named McClatchy Hall .
Memorial Court features several sculptures by Auguste Rodin from his grouping The Burghers of Calais .
Adjacent to the Main Quad at the Math Corner is a casting of George Segal 's Gay Liberation sculpture . The statue , consisting of four life @-@ sized figures , was commissioned in 1979 ( the 10th anniversary of the Stonewall riots ) and created in 1980 . It was the first piece of public art dedicated to LGBT rights . Two castings were made and originally intended for installation in New York and Los Angeles , but the statue proved too controversial for either city . The second casting was offered to Stanford , which accepted it as a long @-@ term loan and installed it in 1984 . The sculpture was vandalized several times over the next 10 years but eventually became an accepted part of the public art at Stanford . New York in 1992 finally installed the first casting in Christopher Park .
Between the church and building 60 is the Amy Blue Garden with benches , a sundial , and a small birdbath dedicated to the memory of Barbara Jordan , daughter of the university 's first president who died aged 9 in 1901 of scarlet fever ; the garden as a whole is in memory of Amy Blue , a university staffer who died in 1988 at the age of 44 . Also in that area is the Frances C. Arrillaga Memorial , named after the wife of John Arrillaga ; it has unusual acoustic properties .
Behind the church is the Keith Memorial Terrace with its roses and fountain , designed by Thomas D. Church who created many other public spaces and gardens at Stanford , and dedicated to the memory of Captain Willard W. Keith , Jr . ( class of 1941 ) , who was killed at Guadalcanal in November 1942 .
= = History = =
Architect Frederick Law Olmsted , who created the university 's first Master Plan , called for the university to be primarily housed in an inner and outer quadrangle . To design the quadrangle itself , the Stanfords in 1886 hired the firm of " the greatest American architect of his generation , " Henry Hobson Richardson . ( Richardson himself had died earlier that year , and his three main associates were carrying on his work as the firm Shepley , Rutan and Coolidge . ) This group of architects are noted for the Richardsonian Romanesque style , and features of that style including " round low arches , sturdy piers , massive walls , simple silhouettes , and sheltering roofs " are prominent in the Quad . The style was adapted to a California Mission theme . The primary building materials were local yellow sandstone and red tile roofs . The sandstone was quarried at the Graystone Quarry in San Jose , California , and transported to the building site via a private railway spur . Hundreds of unskilled laborers received the sandstone , cut it to size , dressed it , and finished it ; skilled stonecutters and sculptors , primarily from Italy , installed it and embellished it with friezes . Over the objections of the architects , the Stanfords insisted that the main entrance to the Quad be " a large memorial arch with an enormously large approach " . The arch was built and was topped with an elaborate frieze representing " The Progress of Civilization in America " ; however , the arch was destroyed in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and was not rebuilt .
The cornerstone was laid at what is now Building 60 on May 14 , 1887 , which would have been Leland Stanford Junior 's 19th birthday . The Inner Quad was mostly finished ( except for the church ) by the time the university opened in 1891 . The Outer Quad and Memorial Church were completed by 1906 , but the entire structure was severely damaged in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake . Restoration of the Quad began immediately , but several original features of the Quad that collapsed in the earthquake were never rebuilt : the huge Memorial Arch over the entrance to Memorial Court , and a spire on Memorial Church . The Quad , which was originally built of unreinforced masonry , has been seismically retrofitted several times since then .
The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake also damaged some of the Quad buildings . Language Corner and Geology Corner were closed for repairs for more than five years ; most of that time was spent negotiating with the Federal Emergency Management Agency over paying for the repairs . Memorial Church was also damaged but was repaired more quickly via private donations .
Most of the University 's other , more recent buildings echo the Quad 's basic pattern of buff @-@ colored walls , red roofs , and arcades , giving Stanford 's campus its distinctive look . The original university plan was to add additional quadrangles of buildings , initially to the left and right of the Main Quad . However , this part of the plan was put aside for many decades until the Science and Engineering Quad was built to the west , starting in the 1980s and completed in 2013 .
= = Current use = =
The Main Quad now houses many departments and classrooms and also the offices of the President , Provost , and administrative offices of the School of Humanities and Sciences . The main courtyard is used for University functions , in particular the Baccalaureate service held on the day before the main graduation ceremony , departmental graduation ceremonies , and the annual alumni reunion dinner . A long @-@ standing tradition is Full Moon in the Quad . In its oldest form it was an event at which " a Stanford girl becomes a Stanford woman ... when kissed by a senior man in front of Memorial Church under the light of a full moon " ; now it is a party with much kissing held on the first full moon of the school year .
= = Namesakes = =
The university 's annual yearbook is called the Stanford Quad .
The Stanford Historical Society 's journal is called Sandstone and Tile , named for the materials from which the Quad is built .
= Episode 523 ( Neighbours ) =
" Episode 523 " is the 523rd episode of the Australian soap opera Neighbours . It premiered on Network Ten on 1 July 1987 . The episode was written by Ray Harding , directed by Rod Hardy , and executively produced by the serial 's creator Reg Watson . " Episode 523 " focuses on the wedding of popular couple Scott Robinson ( Jason Donovan ) and Charlene Mitchell ( Kylie Minogue ) . The storyline was devised by the producers after some viewers became outraged by the idea of an unwed couple moving in together . They also believed that the wedding would be " the perfect climax " to the character 's long @-@ running relationship and an instant ratings hit .
The episode was filmed in secrecy and with a limited budget three months before it was broadcast . The wedding ceremony was filmed in the nave of The Holy Trinity Church in Doncaster . " Episode 523 " is one of only a few Neighbours episodes to include the entire cast . A new romantic style wedding dress made from ivory silk , organza and chantilly lace was made for Minogue 's character . The ballad " Suddenly " , which was written and sung by Angry Anderson , was chosen as the theme to the episode . Prior to its broadcast , Minogue and Donovan promoted the episode by making several appearances at shopping centres around Australia .
" Episode 523 " became one of the most watched soap opera episodes upon its broadcast in Australia . When it aired in the United Kingdom in November 1988 , it attracted an audience of 19 @.@ 6 million . The episode was well received by critics and viewers . TV Week 's Kelly Bourne stated that the wedding would be the most exciting television soap opera event of 1987 , while Network Ten 's head of drama thought it was " a major turning point for Neighbours " . The wedding has been voted one of the most memorable soap moments and is often included in lists featuring the greatest television weddings of all time .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Hilary Robinson ( Anne Scott @-@ Pendlebury ) bringing breakfast to newlyweds Paul ( Stefan Dennis ) and Gail Robinson ( Fiona Corke ) . She is surprised to find that they have spent the night in separate bedrooms . To hide the fact that they only married for business purposes , Gail tells Hilary that she and Paul had an argument the night before . Hilary tells them to sort things out and she tends to the bouquets . At the Robinson house , Scott ( Jason Donovan ) begins to panic about getting married , while his father , Jim ( Alan Dale ) , and best friend , Mike Young ( Guy Pearce ) , set up tables for the reception . Meanwhile , Lucy Robinson ( Sasha Close ) tries to find her pet mice . Over at the Ramsay house , Scott 's fiancée , Charlene ( Kylie Minogue ) , is getting ready . Her mother , Madge ( Anne Charleston ) , asks her brother Henry ( Craig McLachlan ) not to race up the altar . Hilary brings in the wedding bouquet , while Charlene 's friend and bridesmaid , Jane ( Annie Jones ) arrives . After receiving a blue garter from her grandmother , Charlene becomes excited about the wedding . Scott arrives at the church with Mike , Paul and Jim . He is greeted by his old school friends and Mike explains that he and Jane arranged for them to attend to make up for the absence of Charlene 's extended family .
After the guests take their seats , Scott starts to worry that Charlene will not show up , but Paul and Mike assure him that she will be there . Reverend Sampson ( Howard Bell ) then invites everyone to stand as Charlene and Henry begin their walk up the aisle . Scott and Charlene exchange vows and Reverend Sampson pronounces them man and wife . At the reception , Jim tells Scott that he is proud of him and welcomes Charlene to the family . Harold Bishop ( Ian Smith ) finds Madge crying in the kitchen and he comforts her . They are interrupted by Mrs. Mangel ( Vivean Gray ) who informs them that the telegrams from Max and Maria , Clive and Rosemary , who all are unable to attend , are being read out . Dan Ramsay ( Syd Conabere ) spots a mouse and tries to pick it up , but hits Mrs. Mangel 's foot . She accuses Dan of groping her and as he protests his innocence , an argument breaks out among the guests . Scott and Charlene go to his bedroom and Gail brings them a gift from her father . Jane comes to tell Charlene that it is time to get changed for the honeymoon , while Paul takes their bags out to the car . Lucy tells Scott that she will miss him and he gives her his skateboard . Everyone gathers in the street to wave the couple off . Mrs. Mangel catches Charlene 's bouquet , as the couple drive out of Ramsay Street .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
By 1987 , Scott Robinson ( Jason Donovan ) and Charlene Mitchell ( Kylie Minogue ) had become a popular couple with Neighbours viewers , who dubbed them " TV 's Romeo and Juliet " because they were from feuding families . Following months of dating , Scott asked Charlene to move in with him . After " stuffier viewers " became outraged at the idea of the unwed couple moving in together , the producers decided that they should get married instead . Donovan recalled that the producers thought a wedding would be " the perfect climax " to Scott and Charlene 's long @-@ running relationship , as well as an instant ratings winner .
Speaking to James Oram , author of Neighbours : Behind the Scenes , Minogue thought the marriage would bring controversial subjects , such as pre @-@ marital sex and HIV / AIDS , into focus . Donovan agreed , saying there was " a valid moral point behind it . " Executive producer Reg Watson noted how each character in the show expressed a different point of view about the wedding . Some , like Scott 's father Jim ( Alan Dale ) , thought it was " stupid " for a couple just out of school to get married , while others , like Charlene 's mother Madge ( Anne Charleston ) , believed it was romantic . Watson believed the storyline would have repercussions for everyone .
= = = Filming = = =
Ray Harding wrote the script for " Episode 523 " . Bruce Andrews from Charles Sturt University noted that it is one of only a few Neighbours episodes to include the entire cast . The producers asked Rod Hardy to direct the episode , due to his experience of directing other television weddings . Hardy believed that " the magic of the episode " is captured best in two close @-@ up shots of Scott and Charlene . The director recalled " The image that stays with me is the close @-@ up of Kylie as she arrives and then the close @-@ up on Jason 's face , and those two looks epitomised what the whole scene was about . " The episode was shot " in great secrecy " three months before it was broadcast on Australian television . The shoot was initially delayed due to bad weather . Due to a limited budget , there were very few extras on set and crew were asked to stand in at the church instead . The scenes were shot in soft focus , creating " a halo effect " around Charlene as she walked up the aisle .
The Holy Trinity Church in Doncaster was used as the location for the wedding . The scenes were shot in the old nave of the church , which was surrounded by " rough @-@ hewn sandstone and glowing stained glass windows . " Liz Guiver , the former vicar 's secretary and administrator , revealed that many of the church 's parishioners were excited at the prospect of seeing the actors on set . Speaking to Guy Blackman from The Age , Guiver recalled " The person who played the vicar , and wore the vicar 's robe , he smoked cigarettes , so we had to be careful that they were dry @-@ cleaned before services on Sunday . Then we waited for months until the episode was aired , and most parishioners were glued to the set . " Scenes featuring the character 's family homes and Ramsay Street were shot at the show 's studio in Forest Hill and at Pin Oak Court in Vermont South respectively . Recalling the shoot , Donovan told the Herald Sun 's Nui Te Koha , " I don 't remember that particular day well , but when you do set ups like weddings it takes a long , long time to put things together . "
= = = Costumes and music = = =
Charlene 's new romantic style wedding dress was designed and made by Isis of Melbourne , a local bridal salon . A writer for the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery 's website observed that it was " in keeping with Charlene 's character as the suburban girl @-@ next @-@ door . " The dress was made from ivory silk , organza and chantilly lace . When asked what made the dress memorable , fashion designer Alex Perry , stated " There are so many things going on that it 's hard not to remember it ! The see @-@ through sleeves with a hint of lace , the romantic era @-@ style shoulders , the high neckline and hem . " Knowing how popular Minogue and Charlene were at the time , Perry was sure that the dress would have been copied by viewers . Charlene 's bridesmaids wore peach taffeta dresses , while the groom and his ushers wore charcoal grey tails .
Minogue was asked by the producers to choose a romantic song to be played in the episode and she chose " Suddenly " by Angry Anderson . Anderson had written the song a long time before it was used in " Episode 523 " . He explained that it is about a man coming to a certain point in his life when he realises that he does not mind being vulnerable . Minogue told Anderson that she loved the song and how the lyrics resonated with her . She later revealed that she wanted the song played at her own wedding . After " Episode 523 " was broadcast in the UK , " Suddenly " reached number 3 on the Singles Chart .
= = Promotion and broadcast = =
Network Ten 's national publicity director , Brian Walsh , believed the wedding episode would be an ideal marketing opportunity . He arranged for Minogue and Donovan to attend a wedding breakfast at the Park Royal Hotel in Parramatta and invited four hundred competition winners to join them . Minogue and Donovan later made an appearance with the wedding cake at Westfield Parramatta . Walsh recalled " I 'd never seen anything like it ; there would have been 6000 people . Security had to prevent any more going inside . It was as simple as Jason and Kylie and a wedding cake on stage . There was a speech and the cutting of the cake . Then there was this near riot . We had to stop the appearance at this point to prevent people getting crushed . " The actors made several more appearances with replica cakes in shopping centres throughout Sydney and Melbourne . They would cut the cakes and then hand out slices to thousands of fans . The episode later become the main focus on covers of TV Week and the Australian edition of Time magazine .
" Episode 523 " was first broadcast in Australia on 1 July 1987 . Just over a year later , the episode aired in the United Kingdom on 8 November 1988 .
= = = Home media = = =
In 1989 , Scott and Charlene 's wedding was included on a VHS titled The Neighbours Wedding Collection . In 2002 , FremantleMedia included the episode on the Neighbours : Defining Moments DVD box set . The episode was also featured on the Neighbours : The Iconic Episodes Volume 2 DVD box set and the collector 's DVD The Charlene Years – Volume 1 released in 2009 and 2012 respectively .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Episode 523 " was seen by two million viewers upon its broadcast in Australia , making it one of the highest rating soap opera episodes . When it aired in the United Kingdom , the episode attracted an audience of 19 @.@ 6 million , making it the third most watched programme in the country that year .
= = = Critical response = = =
Kelly Bourne from TV Week described the episode as " the television wedding of the year " and " a fairytale ceremony . " Bourne observed that the wedding would be the most exciting soap opera event of 1987 . The head of drama at Network Ten , Rick Maier , stated " Scott and Charlene 's wedding was the biggest television event of 1987 . ... Not only a major turning point for Neighbours , but a wedding that stopped a nation . " The Sydney Morning Herald 's Michael Idato observed that " Australians packed the aisles for the nuptials of star @-@ crossed teenagers Scott and Charlene " and added that " the nation wept " while " Suddenly " played . Sarah Megginson from SheKnows quipped " Scott and Charlene 's wedding episode is practically the defining episode of what Neighbours was all about in the 80s . This episode featured the entire cast , and audiences loved watching the romance of off @-@ screen couple Jason Donovan ( Scott ) and Kylie Minogue ( Charlene ) spill over on to the small screen . " Andrew Mercado , author of Super Aussie Soaps , called the episode " The biggest event ever in Aussie soap history . "
Elizabeth Day , writing for The Guardian , commented " For many , the quintessential on @-@ screen wedding remains the 1987 marriage of Scott and Charlene in Australian daytime soap Neighbours . It was the apotheosis of a romantic teenage love story which brought together two feuding families – the Robinsons and the Ramsays – in much the same way as the Montagues and the Capulets , albeit with fewer deaths and more shoulder pads . " The Birmingham Post 's Gemma Quade named the wedding one of her five most memorable Neighbours storylines , calling it a " tearjerker episode " . Josephine Monroe , author of The Neighbours Programme Guide , wrote that the episode showed the " soap wedding of the century ! " , adding " Teenagers Scott and Charlene tied the knot in a traditional and emotional church service " . During a feature on how to celebrate a wedding ceremony in the style of a soap opera , Tom Cole from the Radio Times said " Who needs Mendelssohn and Bach when you can process down the aisle to power ballad ' Suddenly ' by Australian rocker Angry Anderson ? Sounds unorthodox , but it put pep in the step of Scott and Charlene in Neighbours . Note to groom : we can 't all swan around like we 're Jason Donovan , so give the feathered mullet a miss . "
= = = Impact and legacy = = =
The Holy Trinity Church experienced an increase in interest after the episode aired , with some viewers holding their own weddings there . Backpackers also visit the church during their holidays to see the nave where Scott and Charlene were married . The church has since been used again by Neighbours to film the weddings of Harold and Madge , Libby Kennedy ( Kym Valentine ) and Drew Kirk ( Dan Paris ) and Vanessa Villante ( Alin Sumarwata ) and Lucas Fitzgerald ( Scott Major ) . Charlene 's wedding dress was donated to the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery by Grundy television in 1989 . It has since gone on display in the Powerhouse Museum and travelled to Victoria and the UK . A copy of the episode 's script , autographed by Harding , fetched £ 2 @,@ 000 when it came up for auction in London .
In October 1997 , the serial 's longest serving character , Helen Daniels ( Anne Haddy ) , was seen watching a video of Scott and Charlene 's wedding , before she died . Kathleen Morgan from the Daily Record commented " The wedding video brought back memories of the soap 's golden years " . Footage of the wedding was later shown during the soap 's 20th anniversary episode , " Friends for Twenty Years " . Charlene became an iconic bridal image , and when Jane Turner and Gina Riley were writing the 2004 season finale of Kath & Kim , they asked Minogue to play the character of Epponnee Rae who was due to get married . Executive producer , Rick McKenna , thought that it would be funny for Minogue to dress up as Charlene and the singer agreed . She appeared as a futuristic version of the character , complete with a lacy dress and 80 's style hair .
In October 2006 , Australia Post brought out five stamps celebrating fifty years of television . Network Ten 's stamp featured Charlene and Scott in their wedding attire . In 2007 , Herald Sun readers voted Scott and Charlene 's wedding as their top Neighbours moment . A Herald Sun reporter said " No other wedding in soap history in Australia has captured the attention like Scott and Charlene 's nuptials late in 1987 . " The episode became FremantleMedia 's seventh most requested television clip in 2008 . To celebrate the soap 's 25th anniversary and its 6000th episode , producers decided to " recreate the magic " of Scott and Charlene 's wedding through the marriage of Ringo Brown ( Sam Clark ) and Donna Freedman ( Margot Robbie ) . Robbie said " People are saying that my wedding is this generation 's Kylie ( Minogue ) and Jason ( Donovan ) wedding – that 's big shoes to fill . "
Scott and Charlene 's wedding ceremony has often been included in lists about the best television weddings or soap opera moments . It was voted the " Most Romantic TV Nuptials of all Time " and the " Top TV Wedding of all Time " in a Radio Times poll . The following year saw the wedding place ninth in a list of the most memorable soap moments . In 2011 , the wedding placed third in Channel 5 's Greatest TV Weddings programme . It also came third in Virgin Media 's " 10 Best On @-@ screen Nuptials " list . Sky Living included the ceremony in their 2012 feature on the best TV weddings , with a reporter noting that it is probably Neighbours ' most iconic moment . After including the ceremony in their list of best TV weddings , a writer for MSN New Zealand stated that " it set the standard up to which TV weddings ( and terrible mullets ) are held . "
= Antibody =
An antibody ( Ab ) , also known as an immunoglobulin ( Ig ) , is a large , Y @-@ shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to identify and neutralize pathogens such as bacteria and viruses . The antibody recognizes a unique molecule of the harmful agent , called an antigen , via the variable region . Each tip of the " Y " of an antibody contains a paratope ( analogous to a lock ) that is specific for one particular epitope ( similarly analogous to a key ) on an antigen , allowing these two structures to bind together with precision . Using this binding mechanism , an antibody can tag a microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune system , or can neutralize its target directly ( for example , by blocking a part of a microbe that is essential for its invasion and survival ) . Depending on the antigen , the binding may impede the biological process causing the disease or may recruit macrophages to destroy the foreign substance . The ability of an antibody to communicate with the other components of the immune system is mediated via its Fc region ( located at the base of the " Y " ) , which contains a conserved glycosylation site involved in these interactions . The production of antibodies is the main function of the humoral immune system .
Antibodies are secreted by B cells of the adaptive immune system , mostly by differentiated B cells called plasma cells . Antibodies can occur in two physical forms , a soluble form that is secreted from the cell to be free in the blood plasma , and a membrane @-@ bound form that is attached to the surface of a B cell and is referred to as the B @-@ cell receptor ( BCR ) . The BCR is found only on the surface of B cells and facilitates the activation of these cells and their subsequent differentiation into either antibody factories called plasma cells or memory B cells that will survive in the body and remember that same antigen so the B cells can respond faster upon future exposure . In most cases , interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is necessary to produce full activation of the B cell and , therefore , antibody generation following antigen binding . Soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue fluids , as well as many secretions to continue to survey for invading microorganisms .
Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily . They constitute most of the gamma globulin fraction of the blood proteins . They are typically made of basic structural units — each with two large heavy chains and two small light chains . There are several different types of antibody heavy chains that define the five different types of crystallisable fragments ( Fc ) that may be attached to the antigen @-@ binding fragments . The five different types of Fc regions allow antibodies to be grouped into five isotypes . Each Fc region of a particular antibody isotype is able to bind to its specific Fc Receptor ( except for IgD , which is essentially the BCR ) , thus allowing the antigen @-@ antibody complex to mediate different roles depending on which FcR it binds . The ability of an antibody to bind to its corresponding FcR is further modulated by the structure of the glycan ( s ) present at conserved sites within its Fc region . The ability of antibodies to bind to FcRs helps to direct the appropriate immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter . For example , IgE is responsible for an allergic response consisting of mast cell degranulation and histamine release . IgE 's Fab paratope binds to allergic antigen , for example house dust mite particles , while its Fc region binds to Fc receptor ε . The allergen @-@ IgE @-@ FcRε interaction mediates allergic signal transduction to induce conditions such as asthma .
Though the general structure of all antibodies is very similar , a small region at the tip of the protein is extremely variable , allowing millions of antibodies with slightly different tip structures , or antigen @-@ binding sites , to exist . This region is known as the hypervariable region . Each of these variants can bind to a different antigen . This enormous diversity of antibody paratopes on the antigen @-@ binding fragments allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide variety of antigens . The large and diverse population of antibody paratope is generated by random recombination events of a set of gene segments that encode different antigen @-@ binding sites ( or paratopes ) , followed by random mutations in this area of the antibody gene , which create further diversity . This recombinational process that produces clonal antibody paratope diversity is called V ( D ) J or VJ recombination . Basically , the antibody paratope is polygenic , made up of three genes , V , D , and J. Each paratope locus is also polymorphic , such that during antibody production , one allele of V , one of D , and one of J is chosen . These gene segments are then joined together using random genetic recombination to produce the paratope . The regions where the genes are randomly recombined together is the hyper variable region used to recognise different antigens on a clonal basis .
Antibody genes also re @-@ organize in a process called class switching that changes the one type of heavy chain Fc fragment to another , creating a different isotype of the antibody that retains the antigen @-@ specific variable region . This allows a single antibody to be used by different types of Fc receptors , expressed on different parts of the immune system .
= = Forms = =
The membrane @-@ bound form of an antibody may be called a surface immunoglobulin ( sIg ) or a membrane immunoglobulin ( mIg ) . It is part of the B cell receptor ( BCR ) , which allows a B cell to detect when a specific antigen is present in the body and triggers B cell activation . The BCR is composed of surface @-@ bound IgD or IgM antibodies and associated Ig @-@ α and Ig @-@ β heterodimers , which are capable of signal transduction . A typical human B cell will have 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 antibodies bound to its surface . Upon antigen binding , they cluster in large patches , which can exceed 1 micrometer in diameter , on lipid rafts that isolate the BCRs from most other cell signaling receptors . These patches may improve the efficiency of the cellular immune response . In humans , the cell surface is bare around the B cell receptors for several hundred nanometers , which further isolates the BCRs from competing influences .
= = Antibody – antigen interactions = =
The antibody 's paratope interacts with the antigen 's epitope . An antigen usually contains different epitopes along its surface arranged discontinuously , and dominant epitopes on a given antigen are called determinants .
Antibody and antigen interact by spatial complementarity ( lock and key ) . The molecular forces involved in the Fab @-@ epitope interaction are weak and non @-@ specific – for example electrostatic forces , hydrogen bonds , hydrophobic interactions , and van der Waals forces . This means binding between antibody and antigen is reversible , and the antibody 's affinity towards an antigen is relative rather than absolute . Relatively weak binding also means it is possible for an antibody to cross @-@ react with different antigens of different relative affinities .
Often , once an antibody and antigen bind , they become an immune complex , which functions as a unitary object and can act as an antigen in its own right , being countered by other antibodies . Similarly , haptens are small molecules that provoke no immune response by themselves , but once they bind to proteins , the resulting complex or hapten @-@ carrier adduct is antigenic .
= = Isotypes = =
Antibodies can come in different varieties known as isotypes or classes . In placental mammals there are five antibody isotypes known as IgA , IgD , IgE , IgG , and IgM . They are each named with an " Ig " prefix that stands for immunoglobulin , a name sometimes used interchangeably with antibody , and differ in their biological properties , functional locations and ability to deal with different antigens , as depicted in the table . The different suffixes of the antibody isotypes denote the different types of heavy chains the antibody contains , with each heavy chain class named alphabetically : α , γ , δ , ε , and μ . This gives rise to IgA , IgG , IgD , IgE , and IgM , respectively .
The antibody isotype of a B cell changes during cell development and activation . Immature B cells , which have never been exposed to an antigen , express only the IgM + isotype in a cell surface bound form . The B lymphocyte , in this ready @-@ to @-@ respond form , is known as a " naive B lymphocyte . " The naive B lymphocyte expresses both surface IgM + and IgD + . The co @-@ expression of both of these immunoglobulin isotypes renders the B cell ready to respond to antigen . B cell activation follows engagement of the cell @-@ bound antibody molecule with an antigen , causing the cell to divide and differentiate into an antibody @-@ producing cell called a plasma cell . In this activated form , the B cell starts to produce antibody in a secreted form rather than a membrane @-@ bound form . Some daughter cells of the activated B cells undergo isotype switching , a mechanism that causes the production of antibodies to change from IgM or IgD to the other antibody isotypes , IgE , IgA , or IgG , that have defined roles in the immune system .
= = Structure = =
Antibodies are heavy ( ~ 150 kDa ) globular plasma proteins . They have sugar chains ( glycans ) added to conserved amino acid residues . In other words , antibodies are glycoproteins . The attached glycans are critically important to the structure and function of the antibody . Among other things the expressed glycans can modulate an antibody 's affinity for its corresponding FcR ( s ) .
The basic functional unit of each antibody is an immunoglobulin ( Ig ) monomer ( containing only one Ig unit ) ; secreted antibodies can also be dimeric with two Ig units as with IgA , tetrameric with four Ig units like teleost fish IgM , or pentameric with five Ig units , like mammalian IgM .
The variable parts of an antibody are its V regions , and the constant part is its C region .
= = = Immunoglobulin domains = = =
The Ig monomer is a " Y " -shaped molecule that consists of four polypeptide chains ; two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains connected by disulfide bonds . Each chain is composed of structural domains called immunoglobulin domains . These domains contain about 70 – 110 amino acids and are classified into different categories ( for example , variable or IgV , and constant or IgC ) according to their size and function . They have a characteristic immunoglobulin fold in which two beta sheets create a " sandwich " shape , held together by interactions between conserved cysteines and other charged amino acids .
= = = Heavy chain = = =
There are five types of mammalian Ig heavy chain denoted by the Greek letters : α , δ , ε , γ , and μ . The type of heavy chain present defines the class of antibody ; these chains are found in IgA , IgD , IgE , IgG , and IgM antibodies , respectively . Distinct heavy chains differ in size and composition ; α and γ contain approximately 450 amino acids , whereas μ and ε have approximately 550 amino acids .
Each heavy chain has two regions , the constant region and the variable region . The constant region is identical in all antibodies of the same isotype , but differs in antibodies of different isotypes . Heavy chains γ , α and δ have a constant region composed of three tandem ( in a line ) Ig domains , and a hinge region for added flexibility ; heavy chains μ and ε have a constant region composed of four immunoglobulin domains . The variable region of the heavy chain differs in antibodies produced by different B cells , but is the same for all antibodies produced by a single B cell or B cell clone . The variable region of each heavy chain is approximately 110 amino acids long and is composed of a single Ig domain .
= = = Light chain = = =
In mammals there are two types of immunoglobulin light chain , which are called lambda ( λ ) and kappa ( κ ) . A light chain has two successive domains : one constant domain and one variable domain . The approximate length of a light chain is 211 to 217 amino acids . Each antibody contains two light chains that are always identical ; only one type of light chain , κ or λ , is present per antibody in mammals . Other types of light chains , such as the iota ( ι ) chain , are found in other vertebrates like sharks ( Chondrichthyes ) and bony fishes ( Teleostei ) .
= = = CDRs , Fv , Fab and Fc regions = = =
Some parts of an antibody have the same functions . The arms of the Y , for example , contain the sites that can bind to antigens ( in general , identical ) and , therefore , recognize specific foreign objects . This region of the antibody is called the Fab ( fragment , antigen @-@ binding ) region . It is composed of one constant and one variable domain from each heavy and light chain of the antibody . The paratope is shaped at the amino terminal end of the antibody monomer by the variable domains from the heavy and light chains . The variable domain is also referred to as the FV region and is the most important region for binding to antigens . To be specific , variable loops of β @-@ strands , three each on the light ( VL ) and heavy ( VH ) chains are responsible for binding to the antigen . These loops are referred to as the complementarity determining regions ( CDRs ) . The structures of these CDRs have been clustered and classified by Chothia et al. and more recently by North et al. and Nikoloudis et al . In the framework of the immune network theory , CDRs are also called idiotypes . According to immune network theory , the adaptive immune system is regulated by interactions between idiotypes .
The base of the Y plays a role in modulating immune cell activity . This region is called the Fc ( Fragment , crystallizable ) region , and is composed of two heavy chains that contribute two or three constant domains depending on the class of the antibody . Thus , the Fc region ensures that each antibody generates an appropriate immune response for a given antigen , by binding to a specific class of Fc receptors , and other immune molecules , such as complement proteins . By doing this , it mediates different physiological effects including recognition of opsonized particles ( binding to FcγR ) , lysis of cells ( binding to complement ) , and degranulation of mast cells , basophils , and eosinophils ( binding to FcεR ) .
In summary , the Fab region of the antibody determines antigen specificity while the Fc region of the antibody determines the antibody 's class effect . Since only the constant domains of the heavy chains make up the Fc region of an antibody , the classes of heavy chain in antibodies determine their class effects . Possible classes of heavy chains in antibodies include alpha , gamma , delta , epsilon , and mu , and they define the antibody 's isotypes IgA , G , D , E , and M , respectively . This infers different isotypes of antibodies have different class effects due to their different Fc regions binding and activating different types of receptors . Possible class effects of antibodies include : Opsonisation , agglutination , haemolysis , complement activation , mast cell degranulation , and neutralisation ( though this class effect may be mediated by the Fab region rather than the Fc region ) . It also implies that Fab @-@ mediated effects are directed at microbes or toxins , whilst Fc mediated effects are directed at effector cells or effector molecules ( see below ) .
= = Function = =
The main categories of antibody action include the following :
Neutralisation , in which neutralizing antibodies block parts of the surface of a bacterial cell or virion to render its attack ineffective
Agglutination , in which antibodies " glue together " foreign cells into clumps that are attractive targets for phagocytosis
Precipitation , in which antibodies " glue together " serum @-@ soluble antigens , forcing them to precipitate out of solution in clumps that are attractive targets for phagocytosis
Complement activation ( fixation ) , in which antibodies that are latched onto a foreign cell encourage complement to attack it with a membrane attack complex , which leads to the following :
Lysis of the foreign cell
Encouragement of inflammation by chemotactically attracting inflammatory cells
Activated B cells differentiate into either antibody @-@ producing cells called plasma cells that secrete soluble antibody or memory cells that survive in the body for years afterward in order to allow the immune system to remember an antigen and respond faster upon future exposures .
At the prenatal and neonatal stages of life , the presence of antibodies is provided by passive immunization from the mother . Early endogenous antibody production varies for different kinds of antibodies , and usually appear within the first years of life . Since antibodies exist freely in the bloodstream , they are said to be part of the humoral immune system . Circulating antibodies are produced by clonal B cells that specifically respond to only one antigen ( an example is a virus capsid protein fragment ) . Antibodies contribute to immunity in three ways : They prevent pathogens from entering or damaging cells by binding to them ; they stimulate removal of pathogens by macrophages and other cells by coating the pathogen ; and they trigger destruction of pathogens by stimulating other immune responses such as the complement pathway . Antibodies will also trigger vasoactive amine degranulation to contribute to immunity against certain types of antigens ( helminths , allergens ) .
= = = Activation of complement = = =
Antibodies that bind to surface antigens ( for example , on bacteria ) will attract the first component of the complement cascade with their Fc region and initiate activation of the " classical " complement system . This results in the killing of bacteria in two ways . First , the binding of the antibody and complement molecules marks the microbe for ingestion by phagocytes in a process called opsonization ; these phagocytes are attracted by certain complement molecules generated in the complement cascade . Second , some complement system components form a membrane attack complex to assist antibodies to kill the bacterium directly ( bacteriolysis ) .
= = = Activation of effector cells = = =
To combat pathogens that replicate outside cells , antibodies bind to pathogens to link them together , causing them to agglutinate . Since an antibody has at least two paratopes , it can bind more than one antigen by binding identical epitopes carried on the surfaces of these antigens . By coating the pathogen , antibodies stimulate effector functions against the pathogen in cells that recognize their Fc region .
Those cells that recognize coated pathogens have Fc receptors , which , as the name suggests , interact with the Fc region of IgA , IgG , and IgE antibodies . The engagement of a particular antibody with the Fc receptor on a particular cell triggers an effector function of that cell ; phagocytes will phagocytose , mast cells and neutrophils will degranulate , natural killer cells will release cytokines and cytotoxic molecules ; that will ultimately result in destruction of the invading microbe . The activation of natural killer cells by antibodies initiates a cytotoxic mechanism known as antibody @-@ dependent cell @-@ mediated cytotoxicity ( ADCC ) – this process may explain the efficacy of monoclonal antibodies used in biological therapies against cancer . The Fc receptors are isotype @-@ specific , which gives greater flexibility to the immune system , invoking only the appropriate immune mechanisms for distinct pathogens .
= = = Natural antibodies = = =
Humans and higher primates also produce " natural antibodies " that are present in serum before viral infection . Natural antibodies have been defined as antibodies that are produced without any previous infection , vaccination , other foreign antigen exposure or passive immunization . These antibodies can activate the classical complement pathway leading to lysis of enveloped virus particles long before the adaptive immune response is activated . Many natural antibodies are directed against the disaccharide galactose α ( 1 @,@ 3 ) -galactose ( α @-@ Gal ) , which is found as a terminal sugar on glycosylated cell surface proteins , and generated in response to production of this sugar by bacteria contained in the human gut . Rejection of xenotransplantated organs is thought to be , in part , the result of natural antibodies circulating in the serum of the recipient binding to α @-@ Gal antigens expressed on the donor tissue .
= = Immunoglobulin diversity = =
Virtually all microbes can trigger an antibody response . Successful recognition and eradication of many different types of microbes requires diversity among antibodies ; their amino acid composition varies allowing them to interact with many different antigens . It has been estimated that humans generate about 10 billion different antibodies , each capable of binding a distinct epitope of an antigen . Although a huge repertoire of different antibodies is generated in a single individual , the number of genes available to make these proteins is limited by the size of the human genome . Several complex genetic mechanisms have evolved that allow vertebrate B cells to generate a diverse pool of antibodies from a relatively small number of antibody genes .
= = = Domain variability = = =
The chromosomal region that encodes an antibody is large and contains several distinct gene loci for each domain of the antibody — the chromosome region containing heavy chain genes ( IGH @ ) is found on chromosome 14 , and the loci containing lambda and kappa light chain genes ( IGL @ and IGK @ ) are found on chromosomes 22 and 2 in humans . One of these domains is called the variable domain , which is present in each heavy and light chain of every antibody , but can differ in different antibodies generated from distinct B cells . Differences , between the variable domains , are located on three loops known as hypervariable regions ( HV @-@ 1 , HV @-@ 2 and HV @-@ 3 ) or complementarity determining regions ( CDR1 , CDR2 and CDR3 ) . CDRs are supported within the variable domains by conserved framework regions . The heavy chain locus contains about 65 different variable domain genes that all differ in their CDRs . Combining these genes with an array of genes for other domains of the antibody generates a large cavalry of antibodies with a high degree of variability . This combination is called V ( D ) J recombination discussed below .
= = = V ( D ) J recombination = = =
Somatic recombination of immunoglobulins , also known as V ( D ) J recombination , involves the generation of a unique immunoglobulin variable region . The variable region of each immunoglobulin heavy or light chain is encoded in several pieces — known as gene segments ( subgenes ) . These segments are called variable ( V ) , diversity ( D ) and joining ( J ) segments . V , D and J segments are found in Ig heavy chains , but only V and J segments are found in Ig light chains . Multiple copies of the V , D and J gene segments exist , and are tandemly arranged in the genomes of mammals . In the bone marrow , each developing B cell will assemble an immunoglobulin variable region by randomly selecting and combining one V , one D and one J gene segment ( or one V and one J segment in the light chain ) . As there are multiple copies of each type of gene segment , and different combinations of gene segments can be used to generate each immunoglobulin variable region , this process generates a huge number of antibodies , each with different paratopes , and thus different antigen specificities . Interestingly , the rearrangement of several subgenes ( i.e. V2 family ) for lambda light chain immunoglobulin is coupled with the activation of microRNA miR @-@ 650 , which further influences biology of B @-@ cells .
RAG proteins play an important role with V ( D ) J recombination in cutting DNA at a particular region . Without the presence of these proteins , V ( D ) J recombination would not occur .
After a B cell produces a functional immunoglobulin gene during V ( D ) J recombination , it cannot express any other variable region ( a process known as allelic exclusion ) thus each B cell can produce antibodies containing only one kind of variable chain .
= = = Somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation = = =
Following activation with antigen , B cells begin to proliferate rapidly . In these rapidly dividing cells , the genes encoding the variable domains of the heavy and
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umah of trying to destabilise Côte d 'Ivoire in 1963 , and called for the Francophone states to boycott the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) conference scheduled to take place in Accra . Nkrumah was ousted from power in 1966 in a military coup ; Houphouët @-@ Boigny allowed the conspirators to use Côte d 'Ivoire as a base to coordinate the arrival and departure of their missions .
Also in collaboration with Foccart , Houphouët @-@ Boigny took part in the attempted coup of 16 January 1977 led by famed French mercenary Bob Denard against the revolutionary regime of Mathieu Kérékou in Dahomey . Houphouët @-@ Boigny , in order to fight against the Marxists in power in Angola , also lent his support to Jonas Savimbi 's UNITA party , whose feud with the MPLA party led to the Angolan Civil War .
Despite his reputation as a destabiliser of regimes , Houphouët @-@ Boigny granted refuge to Jean @-@ Bédel Bokassa , after the exiled Central African Republic dictator had been overthrown by French paratroopers in September 1979 . This move was met with international criticism , and thus , having become a political and financial burden to Houphouët @-@ Boigny , Bokassa was expelled from Côte d 'Ivoire in 1983 .
= = = = Alignment with France = = = =
Houphouët @-@ Boigny was a participant in the November 1960 Congo Crisis , a period of political upheaval and conflict in Congo @-@ Kinshasa . The Ivorian leader supported President Joseph Kasa @-@ Vubu , an opponent of Lumumba , and followed France in supporting the controversial Congolese Prime Minister Moise Tshombe . Tshombe , disliked by much of Africa , was passionately defended by Houphouët @-@ Boigny and was even invited into OCAM in May 1965 . After the overthrow of Kasa @-@ Vubu by General Mobutu in November 1965 , the Ivorian president supported , in 1967 , a plan proposed by the French secret service which aimed to bring the deposed Congolese leader back into power . The operation was a failure . In response , Houphouët @-@ Boigny decided to boycott the fourth annual summit of the OAU held in September 1967 in Kinshasa .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny was also a major contributor to the political tensions in Biafra . Considering Nigeria a potential danger to French @-@ influenced African states , Foccart sent Houphouët @-@ Boigny and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Raymond Bichelot on a mission in 1963 to monitor political developments in the country . The opportunity to weaken the former British colony presented itself in May 1967 , when Biafra , led by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu , undertook to secede from Nigeria . French @-@ aligned African countries supported the secessionists who , provided with mercenaries and weapons by Jean Mauricheau @-@ Beaupré , began a civil war . By the end of the 1960s , French @-@ supported nations suddenly and openly distanced themselves from France and Côte d 'Ivoire 's position on the civil war . Isolated on the international scene , both countries decided to suspend their assistance to Ojukwu , who eventually went into exile in Côte d 'Ivoire .
At the request of Paris , Houphouet @-@ Boigny began forging relations with South Africa in October 1970 , justifying his attitude by stating that " [ t ] he problems of racial discrimination , so painful , so distressing , so revolting to our dignity of Negros , must not be resolved , we believe , by force . " He even proposed to the OAU in June 1971 that they follow his lead . In spite of receiving some support , his proposal was rejected . This refusal did not , however , prevent him from continuing his attempts to approach the Pretoria regime . His attempts bore fruit in October of that year , when a semi @-@ official meeting between a delegation of high level Ivorian officials and South African Prime Minister B. J. Vorster was held in the capital of South Africa . Moreover , mindful of the Communist influence in Africa , he met Vorster in Geneva in 1977 , after the Soviet Union and Cuba tried to collectively spread their influence in Angola and Ethiopia . Relations with South Africa continued on an official basis until the end of his presidency .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny and Thomas Sankara , the leader of Burkina Faso , had a highly turbulent relationship . Tensions reached their climax in 1985 when Côte d 'Ivoire Burkinabés accused authorities of being involved in a conspiracy to forcibly recruit young students to training camps in Libya . Houphouët @-@ Boigny responded by inviting the dissident Jean @-@ Claude Kamboulé to take refuge in Côte d 'Ivoire so that he could organise opposition to the Sankara regime . In 1987 , Sankara was overthrown and assassinated in a coup . The coup may have had French involvement , since the Sankara regime had fallen into disfavour in France . Houphouët @-@ Boigny was also suspected of involvement in the coup and in November , the PDCI asked the government to ban the sale of Jeune Afrique following its allegations of Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's participation . The Ivorian president would have greatly benefited from the divisions in the Burkina Faso government . He contacted Blaise Compaoré , the second @-@ most powerful man in the regime ; it is generally believed that they worked in conjunction with Laurent Dona Fologo , Robert Guéï and Pierre Ouédraogo to overthrow the Sankara regime .
Besides supporting policies pursued by France , Houphouët @-@ Boigny also influenced their actions in Africa . He pushed France to support and provide arms to warlord Charles Taylor 's rebels during the First Liberian Civil War in hopes of receiving some of the country 's assets and resources after the war .
= = = Opposition to the Soviet Union and China = = =
From the time of Côte d 'Ivoire 's independence , Houphouët @-@ Boigny considered the Soviet Union and China " malevolent " influences on developing countries . He did not establish diplomatic relations with Moscow until 1967 and then severed them in 1969 following allegations of direct Soviet support to a 1968 student protest at the National University of Côte d 'Ivoire . The two countries did not restore ties until February 1986 , by which time Houphouët @-@ Boigny had embraced a more active foreign policy reflecting his quest for greater international recognition .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny was even more outspoken in his criticism of the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) . He voiced fears of an " invasion " by the Chinese and a subsequent colonisation of Africa . He was especially concerned that Africans would see the problems of development in China as analogous to those of Africa , and see China 's solutions as appropriate to sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Accordingly , Côte d 'Ivoire was one of the last countries to normalise relations with China , doing so on 3 March 1983 . Under the principle demanded by Beijing for " one China " , the recognition by Côte d 'Ivoire of the PRC effectively disestablished diplomatic relations between Abidjan and Taiwan .
= = = Economic policies in the 1960s and 1970s = = =
Houphouët @-@ Boigny adopted a system of economic liberalism in Côte d 'Ivoire in order to obtain the trust and confidence of foreign investors , most notably the French . The advantages granted by the investment laws he established in 1959 allowed foreign business to repatriate up to 90 % of their profits in their country of origin ( the remaining 10 % was reinvested in Côte d 'Ivoire ) . He also developed an agenda for modernising the country 's infrastructure , for example , building an American @-@ style business district in Abidjan where five @-@ star hotels and resorts welcomed tourists and businessmen . Côte d 'Ivoire experienced economic growth of 11 – 12 % from 1960 to 1965 . The country 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) grew twelvefold between 1960 and 1978 , from 145 to 1 @,@ 750 billion CFA francs , while the trade balance continued to record a surplus .
The origin of this economic success stemmed from the president 's decision to focus on the primary sector of the economy , rather than the secondary sector . As a result , the agricultural sector experienced significant development : between 1960 and 1970 , cocoa cultivators tripled their production to 312 @,@ 000 tonnes and coffee production rose by nearly 50 % , from 185 @,@ 500 to 275 @,@ 000 tonnes . As a result of this economic prosperity , Côte d 'Ivoire saw an influx of immigrants from other West African countries ; the foreign workforce — mostly Burkinabés — who maintained indigenous plantations , represented over a quarter of the Ivorian population by 1980 . Both Ivorians and foreigners began referring to Houphouët @-@ Boigny as the " Sage of Africa " for performing what became known as " Ivorian miracle " . He was also respectfully nicknamed " The Old One " ( Le Vieux ) .
However , the economic system developed in cooperation with France was far from perfect . As Houphouët @-@ Boigny described it , the economy of Côte d 'Ivoire experienced " growth without development " . The growth of the economy depended on capital , initiatives and a financial framework from investors abroad ; it had not become independent or self @-@ sustaining .
= = = Crisis in Côte d 'Ivoire = = =
= = = = Economy on the brink of collapse = = = =
Beginning in 1978 , the economy of Côte d 'Ivoire experienced a serious decline due to the sharp downturn in international market prices of coffee and cocoa . The decline was perceived as fleeting , since its impact on planters was buffered by the Caistab , the agricultural marketing board , which ensured them a livable income . The next year , in order to contain a sudden drop in the prices of exported goods , Houphouët @-@ Boigny raised prices to resist international tariffs on raw materials . However , by applying only this solution , Côte d 'Ivoire lost more than 700 billion CFA francs between 1980 and 1982 . From 1983 to 1984 , Côte d 'Ivoire fell victim to a drought that ravaged nearly 400 @,@ 000 hectares of forest and 250 @,@ 000 hectares of coffee and cocoa plants . To address this problem , Houphouët @-@ Boigny travelled to London to negotiate an agreement on coffee and cocoa prices with traders and industrialists ; by 1984 , the agreement had fallen apart and Côte d 'Ivoire was engulfed in a major financial crisis .
Even the production of the offshore oil drilling and petrochemical industries , developed to supply the Caistab , was affected by the 1986 worldwide economic recession . Côte d 'Ivoire , which had bought planters ' harvests for double the market price , fell into heavy debt . By May 1987 , the foreign debt had reached US $ 10 billion , prompting Houphouët @-@ Boigny to suspend payments of the debt . Refusing to sell off its supply of cocoa , the country shut down its exports in July and forced world rates to increase . However , this " embargo " failed . In November 1989 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny liquidated his enormous stock of cocoa to big businesses to jump @-@ start the economy . Gravely ill at this time , he named a Prime Minister ( the post was unoccupied since 1960 ) , Alassane Ouattara , who established a series of belt @-@ tightening economic measures to bring the country out of debt .
= = = = Social tensions = = = =
The general atmosphere of enrichment and satisfaction during the period of economic growth in Côte d 'Ivoire made it possible for Houphouët @-@ Boigny to maintain and control internal political tensions . His easygoing authoritarian regime , where political prisoners were almost nonexistent , was well accepted by the population . However , the economic crisis that began in the 1980s caused a sharp decline in living conditions for the middle class and underprivileged urban populations . According to the World Bank , the population living below the poverty threshold went from 11 % in 1985 to 31 % by 1993 . Despite the implementation of certain measures , such as the reduction of the number of young French workers ( who worked abroad while serving in the military ) from 3 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 in 1986 , allowing many jobs to go to young Ivorian graduates , the government failed to control the rising rates of unemployment and bankruptcy in many companies .
Strong social agitations shook the country , creating insecurity . The army mutinied in 1990 and 1992 , and on 2 March 1990 , protesters organized mass demonstrations in the streets of Abidjan with slogans such as " thief Houphouët " and " corrupt Houphouët " . These popular demonstrations prompted the president to launch a system of democratization on 31 May , in which he authorised political pluralism and trade unions .
= = = = = Opposition = = = = =
Laurent Gbagbo gained recognition as one of the principal instigators of the student demonstrations during the protests against Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's government on 9 February 1982 , which led to the closing of the universities and other educational institutions . Shortly thereafter , his wife and he formed what would become the Ivorian Popular Front ( FPI ) . Gbagbo went into exile in France later that year , where he promoted the FPI and its political platforms . Although the FPI was ideologically similar to the Unified Socialist Party , the French socialist government tried to ignore Gbagbo 's party to please Houphouët @-@ Boigny . After a lengthy appeal process , Gbagbo obtained status as a political refugee in France in 1985 . However , the French government attempted to pressure him into returning to Côte d 'Ivoire , as Houphouët @-@ Boigny had begun to worry about Gbagbo 's developing a network of contacts , and believed " his stirring opponent would be less of a threat in Abidjan than in Paris " .
In 1988 , Gbagbo returned from exile to Côte d 'Ivoire after Houphouët @-@ Boigny implicitly granted him forgiveness by declaring that " the tree did not get angry at the bird " . In 1990 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny legalised opposition parties . On 28 October , a presidential election was held . For the first time , Houphouët @-@ Boigny actually faced an opponent : Gbagbo . He highlighted the President 's age , suggesting that he was too old for a seventh five @-@ year term . Houphouët @-@ Boigny countered by broadcasting television footage of his youth , and he was re @-@ elected to a seventh term with 2 @,@ 445 @,@ 365 votes to 548 @,@ 441 — an implausible 81 @.@ 7 percent of the vote .
= = = = Displays of wealth = = = =
During his presidency , Houphouët @-@ Boigny benefited greatly from the wealth of Côte d 'Ivoire ; by the time of his death in 1993 , his personal wealth was estimated to be between US $ 7 and $ 11 billion . With regards to his large fortune , Houphouët @-@ Boigny said in 1983 , " People are surprised that I like gold . It 's just that I was born in it . " The Ivorian leader acquired a dozen properties in the metropolitan area of Paris ( including Hotel Masseran on Masseran Street in the 7th arrondissement of Paris ) , a property in Castel Gandolfo in Italy , and a house in Chêne @-@ Bourg , Switzerland . He owned real estate companies , such as Grand Air SI , SI Picallpoc and Interfalco , and had many shares in prestigious jewelry and watchmaking companies , such as Piaget SA and Harry Winston . He placed his fortune in Switzerland , once asking if " there is any serious man on Earth not stocking parts of his fortune in Switzerland " .
In 1983 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny moved the capital from Abidjan to Yamoussoukro . There , at the expense of the state , he built many buildings such as the Institute Polytechnique and an international airport . The most luxurious project was the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace , which is currently the largest church in the world , with an area of 30 @,@ 000 square metres ( 320 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and a height of 158 metres ( 518 ft ) . Personally financed by Houphouët @-@ Boigny , construction for the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace was carried out by the Lebanese architect Pierre Fakhoury at a total cost of about US $ 150 – 200 million . Houphouët @-@ Boigny offered it to Pope John Paul II as a " personal gift " ; the latter , after having unsuccessfully requested it being shorter than St. Peter 's in Rome , consecrated it all the same on 10 September 1990 . Due to a collapse of the national economy coupled with lavish amounts spent on its construction , the Basilica was criticized : it was called " the basilica in the bush " by several western news agencies .
= = Death and legacy = =
= = = Succession and death = = =
The political , social , and economic crises also touched the issue of who would succeed Houphouët @-@ Boigny as head of state . After severing ties with his former political heir Philippe Yacé in 1980 , who , as president of the National Assembly , was entitled to exercise the full functions of President of the Republic if the Head of State was incapacitated or absent , Houphouët @-@ Boigny delayed as much as he could in officially designating a successor . The president 's health became increasingly fragile , with Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara administering the country from 1990 onwards , while the president was hospitalised in France . There was a struggle for power , which ended when Houphouët @-@ Boigny rejected Ouattara in favour of Henri Konan Bédié , the President of the National Assembly . In December 1993 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny , terminally ill with prostate cancer , was urgently flown back to Côte d 'Ivoire so he could die there . He was kept on life support to ensure that the last dispositions concerning his succession were defined . After his family consented , Houphouët @-@ Boigny was disconnected from life support at 6 : 35 am GMT on 7 December . At the time of his death , Houphouët @-@ Boigny was the longest @-@ serving leader in Africa and the third in the world , after Fidel Castro of Cuba and Kim Il Sung of North Korea .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny left no written will or legacy report for Côte d 'Ivoire upon his death in 1993 . His recognised heirs , especially Helena , led a battle against the government to recover part of the vast fortune Houphouët @-@ Boigny had left , which she claimed was " private " and did not belong to the State .
= = = Funeral = = =
Following Houpouët @-@ Boigny 's death , the country 's stability was maintained , as seen by his impressive funeral on 7 February 1994 . The funeral for this " doyen of francophone Africa " was held in the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace , with 7 @,@ 000 guests inside the building and tens of thousands outside . The two @-@ month delay before Houpouët @-@ Boigny 's funeral , common among members of the Baoule ethnic group , allowed for many ceremonies preceding his burial . The president 's funeral featured many traditional African funerary customs , including a large chorus dressed in bright batik dresses singing " laagoh budji gnia " ( Baoulé : " Lord , it is you who has made all things " ) and village chiefs displaying strips of kente and korhogo cloth . Baoulés are traditionally buried with objects they enjoyed while alive ; Houpouët @-@ Boigny 's family , however , did not state what , if anything , they would bury with him .
Over 140 countries and international organisations sent delegates to the funeral . However , according to The New York Times , many Ivorians were disappointed by the poor attendance of several key allies , most notably the United States . The small United States delegation was led by Secretary of Energy Hazel R. O 'Leary and Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs George Moose . In contrast , Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's close personal ties with France were reflected in the large French delegation , which included President François Mitterrand ; Prime Minister Édouard Balladur ; the presidents of the National Assembly and of the Senate , Philippe Séguin and René Monory ; former President Valéry Giscard d 'Estaing ; Jacques Chirac ; his friend Jacques Foccart ; and six former Prime Ministers . According to The New York Times , " Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's death is not only the end of a political era here , but perhaps as well the end of the close French @-@ African relationship that he came to symbolize . "
= = = Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny Peace Prize = = =
To establish his legacy as a man of peace , Houphouët @-@ Boigny created an award in 1989 , sponsored by UNESCO and funded entirely by extra @-@ budgetary resources provided by the Félix @-@ Houphouët @-@ Boigny Foundation , to honor those who search for peace . The prize is " named after President Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny , the doyen of African Heads of State and a tireless advocate of peace , concord , fellowship and dialogue to solve all conflicts both within and between States " . It is awarded annually along with a check for € 122 @,@ 000 , by an international jury composed of 11 persons from five continents , led by former United States Secretary of State and Nobel Peace Prize winner Henry Kissinger . The prize was first awarded in 1991 to Nelson Mandela , president of the African National Congress , and Frederik Willem de Klerk , president of the Republic of South Africa , and has been awarded each year since , with the exception of 2001 and 2004 .
= = Positions in government = =
= = = France = = =
= = = Côte d 'Ivoire = = =
= Siege of Inabayama Castle =
The Siege of Inabayama Castle ( 稲葉山城の戦い , Inabayama @-@ jō no Tatakai ) of 1567 was the final battle in Oda Nobunaga 's campaign to defeat the Saitō clan in their mountaintop castle and conquer Mino Province , Japan . It was a short two @-@ week siege , fought between 13 and 27 September 1567 , or in the Japanese calendar : from the 1st to 15th day of the 8th month , in the 10th year of the Eiroku era , according to the Nobunaga Chronicle . The siege ended in a decisive battle and victory of Nobunaga 's combined forces , and resulted in the subjugation of the Saitō clan , their vassals , and allies . This victory was the culmination of Nobunaga 's Mino campaign , waged intermittently over the previous six years , and brought an end to a rivalry between the Oda clan of Owari province and the Saitō clan of Mino , which began over twenty years earlier between Nobunaga 's father , Oda Nobuhide and Saitō Dōsan .
Due to the weak leadership of the Saitō , many samurai leaders defected to Nobunaga before the battle , while others willingly submitted afterward . With this victory , Nobunaga took control of the expansive and fertile Mino Province and gained numerous supporters and resources . Nobunaga had the former Saitō castle repaired and renamed it Gifu Castle , a firm base from which to expand north into the Hokuriku region and to make his drive toward Kyoto . Gifu Castle functioned as his primary residence and military headquarters until he moved to the partially completed Azuchi Castle in 1575 .
Nobunaga 's young retainer Kinoshita Tōkichirō ( later known as Toyotomi Hideyoshi ) played an important role in attaining the victory at Inabayama . In the years leading to the battle , he negotiated for the support of local warlords , which ensured a ready @-@ made army by the time of the attack , and built a castle on the edge of the enemy 's territory to serve as a staging point for the attack . In addition to these preparations , Tōkichirō devised and led a bold plan , something of a commando raid , to break into the castle and open the gates for the attacking army . As a result of his efforts and the victory , his standing with Nobunaga rose considerably . Thus , in addition to the battle 's immediate importance to Nobunaga 's plans , it was also an important step in Toyotomi Hideyoshi 's rise to power .
= = Background = =
In 1549 young Oda Nobunaga ( 1534 – 1582 ) , who would later become a major daimyo of Owari province , Japan and would initiate the unification of 16th century Japan , was married to Nōhime , the daughter of Saitō Dōsan , leader of the rival Saitō clan of neighboring Mino Province . Nobunaga was the second son of Oda Nobuhide , head of the Oda clan , who was at that time fending off opponents on the northern and eastern borders of Owari province , matters that were complicated by internal dissent . Saitō Dōsan , lord of Mino , was a strong and ruthless leader , but internal strife had begun to split the Saitō into factions . Both clans needed some respite to deal with more pressing problems and thus the political marriage of Nobunaga and Nōhime brought an end to the clans ' rivalry and their border skirmishes .
In 1555 Saitō Yoshitatsu , eldest son of Dōsan , came to believe his inheritance would be taken away and murdered his two younger brothers . The following year he rallied troops loyal to him and openly rebelled against his father . Dōsan indeed changed his will and named his son @-@ in @-@ law , Oda Nobunaga , his legal heir . Shortly thereafter Dōsan was killed by one of Yoshitatsu 's retainers at the Battle of Nagaragawa . At the time Nobunaga was not in a position to help his father @-@ in @-@ law and the Saitō civil war soon ended before any active intervention could be mounted . In 1561 Yoshitatsu died of leprosy and his son , Saitō Tatsuoki , succeeded to the leadership of the clan . At the time Tatsuoki was young but , as he attained adulthood , he was eventually considered incapable of effective leadership by his peers and retainers , viewed with contempt by his subordinates , and even despised by the local peasantry . After the Oda and Matsudaira clans allied and then defeated the Imagawa clan at the 1560 Battle of Okehazama , Nobunaga was in a more secure position to focus on their northern neighbor , the Saitō clan . Nobunaga 's plans for an invasion of Mino were ostensibly motivated by revenge for the death of his father @-@ in @-@ law , Saitō Dōsan , but Yoshitatsu died before Nobunaga could attack . As a result , Nobunaga reasoned that Yoshitatsu 's heir , Tatsuoki , likewise benefited from Dōsan 's demise , and thus continued with his plans for invasion , using revenge as a pretext .
= = Mino campaign = =
Oda Nobunaga mounted forays into Mino territory in 1561 and 1563 , which resulted in brief battles . In each expedition Nobunaga and his 700 troops were outnumbered by rapidly assembled forces under local daimyo , who would muster up to 3 @,@ 000 men . Caught in the open and unable to organize a defense , he fell back each time to his home territory . The local history of Gifu city states that in 1564 Nobunaga went so far as to attack Inabayama Castle , the headquarters of the Saitō clan . The castle was situated atop Mount Inaba , which had a ruggedly steep northern face with the bank of the Sunomata River at its foot , and accessed by a winding avenue up the southern slopes . Although it was considered nearly impregnable , Tatsuoki fled the parapets and hid within the castle while his retainers Takenaka Shigeharu ( called Hanbei ) and Andō Morinari commanded the defense . Nobunaga then left or was driven out soon afterward . In later years Nobunaga had this setback expunged from records and omitted from the Nobunaga Chronicles .
Starting in 1564 , Oda Nobunaga began dispatching his loyal retainer , Kinoshita Tōkichirō , to convince , with liberal bribery , many of the warlords in the Mino area to defect to the growing alliance under the Oda clan . Kinoshita even approached Takenaka Hanbei , who was considered a brilliant strategist but lived in pious seclusion , to persuade him to defect . Although the Saitō retainer was frustrated by the ignominious behavior of Tatsuoki , he did not want to appear capricious with his loyalty , and declined Kinoshita 's offers on behalf of his lord . Kinoshita was impressed with the integrity of the retainer and invited him to an extended stay in his home , as a guest . Hanbei admitted that the Saitō clan could not survive for much longer under Tatsuoki , and accepted Kinoshita 's invitation in exchange for a promise of leniency if ever the Saitō leadership fell into Kinoshita 's hands .
In 1566 , in anticipation of the upcoming campaign , Kinoshita proposed that a castle should be built somewhere near Inabayama Castle to serve as a staging point for the Oda forces . Nobunaga agreed and charged Kinoshita with the task . To this end Kinoshita built Sunomata Castle on the bank of the Sai River opposite Saitō territory . The advantage of the castle 's proximity to the enemy was also a problem during construction . Until the castle was complete , Kinoshita 's men and the construction site were vulnerable to an amphibious attack from across the river . According to legend , Kinoshita built the castle in one night ; however it is more likely that it was the tower 's skeleton with a facade that was seen from the opposite bank . The result of the hasty construction was meant to give his own men a vantage point and to surprise and impress the enemy . Stalled by the enemy 's caution , Kinoshita 's men were able to quickly transform the fragile framework into a functioning fortification , and then into a complete castle . Nobunaga then ordered Kinoshita to remain as steward of the castle , and bestowed upon him the name Hideyoshi .
= = Siege = =
In 1567 , Oda Nobunaga led an attack against the Saitō clan of Mino Province . The clan headquarters and administrative center for Mino Province was Inabayama Castle , a mountain fortress atop Mount Inaba ( in present @-@ day Gifu city ) . As Saitō Tatsuoki , the daimyo of the clan , had shown himself to be a cowardly and ineffective ruler , Takenaka Hanbei had staged a coup and took command of the castle and its garrison . Although Tatsuoki was allowed to remain the titular head of the clan , he contributed nothing to the outcome of the battle . When the Oda army entered Mino , Hanbei prepared the garrison for the defense of the castle .
According to the Shinchō kōki ( or The Nobunaga Chronicles ) , preparations for the battle began on 13 September 1567 ( Eiroku @-@ 10 year , 8 @-@ month , 1 @-@ day ) . Nobunaga entered the area , made contact with allies , and the core of Nobunaga 's army of about 5 @,@ 000 troops crossed the Kiso River . As the troops assembled on the far shore , Nobunaga sent two messengers , Murai Sadakatsu and Shimada Hidemitsu , to three of the Saitō clan 's top vassals , known as the Mino Triumvirate , asking for their cooperation in the upcoming battle . Mino warlords that Kinoshita Hideyoshi had persuaded to defect brought additional troops to Nobunaga 's banner .
As the forces loyal to Nobunaga moved across the plain , several skirmishes were fought in a futile effort to turn the invading forces . Nobunaga 's forces then entered the town of Inoguchi , which lay below Inabayama Castle . To clear the field of view and provide space for the besieging army , Kinoshita Hideyoshi 's vanguard set fire to the town . As some soldiers took positions on Mount Inoguchi and a nearby ridgeline , the main army positioned itself before Mount Inaba to begin the siege . The greatly augmented army , now bristling with the flags of the Saitō clan 's former vassals and allies , bewildered the castle 's defenders . During the days that followed , Kinoshita dispatched men to gather intelligence , especially from peasants willing to help . Kinoshita met with a local resident , Horio Yoshiharu , who showed him a little @-@ known path that led up the north slope of the mountain . The north slopes below the castle were so steep that assault by a large force was considered impossible , and was thus effectively ignored by the defenders at the advent of battle .
= = = Final assault = = =
It is uncertain exactly what happened on the battlefield between 14 – 25 September . Given what is known of Nobunaga 's aggressive fighting style , the prevailing siege tactics of the day , the layout of the Japanese castle , and the events that followed , it can be inferred that Nobunaga 's forces pressed their attack and probably breached the outer defenses of Inabayama Castle . It is known , however , that Kuroda Kanbei , considered a talented strategist , was charged with directing and coordinating the main attack . It is also certain that Kinoshita Hideyoshi devised a plan in which a small force would scale the north face of the mountain , enter the castle , and rush to open the gates for the besieging army . Nobunaga approved and charged Kinoshita with leading the raid . For his team Kinoshita selected Horio Yoshiharu , Hachisuka Koroku , and five or six other men to accompany him . On 26 September Nobunaga was so confident of Kinoshita 's plan and the outcome of the battle that he had an heraldic partition erected on the battlefield where he held a meeting with his top officers and allotted tasks pertaining to the re @-@ construction of the castle following the battle . He also greeted the daimyo of the Mino Triumvirate , who were stunned by his audacity , and offered them sake .
On the night of 26 September Kinoshita gathered his team and , concerned over the late summer heat and the exertions in store , provided them with gourds of fresh water . Horio Yoshiharu then guided Kinoshita Hideyoshi and the small assault force around to the back of the mountain , where they climbed the steep slopes by the light of a full moon . At dawn , while Kinoshita 's mission was in progress , the main force under Kuroda Kanbei proceeded with its attack on the castle .
Sometime after dawn , Kinoshita 's team infiltrated the castle , set fire to a storehouse and the powder magazine , and then rushed to open the front gates , cutting down whomever got in their way . With explosions erupting from the powder magazine and the other building burning fiercely , the castle defense quickly devolved into chaos , as the shocked and exhausted defenders thought they were under a full @-@ scale attack from behind . Kinoshita 's men , filthy from the night 's exertions and brandishing bloody swords as they rushed across the main courtyard , added to the impression . The castle garrison was thrown into complete disarray as men were pulled from the parapets to face the nonexistent assault , while others threw down their weapons and surrendered . When Kinoshita 's team had attained the gatehouse they tied their gourds to spears and waved them to their allies below to signal they were in position , whereupon Kuroda 's infantry charged the open gates and overran what was left of the castle 's garrison . While Kuroda 's men mopped up the last of the resistance , Kinoshita 's team found a place to rest while Horio Yoshiharu passed around a large gourd of sake he had taken from the castle 's supply . By the end of 27 September 1567 Inabayama Castle had fallen and the remaining lords of Mino province formally surrendered to Nobunaga .
= = Aftermath = =
In about two weeks ' time Nobunaga had entered the sprawling Mino Province , raised an army , and conquered the ruling clan in their mountaintop castle . Following the battle the Mino Triumvirate , awed by the speed and skill of Nobunaga 's conquest , permanently allied themselves to Nobunaga . Nobunaga had the castle repaired and renamed it Gifu Castle . The castle @-@ town of Inoguchi was likewise renamed Gifu , after the mountain from which Wu Wang launched his campaign to unify China . Nobunaga had a lavish manor built at the base of the castle mountain . He then transferred his primary base and residence from Komaki Castle to Gifu , from which he would launch his historic march on Kyoto the following year . He continued to use Gifu Castle as his primary residence and headquarters until he moved into the partially completed Azuchi Castle in 1575 .
Saitō Tatsuoki survived the battle , though there are at least two accounts of how he managed this . In one account , Tatsuoki abandoned the castle the night before the final attack , took a boat , and fled down the Sunomata River . In another account , following the breach of the main gate , Hideyoshi dispatched a messenger to the main tower , where Tatsuoki and his entourage were cornered , with assurances of leniency if the Saitō holdouts would surrender . Tatsuoki accepted the offer and , with Nobunaga 's troops forming two lines , Tatsuoki marched out of the main tower with his family and retinue . In any event , Tatsuoki eventually found his way to Nagashima , Ise Province . He lived in exile for a while , but eventually sought refuge with Asakura Yoshikage . He was killed in the Battle of Tonezaka , at the age of 26 , in 1573 .
The efforts of Kinoshita Hideyoshi as the mastermind of the victory were recognized by Nobunaga and his status rose accordingly . After the battle Kinoshita was promoted in rank and made lord of three districts in the northern part of the newly conquered Mino province , and not long afterward took the surname Hashiba . When Nobunaga later gave him a field command , Hideyoshi used an image of a golden gourd as his battle standard , in commemoration of his success at Inabayama Castle . In time he would change his surname again , to Toyotomi . Kuroda Kanbei , who led the frontal attack , and Takenaka Hanbei , who directed the castle 's defense , would both eventually serve Toyotomi Hideyoshi .
= = Order of battle = =
At the outset of the siege , Nobunaga organized the troops of his allies and retainers into several divisions , with a reserve and a vanguard :
Main Division
3 @,@ 000 troops under Oda Nobunaga
First Division
2 @,@ 000 troops under Shibata Katsuie
2 @,@ 000 troops under Ikeda Tsuneoki
Second Division
1 @,@ 000 troops under Mori Yoshinari
1 @,@ 000 troops under Maeda Toshiie
1 @,@ 000 troops under Sassa Narimasa
Others
Reserve Division
2 @,@ 000 troops under Sakuma Nobumori
Vanguard
1 @,@ 000 troops under Kinoshita Hideyoshi
Mino forces , unspecified numbers under :
Ujiie Naotomo
Andō Morinari
Inaba Yoshimichi
Others
= 1940 Nova Scotia hurricane =
The 1940 Nova Scotia hurricane swept through areas of Atlantic Canada in mid @-@ September 1940 . The fifth tropical cyclone and fourth hurricane of the year , it formed as a tropical depression east of the Lesser Antilles on September 7 , though at the time weather observations in the area were sparse , so its formation was inferred . The disturbance gradually intensified throughout much of its early formative stages , attaining tropical storm strength on September 10 ; further strengthening into a hurricane north of Puerto Rico occurred two days later . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane recurved northward , and reached peak intensity the following day as a Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of at least 988 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) . The cyclone steadily weakened thereafter before making landfall on Nova Scotia on September 17 with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . Moving into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence later that day , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnant system curved eastward and passed over Newfoundland before dissipating over the Atlantic on September 19 .
While off of the United States East Coast , the hurricane caused numerous shipping incidents , most notably the stranding of the Swedish freighter Laponia off of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina on September 16 . Two other boat incidents resulted in two deaths . The hurricane also brought strong winds of tropical storm @-@ force and snow over areas of New England . In Atlantic Canada , a strong storm surge peaking at 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) above average sunk or damaged several ships and inundated cities . In New Brunswick , the waves hurt the lobster fishing industry . In Nova Scotia , strong winds disrupted telecommunication and power services . The winds also severely damaged crops . Roughly half of apple production in Annapolis Valley was lost during the storm , resulting in around $ 1 @.@ 49 million in economic losses . Strong winds in New Brunswick caused moderate to severe infrastructural damage , and additional damages to crops occurred there . Overall , the hurricane caused three fatalities , with two off of the United States and one in New Brunswick .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the system can be traced to a tropical depression roughly midway between the Lesser Antilles and the west coast of Africa at 1800 UTC on September 7 . Though initially believed to have developed on September 11 , the disturbance was found to have formed earlier in post @-@ season reanalysis , based on data from the International Comprehensive Ocean @-@ Atmosphere Data Set . In its early developmental stages , the disturbance remained a tropical depression with little change in intensity . At 0600 UTC on September 10 , it intensified into a tropical storm while still east of the Lesser Antilles . Closer to the islands , ships reported a quickly intensifying tropical cyclone with low barometric pressures , strong winds and heavy thunderstorms , although most of the activity occurred to the east of its center .
At 1800 UTC on September 12 , the storm intensified into the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane to the north of Puerto Rico . The following day , the hurricane began to recurve northward , attaining Category 2 intensity at 1200 UTC . Numerous vessels in its vicinity reported hurricane @-@ force winds ; the S.S. Borinquen observed a minimum peripheral pressure of 988 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) , the lowest observed pressure associated with the hurricane . At the time , the storm had maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , which it maintained throughout its duration as a Category 2 system . Progressing rapidly into more northerly latitudes , the storm weakened to a Category 1 hurricane by 1800 UTC on September 15 . By the next day , two warm fronts began extending eastward from the cyclone as the wind field expanded in size , indicating the start of an extratropical transition . At 0200 UTC , the hurricane made landfall near Lockeport , Nova Scotia , with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . The storm fully transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by 1200 UTC on September 17 . In the gulf , the system turned eastward , causing it to move ashore Newfoundland just north of Cape Race during the evening of September 18 . After passing over the island , the extratropical storm reentered the Atlantic Ocean , where it gradually weakened before dissipating on September 19 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Offshore the United States = = =
Though initially perceived to be a potential threat to The Bahamas and Florida due to its westward motion , the hurricane curved northward on September 13 , mitigating any evacuation procedures . Despite the storm 's change in track , the United States Weather Bureau cautioned shipping interests in the outlying islands of the Bahamas . Pan American World Airways was forced to postpone two transatlantic flights from New York City to Portugal due to the storm . After the hurricane recurved , the Weather Bureau advised caution to areas of the New England coast , particularly in Nantucket and Cape Cod , Massachusetts , where strong winds and waves were anticipated . Storm warnings were posted for coastal areas from Hatteras , North Carolina to Eastport , Maine on September 16 . The warnings were discontinued after the hurricane passed the warned areas .
On September 16 , strong waves produced by the hurricane disabled the Swedish freighter Laponia , which at the time was located 300 mi ( 480 km ) east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The ship was initially en route for Rio de Janeiro carrying cargo for the Bethlehem Steel Company . As a result of the stranded ship , the SS President Roosevelt was forced to divert its course in order to render aid . The United States Coast Guard cutters USCGC Sebago ( WHEC @-@ 42 ) and USCGC Carrabasset ( WAT @-@ 55 ) were sent from the Virginia Capes in order to provide assistance . In addition , a coast guard plane was dispatched from Elizabeth City , North Carolina . The ships remained on standby to monitor the Laponia for three hours before conditions were considered safe to tow the stricken ship back to shore . Two fishing vessels capsized off of Barnegat and Edgemere , New York , with both incidents resulting in a fatality . A cabin cruiser was sent to rescue occupants of the capsized boat off of Edgemere , though it was also disrupted by rough seas . The ship was later able to rescue the other surviving crew members . Numerous other small craft off of Long Island signaled distress calls to the US Coast Guard due to strong waves offshore . Eventually passing east of New England , the storm 's large size resulted in heavy rainfall near Nantucket Island , Massachusetts . A weather station on the island reported maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) . In Eastport , Maine , a weather station recorded a minimum barometric pressure of 993 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 33 inHg ) and wind speeds of 33 mph ( 53 km / h ) . In Maine , power lines were downed , damaging communications . In Bar Harbor , strong winds caused five fires , which were later extinguished . The schooner George Dresser ran aground on the port 's coast . The hurricane also produced slight snowfalls in northern areas of the state .
= = = Nova Scotia = = =
Most of the hurricane 's damage occurred in Nova Scotia , where the storm made landfall early on September 17 . As was the case off the United States East Coast , rough seas generated by the hurricane caused various ship incidents . Tides were 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) above average . The abnormally high sea level inundated areas of Lockeport , isolating it from the rest of Nova Scotia and creating a temporary island in the process . One home in the city was flooded by the waves . Off of Shelburne , a breakwater was destroyed by rough seas . In Halifax , two yachts were damaged . Another boat in East Ferry was destroyed . The strong waves grounded a schooner in Bridgewater , damaging a wharf . In Jordan Bay , two boat houses and a barn were toppled , while a wharf was washed away . Further north near Anticosti Island , the British steamer Incemore became stranded . Though not directly a result of the storm surge , ten boats in Lake Milo near Yarmouth were severely damaged .
Strong winds were also felt throughout Nova Scotia . Winds peaked at 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) in Lockeport , the strongest winds observed in the Canadian province . In Yarmouth , the storm 's gusts were clocked at 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) in Yarmouth . Trees were uprooted as a result of the strong winds . One tree fell into a home in Melville Cove , damaging the home 's roof . Cabins were damaged in Summerville , and the garage of a lodge in Digby was blown out . A barn and associated equipment were destroyed in Pembroke . The strong winds also blew down numerous communication lines , disrupting telecommunication services across Nova Scotia . Downed wires in Halifax caused a fire which scorched five buildings . Traffic in the city was also disrupted by the winds . In addition to infrastructure , crops were also heavily damaged . In Digby County , grain and corn plantations were damaged . Grain crops in Cumberland County also saw heavy losses . In Annapolis Valley , an important agricultural region in western Nova Scotia , 600 @,@ 000 barrels of apples were lost , resulting in CA $ 1 @.@ 5 million in damages . The lost apple production accounted for roughly half of the entire apple yield for the agricultural region . Despite the hurricane 's rapid movement through the Canadian Maritimes , the storm still produced heavy rainfall . In Halifax , 3 in ( 75 mm ) of rain was reported over the duration of the hurricane . However , 3 @.@ 5 in ( 90 mm ) of rain fell in Yarmouth in a 24 @-@ hour period .
= = = New Brunswick = = =
Damage from the hurricane was comparatively less in New Brunswick than in Nova Scotia , but was still considerable . The rough seas impacted ships offshore the province , disrupting the lobster industry . Two groups of lobster fishermen went missing in the Northumberland Strait ; they were later found . Thousands of lobster traps and several wharves were either damaged or destroyed in the strait . Hundreds of boats were set adrift or sunk in the strait as well . Several boats in Rothesay and Westfield were also lost . A man in Dixon Point lost CA $ 1 @,@ 000 of live lobsters due to the storm . A wharf in Shediac was washed away . Fifty boats were sunk off of Cap @-@ Pelé , while in Greville , four scows were destroyed . The rising seawater inundated a bridge crossing the Millstream River under 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) of water . A bridge crossing the Little River and another bridge in Cocagne were also damaged . Dykes in the Baie Verte area were damaged , resulting in thousands of dollars in damages . Further inland , winds caused infrastructural and agricultural damage . Winds peaked at 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) at Lakeburn Airport . The strong winds disrupted power and telecommunication services in Moncton . Streets were blocked by trees blown down by strong winds . Offshore , three yachts were destroyed . A tree fell onto the Gagetown United Church as a result of the winds , causing considerable damage . Grain and apple crops were also destroyed in Gagetown . In Saint John , chimneys were toppled . Flying debris injured several people , and power outages also greatly affected the city . High waves in conjunction with strong gusts scattered boats in the nearby Saint John River . Tents in the Sussex Military Camp were destroyed . The hurricane 's effects resulted in a car accident which injured eight people . Though no fatalities were confirmed in New Brunswick , a person went missing in Bathurst , who was later presumed dead .
= Deva Victrix =
Deva Victrix , or simply Deva , was a legionary fortress and town in the Roman province of Britannia . The settlement evolved into Chester , the county town of Cheshire , England . The fortress was built initially by the Legio II Adiutrix in the AD 70s as the Roman army advanced north against the Brigantes , but completed over the next few decades by the Legio XX Valeria Victrix .
Several factors including the presence of an elliptical building unique in legionary fortresses , the method of construction , and the unusual size of the fortress – 20 % larger than other Roman fortresses in Britain – suggest that it may have been intended as the base for a potential invasion of Ireland , and perhaps eventually to become the capital of the unified British Isles under Rome . The fortress contained barracks , granaries , military headquarters , military baths , and an unusual elliptical building that may have acted as the governor of Britain 's headquarters . The fortress was rebuilt in stone at the end of the 1st century AD when it was occupied by the Legio XX Valeria Victrix , and again in the early 3rd century . The legion probably remained at the fortress until it eventually fell into disuse in the late 4th or early 5th century .
A civilian settlement – or canabae – grew around the fortress and was one of the factors leading to the construction of an amphitheatre to the south east of the fortress . Chester Roman Amphitheatre could have seated between 8 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 people , the largest known military amphitheatre in Britain . The civilian settlement remained after the Romans departed , eventually becoming the present @-@ day city of Chester . There were peripheral settlements around Roman Deva , including Boughton , the source of the garrison 's water supply , and Handbridge , the site of a sandstone quarry and the Minerva Shrine . The shrine is the only in situ , rock @-@ cut Roman shrine in Britain .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation = = =
According to the 1st and 2nd century geographer Ptolemy , Deva was in the lands of the Celtic Cornovii . The Cornovii were a tribe whose lands bordered the Brigantes in the north and the Ordovices in the west and included parts of what is now Cheshire , Shropshire , and north Wales . When the Romans ' treaty with the Brigantes – the Celtic tribe occupying most of what is now Northern England – failed , the Romans decided the best way to ensure long term peace was by military conquest . The campaigns were led first by Sextus Julius Frontinus , and later by Gnaeus Julius Agricola . Their expansion into the north of Britannia during the reign of Vespasian meant that the Romans needed a new military base , close to the new frontiers . Chester was a strategic site for a fortress , commanding access to the sea via the River Dee and dividing the Brigantes from the Ordovices . Legio II Adiutrix was despatched to Chester and began the construction of a legionary fortress in the mid AD 70s .
The fortress was positioned on a sandstone bluff , dominating the bridge over the river and close to the natural harbour , today occupied by the Roodee racecourse ; the bend in the river provided protection from the south and the west . The river was navigable up to the sandstone ridge , so positioning the fortress beyond it would have made access to the harbour difficult . The fortress may have required as much as 2 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 litres ( 530 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water a day , supplied by fresh water piped in from natural springs in the suburb of Boughton 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 0 mi ) to the east .
Lead ingots discovered in Chester indicate that construction was probably under way by AD 74 . There may already have been military buildings on the site , but if so they were demolished to allow the construction of the fortress . The first buildings were built of wood , probably for convenience . They were gradually replaced by more permanent structures built from locally quarried sandstone . Defence was provided by a 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) wide rampart and a ditch 3 metres ( 10 ft ) wide and 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 5 ft ) deep . The rampart was made from turf laid over sand , clay , rubble , and layers of logs .
The fortress was in the traditional ' playing card ' shape – rectangular with rounded corners – and had four gates : north , east , south and west . It covered 25 hectares ( 62 acres ) , making it the largest constructed in Britain during the 70s . An estimated 24 @,@ 664 metric tons ( 24 @,@ 274 long tons ; 27 @,@ 187 short tons ) of timber was used in the first phase of the fortress ' construction ; buildings outside but associated with the fortress , such as the harbour and the amphitheatre , would have required an additional 31 @,@ 128 metric tons ( 30 @,@ 636 long tons ; 34 @,@ 313 short tons ) . The fortress contained barracks , granaries ( horrea ) , military headquarters ( principia ) , and baths . The barrack blocks were wattle and daub buildings , each of which was 82 @.@ 5 metres ( 271 ft ) long and 11 @.@ 8 metres ( 39 ft ) wide .
The name Deva Victrix derives from ' goddess ' , and the Roman fortress was named after the goddess of the River Dee ; the Latin for ' goddess ' is dea or diva . There is an alternative source for the naming of the settlement which suggests that the Roman name for the fortress was adopted directly from the British name of the river . It is thought that the title ' victrix ' in the name of the fortress was taken from the title of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix who were based at Deva ; victrix is Latin for victorious . The name for the city of Chester derives from the Latin word castrum ( plural : castra ) , meaning " fort " or " army camp " : " -chester " and " -caster " are common suffixes in the names of other English cities that began as Roman camps .
= = = Under Legio XX Valeria Victrix = = =
In 88 AD , the Emperor Domitian ordered the Legio II Adiutrix to the lower Danube . The Legio XX Valeria Victrix was deployed to garrison Deva Victrix , abandoning the fort they had been building in Scotland , at Inchtuthil . On their arrival they began to rebuild Deva , first in timber and from the end of the 1st century in stone . The new stone fortress walls were 1 @.@ 36 metres ( 4 @.@ 5 ft ) thick at the base and 1 @.@ 06 metres ( 3 @.@ 5 ft ) thick at the top . Located at regular intervals , approximately 60 metres ( 200 ft ) apart , along the walls were 22 towers about 6 @.@ 5 metres ( 21 ft ) square . The defensive ditch was re @-@ dug and was 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) wide and 2 @.@ 45 metres ( 8 @.@ 0 ft ) deep . An estimated 55 @,@ 452 metric tons ( 54 @,@ 576 long tons ; 61 @,@ 125 short tons ) of stone were used to build the new fortress defences . The timber barracks were replaced with stone buildings of a similar size .
During the 2nd century , at least part of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix took part in the construction of Hadrian 's Wall , leading to some sections of the fortress being abandoned and others being allowed to fall into disrepair . The Legio XX Valeria Victrix probably went on campaign in 196 under Decimus Clodius Albinus into Gaul , leaving Deva under @-@ garrisoned . They would have suffered heavy losses in Gaul before returning to Britain .
Following attacks against barbarians in the early 3rd century under Septimius Severus , the fortress at Deva was again rebuilt , this time using an estimated 309 @,@ 181 metric tons ( 304 @,@ 298 long tons ; 340 @,@ 814 short tons ) of stone . Although both Gildas and Bede located the early 4th @-@ century Roman martyrs , Julius and Aaron , in the " City of the Legions " , generally identified as being Isca Augusta ( Caerleon ) rather than Deva . During the 4th century the size of the legion , and therefore of the garrison , may have diminished in line with the rest of the empire 's forces .
= = = Decline and abandonment = = =
Most of the fortress ' major buildings were still being maintained in the second half of the 4th century and the barracks were still inhabited . Up to 383 soldiers at Chester were being paid by coins from the imperial mints ; after this the soldiers may have been removed by Magnus Maximus when he invaded Gaul in 383 . The Notitia Dignitatum , written in around 395 , does not record any military units garrisoned at Deva , indicating the fortress was no longer used by the military at this stage . If it was still used by the military , this would have ended by 410 when the Romans retreated from Britannia and the Western Roman Emperor Honorius told the cities of Britain to look to their own defences against invaders . The civilians probably continued to use the fortress and its defences as protection from raiders in the Irish Sea .
Inhabitation of Chester continued on a lesser scale once the legions had left . Buildings would have fallen into disrepair , although some of the larger structures are known to have survived for some time . The town nevertheless probably remained the military and administrative centre of the region . After the arrival of the Anglo @-@ Saxons , the settlement became known as Legacaestir , meaning " City of the Legions " in Old English . Medieval chroniclers believed the church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul – later the site of Chester Cathedral – to be of Roman origin , although no evidence has been discovered to support this . When Chester became an Anglo @-@ Saxon burh in 907 , the walls of the fortress were repaired and incorporated into the defences . Much of the Roman masonry was stolen and reused in later periods .
In the 14th century Ranulf Higdon , a monk in Chester , described some of the Roman remains , including the sewers and tombstones . Antiquarians began to take interest in the remains in the 17th century and interest continued to grow in the 18th century , fed by accounts of Roman Chester and discoveries such as an altar to Jupiter Tanarus . Jupiter Tanarus – also Taranis – was the Romanised version of the Celtic god Taranis who was the equivalent of Jupiter the god of thunder . In 1725 , William Stukeley recorded the Roman arches of the east gate ; they were demolished in 1768 . Over the next century , accidental discoveries continued , such as parts of the Roman bath complex outside the fortress which were destroyed by a late @-@ 18th @-@ century housing development . The Chester Archaeological Society , founded in 1849 , acquired artefacts discovered in Chester and undertook excavations where possible ; the Grosvenor Museum was opened in 1886 to allow the public to view the society 's collection . The society continued to work in Chester , recording information on the fortress and its surrounding settlement , often as building works destroyed the sites . Between 1962 and 1999 , about 50 excavations were carried out in and around the fortress , revealing new information about Deva Victrix . Between 2007 and 2009 , excavations are in progress at the amphitheatre on behalf of Chester City Council , in association with English Heritage .
= = Canabae legionis = =
A civilian settlement ( canabae legionis ) was gradually established outside the walls of the fortress ; it probably began as a collection of traders who became prosperous from dealing with the fortress . The settlement was administered by an elected council rather than by the legion . As legionaries retired many settled in the canabae legionis , effectively making it a veteran colony . Cemeteries were located alongside the roads leading to the settlement , beyond built @-@ up areas . The Grosvenor Museum has over 150 tombstones , the largest collection of Roman tombstones from a single site in Britain . Most of them were used to repair the north wall in the 4th century . Settlement extended around the fortress to the east , south , and west ; shops fronted the roadside for about 300 metres ( 980 ft ) beyond the fortress walls . To the east was the legion 's parade ground , civilian baths were built to the west , and to the south was a mansio , a large coaching house for travelling government officials . The buildings of the canabae legionis were originally timber , but during the early 2nd century began to be replaced by stone @-@ built structures . The settlement expanded throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries as the population increased . Once the legion had left , the civilian settlement continued , eventually becoming part of the town of Chester .
Indeed , scholars such as Christopher Snyder believe that during the 5th and 6th centuries – approximately from 410 AD when Roman legions withdrew , to 597 AD when St. Augustine of Canterbury arrived – southern Britain preserved a sub @-@ Roman society that was able to survive the attacks from the Anglo @-@ Saxons and even
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use a vernacular Latin ( called British Latin ) for an active culture . There is even the possibility that this vernacular Latin lasted to the late 7th century in the area of Chester , where amphorae and archaeological remnants of a local Romano @-@ British culture at Deva Victrix have been found .
= = Legionary quarry = =
The Roman fortress of Deva was constructed from local sandstone , which was quarried across the river to the south of the fortress . Traces of the quarry are visible in Handbridge . In the 2nd century , a shrine to the Roman goddess Minerva was carved in the quarry for protection , perhaps by the quarry workers . Despite heavy weathering , the figure can be seen holding a spear and a shield with an owl above the left shoulder to symbolise wisdom . There is also a carving of an altar where offerings were left . The only rock @-@ cut Roman shrine still in situ in Britain , the Minerva shrine is a Grade I listed building .
= = Legionary baths = =
Deva Victrix had a large legionary bath complex ( thermae ) for the soldiers to maintain good hygiene and to use for leisure time . The baths were sited near the south gate and measured 82 @.@ 6 metres ( 271 ft ) by 85 @.@ 5 metres ( 281 ft ) . They were completed towards the end of Vespasian 's reign . The complex was constructed from concrete and faced with stone . The walls were 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) thick and the barrel @-@ vaulted buildings rose as high as 16 @.@ 1 metres ( 53 ft ) .
The bath complex featured an entrance room ( vestibulum ) , an exercise hall ( basilica thermarum ) , a sweating room ( sudatorium ) , a cold room with a cold pool ( frigidarium ) , a warm room ( tepidarium ) , and a hot room with a hot plunge bath ( caldarium ) . An unsheltered exercise yard ( palaestra ) also formed part of the complex . The baths had mosaic floors and were heated by a hypocaust under @-@ floor system connected to three furnaces . Such furnaces required several metric tons of wood each day .
The baths would have been in operation 24 hours a day , using an estimated 850 @,@ 000 litres ( 190 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water each day . The water was supplied from the springs in Boughton through underground lead pipes linked to the main aqueduct near the east gate . The water was then held in large tanks with concrete foundations , before being fed through the complex .
A large area of the baths was destroyed by building works in 1863 and during the construction of the Grosvenor Shopping Mall in 1963 . Sandstone columns from the exercise hall of the baths , measuring 0 @.@ 75 metres ( 2 @.@ 5 ft ) in diameter , are present in the " Roman Gardens " off Pepper Street ; the columns would originally have stood 5 @.@ 9 metres ( 19 ft ) high . A section of hypocaust remains in situ and is on display in the cellar of 39 Bridge Street .
= = Market Hall inscription = =
This is a fragment of a much larger inscription , finely carved onto Welsh slate , which was discovered close to the fort 's principia . Archaeologist David J.P. Mason has said that :
... Inscriptions of this type are comparatively scarce ... it therefore seems likely to belong to the administrative class of inscription , generally written out in full ... which were set up as a public record of official decisions taken at the highest level of government .
Examples of important inscriptions of this nature include treaties with local tribes and declarations of rights . The text of this inscription cannot be reconstructed from this small fragment , but it appears to talk about the ' fortress ' , an ' amicable conclusion ' , and someone being ' against the regime ' .
= = Amphitheatre = =
The amphitheatre was discovered in 1929 , and protected by the Chester Archaeological Society – with support from then Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald – from the construction of a road over the site . Excavations have revealed traces of late Iron Age cultivation , and they show that Deva 's amphitheatre had two phases of construction . The first amphitheatre was constructed from timber soon after the building of the fortress and measured 75 metres ( 246 ft ) along the major axis and 67 metres ( 220 ft ) along the minor axis . There are several factors indicating that the timber phase may have only intended to be temporary ; there is no evidence of repairs to the structure , the building was not substantially built , with 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) deep foundations , and that it was smaller than the later stone phase . It was replaced in the Flavian period by another made from stone , measuring 95 @.@ 7 metres ( 314 ft ) along its major axis and 87 @.@ 2 metres ( 286 ft ) along its minor axis . Although the amphitheatre grew , it was only the seating that was extended , not the arena itself . The latest excavations indicate that it was a two @-@ tiered structure , capable of accommodating between 8 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 spectators . Its size has been used as an indicator of Deva 's large civilian population , and of the presence of wealthy citizens . The second phase of building produced the largest known military amphitheatre in Britain . It is a Scheduled Ancient Monument .
The amphitheatre served a variety of purposes . Owing to its proximity to the fortress , it would have been used as a venue for weapons training as well as hosting spectacular entertainments involving acrobats , wrestlers , and professional gladiators . The walls of the amphitheatre were 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) thick and may have stood as high as 12 metres ( 39 ft ) . The buttresses were too insubstantial to be structural , so must have been decorative .
Part of a slate frieze depicting a retiarius , or net @-@ fighter , was discovered in 1738 , most likely dating to the 2nd century ; it was probably used to decorate the tomb of a gladiator . Other finds included a small bronze statuette of a gladiator , parts of a Roman bowl depicting scenes from a gladiatorial contest , and part of a gladius sword handle . Much of the masonry from the amphitheatre was reused in the construction of the St John 's Church and the monastery of St Mary .
= = Elliptical building = =
In 1939 some paving and the walls of two unusual elliptical buildings were discovered , one atop the other . These ' elliptical ' buildings were partially uncovered behind Chester 's market hall , and no similar buildings have been found in other legionary fortresses . The buildings were located near the centre of the fortress and they had their own bath buildings and a range of store rooms around the outside . The presence of a second bath building is unusual because legionary fortresses generally had just one set of internal baths . Construction on the site began around AD 77 and this was confirmed by a length of lead piping , which served a central water feature or fountain , which was stamped with the name of Emperor Vespasian . The first building was a prestigious edifice made with concrete foundations and finely dressed stonework , and was probably the finest building in the entire fortress . Technically speaking it was not elliptical , but arcuate , with the central hall being formed from two intersecting arcs , and this makes it unique in the Roman Empire . Its function is unknown . There was no seating within the arcs , which precludes a theatre , and the best guess of the archaeologists was that the twelve alcoves may have contained images of the gods , with the temple being dedicated to the twelve primary gods of the Roman pantheon . Or , alternatively , the oval shape may have represented the shape of the known Roman world , but there is no supporting evidence for this .
The completed building measured 52 @.@ 4 metres ( 172 ft ) by 31 @.@ 45 metres ( 103 @.@ 2 ft ) , and had an oval courtyard with a water feature at its centre , 14 metres ( 46 ft ) by 9 metres ( 30 ft ) , surrounded by 12 " wedge @-@ shaped " rooms . Traces of the concrete foundation for the water feature and its lead pipe work have been excavated . The 12 rooms surrounding the courtyard had large arched entrances , 4 metres ( 13 ft ) wide and at least 5 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 ft ) high . It is not certain if the first building was ever completed , but it had certainly been destroyed by the AD 90s and the site was subsequently used as the fortress rubbish dump for many decades .
The second elliptical building was built on top foundations of the first , and although the architect must have been aware of the exact layout of the previous building , the design of the second was slightly modified . Although the it looks very similar to the first , it used different diameters of arc to achieve a slightly ' fatter ' design . The second ' elliptical ' building was not constructed until about AD 220 , and this was confirmed by a coin of Emperor Elagabalus under one of the pavement slabs . It is thought that the second building may have survived until the end of Roman rule and influence in Britain .
The foundations of these buildings were destroyed during the construction of the Forum shopping centre .
= = Capital of Britannia ? = =
The elliptical building is one of several differences between the fortress at Chester and other Roman fortresses in the province . Deva was 20 % larger , 5 hectares ( 12 acres ) , than the fortresses of Eboracum ( York ) – later capital of Britannia Inferior – and Isca Augusta ( Caerleon ) . Also , the stone curtain wall at Chester was constructed without mortar , using large sandstone blocks ; this required greater skill and effort than the methods used to build the walls of Eboracum and Isca Augusta , and was usually reserved for the most important structures such as temples or city walls rather than town walls . The presence of unusual buildings at the heart of the fortress – accounting for the 4 hectares ( 10 acres ) by which Deva was larger than other fortresses – has been taken as evidence that their construction was specifically ordered by the provincial governor . The governor ( Legatus Augusti pro praetore ) when construction first started was Gnaeus Julius Agricola . Lead piping found in the elliptical building bears his name , the only evidence in Britain of a building under his direct control . These differences suggest that Deva may have been Agricola ’ s administrative headquarters – in effect the capital of Britannia . This was speculated on in a Timewatch investigation .
Another factor pointing to Deva Victrix as a provincial capital is the presence of a port . From Deva , Ireland ( Hibernia ) was also accessible , a land which Agricola had plans to conquer ; he even launched an expedition to Ireland , though where from is unclear . Also , the Flavian dynasty was expansionist , and Deva was closer to what would then have been the front , making administration quicker and easier . Furthermore , historian Vittorio Di Martino believes that Agricola could have chosen Deva Victrix as a possible future capital of Roman Britain because it was practically placed at the centre of the British isles , being located geographically at nearly the same distance from the westernmost shores of Ireland , the easternmost lands of Britannia and the Channel .
Regardless of the empire 's plans for Deva , Londinium , the province 's economic and trading centre , emerged as the capital of Britannia , reflecting a change in imperial policy from expansionism to consolidation .
= The Fifth Element =
The Fifth Element ( French : Le Cinquième Élément ) is a 1997 English @-@ language French science fiction action film directed and co @-@ written by Luc Besson . It stars Bruce Willis , Gary Oldman and Milla Jovovich . Primarily set in the 23rd century , the film 's central plot involves the survival of planet Earth , which becomes the responsibility of Korben Dallas ( Willis ) , a taxicab driver and former special forces major , after a young woman ( Jovovich ) falls into his cab . Dallas joins forces with her to recover four mystical stones essential for the defence of Earth against an impending attack .
Besson started writing the story that became The Fifth Element when he was 16 years old ; he was 38 when the film opened in cinemas . Besson wanted to shoot the film in France , but suitable locations could not be found ; filming took place instead in London and Mauritania . Comics writers Jean " Moebius " Giraud and Jean @-@ Claude Mézières , whose comics provided inspiration for parts of the film , were hired for production design . Costume design was by Jean Paul Gaultier .
The Fifth Element received mainly positive reviews , although it tended to polarize critics . It has been called both the best and worst summer blockbuster of all time . The film was a financial success , earning more than $ 263 million at the box office on a $ 90 million budget . At the time of its release it was the most expensive European film ever made , and it remained the highest @-@ grossing French film at the international box office until the release of The Intouchables in 2011 .
= = Plot = =
In 1914 , aliens known as Mondoshawans arrive at an ancient Egyptian temple to collect , for safekeeping , the only weapon capable of defeating a great evil that appears every 5 @,@ 000 years . The weapon consists of four stones , representing the four classical elements , and a sarcophagus containing a fifth element in the form of a human , which combines the power of the other four elements into a divine light capable of defeating the evil . The Mondoshawans promise their human contact , a priest from a secret order , that they will come back with the element stones in time to stop the great evil when it returns .
In 2263 , the great evil appears in deep space in the form of a giant ball of black fire , and destroys an attacking Earth spaceship . The Mondoshawans ' current contact on Earth , priest Vito Cornelius ( Ian Holm ) , informs the President of the Federated Territories ( Tom Lister Jr . ) of the history of the great evil and the weapon that can stop it . As the Mondoshawans return to Earth they are ambushed by Mangalores , a race hired by the industrialist Jean @-@ Baptiste Emanuel Zorg ( Gary Oldman ) , who has been instructed by the great evil to acquire the stones .
The Mondoshawans ' spacecraft is destroyed , though the stones are not on board ; the only item recovered is a hand of The Fifth Element . Scientists take it to a New York City laboratory and use it to reconstruct a powerful humanoid woman who takes the name Leeloo ( Milla Jovovich ) . Terrified of the unfamiliar surroundings , she breaks out of confinement and jumps off a high ledge , crashing into the flying taxicab of Korben Dallas ( Bruce Willis ) , a former major in the special forces .
Dallas delivers Leeloo to Cornelius and his apprentice , David ( Charlie Creed @-@ Miles ) , whereupon Cornelius learns that the Mondoshawans entrusted the four element stones to the alien Diva Plavalaguna ( Maïwenn Le Besco ) , an opera singer . Zorg kills many of the Mangalores because of their failure to obtain the stones , but their compatriots determine to seize the artifacts for themselves . Upon learning from the Mondoshawans that the stones are in Plavalaguna 's possession , General Munro ( Brion James ) , Dallas ' former superior , recommissions Dallas and orders him to travel undercover to meet Plavalaguna on a luxury intergalactic cruise ; Dallas takes Leeloo with him . Meanwhile , Cornelius instructs David to prepare the ancient temple designed to house the stones , then stows away on the space plane transporting Dallas to the cruise liner .
Plavalaguna is killed when the Mangalores attack the ship , but Dallas succeeds in retrieving the stones from the Diva . During his struggle with the Mangalores he kills their leader . Meanwhile , Zorg shoots and seriously wounds Leeloo , before finding a carrying case that he presumes contains the stones and takes it back to his spacecraft , leaving behind a time bomb that forces the liner 's occupants to evacuate . Discovering the case to be empty , Zorg returns to the ship and deactivates his bomb , but a dying Mangalore sets off his own device , destroying the ship and killing Zorg . Dallas , Cornelius , Leeloo , and talk @-@ show host Ruby Rhod ( Chris Tucker ) escape with the stones aboard Zorg 's spacecraft .
The four join up with David at the weapon chamber in the Egyptian temple as the great evil approaches . They arrange the stones and are able to activate them with their corresponding elements , but having witnessed and studied so much violence , Leeloo has become disenchanted with humanity and refuses to cooperate . Dallas confesses his love for Leeloo and kisses her . In response , Leeloo combines the power of the stones and releases the divine light on the great evil and destroying its power , causing the planet to be proclaimed dead by Earth scientists as it becomes another moon in Earth orbit .
= = Cast = =
= = Themes = =
In an interview Besson stated The Fifth Element was not a " big theme movie " , although the film 's theme was an important one . He wanted viewers to reach the point where Leeloo states " What 's the use of saving life when you see what you do with it ? " , and agree with her . Jay P. Telotte , writing in the book Science Fiction Film , credited the film with exploring the theme of political corruption .
An article by Brian Ott and Eric Aoki in the feminist journal Women 's Studies in Communication considered gender to be one of the film 's main themes . The authors accused the film of erasing women from the introductory scenes , noting that Leeloo 's reconstruction marked only the second appearance of a female in the film 's first 20 minutes ; the other is an androgynous , mostly speechless presidential aide . When females appear in the film , they do so as passive objects , such as the sexualised flight and McDonald 's attendants ; or stripped of their femininity , such as the " butch " Major Iceborg . Stefan Brandt , in the book Subverting Masculinity , also said that the film " echoes stereotypical beliefs about gender " of all females in the film , including Leeloo , who leaves her passive role in the film during the times she is defending herself and during her fight with the Mangalores . With the exception of Tiny Lister 's portrayal of the President , all males in the film were considered to be as unmanly as possible in various ways , such as Ruby Rhod 's effeminacy , Vito Cornelius 's clumsy form of speech , and General Munro 's stupidity ; their purpose was to make Korben 's masculinity appear " god @-@ like " by comparison .
In the book The Films of Luc Besson , Susan Hayward considered The Fifth Element to be a classic story of a man " making his break from the tribe , proving his manhood , over @-@ throwing the malevolent forces and killing the chief , finally to reap the rewards of security and marriage " . Korben 's journey , however , is under threat not only from the Mangalores and Zorg , but also from Leeloo , who relents and helps him only at the last minute , accepting his declaration of love . The love story within The Fifth Element was considered to be one of the main narratives in the film , and it faces the same deadline as the main storyline . Hayward also considered the issue of environmental damage , in so far as waste and pollution are visible throughout the film . Whereas science fiction films often show a world wherein some new technology or threat either surpasses or fails humanity , The Films of Luc Besson included The Fifth Element amongst the minority of science fiction films that " hold up a mirror " and show humankind as responsible . The film was said to be skeptical of capitalist consumerism , in so far as the gadgets in Zorg 's office make an unhealthy obsession of his lust for technology . The tension between technology and man is treated as a problem requiring a final resolution .
= = Production = =
As a teenager , Besson envisioned the world of The Fifth Element in an attempt to alleviate boredom . He began writing the script when he was 16 , though it was not released in cinemas until he was 38 . The original storyline was set in the year 2300 , and was about a " nobody " named Zaltman Bleros ( later renamed Korben Dallas ) who wins a trip to the Club Med resort on the planet Fhloston Paradise . There he meets Leeloo , a " sand @-@ girl " who has the " beauty of youth " despite being over 2 @,@ 000 years old . Besson continued to work on and modify the storyline for years ; by the time his film Atlantis was released in 1991 he had a 400 @-@ page script . Nicolas Seydoux and Patrice Ledoux from Gaumont were the first people to take on the project . In November 1991 , while looking for actors for the film , Besson met French comics creators Jean Giraud and Jean @-@ Claude Mézières and recruited them for the film 's production design . Giraud and Mézières 's comics were a major source of inspiration for Besson 's futuristic New York City . Mézières wrote the book The Circles of Power , which features a character named S 'Traks , who drives a flying taxicab through the congested air traffic of the vast metropolis on the planet Rubanis . Mézières showed images of the flying taxi to Besson , who was inspired to change the background of Korben Dallas from a worker in a rocketship factory to that of a taxi driver who flies his cab around a Rubanis @-@ inspired futuristic New York . Five other artists were hired for the project , and Jean Paul Gaultier was hired to design the film 's costumes . The team spent a year creating over 8 @,@ 000 drawings , during which time Besson approached both Bruce Willis and Mel Gibson for the lead role . Willis expressed interest , though he was reluctant to take on the role as the film was considered risky after his previous two films , Hudson Hawk and Billy Bathgate , had been received poorly ; Gibson eventually turned down the role . While the team impressed film companies with their designs , they struggled to find one willing to take on the film 's budget of almost $ 100 million . In December 1992 production of the film stopped without any prior warning , and the team disbanded .
Besson went on to direct the commercially successful film Léon : The Professional , which was released in September 1994 . While shooting and releasing Leon , he continued to work on the script for The Fifth Element , shortening it and reducing the film 's budget to $ 90 million before attempting to find a studio willing to produce it . Columbia Pictures , who had a partnership in Leon , agreed to finance the film . By this time Besson had decided to go with a lesser @-@ known lead actor in order to save on production costs . Besson was in Barry Josephson 's office when Willis called regarding a different film . Besson asked to speak to Willis " just to say hello " , and told him that The Fifth Element was finally going ahead , explaining the decision to go with a less @-@ expensive actor . After a short silence , Willis stated " If I like the film , we can always come to an arrangement " ; he agreed to take on the role after reading the script . Production of the film commenced in early August 1995 . Besson traveled to various places for casting , including Paris , London and Rome . He chose to hire Gary Oldman , who had starred in Léon , for the role of Zorg , describing Oldman as " one of the top five actors in the world . " For the character Leeloo , Besson chose Milla Jovovich from the 200 to 300 applicants he met in person . The " Divine Language " spoken in the film by Leeloo is a fictional language with only 400 words , invented by Besson . Jovovich and Besson held conversations and wrote letters to each other in the language as practice . Besson was in a relationship with Maïwenn Le Besco , who played the role of Diva Plavalaguna , for six years when filming commenced ; however , he left her for Jovovich during filming . Jovovich and Besson later married , but divorced in 1999 .
Despite wishing to shoot the film in France , Besson could not find suitable facilities and " with a heavy heart " instead filmed in London . It was primarily filmed at Pinewood Studios on seven soundstages including the 007 Stage . Construction of sets began in October 1995 . The opera scene was filmed at the Royal Opera House . Scenes depicted as being in Egypt were filmed in Mauritania ; the first shoot for the film , a background shot of the desert , occurred there on 5 January 1996 . Filming with actors began in late January , and was completed 21 weeks later . Willis finished filming on 16 May , while Oldman only commenced filming the following week ; the film 's protagonist ( Korben ) and antagonist ( Zorg ) never actually share any screen time . Despite being filmed in London , The Fifth Element was a French production , and went on to become the costliest European film ever made at the time . The buildings in New York were derived from both metabolist @-@ inspired masses of modular apartments from the 1960s , and the futuristic designs of architect Antonio Sant 'Elia in the 1910s . Besson demanded that most of the action shots in the film take place in broad daylight , as he was reportedly tired of the dark spaceship corridors and dimly lit planets common in science fiction films , and wanted a brighter " cheerfully crazy " look as opposed to a gloomy realistic one . Gaultier designed every one of the 900 costumes worn by extras in the film 's Fhloston Paradise scenes , and checked each costume every morning . His designs , described as " intellectually transgressive " , were said to challenge sexuality and gender norms . A single jacket he designed for the film cost $ 5 @,@ 000 .
The original name of the character Ruby Rhod was Loc Rhod . The name appears in both the original script and in the novelisation of the film . Speculation has been raised that the name change was a play on information in the periodic table . Rubidium is the first of the Period 5 elements , and exactly halfway down that row is the element Rhodium . Taking the first half of each element yields " Rubi Rhod " . Others have speculated his name is a play on his gender bending personality ; having a feminine first name and phallic surname . The term " ruby rod " also refers to the essential component of the first working laser design .
= = = Effects = = =
Three different teams handled the three different types of special effects used in the film . Nick Allder was placed in charge of mechanical and pyrotechnical effects , Nick Dudman was placed in charge of ' creature ' effects and Mark Stetson headed the visual effects team . Visual effects company Digital Domain was hired for the film , and Karen Goulekas was given the role of digital effects supervisor . Alias , Autodesk Softimage , Arete , Side Effect 's Prisms , RenderMan , as well as in @-@ house software , were used by Digital Domain to create effects . Some individual shots used a combination of live action , scale models , computer @-@ generated imagery and particle systems . The lanes of traffic in the scenes in New York City were created with particle systems :
We had maybe 80 cityscape shots with CG cars hurtling around , and you couldn 't animate them all by hand because there were just too many of them in each scene ... When the cars turned a corner , the velocity changes were automatic , so the animator didn 't have to worry about that . They just planned the moves in a very blocky way , and the mathematics smoothed out the rest .
Amongst the scale models used for filming were the buildings seen in New York City . Dozens of apartment blocks and 25 skyscrapers , some 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high , were constructed in 1 / 24th scale . It took a team of 80 workers five months to build the models used in the film . The windows of the buildings were cited by the team as one of the most time @-@ consuming tasks , along with details behind the windows , such as furniture , blinds , lightboxes and tiny pieces of flat artwork . Virtual sets built within digital environments were created to enhance the use of miniatures . Motion control cameras moved throughout the scale sets , and the data they collected was exported to track and generate the CG animation and particle systems . Other techniques used in the film included digital matte paintings for backgrounds and the NURBS mathematical model for certain animations , including the sequence in which Leeloo 's body is reconstructed .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The Fifth Element is one of Besson 's films which have been described as " intrinsically musical " ; some kind of music is playing during about 90 percent of the film . The film 's score was composed by Éric Serra . He relies heavily on the use of orchestral textures , such as the oboe and strings heard as the surgeons prepare to regenerate Leeloo , and the pizzicato as she is reconstructed . Serra also used many exotic influences , such as the Stalinist fanfare heard before the spaceport sequence , the reggae piece played in preparation for the flight , and the hula music that greets the passengers as they arrive in Fhloston . More conventional scoring techniques are present in the leitmotif that first appears when professor Pacoli mentions the fifth element , the militaristic snares as the warship prepares to attack the dark planet , and the Mahlerian funereal piece heard when Leeloo learns about war . The music used for the taxicab chase scene , titled " Alech Taadi " by Algerian performer Khaled , is excluded from the film soundtrack , but is available on Khaled 's album N 'ssi N 'ssi .
The Diva Dance opera performance featured music from Gaetano Donizetti 's Lucia di Lammermoor : " Il dolce suono " , the mad scene of Act III , Scene 2 . It is one of the few pieces of music in the film that is diegetic . It was sung by Albanian soprano Inva Mula , while the role of Plavalaguna was played by French actress Maïwenn Le Besco . Part One ( titled " Lucia di Lammermoor " ) and Part Two ( titled " The Diva Dance " ) of this piece are included as separate tracks on The Fifth Element soundtrack , but are sequenced to create the effect of the entire performance seen in the film . The end of Part One blends into the beginning of Part Two , creating a smooth transition between the two tracks .
Released as an album under Virgin Records , the soundtrack peaked at No. 99 on the Billboard 200 . More than 200 @,@ 000 copies of the lengthy soundtrack were sold in France alone . Rodney Batdorf of AllMusic gave the album three out of five stars , stating it was " diverse and accomplished , and it is just as effective outside of the film as it is within it . " A review from Filmtracks.com also awarded the album three out of five stars .
= = Release = =
= = = Initial screening = = =
The film premiered on 7 May 1997 at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival , where it was selected as the opening film . Gaumont built an area for the screening that was over 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 9 @,@ 300 m2 ) . Guests were given a " Fifth Element " Swatch , which was used as their ticket for entry . The event featured a futuristic ballet , a fashion show by Jean Paul Gaultier , and fireworks . Gaumont spent between US $ 1 million and $ 3 million on the event , a record at the time .
= = = Box office = = =
The film debuted at number 1 in the US , earning $ 17 million on its opening weekend . It went on to become a box @-@ office success , grossing over $ 263 million , almost three times its budget of $ 90 million . Seventy @-@ six percent of the receipts for The Fifth Element were from markets outside the United States , and it was the ninth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of the year worldwide . It was the most successful film at the box office in France in 1997 , with more than 7 @.@ 69 million seeing the film . In Germany the film was awarded the Goldene Leinwand , a sales certification award for selling more than three million tickets at the box office . The Fifth Element went on to become the highest grossing French film at the foreign box @-@ office , a record it held for 16 years until the release of The Intouchables in 2011 .
= = = Critical response = = =
The Fifth Element holds a 71 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes , based on 58 reviews . The site 's consensus reads : " Visually inventive and gleefully over the top , Luc Besson 's The Fifth Element is a fantastic piece of pop sci @-@ fi that never takes itself too seriously . " It has a weighted score of 52 / 100 at Metacritic , based on 22 professional reviews , indicating " mixed or average " reviews .
The Fifth Element polarised critics on release . Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times described the film as an " elaborate , even campy sci @-@ fi extravaganza , which is nearly as hard to follow as last year 's Mission : Impossible . " He concluded that The Fifth Element was " a lot warmer , more fun and boasts some of the most sophisticated , witty production and costume design you could ever hope to see . " On film review show At the Movies , both Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel gave the film a " thumbs up " ; in his own review for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 , calling it " One of the great goofy movies " , and concluding , " I would not have missed seeing this film , and I recommend it for its richness of imagery . But at 127 minutes , which seems a reasonable length , it plays long . "
The film was , however , subject to a number of harsh reviews that expressed disapproval of its overblown style . Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote , " A largely misfired European attempt to make an American @-@ style sci @-@ fi spectacular , The Fifth Element consists of a hodgepodge of elements that don 't comfortably coalesce . " David Edelstein of Slate was even more critical , saying , " It may or may not be the worst movie ever made , but it is one of the most unhinged . "
Chris Tucker 's performance as Ruby Rhod also polarised critics . He was praised in the Los Angeles Times and in Time ; the latter called him " the summer 's most outrageous special effect . " Josh Winning of GamesRadar , however , singled out Tucker 's performance as the low point of the film , ranking it as No. 20 on his 2011 list , " 50 Performances That Ruined Movies . "
= = = Legacy and related media = = =
The film has been described by CBS News , Rotten Tomatoes , and ComingSoon.com as a science fiction cult classic . However film critic Mark Kermode reported that The Fifth Element was one of the most divisive films among his readers , regarded as both the best and the worst summer blockbuster of all time . Kermode recalled his own experience : " I remember very clearly being in Cannes when [ The ] Fifth Element was first played , and it really divided the audience . " Stephen Cass of Discover ranked the film the third @-@ best science fiction movie on subscription service Hulu , writing , " People seem to either like or loathe The Fifth Element ... Lavish visuals and entertaining performances from Bruce Willis , Milla Jovovich , and Gary Oldman make this movie worth watching . " In some circles the film has gained a " so @-@ bad @-@ it 's @-@ good " status ; Meredith Woerner of io9 listed The Fifth Element as one of " The 20 Best Worst Science Fiction Movies of All Time " . In 2007 the Visual Effects Society placed The Fifth Element at No. 50 , tied with Darby O 'Gill and the Little People , on their list of the 50 most influential visual effects films of all time . In 2014 , Time Out listed the film at No. 42 on their " 100 best sci @-@ fi movies " list .
Willis spoke favourably of the film in a 1999 interview , concluding " it was a real fun movie to make . " Tucker and Jovovich also spoke favourably of both their experiences making the film and working with Besson in interviews on the Ultimate Edition DVD ; Jovovich described Besson as " the first really amazing director I had worked with " . Asked in a 2014 interview if he liked the film , Gary Oldman stated , " Oh no . I can 't bear it . " He had explained in 2011 : " It was me singing for my supper because Luc had come in and partly financed [ my film ] Nil by Mouth . "
Alejandro Jodorowsky and Jean Giraud sued Besson after the film was released , claiming The Fifth Element had plagiarised their comic The Incal . Giraud sued for 13 @.@ 1 million euros for unfair competition , 9 million euros in damages and interest and two to five percent of the net operating revenues of the film . Jodorowsky sued for 700 @,@ 000 euros . The case was dismissed in 2004 on the grounds that only " tiny fragments " of the comic had been used and also because Giraud had been hired by Besson to work on the film before the allegations were made .
A novel adaptation of The Fifth Element , written by Terry Bisson , was published by HarperPrism in 1997 . There were rumors after the film 's release that it would be followed by a sequel , tentatively titled Mr. Shadow . In 2011 , Besson stated that a sequel was never planned , and that he has no desire to make one .
A video game adaptation of The Fifth Element was created by Activision for the PlayStation game console and PC in 1998 . The PlayStation version was generally met with negative reviews , though the PC version was better received . Lauren Fielder from GameSpot called the PlayStation version " quite possibly the worst game I 've ever played . " Doug Perry from IGN commented : " Take Tomb Raider , add in Leeloo Multipass and boring puzzles , and you 've got Fifth Element . " A racing game based on the film , New York Race , was released in 2001 . Eurogamer gave the game 6 out of 10 , concluding : " New York Race is a fun little arcade racer which oozes style , but it 's something you 'll grow tired of extremely quickly and as such remains fun only in short bursts . "
= = Accolades = =
The Fifth Element was nominated for Best Sound Editing at the 70th Academy Awards , and for Best Sound Editing at the 1998 Golden Reel Awards , but lost to Titanic in both cases . It won the BAFTA Award for Best Special Visual Effects , and the Lumières Award for Best Director . It was nominated for seven César awards , winning three : Best Director , Best Cinematography and Best Production Design . It was nominated for Film of the Year at the 1997 European Film Awards , as well as the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , and the Satellite Award for Best Visual Effects . Thierry Arbogast was awarded the Technical Grand Prize at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival for his work on both The Fifth Element and She 's So Lovely . The film received four Saturn Award nominations : Best Science Fiction Film , Best Costume , Best Special Effects , and Best Supporting Actress for Milla Jovovich . Jovovich 's fight against the Mangalores was nominated for the MTV Movie Award for Best Fight , and the actress was also nominated for Best Actress – Newcomer at the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards .
Conversely , Jovovich received a Razzie nomination for Worst Supporting Actress , and Chris Tucker was nominated for Worst New Star for his performances in both The Fifth Element and Money Talks .
= = Home media = =
The original home video release of The Fifth Element took place in North America on 10 December 1997 , on VHS , LaserDisc , and DVD . The original DVD presented the film in its original 2 @.@ 39 : 1 anamorphic widescreen format though carried no special features . The film was released in Sony 's Superbit format in October 2001 . In his review , Conrad Jeremy from IGN gave the picture quality of the original DVD release 9 out of 10 , though awarded the Superbit version a perfect score for picture quality . Overall the Superbit version was given 8 out of 10 ; the final score was brought down by the version 's complete lack of special features .
An " Ultimate Edition " set of two DVDs was released on 11 January 2005 . The only difference between the Superbit version and the Ultimate Edition disc one is the addition of a " fact track " , which when turned on displays trivia about the film , cast and crew as the film plays . The second disc provides various special features , focusing on visual production , special effects , fashion in the film , featurettes and interviews with Willis , Jovovich , and Tucker , as well as featurettes on the four different alien races in the film and Diva Plavalaguna . Ian Jane of DVD Talk praised the Ultimate Edition for its special features .
The first Blu @-@ ray Disc release of the film on 20 June 2006 was criticised as having poor picture quality by Blu @-@ ray standards , and for its lack of special features . In what has been called " an extremely rare move " Sony responded to complaints by making a remastered Blu @-@ ray version available , released on 17 July 2007 , and also offered a replacement exchange program for customers unhappy with the original Blu @-@ ray release . Ben Williams from Blu @-@ ray.com stated the remastered version " absolutely " made up for the lacklustre initial release and praised its high video and audio quality ; however , he criticised the continued lack of special features .
= Dugong =
The dugong ( / ˈduːɡɒŋ / , / ˈdjuːɡɒŋ / ; Dugong dugon ) is a medium @-@ sized marine mammal . It is one of four living species of the order Sirenia , which also includes three species of manatees . It is the only living representative of the once @-@ diverse family Dugongidae ; its closest modern relative , Steller 's sea cow ( Hydrodamalis gigas ) , was hunted to extinction in the 18th century . The dugong is the only strictly marine herbivorous mammal .
The dugong is the only sirenian in its range , which spans the waters of some 40 countries and territories throughout the Indo @-@ West Pacific . The dugong is largely dependent on seagrass communities for subsistence and is thus restricted to the coastal habitats which support seagrass meadows , with the largest dugong concentrations typically occurring in wide , shallow , protected areas such as bays , mangrove channels , the waters of large inshore islands and inter @-@ reefal waters . The northern waters of Australia between Shark Bay and Moreton Bay are believed to be the dugong 's contemporary stronghold .
Like all modern sirenians , the dugong has a fusiform body with no dorsal fin or hind limbs . The forelimbs or flippers are paddle @-@ like . The dugong is easily distinguished from the manatees by its fluked , dolphin @-@ like tail , but also possesses a unique skull and teeth . Its snout is sharply downturned , an adaptation for feeding in benthic seagrass communities . The molar teeth are simple and peg @-@ like unlike the more elaborate molar dentition of manatees .
The dugong has been hunted for thousands of years for its meat and oil . Traditional hunting still has great cultural significance in several countries in its modern range , particularly northern Australia and the Pacific Islands . The dugong 's current distribution is fragmented , and many populations are believed to be close to extinction . The IUCN lists the dugong as a species vulnerable to extinction , while the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species limits or bans the trade of derived products . Despite being legally protected in many countries , the main causes of population decline remain anthropogenic and include fishing @-@ related fatalities , habitat degradation and hunting . With its long lifespan of 70 years or more , and slow rate of reproduction , the dugong is especially vulnerable to extinction .
= = Etymology and taxonomy = =
The word " dugong " derives from the Tagalog term dugong which was in turn adopted from the Malay duyung , both meaning " lady of the sea " . Other common local names include " sea cow " , " sea pig " and " sea camel " .
Dugong dugon is the only extant species of the family Dugongidae , and one of only four extant species of the Sirenia order , the others forming the manatee family . It was first classified by Müller in 1776 as Trichechus dugon , a member of the manatee genus previously defined by Linnaeus . It was later assigned as the type species of Dugong by Lacépède and further classified within its own family by Gray and subfamily by Simpson .
Dugongs and other sirenians are not closely related to other marine mammals , being more related to elephants . Dugongs and elephants share a monophyletic group with hyraxes and the aardvark , one of the earliest offshoots of eutherians . The fossil record shows sirenians appearing in the Eocene , where they most likely lived in the Tethys Ocean . The two extant families of sirenians are thought to have diverged in the mid @-@ Eocene , after which the dugongs and their closest relative , the Steller 's sea cow , split off from a common ancestor in the Miocene . The Steller 's sea cow became extinct in the 18th century . No fossils exist of other members of the Dugongidae .
Molecular studies have been made on dugong populations using mitochondrial DNA . The results have suggested that the population of Southeast Asia is distinct from the others . Australia has two distinct maternal lineages , one of which also contains the dugongs from Africa and Arabia . Limited genetic mixing has taken place between those in Southeast Asia and those in Australia , mostly around Timor . One of the lineages stretches all the way from Moreton Bay to Western Australia , while the other only stretches from Moreton Bay to the Northern Territory . There is not yet sufficient genetic data to make clear boundaries between distinct groups .
= = Anatomy and morphology = =
The dugong 's body is large with a cylindrical shape that tapers at both ends . It has thick , smooth skin that is a pale cream colour at birth , but darkens dorsally and laterally to brownish @-@ to @-@ dark @-@ grey with age . The colour of a dugong can change due to the growth of algae on the skin . The body is sparsely covered in short hair , a common feature among sirenians which may allow for tactile interpretation of their environment . These hairs are most developed around the mouth , which has a large horseshoe shaped upper lip forming a highly mobile muzzle . This muscular upper lip aids the dugong in foraging .
The dugong 's tail flukes and flippers are similar to those of dolphins . These flukes are raised up and down in long strokes to move the animal forward , and can be twisted to turn . The forelimbs are paddle @-@ like flippers which aid in turning and slowing . The dugong lacks nails on its flippers , which are only 15 % of a dugong 's body length . The tail has deep notches .
A dugong 's brain weighs a maximum of 300 g ( 11 oz ) , about 0 @.@ 1 % of the animal 's body weight . With very small eyes , dugongs have limited vision , but acute hearing within narrow sound thresholds . Their ears , which lack pinna , are located on the sides of their head . The nostrils are located on top of the head and can be closed using valves . Dugongs have two teats , one located behind each flipper . There are few differences between sexes ; the body structures are almost the same . A male 's testes are not externally located , and the main difference between males and females is the location of the genital aperture in relation to the umbilicus and the anus . The lungs in a dugong are very long , extending almost as far as the kidneys , which are also highly elongated in order to cope with the saltwater environment . If wounded , a dugong 's blood will clot rapidly .
The skull of a dugong is unique . The skull is enlarged with sharply down @-@ turned premaxilla , which are stronger in males . The spine has between 57 and 60 vertebrae . Unlike in manatees , the dugong 's teeth do not continually grow back via horizontal tooth replacement . The dugong has two incisors ( tusks ) which emerge in males during puberty . The female 's tusks continue to grow without emerging during puberty , sometimes erupting later in life after reaching the base of the premaxilla . The number of growth layer groups in a tusk indicates the age of a dugong , and the cheekteeth move forward with age . The full dental formula of dugongs is 2 @.@ 0 @.@ 3 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 , meaning they have two incisors , three premolars , and three molars on each side of their upper jaw , and three incisors , one canine , three premolars , and three molars on each side of their lower jaw . Like other sirenians , the dugong experiences pachyostosis , a condition in which the ribs and other long bones are unusually solid and contain little or no marrow . These heavy bones , which are among the densest in the animal kingdom , may act as a ballast to help keep sirenians suspended slightly below the water 's surface .
An adult 's length rarely exceeds 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . An individual this long is expected to weigh around 420 kilograms ( 926 lb ) . Weight in adults is typically more than 250 kilograms ( 551 lb ) and less than 900 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 984 lb ) . The largest individual recorded was 4 @.@ 06 metres ( 13 @.@ 32 ft ) long and weighed 1 @,@ 016 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 240 lb ) , and was found off the Saurashtra coast of west India . Females tend to be larger than males .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Dugongs are found in warm coastal waters from the western Pacific Ocean to the eastern coast of Africa , along an estimated 140 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 86 @,@ 992 mi ) of coastline between 26 ° and 27 ° degrees to the north and south of the equator . Their historic range is believed to correspond to that of seagrasses from the Potamogetonaceae and Hydrocharitaceae families . The full size of the former range is unknown , although it is believed that the current populations represent the historical limits of the range , which is highly fractured . Today populations of dugongs are found in the waters of 37 countries and territories . Recorded numbers of dugongs are generally believed to be lower than actual numbers , due to a lack of accurate surveys . Despite this , the dugong population is thought to be shrinking , with a worldwide decline of 20 per cent in the last 90 years . They have disappeared from the waters of Hong Kong , Mauritius , and Taiwan , as well as parts of Cambodia , Japan , the Philippines and Vietnam . Further disappearances are likely .
Dugongs are generally found in warm waters around the coast with large numbers concentrated in wide and shallow protected bays . The dugong is the only strictly @-@ marine herbivorous mammal , as all species of manatee utilise fresh water to some degree . Nonetheless , they can tolerate the brackish waters found in coastal wetlands , and large numbers are also found in wide and shallow mangrove channels and around leeward sides of large inshore islands , where seagrass beds are common . They are usually located at a depth of around 10 m ( 33 ft ) , although in areas where the continental shelf remains shallow dugongs have been known to travel more than 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) from the shore , descending to as far as 37 metres ( 121 ft ) , where deepwater seagrasses such as Halophila spinulosa are found . Special habitats are used for different activities . It has been observed that shallow waters are used as sites for calving , minimising the risk of predation . Deep waters may provide a thermal refuge from cooler waters closer to the shore during winter .
= = = East Africa and South Asia = = =
In the late 1960s , herds of up to 500 dugongs were observed off the coast of East Africa and nearby islands . Current populations in this area are extremely small , numbering 50 and below , and it is thought likely they will become extinct . The eastern side of the Red Sea is the home of large populations numbering in the hundreds , and similar populations are thought to exist on the western side . In the 1980s , it was estimated there could be as many as 4 @,@ 000 dugongs in the Red Sea . The Persian Gulf has the second @-@ largest dugong population in the world , inhabiting most of the southern coast , and the current population is believed to be around 7 @,@ 500 . Dugong populations in Madagascar are poorly studied , but due to widespread exploitation it is thought they may have severely declined , with few surviving individuals . In Mozambique , most of local populations remaining are rather very small where the largest ( about 120 individuals ) occur at Bazaruto Island , but they have become rare in historical habitats such as in Maputo Bay and on Inhaca Island . In the Seychelles , dugongs had been regarded as extinct until a small number of dugongs was discovered around the Aldabra Atoll . This population may belong to different group than that distributed among the inner isles .
A highly isolated breeding population exists in the Marine National Park , Gulf of Kutch , the only population remaining in western India . It is 1 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 932 mi ) from the population in the Persian Gulf , and 1 @,@ 700 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 056 mi ) from the nearest population in India . Former populations in this area , centred on the Maldives and the Laccadive Islands , are presumed to be extinct . A population exists in the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park and the Palk Strait between India and Sri Lanka , but it is seriously depleted . Dugongs are also found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and is the state animal of this territory . Once distributed throughout the coastal belt in Sri Lanka , the dugong number declined in last two decades due to heavy hunting by the fishermen . Now only the north @-@ eastern coastal belt is home for the rest of dugong population around Sri Lanka . It is listed as an endangered species on the southern coast of Pakistan . The population around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are known only from a few records , and although the population was large during British rule , it is now believed to be small and scattered .
= = = Southern Pacific outside of Australia = = =
A small population exists today along the southern coast of China , where efforts are being made to protect it , including the establishment of a seagrass sanctuary for dugong and other endangered marine fauna ranging in Guanxi . Despite these efforts , numbers continue to decrease , and in 2007 it was reported that no more dugong could be found on the west coast of the island of Hainan . Historically , dugongs were also present in the southern parts of the Yellow Sea . In Vietnam , dugongs have been restricted mostly to the provinces of Kiên Giang and Bà Rịa – Vũng Tàu , including Phu Quoc Island and Con Dao Island , which hosted large populations in the past . Con Dao is now the only site in Vietnam where dugong are regularly seen , protected within the Côn Đảo National Park . Nonetheless , dangerously low levels of awarenesses for conservation of marine organisms in Vietnam and Cambodia may result in increased intentional or unintentional catches , and illegal trade is a potential danger for local dugongs . On Phu Quoc , the first ' Dugong Festival ' was held in 2014 , aiming to raise awareness of these issues .
In Thailand , the present distribution of dugongs is restricted to 6 provinces along the Andaman Sea , and very few dugongs are present in the Gulf of Thailand . The Gulf of Thailand was historically home to large number of the animals , but none have been sighted in the west of the gulf in recent years , and the remaining population in the east is thought to be very small and possibly declining . Dugongs are believed to exist in the Straits of Johor in very small numbers . The waters around Borneo support a small population , with more scattered throughout the Malay archipelago . All the islands of the Philippines are believed to have once provided habitats for dugongs , which were common until the 1970s . Populations exist around the Solomon Islands archipelago and New Caledonia , stretching to an easternmost population in Vanuatu . A highly isolated population lives around the islands of Palau .
A singe dugong lives at Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands although the animal is thought to be a vagrant .
= = = Northern Pacific = = =
Today , possibly the smallest and northernmost population of dugongs exists around the Ryukyu islands , and a population formerly existed off Taiwan . An endangered population of 50 or fewer dugongs , possibly as few as only three individuals , survives. around Okinawa . A single individual was recorded in Amami Oshima , at the northernmost edge of the dugong 's historic range , more than 40 years after the last previous recorded sighting . A vagrant strayed into port near Ushibuka , Kumamoto , and died due to poor health . Historically , the Yaeyama Islands held a large concentration of dugongs , with more than 300 individuals . On Aragusuku Island , large quantities of skulls are preserved at an utaki that outsiders are strictly forbidden to enter . Dugong populations in these areas were reduced by historical hunts as payments to the Ryukyu Kingdom , before being wiped out because of large @-@ scale illegal hunting and fishing using destructive methods such as dynamite fishing after the Second World War .
Populations around Taiwan appear to be almost extinct , although remnant individuals may visit areas with rich seagrass beds such as Dongsha Atoll . Some of the last reported sightings were made in Kenting National Park in 1950s and 60s . There had been occasional records of vagrants at the Northern Mariana Islands prior to 1985 . It is unknown how much mixing there was between these populations historically . Some theorise that populations existed independently , for example that the Okinawan population were isolated members derived from the migration of a Philippine subspecies . Others postulate that the populations formed part of a super @-@ population where migration between Ryukyu , Taiwan , and the Philippines was common .
= = = Australia = = =
Australia is home to the largest population , stretching from Shark Bay in Western Australia to Moreton Bay in Queensland . The population of Shark Bay is thought to be stable with over 10 @,@ 000 dugongs . Smaller populations exist up the coast , including one in Ashmore reef . Large numbers of dugongs live to the north of the Northern Territory , with a population of over 20 @,@ 000 in the gulf of Carpentaria alone . A population of over 25 @,@ 000 exists in the Torres Strait such as off Thursday Island , although there is significant migration between the strait and the waters of New Guinea . The Great Barrier Reef provides important feeding areas for the species ; this reef area houses a stable population of around 10 @,@ 000 , although the population concentration has shifted over time . Large bays facing north on the Queensland coast provide significant habitats for dugong , with the southernmost of these being Hervey Bay and Moreton Bay .
= = = Extinct Mediterranean population = = =
It has been confirmed that dugongs once inhabited the water of the Mediterranean possibly until after the rise of civilizations along the inland sea . This population possibly shared ancestry with the Red Sea population , and the Mediterranean population had never been large due to geographical factors and climate changes . The Mediterranean is the region where the Dugongidae originated in the mid @-@ late Eocene , along with Caribbean Sea .
= = Ecology and life history = =
Dugongs are long lived , and the oldest recorded specimen reached age 73 . They have few natural predators , although animals such as crocodiles , killer whales , and sharks pose a threat to the young , and a dugong has also been recorded to have died from trauma after being impaled by a stingray barb . A large number of infections and parasitic diseases affect dugongs . Detected pathogens include helminths , cryptosporidium , different types of bacterial infections , and other unidentified parasites . 30 % of dugong deaths in Queensland since 1996 are thought to be because of disease .
Although they are social animals , they are usually solitary or found in pairs due to the inability of seagrass beds to support large populations . Gatherings of hundreds of dugongs sometimes happen , but they last only for a short time . Because they are shy , and do not approach humans , little is known about dugong behaviour . They can go six minutes without breathing ( though about two and a half minutes is more typical ) , and have been known to rest on their tail to breathe with their heads above water . They can dive to a maximum depth of 39 metres ( 128 ft ) ; they spend most of their lives no deeper than 10 metres ( 33 ft ) . Communication between individuals is through chirps , whistles , barks , and other sounds that echo underwater . Different sounds have been observed with different amplitudes and frequencies , implying different purposes . Visual communication is limited due to poor eyesight , and is mainly used for activities such as lekking for courtship purposes . Mothers and calves are in almost constant physical contact , and calves have been known to reach out and touch their mothers with their flippers for reassurance .
Dugongs are semi @-@ nomadic , often travelling long distances in search of food , but staying within a certain range their entire life . Large numbers often move together from one area to another . It is thought that these movements are caused by changes in seagrass availability . Their memory allows them to return to specific points after long travels . Dugong movements mostly occur within a localised area of seagrass beds , and animals in the same region show individualistic patterns of movement . Daily movement is affected by the tides . In areas where there is a large tidal range , dugongs travel with the tide in order to access shallower feeding areas . In Moreton Bay , dugongs often travel between foraging grounds inside the bay and warmer oceanic waters . At higher latitudes dugongs make seasonal travels to reach warmer water during the winter . Occasionally individual dugongs make long @-@ distance travels over many days , and can travel over deep ocean waters . One animal was seen as far south as Sydney . Although they are marine creatures , dugongs have been known to travel up creeks , and in one case a dugong was caught 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) up a creek near Cooktown .
= = = Feeding = = =
Dugongs , along with other sirenians , are referred to as " sea cows " because their diet consists mainly of sea @-@ grass . When eating they ingest the whole plant , including the roots , although when this is impossible they will feed on just the leaves . A wide variety of seagrass has been found in dugong stomach contents , and evidence exists they will eat algae when seagrass is scarce . Although almost completely herbivorous , they will occasionally eat invertebrates such as jellyfish , sea squirts , and shellfish . Dugongs in Moreton Bay , Australia , are omnivorous , feeding on invertebrates such as polychaetes or marine algae when the supply of their choice grasses decreases . In other southern areas of both western and eastern Australia , there is evidence that dugongs actively seek out large invertebrates . This does not apply to dugongs in tropical areas , in which faecal evidence indicates that invertebrates are not eaten .
Most dugongs do not feed from lush areas , but where the seagrass is more sparse . Additional factors such as protein concentration and regenerative ability also affect the value of a seagrass bed . The chemical structure and composition of the seagrass is important , and the grass species most often eaten are low in fibre , high in nitrogen , and easily digestible . In the Great Barrier Reef , dugongs feed on low @-@ fibre high @-@ nitrogen seagrass such as Halophila and Halodule , so as to maximize nutrient intake instead of bulk eating . Seagrasses of a lower seral are preferred , where the area has not fully vegetated . Only certain seagrass meadows are suitable for dugong consumption , due to the dugong 's highly specialised diet . There is evidence that dugongs actively alter seagrass species compositions at local levels . Dugongs may search out deeper seagrass . Feeding trails have been observed as deep as 33 metres ( 108 ft ) , and dugongs have been seen feeding as deep as 37 metres ( 121 ft ) . Dugongs are relatively slow moving , swimming at around 10 kilometres per hour ( 6 @.@ 2 mph ) . When moving along the seabed to feed they walk on their pectoral fins .
Due to their poor eyesight , dugongs often use smell to locate edible plants . They also have a strong tactile sense , and feel their surroundings with their long sensitive bristles . They will dig up an entire plant and then shake it to remove the sand before eating it . They have been known to collect a pile of plants in one area before eating them . The flexible and muscular upper lip is used to dig out the plants . This leaves furrows in the sand in their path .
= = = Reproduction and parental care = = =
A dugong reaches sexual maturity between the ages of eight and eighteen , older than in most other mammals . The way that females know how a male has reached sexual maturity is by the eruption of tusks in the male since tusks erupt in males when testosterone levels reach a high enough level . The age when a female first gives birth is disputed , with some studies placing the age between ten and seventeen years , while others place it as early as six years . There is evidence that male dugongs lose fertility at older ages . Despite the longevity of the dugong , which may live for 50 years or more , females give birth only a few times during their life , and invest considerable parental care in their young . The time between births is unclear , with estimates ranging from 2 @.@ 4 to 7 years .
Mating behaviour varies between populations located in different areas . In some populations , males will establish a territory which females in heat will visit . In these areas a male will try to impress the females while defending the area from other males , a practice known as lekking . In other areas many males will attempt to mate with the same female , sometimes inflicting injuries to the female or each other . During this the female will have copulated with multiple males , who will have fought to mount her from below . This greatly increases the chances of conception .
Females give birth after a 13 – 15 month gestation , usually to just one calf . Birth occurs in very shallow water , with occasions known where the mothers were almost on the shore . As soon as the young is born the mother pushes it to the surface to take a breath . Newborns are already 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 4 ft ) long and weigh around 30 kilograms ( 66 lb ) . Once born , they stay close to their mothers , possibly to make swimming easier . The calf nurses for 14 – 18 months , although it begins to eat seagrasses soon after birth . A calf will only leave its mother once it has matured .
= = Importance to humans = =
Dugongs have historically provided easy targets for hunters , who killed them for their meat , oil , skin , and bones . As the anthropologist A. Asbjørn Jøn has noted , they are often considered as the inspiration for mermaids , and people around the world developed cultures around dugong hunting . In some areas it remains an animal of great significance , and a growing ecotourism industry around dugongs has had economic benefit in some countries .
There is a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old wall painting of a dugong , apparently drawn by neolithic peoples , in Tambun Cave , Ipoh , Malaysia . This was discovered by Lieutenant R.L Rawlings in 1959 while on a routine patrol . During the Renaissance and the Baroque eras , dugongs were often exhibited in wunderkammers . They were also presented as Fiji mermaids in sideshows .
Dugong meat and oil have traditionally been some of the most valuable foods of Australian aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders . Some aborigines regard dugongs as part of their Aboriginality . Dugongs have also played a role in legends in Kenya , and the animal is known there as the " Queen of the Sea " . Body parts are used as food , medicine , and decorations . In the Gulf states , dugongs served not only as a source of food , but their tusks were used as sword handles . Dugong oil is important as a preservative and conditioner for wooden boats to people in around the Gulf of Kutch in India , who also believe its meat is an aphrodisiac . Dugong ribs were used to make carvings in Japan . In Southern China dugongs were traditionally regarded as a " miraculous fish " , and it was bad luck to catch them . A wave of immigration beginning at the end of the 1950s resulted in dugongs being hunted for food . In the Philippines dugongs are thought to bring bad luck , and parts of them are used to ward against evil spirits . In areas of Thailand it is believed that the dugong 's tears form a powerful love potion , while in parts of Indonesia they are considered reincarnations of women . In Papua New Guinea they are seen as a symbol of strength .
Dugongs ' or sea cows ' hides have been thought to have been used as coverings in the building of the Old Testament portable worship tent known as the Tabernacle .
= = Conservation = =
Dugong numbers have decreased in recent times . For a population to remain stable , 95 per cent of adults must survive the span of one year . The estimated percentage of females humans can kill without depleting the population is 1 – 2 % . This number is reduced in areas where calving is minimal due to food shortages . Even in the best conditions a population is unlikely to increase more than 5 % a year , leaving dugongs vulnerable to over @-@ exploitation . The fact that they live in shallow waters puts them under great pressure from human activity . Research on dugongs and the effects of human activity on them has been limited , mostly taking place in Australia . In many countries , dugong numbers have never been surveyed . As such , trends are uncertain , with more data needed for comprehensive management . The only data stretching back far enough to mention population trends comes from the urban coast of Queensland , Australia . The last major worldwide study , made in 2002 , concluded that the dugong was declining and possibly extinct in a third of its range , with unknown status in another half .
The IUCN Red List lists the dugong as vulnerable , and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora regulates and in some areas has banned international trade . Regional cooperation is important due to the widespread distribution of the animal , and in 1998 there was strong support for Southeast Asian cooperation to protect dugongs . Kenya has passed legislation banning the hunting of dugongs and restricting trawling , but the dugong is not yet listed under Kenya 's Wildlife Act for endangered species . Mozambique has had legislation to protect dugongs since 1955 , but this has not been effectively enforced . Many marine parks have been established on the African coast of the Red Sea , and the Egyptian Gulf of Aqaba is fully protected . The United Arab Emirates has banned all hunting of dugongs within its waters , as has Bahrain . The UAE has additionally banned drift net fishing . India and Sri Lanka ban the hunting and selling of dugongs and their products
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water @-@ tube boilers . Grenville carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 175 officers and men .
The ship mounted five 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Grenville had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Service history = =
Ordered in 1934 , the ship was laid down by the Yarrow Shipbuilding Company at Scotstoun in Glasgow on 29 September 1934 , launched on 15 August 1935 , and completed on 1 July 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 275 @,@ 412 . Aside from a brief period when she was assigned to the 20th Destroyer Flotilla after her commissioning , Grenville spent the prewar period as the flagship of the 1st Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet . She spent ten months deployed off the Spanish coast in the Western Mediterranean during the Spanish Civil War before returning to Portsmouth for a brief overhaul between 24 May and 9 June 1937 . The ship returned to the Mediterranean until she was given a more thorough refit in Portsmouth between 7 June and 25 July 1938 .
On the outbreak of war in September 1939 , Grenville was deployed in the Mediterranean . On 22 October , Grenville and her sisters Griffin , Grenade and Gipsy were transferred to the Western Approaches Command and arrived at Plymouth on 2 November . Grenville and Grenade collided during the night of 7 / 8 November and Grenville 's No. 3 boiler room was flooded . She was under repair at HM Dockyard , Devonport until 1 December . While the ship was under repair , her flotilla had been transferred to the Nore Command at Harwich for local patrol and escort work . Grenville rejoined them the on 3 December and participated in several attempts to intercept enemy shipping traffic off the Dutch and German North Sea coasts . Whilst returning from one of these missions on 19 January Grenville struck a mine 23 miles ( 37 km ) east of Kentish Knock Light Vessel . Seventy @-@ seven of the ship 's company were killed as the ship sank .
= European Union =
The European Union ( EU ) is a politico @-@ economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe . It has an area of 4 @,@ 324 @,@ 782 km2 ( 1 @,@ 669 @,@ 808 sq mi ) , and an estimated population of over 510 million . The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states . EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people , goods , services , and capital within the internal market , enact legislation in justice and home affairs , and maintain common policies on trade , agriculture , fisheries , and regional development . Within the Schengen Area , passport controls have been abolished . A monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002 , and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency .
The EU operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision @-@ making . The seven principal decision @-@ making bodies — known as the institutions of the European Union — are the European Council , the Council of the European Union , the European Parliament , the European Commission , the Court of Justice of the European Union , the European Central Bank , and the European Court of Auditors .
The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community ( ECSC ) and the European Economic Community ( EEC ) , formed by the Inner Six countries in 1951 and 1958 , respectively . The community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit . While no member state has , as yet , ever left the EU , a non @-@ binding referendum in the United Kingdom in June 2016 supported leaving . The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship . The latest major amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU , the Treaty of Lisbon , came into force in 2009 .
Covering 7 @.@ 3 % of the world population , the EU in 2014 generated a nominal gross domestic product ( GDP ) of 18 @.@ 495 trillion US dollars , constituting approximately 24 % of global nominal GDP and 17 % when measured in terms of purchasing power parity . Additionally , 26 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index , according to the United Nations Development Program . In 2012 , the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy , the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence . The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations , the World Trade Organization , the G8 , and the G @-@ 20 . Because of its global influence , the European Union has been described as a current or as a potential superpower .
= = History = =
= = = Preliminary ( 1945 – 57 ) = = =
After World War II , European integration was seen as an antidote to the extreme nationalism which had devastated the continent . The 1948 Hague Congress was a pivotal moment in European federal history , as it led to the creation of the European Movement International and of the College of Europe , where Europe 's future leaders would live and study together . 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community , which was declared to be " a first step in the federation of Europe . " The supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi , Jean Monnet , Robert Schuman , and Paul @-@ Henri Spaak .
= = = Treaty of Rome ( 1957 – 92 ) = = =
In 1957 , Belgium , France , Italy , Luxembourg , the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome , which created the European Economic Community ( EEC ) and established a customs union . They also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community ( Euratom ) for co @-@ operation in developing nuclear energy . Both treaties came into force in 1958 .
The EEC and Euratom were created separately from ECSC , although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly . The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein ( Hallstein Commission ) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand ( Armand Commission ) and then Étienne Hirsch . Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members .
Through the 1960s , tensions began to show , with France seeking to limit supranational power . Nevertheless , in 1965 an agreement was reached and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities , which were collectively referred to as the European Communities . Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission ( Rey Commission ) .
In 1973 , the Communities enlarged to include Denmark ( including Greenland , which later left the Community in 1985 , following a dispute over fishing rights ) , Ireland , and the United Kingdom . Norway had negotiated to join at the same time , but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum . In 1979 , the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held .
Greece joined in 1981 , Portugal and Spain following in 1986 . In 1985 , the Schengen Agreement paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non @-@ member states . In 1986 , the European flag began to be used by the Community and the Single European Act was signed .
In 1990 , after the fall of the Eastern Bloc , the former East Germany became part of the Community as part of a reunified Germany . With further enlargement planned to include the former communist states , as well as Cyprus and Malta , the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993 .
= = = Maastricht Treaty ( 1992 – present ) = = =
The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty — whose main architects were Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand — came into force on 1 November 1993 . The treaty also gave the name European Community to the EEC , even if it was referred as such before the treaty . In 1995 , Austria , Finland , and Sweden joined the EU . In 2002 , euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states . Since then , the eurozone has increased to encompass 19 countries . In 2004 , the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Cyprus , the Czech Republic , Estonia , Hungary , Latvia , Lithuania , Malta , Poland , Slovakia and Slovenia joined the Union . In 2007 , Romania and Bulgaria became EU members . The same year , Slovenia adopted the euro , followed in 2008 by Cyprus and Malta , by Slovakia in 2009 , by Estonia in 2011 , by Latvia in 2014 and by Lithuania in 2015 .
On 1 December 2009 , the Lisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU . In particular , it changed the legal structure of the European Union , merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with a legal personality , created a permanent President of the European Council , the first of which was Herman Van Rompuy , and strengthened the position of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy . In 2012 , the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having " contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation , democracy , and human rights in Europe . " In 2013 , Croatia became the 28th EU member .
From the beginning of 2010s , the European Union is going through a series of tests , including a debt crisis in some Eurozone countries , increasing migration from Middle Eastern countries , Russian military intervention in Ukraine and the United Kingdom 's withdrawal from the EU .
= = = Structural evolution = = =
The following timeline illustrates the integration that has led to the formation of the present union , in terms of structural development driven by international treaties :
= = = British withdrawal = = =
A referendum on the UK 's membership of the European Union ( announced by British Prime Minister David Cameron on 20 February 2016 ) was held on 23 June 2016 , following years of campaigning by eurosceptics . The result gave a majority of with 51 @.@ 9 % to leave , and 48 @.@ 1 % to remain , on a turnout of 72 @.@ 2 % of registered voters . As of July 2016 , the UK has not yet initiated the formal withdrawal procedure , and will not leave the EU until either two years after they notify the European Council of their decision to withdraw , or on the coming into force of a withdrawal agreement .
= = Geography = =
The EU 's member states cover an area of 4 @,@ 423 @,@ 147 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 707 @,@ 787 sq mi ) . The EU 's highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps , 4 @,@ 810 @.@ 45 metres ( 15 @,@ 782 ft ) above sea level . The lowest points in the EU are Lammefjorden , Denmark and Zuidplaspolder , Netherlands , at 7 m ( 23 ft ) below sea level . The landscape , climate , and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline , which is 65 @,@ 993 kilometres ( 41 @,@ 006 mi ) long .
Including the overseas territories of France which are located outside the continent of Europe , but which are members of the union , the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic ( North @-@ East Europe ) to tropical ( French Guyana ) , rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless . The majority of the population lives in areas with a temperate maritime climate ( North @-@ Western Europe and Central Europe ) , a Mediterranean climate ( Southern Europe ) , or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate ( Northern Balkans and Central Europe ) .
The EU 's population is highly urbanised , with some 75 % of inhabitants ( and growing , projected to be 90 % in seven member states by 2020 ) living in urban areas . Cities are largely spread out across the EU , although with a large grouping in and around the Benelux . An increasing percentage of this is due to low density urban sprawl which is extending into natural areas . In some cases , this urban growth has been due to the influx of EU funds into a region .
= = = Member states = = =
Through successive enlargements , the European Union has grown from the six founding states — Belgium , France , West Germany , Italy , Luxembourg , and the Netherlands — to the current 28 . Countries accede to the union by becoming party to the founding treaties , thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership . This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions , a practice often referred to as " pooling of sovereignty " .
To become a member , a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria , defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen . These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law ; a functioning market economy ; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership , including EU law . Evaluation of a country 's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council . No member state has yet left the Union , although Greenland ( an autonomous province of Denmark ) withdrew in 1985 . The Lisbon Treaty now contains a clause under Article 50 , providing for a member to leave the EU . On 23 June 2016 , the United Kingdom voted by referendum to leave the EU . However , it remains a member until it officially exits , and has not yet begun formal withdrawal procedures .
There are six countries that are recognized as candidates for membership : Albania , Iceland , Macedonia , Montenegro , Serbia , and Turkey , though Iceland suspended negotiations in 2013 . Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are officially recognised as potential candidates , with Bosnia and Herzegovina having submitted a membership application .
The four countries forming the European Free Trade Association ( EFTA ) are not EU members , but have partly committed to the EU 's economy and regulations : Iceland , Liechtenstein and Norway , which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area , and Switzerland , which has similar ties through bilateral treaties . The relationships of the European microstates , Andorra , Monaco , San Marino , and the Vatican include the use of the euro and other areas of co @-@ operation . The following 28 sovereign states ( of which the map only shows territories situated in and around Europe ) constitute the European Union :
= = = Environment = = =
In 1957 , when the EEC was founded , it had no environmental policy . Over the past 50 years , an increasingly dense network of legislation has been created , extending to all areas of environmental protection , including air pollution , water quality , waste management , nature conservation , and the control of chemicals , industrial hazards and biotechnology . According to the Institute for European Environmental Policy , environmental law comprises over 500 Directives , Regulations and Decisions , making environmental policy a core area of European politics .
European policy @-@ makers originally increased the EU 's capacity to act on environmental issues by defining it as a trade problem . Trade barriers and competitive distortions in the Common Market could emerge due to the different environmental standards in each member state . In subsequent years , the environment became a formal policy area , with its own policy actors , principles and procedures . The legal basis for EU environmental policy was established with the introduction of the Single European Act in 1987 .
Initially , EU environmental policy focused on Europe . More recently , the EU has demonstrated leadership in global environmental governance , e.g. the role of the EU in securing the ratification and coming into force of the Kyoto Protocol despite opposition from the United States . This international dimension is reflected in the EU 's Sixth Environmental Action Programme , which recognises that its objectives can only be achieved if key international agreements are actively supported and properly implemented both at EU level and worldwide . The Lisbon Treaty further strengthened the leadership ambitions . EU law has played a significant role in improving habitat and species protection in Europe , as well as contributing to improvements in air and water quality and waste management .
Mitigating climate change is one of the top priorities of EU environmental policy . In 2007 , member states agreed that , in future , 20 % of the energy used across the EU must be renewable , and carbon dioxide emissions have to be lower in 2020 by at least 20 % compared to 1990 levels . The EU has adopted an emissions trading system to incorporate carbon emissions into the economy . The European Green Capital is an annual award given to cities that focuses on the environment , energy efficiency and quality of life in urban areas to create smart city .
= = Politics = =
The European Union operates according to the principles of conferral ( which says that it should act only within the limits of the competences conferred on it by the treaties ) and of subsidiarity ( which says that it should act only where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone ) . Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms . Generally speaking , they can be classified into two groups : those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures ( regulations ) and those which specifically require national implementation measures ( directives ) .
= = = Constitutional nature = = =
The classification of the EU in terms of international or constitutional law has been much debated . It began life as an international organisation and gradually developed into a confederation of states . However , since the mid @-@ 1960s it has also added several of the key attributes of a federation , such as the direct effect of the law of the general level of government upon the individual and majority voting in the decision @-@ making process of the general level of government , without becoming a federation per se . Scholars thus today see it as an intermediate form lying between a confederation and a federation , being an instance of neither political structure . For this reason , the organisation is termed sui generis ( incomparable , one of a kind ) , although some argue that this designation is no longer valid .
The organisation has traditionally used the terms " Community " and later " Union " to describe itself . The difficulties of classification involve the difference between national law ( where the subjects of the law include natural persons and corporations ) and international law ( where the subjects include sovereign states and international organizations ) . They can also be seen in the light of differing European and American constitutional traditions . Especially in terms of the European tradition , the term federation is equated with a sovereign federal state in international law ; so the EU cannot be called a federation — at least , not without qualification . It is , however , described as being based on a federal model or federal in nature ; and so it may be appropriate to consider it a federal union of states , a conceptual structure lying between the confederation of states and the federal state . The German Constitutional Court refers to the EU as a Staatenverbund , an intermediate structure between the Staatenbund ( confederation of states ) and the Bundesstaat ( federal state ) , consistent with this concept . This may be a long @-@ lived political form . Professor Andrew Moravcsik claims that the EU is unlikely to develop further into a federal state , but instead has reached maturity as a constitutional system .
= = = Governance = = =
The European Union has seven institutions : the European Council , the Council of the European Union , the European Parliament , the European Commission , the Court of Justice of the European Union , the European Central Bank and the European Court of Auditors . Competence in scrutinising and amending legislation is shared between the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament , while executive tasks are performed by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council ( not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union ) . The monetary policy of the eurozone is determined by the European Central Bank . The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union . The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors . There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area .
= = = = European Council = = = =
The European Council gives political direction to the EU . It convenes at least four times a year and comprises the President of the European Council ( currently Donald Tusk ) , the President of the European Commission and one representative per member state ( either its head of state or head of government ) . The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy ( currently Federica Mogherini ) also takes part in its meetings . It has been described by some as the Union 's " supreme political authority " . It is actively involved in the negotiation of treaty changes and defines the EU 's policy agenda and strategies .
The European Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes between member states and the institutions , and to resolve political crises and disagreements over controversial issues and policies . It acts externally as a " collective head of state " and ratifies important documents ( for example , international agreements and treaties ) .
Tasks for the President of the European Council are ensuring the external representation of the EU , driving consensus and resolving divergences among member states , both during meetings of the European Council and over the periods between them .
The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe , an international organisation independent of the EU based in Strasbourg .
= = = = Council of the European Union = = = =
The Council of the European Union ( also called the " Council " and the " Council of Ministers " , its former title ) forms one half of the EU 's legislature . It consists of a government minister from each member state and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed . Notwithstanding its different configurations , it is considered to be one single body . In addition to its legislative functions , the Council also exercises executive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy .
= = = = European Parliament = = = =
The European Parliament forms the other half of the EU 's legislature . The 751 Members of the European Parliament ( MEPs ) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years on the basis of proportional representation . Although MEPs are elected on a national basis , they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality . Each country has a set number of seats and is divided into sub @-@ national constituencies where this does not affect the proportional nature of the voting system .
The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union pass legislation jointly in nearly all areas under the ordinary legislative procedure . This also applies to the EU budget . The European Commission is accountable to Parliament , requiring its approval to take office , having to report back to it and subject to motions of censure from it . The President of the European Parliament ( currently Martin Schulz ) carries out the role of speaker in Parliament and represents it externally . The President and Vice @-@ Presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years .
= = = = European Commission = = = =
The European Commission acts as the EU 's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the EU . The Commission is also seen as the motor of European integration . It operates as a cabinet government , with 28 Commissioners for different areas of policy , one from each member state , though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state .
One of the 28 is the President of the European Commission ( currently Jean @-@ Claude Juncker ) appointed by the European Council . After the President , the most prominent Commissioner is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy , who is ex @-@ officio a Vice @-@ President of the Commission and is also chosen by the European Council . The other 26 Commissioners are subsequently appointed by the Council of the European Union in agreement with the nominated President . The 28 Commissioners as a single body are subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament .
= = = Budget = = =
The EU had an agreed budget of € 120 @.@ 7 billion for the year 2007 and € 864 @.@ 3 billion for the period 2007 – 2013 , representing 1 @.@ 10 % and 1 @.@ 05 % of the EU @-@ 27 's GNI forecast for the respective periods . By comparison , the United Kingdom 's expenditure for 2004 was estimated to be € 759 billion , and France was estimated to have spent € 801 billion . In 1960 , the budget of the then European Economic Community was 0 @.@ 03 % of GDP .
In the 2010 budget of € 141 @.@ 5 billion , the largest single expenditure item is " cohesion & competitiveness " with around 45 % of the total budget . Next comes " agriculture " with approximately 31 % of the total . " Rural development , environment and fisheries " takes up around 11 % . " Administration " accounts for around 6 % . The " EU as a global partner " and " citizenship , freedom , security and justice " bring up the rear with approximately 6 % and 1 % respectively .
The Court of Auditors is legally obliged to provide the Parliament and the Council with " a statement of assurance as to the reliability of the accounts and the legality and regularity of the underlying transactions " . The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti @-@ fraud actions . The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the Commission 's handling of the budget .
The European Court of Auditors has signed off the European Union accounts every year since 2007 and , while making it clear that the European Commission has more work to do , has highlighted that most of the errors take place at national level . In their report on 2009 the auditors found that five areas of Union expenditure , agriculture and the cohesion fund , were materially affected by error . The European Commission estimated in 2009 that the financial impact of irregularities was € 1 @,@ 863 million .
= = = Competences = = =
EU member states retain all powers not explicitly handed to the European Union . In some areas the EU enjoys exclusive competence . These are areas in which member states have renounced any capacity to enact legislation . In other areas the EU and its member states share the competence to legislate . While both can legislate , member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not . In other policy areas the EU can only co @-@ ordinate , support and supplement member state action but cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws .
That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting legislation within that policy area . Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence , and even with the same policy area .
The distribution of competences in various policy areas between Member States and the Union is divided in the following three categories :
= = Legal system = =
The EU is based on a series of treaties . These first established the European Community and the EU , and then made amendments to those founding treaties . These are power @-@ giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals . These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants . The EU has legal personality , with the right to sign agreements and international treaties .
Under the principle of supremacy , national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified , and thus the laws enacted under them , even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law , and ( within limits ) even constitutional provisions .
= = = Courts of Justice = = =
The judicial branch of the EU — formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union — consists of three courts : the Court of Justice , the General Court , and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal . Together they interpret and apply the treaties and the law of the EU .
The Court of Justice primarily deals with cases taken by member states , the institutions , and cases referred to it by the courts of member states . The General Court mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU 's courts , and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal adjudicates in disputes between the European Union and its civil service . Decisions from the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law .
= = = Fundamental rights = = =
The treaties declare that the EU itself is " founded on the values of respect for human dignity , freedom , democracy , equality , the rule of law and respect for human rights , including the rights of persons belonging to minorities ... in a society in which pluralism , non @-@ discrimination , tolerance , justice , solidarity and equality between women and men prevail . "
In 2009 the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union . The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which the EU 's legal acts can be judged . It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived from the " constitutional traditions common to the member states . " The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has , on occasion , invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights .
Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights ( ECHR ) is a condition for EU membership , previously , the EU itself could not accede to the Convention as it is neither a state nor had the competence to accede . The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this : the former binds the EU to accede to the Convention while the latter formally permits it .
Although , the EU is independent from Council of Europe , they share purpose and ideas especially on rule of law , human rights and democracy . Further European Convention on Human Rights and European Social Charter , the source of law of Charter of Fundamental Rights are created by Council of Europe . The EU also promoted human rights issues in the wider world . The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition . Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership .
= = = Acts = = =
The main legal acts of the EU come in three forms : regulations , directives , and decisions . Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force , without the requirement for any implementing measures , and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions . Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result . The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states . When the time limit for implementing directives passes , they may , under certain conditions , have direct effect in national law against member states .
Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation . They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals , companies or a particular member state . They are most often used in competition law , or on rulings on State Aid , but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions . Regulations , directives , and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy .
= = = Area of freedom , security and justice = = =
Since the creation of the EU in 1993 , it has developed its competencies in the area of freedom , security and justice , initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism . To this end , agencies have been established that co @-@ ordinate associated actions : Europol for co @-@ operation of police forces , Eurojust for co @-@ operation between prosecutors , and Frontex for co @-@ operation between border control authorities . The EU also operates the Schengen Information System which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities . This co @-@ operation had to particularly be developed with the advent of open borders through the Schengen Agreement and the associated cross border crime .
Furthermore , the Union has legislated in areas such as extradition , family law , asylum law , and criminal justice . Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties . In more recent years , these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race , religion , disability , age , and sexual orientation . By virtue of these powers , the EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work @-@ place , age discrimination , and racial discrimination .
= = Foreign relations = =
Foreign policy co @-@ operation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957 , when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the Common Commercial policy . Steps for a more wide ranging co @-@ ordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies . It was not , however , until 1987 when European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act . EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy ( CFSP ) by the Maastricht Treaty .
The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU 's own interests and those of the international community as a whole , including the furtherance of international co @-@ operation , respect for human rights , democracy , and the rule of law . The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue . The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements , such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq .
The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters , and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment . The High Representative heads up the European External Action Service ( EEAS ) , a unique EU department that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon . The EEAS will serve as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union .
Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union , the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement . The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU 's accession criteria , and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries . This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as " soft power " , as opposed to military " hard power " .
= = = Military = = =
The predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes . 22 EU members are members of NATO while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality . The Western European Union , a military alliance with a mutual defence clause , was disbanded in 2010 as its role had been transferred to the EU .
According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute ( SIPRI ) , the United Kingdom spent $ 61 billion on defence in 2014 , placing it fifth in the world , while France spent $ 53 billion , the sixth largest . Together , the UK and France account for approximately 40 per cent of EU 's defence budget and 50 per cent of its military capacity . Both are officially recognised nuclear weapon states holding permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council .
Following the Kosovo War in 1999 , the European Council agreed that " the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action , backed by credible military forces , the means to decide to use them , and the readiness to do so , in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO " . To that end , a number of efforts were made to increase the EU 's military capability , notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process . After much discussion , the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative , each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 personnel .
EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from middle and northern Africa to the western Balkans and western Asia . EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies , including the European Defence Agency , European Union Satellite Centre and the European Union Military Staff . Frontex is an agency of the EU established to manage the cooperation between national border guards securing its external borders . It aims to detect and stop illegal immigration , human trafficking and terrorist infiltration . In December 2015 the European Commission presented its proposal for a new European Border and Coast Guard Agency having a stronger role and mandate along with national authorities for border management . In an EU consisting of 28 members , substantial security and defence co @-@ operation is increasingly relying on collaboration among all member states .
= = = Humanitarian aid = = =
The European Commission 's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department , or " ECHO " , provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries . In 2012 , its budget amounted to € 874 million , 51 % of the budget went to Africa and 20 % to Asia , Latin America , the Caribbean and Pacific , and 20 % to the Middle East and Mediterranean .
Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget ( 70 % ) as part of the financial instruments for external action and also by the European Development Fund ( 30 % ) . The EU 's external action financing is divided into ' geographic ' instruments and ' thematic ' instruments . The ' geographic ' instruments provide aid through the Development Cooperation Instrument ( DCI , € 16 @.@ 9 billion , 2007 – 2013 ) , which must spend 95 % of its budget on overseas development assistance ( ODA ) , and from the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument ( ENPI ) , which contains some relevant programmes . The European Development Fund ( EDF , € 22 @.@ 7 bn , 2008 – 2013 ) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states , but there is pressure to merge the EDF into the budget @-@ financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0 @.@ 7 % target and allow the European Parliament greater oversight .
However , five countries have reached the 0 @.@ 7 % target : Sweden , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Denmark and the United Kingdom . In 2011 , EU aid was 0 @.@ 42 % of the EU 's GNI making it the world 's most generous aid donor . The previous Commissioner for Aid , Louis Michel , has called for aid to be delivered more rapidly , to greater effect , and on humanitarian principles .
= = Economy = =
The European Union has established a single market across the territory of all its members representing 508 million citizens . In 2014 , the EU had a combined GDP of 18 @.@ 640 trillion international dollars , a 20 % share of global gross domestic product by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . As a political entity the European Union is represented in the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) . EU member states own the estimated largest net wealth in the world , equal to 30 % of the $ 223 trillion global wealth .
19 member states have joined a monetary union known as the eurozone , which uses the Euro as a single currency . The currency union represents 338 million EU citizens . The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar .
Of the top 500 largest corporations in the world measured by revenue in 2010 , 161 have their headquarters in the EU . In 2016 , unemployment in the EU stood at 8 @.@ 9 % while inflation was at 2 @.@ 2 % , and the current account balance at − 0 @.@ 9 % of GDP .
There is a significant variance for GDP ( PPP ) per capita within individual EU states . The difference between the richest and poorest regions ( 276 NUTS @-@ 2 regions of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics ) ranged , in 2014 , from 30 % of the EU28 average to 539 % , or from € 8 @,@ 200 to € 148 @,@ 000 ( about US $ 9 @,@ 000 to US $ 162 @,@ 000 ) .
Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds are supporting the development of underdeveloped regions of the EU . Such regions are primarily located in the states of central and southern Europe . Several funds provide emergency aid , support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU 's standard ( Phare , ISPA , and SAPARD ) , and support to the Commonwealth of Independent States ( TACIS ) . TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme . EU research and technological framework programmes sponsor research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single European Research Area .
= = = Internal market = = =
Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market , subsequently becoming a single market , and a customs union between its member states . The single market involves the free circulation of goods , capital , people , and services within the EU , and the customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market . Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties , discriminatory taxes or import quotas , as they travel internally . The non @-@ EU member states of Iceland , Norway , Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union . Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU .
Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries . Until the drive towards economic and monetary union the development of the capital provisions had been slow . Post @-@ Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom . The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non @-@ member states .
The free movement of persons means that EU citizens can move freely between member states to live , work , study or retire in another country . This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states .
The free movement of services and of establishment allows self @-@ employed persons to move between member states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis . While services account for 60 – 70 % of GDP , legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas . This lacuna has been addressed by the recently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services . According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised .
= = = Monetary union = = =
The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the European Economic Community in 1969 . In 1992 , having negotiated the structure and procedures of a currency union , the member states signed the Maastricht Treaty and were legally bound to fulfil the agreed @-@ on rules including the convergence criteria if they wanted to join the monetary union . The states wanting to participate had first to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism .
In 1999 the currency union started , first as an accounting currency with eleven member states joining . In 2002 , the currency was fully put into place , when euro notes and coins were issued and national currencies began to phase out in the eurozone , which by then consisted of 12 member states . The eurozone ( constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro ) has since grown to 19 countries .
Since its launch the euro has become the second reserve currency in the world with a quarter of foreign exchanges reserves being in euro . The euro , and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU , are under the control of the European Central Bank ( ECB ) .
The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone , and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability . It is at the centre of the European System of Central Banks , which comprehends all EU national central banks and is controlled by its General Council , consisting of the President of the ECB , who is appointed by the European Council , the Vice @-@ President of the ECB , and the governors of the national central banks of all 28 EU member states .
The European System of Financial Supervision is an institutional architecture of the EU 's framework of financial supervision composed by three authorities : the European Banking Authority , the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and the European Securities and Markets Authority . To complement this framework , there is also a European Systemic Risk Board under the responsibility of the ECB . The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU .
To prevent the joining states from getting into financial trouble or crisis after entering the monetary union , they were obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfil important financial obligations and procedures , especially to show budgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable economic convergence , as well as to avoid excessive government deficits and limit the government debt to a sustainable level .
= = = Energy = = =
In 2006 , the EU @-@ 27 had a gross inland energy consumption of 1 @,@ 825 million tonnes of oil equivalent ( toe ) . Around 46 % of the energy consumed was produced within the member states while 54 % was imported . In these statistics , nuclear energy is treated as primary energy produced in the EU , regardless of the source of the uranium , of which less than 3 % is produced in the EU .
The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence ; this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community . The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005 , and the first draft policy was published in January 2007 .
The EU has five key points in its energy policy : increase competition in the internal market , encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids ; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis ; establish a new treaty framework for energy co @-@ operation with Russia while improving relations with energy @-@ rich states in Central Asia and North Africa ; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing renewable energy commercialisation ; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies .
The EU imports 82 % of its oil , 57 % of its natural gas and 97 @.@ 48 % of its uranium demands . Because of Europe 's dependence on Russian energy the EU is attempting to diversify its energy supply .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
The EU is working to improve cross @-@ border infrastructure within the EU , for example through the Trans @-@ European Networks ( TEN ) . Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel , LGV Est , the Fréjus Rail Tunnel , the Öresund Bridge , the Brenner Base Tunnel and the Strait of Messina Bridge . In 2010 the estimated network covers : 75 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 46 @,@ 700 mi ) of roads ; 78 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 48 @,@ 000 mi ) of railways ; 330 airports ; 270 maritime harbours ; and 210 internal harbours .
Rail transport in Europe is being synchronised with the European Rail Traffic Management System ( ERTMS ) , an initiative to greatly enhance safety , increase efficiency of trains and enhance cross @-@ border interoperability of rail transport in Europe by replacing signalling equipment with digitized mostly wireless versions and by creating a single Europe @-@ wide standard for train control and command systems .
The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transport network . In the pre @-@ 2004 EU members , the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution . After the recent enlargement , the new states that joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda . The Polish road network was upgraded such as the A4 autostrada .
The Galileo positioning system is another EU infrastructure project . Galileo is a proposed Satellite navigation system , to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency ( ESA ) . The Galileo project was launched partly to reduce the EU 's dependency on the US @-@ operated Global Positioning System , but also to give more complete global coverage and allow for greater accuracy , given the aged nature of the GPS system .
= = = Agriculture = = =
The Common Agricultural Policy ( CAP ) is
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Vanguard for a conference . Together these officers determined Egypt as the most likely option , deducing that it was the best location in the Mediterranean from which Bonaparte could threaten India . Consequently Nelson turned southeast towards Alexandria , exercising his men 's gunnery daily to ensure they were ready for the battle he planned . His plan should his force encounter the French was clear : dividing into three squadrons , his fleet would strike the French at three points . Two squadrons of five ships each would engage the French fleet directly while the third would separate and attack the transports , sinking or capturing as many as possible . Nelson also deliberately forged close links with his captains at regular dinners aboard his flagship to ensure ease of communication and build confidence between them . He later said of this time that " I had the happiness to command a Band of Brothers . "
= = = Bonaparte at Malta = = =
While Nelson was gathering his fleet and searching for the French , Bonaparte had secured the first stage of his plan for the invasion of Egypt . Arriving off Malta on 9 June , he demanded that the island 's ruler , Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim , the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller ( or Knights of St. John of Jerusalem ) to allow his fleet to enter the harbour and purchase provisions . Hompesch refused , insisting that only two ships at a time could enter the port . Bonaparte responded by opening fire on the harbour defences and on 11 June landed soldiers at seven sites around Malta under General Louis Baraguey d 'Hilliers . Coming under fire from the 2 @,@ 000 native Maltese soldiers that mustered against the invasion , skirmishing continued in the western part of the island for 24 hours , until General Claude @-@ Henri Belgrand de Vaubois entered Mdina and the defenders withdrew to the fortress of Valletta . The Maltese troops refused to continue the fight without support from their government , and negotiations followed in which Hompesch and the knights agreed to abandon Malta on condition of financial compensation amounting to 3 million Francs . In exchange , Bonaparte gained the entire Maltese archipelago , including fortresses , military stores and cannon , the small Maltese Navy and Army and the entire property of the Roman Catholic Church in Malta .
The Maltese position had already been severely weakened by the large number of Frenchmen who were part of the Order , who refused en masse to take up arms against Bonaparte . The French Revolution had already significantly reduced the Knights ' income and their ability to put up serious resistance to Bonaparte was seriously compromised by a lack of resources . On 12 June , Bonaparte finally announced to his troops the destination of the expedition and on 19 June he sailed for Alexandria , initially steering east towards Crete . He left behind Vaubois and 4 @,@ 000 men to maintain Malta as a base to control the Central Mediterranean . To ensure that news of the impending attack on Egypt did not spread ahead of the fleet , Brueys ordered that any merchant ships that sighted the convoy during the passage were to be seized and detained until his force had reached Alexandria . On 26 June , the British gained the first firm intelligence of French intentions , when the frigate HMS Seahorse under Captain Edward Foote encountered and captured the French frigate Sensible , which was returning to Toulon from Malta with a cargo of treasure and wounded soldiers , including General d 'Hilliers . From these prisoners the destination of the French fleet was discovered and Seahorse , joined shortly afterwards by Terpsichore , sailed in pursuit , hoping to encounter Nelson .
= = Arrivals at Alexandria = =
Nelson 's passage from Sicily to Alexandria was uneventful , the journey taking six days . Due to his lack of frigates , Nelson was unable to scout to the flanks of his advance and as a result only spoke with three merchant ships , none of which had useful information about the French fleet . The lack of frigates had already had a decisive effect on 22 June , when the British fleet sighted four sails to the southeast . Although Captain Thomas Thompson of HMS Leander requested permission to investigate the strangers , Nelson refused and ordered his fleet to continue on their current heading , believing the French to be five days ahead and wishing to reach Alexandria as rapidly as possible . Had British frigates been available to approach and investigate the distant squadron , they might have discovered that they were scouts for the main French fleet , which was only a short distance away . The French frigate had sighted the British fleet and reported its presence to Bonaparte , who adjusted his convoy 's direction slightly to a more northerly trajectory . As a result , Nelson 's fleet passed north of the French to the east of Malta during the night in a heavy mist . Although Nelson was so close that his signal guns could be heard aboard Orient , his lookouts did not observe the French ships and the British fleet continued ahead without deviating . When dawn broke the following day , Bonaparte 's diversion to the northeast had taken his convoy out of sight of the British fleet , which continued to the southeast undisturbed . On 28 June , Mutine arrived at Alexandria ahead of Nelson 's fleet , and discovered that the French fleet was not in the harbour . Once the main fleet had arrived , attempts were made to contact the British Consul George Baldwin , but these failed as he had been dismissed by the British government shortly before and had left the city . As a result , official diplomatic channels were closed to Nelson . A message warning of the French approach was carried to the Ottoman governor Sayyid Muhammad Kurayyim by Hardy in Mutine . Kurayyim replied that he had not seen the French fleet , and that he would enforce the Ottoman Empire 's neutrality and forbid both the British and the French from entering the harbour or landing on the coast . He was dismissive of the British warnings : " It is impossible that the French should come to our country . They have no business here and we are not at war with them . " Without Baldwin no further entries could be made , and when there was still no sign of the French on the morning of 29 June , Nelson decided to turn back northeast and take another pass across the central Mediterranean towards Corfu , following a more northerly course than his first voyage .
= = = Invasion of Egypt = = =
Bonaparte 's fleet , delayed by its many transport ships , passed Cape Durazzo on the island of Crete during the 30 June and reached Alexandria the following morning , driven by the fresh meltemi winds . Bonaparte 's first action was to send a small brig into the harbour to collect the French consul , Charles Magallon , who relayed the news of Nelson 's stay off the port and of Kurayyim 's refusal to allow the French to land . Seriously concerned that Nelson might return while his men were still in their transports , Bonaparte gave orders for the landing to go ahead immediately . Soldiers were landed in the region of the Mirabou Creek , although the appearance of a sail to the east was mistaken for a scout from the British fleet and caused momentary panic , Bonaparte reportedly exclaiming : " Fortune , m 'abandonnerais @-@ tu ? Quoi ! Seulement cinq jours ! " ( Fortune , wilt thou abandon me ? What ! Only five days ! ) . The newcomer was eventually revealed to be the French frigate Justice sent from Malta , and the invasion continued unopposed . By evening the landing had been completed , although several boats had been wrecked in the surf and Bonaparte himself estimated that at least 20 men had drowned .
On 2 July , Bonaparte led his men to victory in the brief Battle of Alexandria and secured the city . He placed General Jean Baptiste Kléber in command with Rear @-@ Admiral Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley in charge of the harbour . Finding that entrances to the anchorage were too shallow to accommodate the main body of the French fleet , Bonaparte ordered Brueys to sail his squadron to the wider Aboukir Bay , 20 miles ( 32 km ) northeast of Alexandria . Brueys was instructed that if he considered the anchorage to be unsafe then he was to sail for Corfu , leaving only a small light force that could anchor comfortably in Alexandria . There Brueys held a conference with his officers to decide on their response should Nelson discover them in the bay . Although Rear @-@ Admiral Armand Blanquet of Franklin argued that the fleet was safest sailing out to meet the British , he was outvoted and overruled , Brueys ordering that the ships remain anchored in line of battle to receive the British attack . On 21 July , the frigates Seahorse and Terpsichore arrived at Alexandria and observed the French dispositions while flying French colours to confuse observers from the shore . With no sign of Nelson , Foote and Hall turned back westwards in search of the admiral . When Brueys learned that British frigates had been seen off the Egyptian coast , he decided that the retreat of these vessels signified that there was no danger of imminent attack by a British force and therefore failed to take precautions against attack .
= = = Nelson returns = = =
Nelson , having sailed northeast on the same day that the first French ships arrived off Alexandria , had reached Anatolia on 4 July and turned westward against the wind , sailing for Sicily again . His ships were briefly scattered by a storm on 5 July , before reconstituting the following day and on 18 July the British fleet reached Cape Passaro again and on 19 July Nelson 's force anchored in Syracuse to take on fresh provisions supplied in part by Emma , Lady Hamilton , the wife of the ambassador to Naples . Frustrated , Nelson wrote in a letter to his wife Fanny ; " Every moment I have to regret the frigates having left me , to which must be attributed my ignorance of the movements of the enemy . " Reports subsequently reached the British fleet at Syracuse that the French had not been seen in the Eastern Mediterranean , in the Adriatic or in the Aegean Sea , leaving either Egypt or Syria as the only likely destinations . Sailing once more on 25 July , Nelson turned his ships east once again sailing for Morea and sending Troubridge in Culloden into Coron on 28 July for news . The Ottoman governor reported that the French had been seen sailing southwards from Crete at the start of the month and presented Troubridge with a French merchant ship that was anchored in the harbour . With their first definite sighting of the French , the British fleet turned southwards towards Alexandria .
= = Battle of the Nile = =
On 1 August , Nelson 's fleet reached the Egyptian coast , the ships HMS Swiftsure and HMS Alexander detached as scouts to investigate Alexandria harbour . Although the transport fleet was observed in the harbour , the French battle fleet was not . Despite initial disappointment , Nelson ordered his ships to search the coastline , and at 14 : 00 lookouts on HMS Zealous reported the French anchored in line of battle in Aboukir Bay . Brueys believed that his line , protected by shoals to the north and west , was impenetrable and that as a result the British would be forced to attack the rear and centre of his fleet . He consequently placed his strongest ships at these points , planning to stall the British fleet while his van used the prevailing northeasterly wind to counterattack . Brueys was also confident that the British fleet , strung out and with nightfall approaching , would not attack that day . He believed that Nelson would anchor off the bay and attack in the morning , giving Brueys time to prepare and leaving open the option of simply sailing away during the night , following Bonaparte 's orders to avoid a direct confrontation with the British fleet .
= = = Nelson 's attack = = =
Despite Brueys hopes , Nelson was determined to press home his attack at once and ordered his ships to advance , only pausing to fit springs on their anchor cables , which would allow them to easily direct their broadsides in cramped , shallow coastal waters . Without an accurate chart of the bay , Nelson was forced to be cautious in his advance , and ordered Captain Samuel Hood in Zealous to take soundings as he advanced to establish the depth of the bay . At 18 : 20 , as the British ships HMS Goliath and Zealous rounded the northern shoal , the leading French ships Guerrier and Conquérant opened fire . As he approached the French line , Captain Thomas Foley in Goliath noticed that Brueys had made a serious error in the distribution of his forces . Rather than place his lead ship Guerrier close to the northern shoal , the French admiral had left a gap , widened by the order for the French fleet to only anchor by the bow which meant that they drifted significantly , between Guerrier and the shoals . Sailing directly through this gap , Foley raked Guerrier and engaged the second ship of the French line , Conquérant . Zealous also passed through the gap and attacked Guerrier , and was followed by HMS Orion , HMS Theseus and HMS Audacious , all of which opened up a fierce fire on the first four French ships against their unprepared port sides .
Nelson followed in Vanguard , bringing the next two ships into action with the starboard side of the French van , catching the French ships in a crossfire that rapidly battered and dismasted the ships , despite determined defence . As the French van was destroyed , HMS Bellerophon and HMS Majestic attacked the French centre . Outnumbered and faced with the massed broadsides of Orient and the 80 @-@ gun Franklin and Tonnant , both British ships suffered massive damage . Culloden , bringing up the rear of the British line , passed too close to the northern shoal and grounded , Troubridge suffering severe damage to his hull despite efforts by Mutine and Leander to drag the ship off . By 19 : 00 darkness had fallen , and within an hour the French van had been defeated , Guerrier , Conquérant , Spartiate , Aquilon and Peuple Souverain all either in British hands or too badly damaged to continue fighting . The British too had suffered damage , with Vanguard and Goliath badly hit while to the south both Bellerophon and Majestic had been forced to cut their anchor cables and pull away from their respective opponents . Bellerophon had been dismasted , Majestic 's captain George Blagden Westcott had been killed , and on Vanguard Nelson had suffered a severe head wound .
= = = Destruction of Orient = = =
Shortly after 20 : 00 , the trailing Swiftsure and Alexander , joined by Leander , attacked the French centre , causing severe damage to Franklin and killing Admiral Brueys on his quarterdeck with a cannon shot . At 21 : 00 , a fire broke out in Orient 's stern , the blaze spread further by volleys from Swiftsure that also defeated efforts to extinguish it . The flames spread rapidly , racing up the masts and across the decks until the entire flagship was a blazing wreck . At 22 : 00 , the vast magazines detonated , tearing the ship apart and hurling burning wreckage onto the neighbouring vessels . For ten minutes not a shot was fired , as the nearest ships battled to extinguish fires and the further ones paused in shock . The first ship to recommence hostilities was Franklin , but Admiral Blanquet 's heavily outnumbered flagship was forced to surrender by 24 : 00 . Tonnant , the only French ship still engaged , fought on against Majestic until 03 : 00 , when the mortally wounded Captain Aristide Aubert Du Petit Thouars succeeded in dragging his ship to the temporary safety of the rear division under Rear @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve .
At 04 : 00 on 2 August , firing began again between Villeneuve 's ships and a scratch British squadron formed from the less damaged ships . By 11 : 00 , Villeneuve had conducted a successful fighting withdrawal to the mouth of the bay , and was able to escape to open water . However , Villeneuve had been forced to abandon the battered Tonnant and the grounded Timoléon , retaining just two ships of the line and two frigates . While Villeneuve escaped , British ships received the surrender of Heureux and Mercure , which had grounded shortly after the explosion of Orient , and forced the captain of the frigate Artémise to scuttle his vessel . On 3 August , Theseus and Leander were sent to complete the destruction of the French fleet ; Tonnant surrendered and Timoléon was set on fire by its crew and destroyed .
= = Subsequent operations = =
With the exception of Villeneuve 's fugitives , the French Mediterranean Fleet had been annihilated . Nine of eleven ships of the line had been captured or destroyed , as well as two frigates . French casualties totalled more than 3 @,@ 000 and possibly as many as 5 @,@ 000 , compared to British losses of 218 killed and 677 wounded . However , many of Nelson 's ships were seriously damaged , and urgent repairs were required for both his own ships and the captured prizes before they could begin the long voyage back to Britain . For more than two weeks Nelson remained in Aboukir Bay , effecting repairs , writing despatches and assessing the strategic situation in Egypt . The first ship detached from his squadron was Leander , sent on 5 August to the fleet under Earl St. Vincent off Cadiz with reports of the battle . On 8 August Aboukir Island was stormed and captured , and on 12 August Emerald , Alcmene and Bonne Citoyenne finally caught up with the fleet , followed on 17 August by Seahorse and Terpsichore . Mutine was detached on 13 August with despatches for the Admiralty and on 14 August Nelson sent seven ships with the six seaworthy prizes to the mouth of Aboukir Bay under the command of Saumarez . This convoy sailed for Gibraltar on 15 August and the following day Nelson burnt Heureux , followed on 18 August by Mercure and Guerrier , none of which were fit for continued service . On 19 August Nelson separated his remaining ships , leading three vessels northwards towards Naples and leaving a blockade squadron off Alexandria of Zealous , Goliath , Swiftsure and the frigates , under Captain Samuel Hood .
By the time Nelson departed Alexandria , his first set of dispatches were already in French hands . Leander had been discovered off the western coast of Crete on 18 August 1798 by the French ship of the line Généreux , one of Villeneuve 's escapees . After separating from Villeneuve 's squadron on 17 August , Généreux was sailing to Corfu when it encountered the British fourth rate . The larger French ship soon overtook the British vessel and a heated exchange followed : French efforts to board Leander were driven back with heavy casualties , and Captain Thompson at one stage successfully raked his opponent , but gradually the heavier weight of Généreux inflicted severe damage to the British ship and after six and a half hours Thompson was forced to surrender . French captain Lejoille then authorised widespread looting of the personal effects of the British crew , whom he also forced to conduct repairs on both ships , an act against the established conventions of naval warfare . The prize was towed to Corfu for repairs , the two battered vessels briefly encountering Mutine , which escaped to the westwards before Généreux could give chase . In captivity Lejoille continued to refuse to allow the British officers medical attention or return their stolen property . Eventually returned to Britain , Thompson and Berry were knighted and heavily praised for their defence of their ship against heavy odds , while Lejoille was also commended for his success , assisted by his incorrect account of the battle published in French newspapers .
= = = Alexandria = = =
With the French naval presence in the Mediterranean reduced to a few scattered vessels , the allies of the Second Coalition were able to exert their dominance in the region . Off Alexandria , the squadron under Captain Hood successfully prevented communications between France and the French army in Egypt . On 22 August , just three days after Nelson sailed north , Alcmene intercepted the 6 @-@ gun dispatch vessel Légère off Alexandria harbour and forced the captain to surrender . As his flag was struck , the captain hurled the dispatches into the sea . This action was witnessed by sailors John Taylor and John Harding aboard Alcmene and both men dived into the water , successfully retrieving the messages . For their bravery in diving from a rapidly moving ship into unknown waters , both men were granted annual pensions of £ 20 ( the equivalent of £ 1 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) . Three days after the capture of Légère , Captain Foley of Goliath sent a boat into the sheltered anchorage under Aboukir Castle , where his men boarded and captured the armed ketch Torride , typical of the gun @-@ vessels that had fired on the British advance during the Battle of the Nile . On 2 September , another dispatch vessel reached the Egyptian coast , the 4 @-@ gun cutter Anémone carrying General Camin and 60 men from Malta . Swiftsure and Emerald managed to cut off the vessel from Alexandria harbour and drive it ashore near the town of Marabou . Although the cutter swiftly broke up in the surf , most of the men aboard managed to scramble ashore . There , while the British ships lay off shore unable to intervene , Bedouin partisans discovered the survivors and massacred them , dragging the few survivors inland before French cavalry could rescue them . The only survivors were rescued by Lieutenant Francis William Fane , who swam to shore with an empty barrel attached to a rope . Despite coming under fire from the French on the beach , he was able to save five men from the Bedouin attack .
In October the small British squadron at Alexandria was briefly reinforced by a Portuguese squadron of four ships of the line and the 64 @-@ gun HMS Lion under Captain Manley Dixon , although the Portuguese sailed for Malta after only a few days . On 19 October the squadron was joined by two Turkish corvettes , two Russian frigates and 16 small Turkish gunboats , arranged by Hood on a visit to Rhodes in Swiftsure the week before . The gunboats were subsequently used to bombard Aboukir Castle and a French encampment at Lake Maadie on 25 October , although results were negligible . After the first day the Turkish crews were replaced with British sailors , but except for a complaint from the French that " unfair " incendiary weapons were used in the attack , nothing was achieved . The incendiary shells subsequently proved to have been taken from the captured Spartiate following the battle on 1 August and were found to be made of a substance that burned even under water . After three days the bombardment was abandoned and no further activity took place on the Egyptian coast during the remainder of the year . The Turkish and Russian vessels were eventually withdrawn in December , while Lion was detached to join the blockade of Malta .
= = = Ionian Sea = = =
The main Mediterranean fleets of the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire were deployed in the Ionian Sea . At the Treaty of Campo Formio , France had been awarded the Ionian Islands and the four fortresses of Butrinto , Parga , Preveza and Vonizza on the Albanian and Greek coasts . In early October 1798 , following the declaration of war between France and the Ottomans , a large Turkish army had advanced across the Balkans and rapidly forced the fortresses to surrender . At the same time , the Ionian Islands were attacked by a joint Russian and Turkish expeditionary force , which included ten Russian ships of the line , numerous smaller Russian vessels and approximately 30 assorted Turkish ships . On board were 8 @,@ 000 Turkish soldiers , which rapidly invaded and seized the islands of Paxi , Santa Maura , Theaki , Cephalonia , Zante and Cerigo , capturing 1 @,@ 500 French prisoners by 10 October . Only the large fortified island of Corfu held out , and there the defenders were forced back into the main town . Although the town was besieged , operations were slow and the blockade was only loosely enforced , allowing Généreux to successfully breakout and reach Ancona . By the end of the year little had changed , the French garrison remaining besieged in Corfu .
= = = Malta and Naples = = =
Further westwards , the newly captured French island of Malta was under a much more diligent blockade . The returning convoy from Aboukir Bay under Saumarez reached Malta in September . There he encountered a squadron of four Portuguese ships of the line and the British ship Lion under the command of Tomás Xavier Teles de Castro da Gama , Marquess de Niza , initially sending them on to Alexandria . While anchored off Malta awaiting favourable winds , a delegation of native Maltese citizens was brought on board Saumarez 's ship Orion on 25 September . They announced that the Maltese people , infuriated with French disestablishment of the Roman Catholic Church on Malta , had risen up against the French garrison and were forcing them back towards the fortress of Valletta . Saumarez attempted to negotiate the surrender of the island with Vaubois , but was rebuffed . Unable to delay his passage to Gibraltar any longer , Saumarez gave the Maltese 1 @,@ 200 muskets and promised to send assistance as soon as he was able . By 12 October , the French were besieged in Valletta by 10 @,@ 000 Maltese irregulars . Vaubois had only 3 @,@ 000 healthy troops , although the arrival of Villeneuve with the ship of the line Guillaume Tell and two frigates did bolster his defences .
On the same day that the French retreated to Valletta , Nelson despatched the ships Alexander , Culloden , and Colossus from his squadron at Naples to blockade the port , under the command of Captain Alexander Ball . Although the Neapolitans refused to deploy forces to Malta , which was technically their territory , the squadron was joined within a few days by Niza 's Portuguese ships and then by Nelson , now Lord Nelson , in Vanguard on 24 October . Four days later , Nelson authorised Ball to negotiate the surrender of the nearby island of Gozo . The French abandoned the island 's fortifications and the British captured 24 cannon and 3 @,@ 200 urgently required sacks of grain , which were distributed among the Maltese populace . With the French garrison trapped in Valletta , no further actions took place off Malta during the year , both sides settling in for a long siege .
While his captains enforced the blockade of Malta and Alexandria during September and October , Nelson was anchored in the Bay of Naples , enjoying the hospitality of King Ferdinand and Queen Maria Carolina of the Kingdom of Naples . Arriving on 22 September , Vanguard was greeted with over 500 small vessels organised by the royal family and led by a barge carrying Sir William and Lady Emma Hamilton . Over the next weeks , Nelson was taken into the court as an honoured guest , and has subsequently been accused of neglecting his naval responsibilities . It was at this time that his mutual attraction to Lady Emma Hamilton developed into a romantic affair . He also began to dabble in Neapolitan politics , successfully combining with Maria Carolina , the francophobe Queen , to encourage Ferdinand to go to war with France . Ferdinand ordered the Neapolitan army under General Mack to drive the French out of Rome . The resulting campaign was a disaster for the Neapolitans ; the French counterattacked and forced Ferdinand and his court to flee to Palermo in Sicily . The French established the Parthenopean Republic in Naples to replace the monarchy .
= = = Spain and Minorca = = =
While Nelson was engaged in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean , the main Mediterranean Fleet under Earl St Vincent had ensured that the Spanish Navy was unable to intervene . On 24 May St Vincent was joined at the Tagus by a reinforcement of eight ships under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Roger Curtis , and the admiral ordered his ships to establish blockades off the southern Spanish ports , especially Cadiz , where the main Spanish fleet lay at anchor . There regular correspondence passed between St Vincent and Admiral Don Joseph Massaredo , the Spanish commander . The Spanish fleet made no major deployments during the year , except for a single convoy of the ship of the line Monarca , two frigates and several merchant vessels that sailed in April . Although privateers and minor warships fought several small engagements along the Spanish Mediterranean coast , the only significant Spanish deployment of the remainder of the year was by a frigate squadron based at Cartagena , which was intercepted by the British ship of the line Lion . At the ensuing Action of 15 July 1798 , the Spanish ships formed a line to meet the attack of Captain Dixon 's ship but the damaged frigate Santa Dorotea fell behind the leading three frigates . As the leading ships returned to Catagena after a desultory long @-@ range exchange of gunfire , Santa Dorotea was defeated and captured .
Once the French Mediterranean Fleet had been destroyed in Aboukir Bay , St Vincent was determined to restore British hegemony in the Mediterranean . To ensure this , his fleet needed a base with a well protected deep water harbour that could not be assaulted by land . The best island harbour in the Western Mediterranean was at Port Mahon on Minorca , where a large modern dockyard included a careening wharf , extensive storehouses and a purpose @-@ built naval hospital . These facilities were all British in manufacture , constructed during periods of occupation by British forces between 1708 – 1756 and 1763 – 1781 . St Vincent therefore detached two ships of the line , three frigates and several smaller vessels and transports to the island under Commodore John Thomas Duckworth , carrying a small army under Colonel Charles Stuart . The expeditionary force arrived off Minorca on 7 November and the troops were landed at Addaya Creek . There a Spanish attack was driven off and over the next two days the army continued inland , a detachment under Colonel Henry Paget seizing Port Mahon while the main army received the surrender of town after town , including Fournella , which overlooked the island 's principal protected anchorage . On 11 November a Spanish squadron of four frigates attempted to disrupt operations , but a swift counterattack by Duckworth 's ships drove them off . By 16 November the town of Ciudadella capitulated and control of the island was ceded to British forces .
= I Wanna Have Your Babies =
" I Wanna Have Your Babies " is a song by British recording artist Natasha Bedingfield . It was written by Steve Kipner , Andrew Frampton , Wayne Wilkins and Bedingfield for her second album , N.B. ( 2007 ) . The song 's musical @-@ style and production was inspired by hip hop music , and its lyrics discuss a woman 's battle to stop herself from rushing into relationships in an effort to find the right man to be the father of her children .
The song was released as the album 's first single in the second quarter of 2007 . The track received mixed reviews from pop music critics , who generally found it to be less impressive than past singles . It entered the top forty in Germany , Ireland and The Netherlands , and became Bedingfield 's fourth United Kingdom top ten single release . Calvin Harris covered it in 2009 .
= = Background and writing = =
In 2006 , Bedingfield began writing and recording material with previous collaborators Steve Kipner , Andrew Frampton and Wayne Wilkins in Los Angeles , California . During one of their sessions , they penned " I Wanna Have Your Babies " , which was inspired by a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half of touring across the United States . Bedingfield had never been away from her family and friends for an extended period of time and " realised how important relationships are " . She wanted to write songs that matched who she was , commenting that her " first album was about independence and opportunism . I ’ m in a different place now . I 've been dating , searching for a partner , looking for Mr Right . "
In the song , Bedingfield discusses a woman 's fight to stop herself from rushing into relationships in an effort to find the right man to father her children . Bedingfield stated that she does not want to have children at this point in time , but that she is thinking about it . According to her , " the song is about pacing yourself and taking everything slowly . "
= = Critical reception = =
" I Wanna Have Your Babies " had a polarizing effect on music critics . Britain 's Channel 4 described it as a " well thought out pop record " , and Paul Taylor of the Manchester Evening News said it had a " sing @-@ song melody " and " ragged hip @-@ hop beats " . Tony Cummings called the song 's " R & B pop confection hugely catchy " . Online magazine Drowned in Sound ridiculed the track , writing that it is " polluting the airwaves with its beyond @-@ banal lyrics . " The song 's music video was also described in the review as " unforgivable " . The BBC was equally unimpressed with the song , claiming it stole the melody of The Jackson 5 song " I Want You Back " .
= = Chart performance = =
" I Wanna Have Your Babies " was officially solicited to radio in the United Kingdom on 12 March 2007 . The song was released as a download on 2 April 2007 , two weeks before its physical release . It debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number twenty @-@ five on 8 April 2007 , on download sales only . A week after its physical release the song reached the top ten , rising from number fifteen to number seven . In Ireland the song debuted at number thirty @-@ six on the singles chart and peaked at number eight . " I Wanna Have Your Babies " proved popular on Irish radio , charting at number fourteen . The single had moderate success in Europe . After three weeks on the European Hot 100 Singles chart , the track peaked at number twenty @-@ three . The single reached the top fifty in Italy , the Netherlands and Sweden . In Australia , the song debuted on the singles chart at number fifty on 21 May 2007 . The track was more successful on the Physical Singles chart , debuting at number thirty @-@ seven .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Dave Meyers and filmed in Los Angeles , California in January 2007 . The video opens with a scene of Bedingfield working out in a gym with a male instructor . Bedingfield and the instructor are then shown running through a park , when a baby stroller suddenly appears . Frightened , the instructor runs away from Bedingfield and the baby . She is next shown playing tennis and flirting with another man . The two are then shown riding on a boat with a toddler , in a race with another couple . The third scene features Bedingfield at a nightclub flirting with yet another man , before they are shown together at his home . In the final scene , she meets a man working at a coffee shop . They are shown in a play room with multiple babies . The video ends with Bedingfield hugging the coffee shop worker , who appears not to be deterred by her thoughts about having babies .
Nadine Coyle , member of the pop group Girls Aloud , makes a cameo appearance in the nightclub scene . The complete version of " I Wanna Have Your Babies " featured in the music video has been released commercially through CD singles and digital downloads , and some include remixes by Snowflakers . The video debuted on Bedingfield 's official Bebo website on 6 March 2007 . On 21 May 2007 , the video debuted in North America on Bedingfield 's official U.S. website under the title " Babies " . The music video for " I Wanna Have Your Babies " was mocked in an article written by Anna Pickard and published in The Guardian . Pickard made fun of Bedingfield 's " clean @-@ cut , straight @-@ toothed , good Christian girl " image , writing that the video was an effort by Bedingfield and her management to be provocative to sell more records .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= Japan Airlines =
Japan Airlines Co . , Ltd . ( JAL ) ( 日本航空株式会社 , Nihon Kōkū Kabushiki @-@ gaisha , TYO : 9201 , OTC Pink : JAPSY ) , is the flag carrier airline of Japan and the second largest in the country behind All Nippon Airways . It is headquartered in Shinagawa , Tokyo , Japan ; and its main hubs are Tokyo 's Narita International Airport and Tokyo International Airport ( Haneda Airport ) , as well as Osaka 's Kansai International Airport and Osaka International Airport . JAL group companies include Japan Airlines , J @-@ Air , JAL Express , Japan Air Commuter , Japan Transocean Air and Ryukyu Air Commuter for domestic feeder services ; and JAL Cargo for cargo and mail services .
JAL group operations include scheduled and non @-@ scheduled international and domestic passenger and cargo services to 220 destinations in 35 countries worldwide , including codeshares . The group has a fleet of 279 aircraft . In the fiscal year ended 31 March 2009 , the airline group carried over 52 million passengers and over 1 @.@ 1 million tons of cargo and mail . Japan Airlines , J @-@ Air , JAL Express , and Japan Transocean Air are members of the Oneworld airline alliance .
JAL was established in 1951 and became the national airline of Japan in 1953 . After over three decades of service and expansion , the airline was fully privatized in 1987 . In 2002 , the airline merged with Japan Air System , Japan 's third @-@ largest airline and became the sixth largest airline in the world by passengers carried . Japan Airlines is currently an official sponsor of Japan Football Association , Japan national football team , Shimizu S @-@ Pulse and Consadole Sapporo . All Nippon Airways , the largest airline in Japan , is JAL 's main competitor .
= = History = =
= = = Regulated era = = =
= = = = Founding = = = =
Japan Air Lines Co . , Ltd. was established on 1 August 1951 , with the government of Japan recognizing the need for a reliable air transportation system to help Japan grow in the aftermath of the World War II . The airline was founded with an initial capital of ¥ 100 million ; and its headquarters located in Ginza , Chūō , Tokyo . Between 27 and 29 August , the airline operated invitational flights on a Douglas DC @-@ 3 Kinsei , leased from Philippine Airlines . On 25 October , Japan 's first post @-@ war domestic airline service was inaugurated , using a Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 aircraft , named Mokusei , and crew leased from Northwest Airlines .
On 1 August 1953 , the Diet of Japan passed the Japan Air Lines Company Act , forming a new state @-@ owned Japan Air Lines on 1 October , which assumed all assets and liabilities of its private predecessor . By 1953 the JAL network extended northward from Tokyo to Sapporo and Misawa , and westward to Nagoya , Osaka , Iwakuni and Fukuoka .
On 2 February 1954 the airline began international flights , carrying 18 passengers from Tokyo to San Francisco on a Douglas DC @-@ 6B City of Tokyo via Wake Island and Honolulu . The flights between Tokyo and San Francisco are still Flights 1 and 2 , to commemorate its first international service . The early flights were advertised as being operated by American crews and serviced by United Air Lines in San Francisco .
The airline , in addition to the Douglas DC @-@ 3 , Douglas DC @-@ 6B and Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2s , operated Douglas DC @-@ 4 and Douglas DC @-@ 7C during the 1950s . JAL flew to Hong Kong via Okinawa by 1955 , having pared down its domestic network to Tokyo , Osaka , Fukuoka and Sapporo . By 1958 the Hong Kong route had been extended to Bangkok and Singapore . With DC @-@
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AG in July 2013 , in conjunction with JAL starting new nonstop service to Helsinki .
= = Corporate affairs and identity = =
= = = Organization = = =
In addition to its operations under the JAL name , the airline owns 5 domestic airlines which feed or supplement mainline JAL flights :
J @-@ Air ( JLJ ) – regional jet services from Tokyo , Nagoya and Osaka
JAL Express ( JEX ) – low @-@ cost jet services between secondary cities
Japan Air Commuter ( JAC ) – turboprop services in western Japan , mainly including Amami Islands .
Japan Transocean Air ( JTA ) – jet services in Okinawa Prefecture and the Amami Islands
Ryukyu Air Commuter ( RAC ) – turboprop services in Okinawa Prefecture and the Amami Islands
JALways was the airline 's international subsidiary , which handled low @-@ yield flights to resort destinations in Hawaii , Oceania and Southeast Asia .
JALUX Inc . , established in 1962 , is the airline 's procurement business which handles various work for the company , including the JAL SELECTION merchandise and in @-@ flight meals and refreshments ; supplies for Blue Sky and JAL @-@ DFS shops ; aircraft fuel components , cabin services and in @-@ flight duty @-@ free . JALUX merged with JAS Trading on 1 January 2004 , to unify support operations for the JAL group .
JAL Cargo is the brand of the airline group 's freight service and is a member of the WOW cargo alliance with the following products , J Speed , General Cargo and Dangerous Goods . In the fiscal year ended 31 March 2009 , the Cargo division carried 500 @,@ 779 tonnes of freight domestically and 627 @,@ 213 tonnes of freight internationally .
On 1 April 2011 , the airline changed its trade name from Japan Airlines International Co . , Ltd ( 株式会社日本航空インターナショナル , Kabushiki @-@ gaisha Nihon Koku Intānashonaru ) to Japan Airlines Co . , Ltd ( 日本航空株式会社 , Nihon Koku Kabushiki @-@ gaisha ) .
= = = Headquarters = = =
The headquarters , the Nomura Fudosan Tennozu Building ( 野村不動産天王洲ビル , Nomura Fudōsan Tennōzu Biru ) , is located on Tennozu Isle in Higashi Shinagawa , Shinagawa , Tokyo . The 26 floor building was a project of the Kajima Corporation . The building , which also has two underground levels , has a land area of 11 @,@ 670 @.@ 4 square metres ( 125 @,@ 619 sq ft ) and a floor area of 82 @,@ 602 @.@ 11 square metres ( 889 @,@ 121 @.@ 7 sq ft ) .
Several divisions of JAL , including JALPAK , JAL Aero @-@ Consulting , and JAL Hotels are located in the building . The building also houses the Japan office of American Airlines . It is also known as the JAL Building ( ＪＡＬビルディング , JAL Birudingu ) , the Japan Airlines Headquarters , and the Shinagawa Kyodo Building .
When JAL was originally established in 1951 , its headquarters were in Ginza , Chuo , Tokyo . By 1965 , Japan Air Lines was headquartered in the Tokyo Building in Marunouchi , Chiyoda , Tokyo . The Yomiuri Shimbun stated that because Japan Airlines worked closely with the Japanese government , people mockingly referred to the Tokyo Building as " a branch office of the transport ministry . "
On 28 June 1996 , construction was completed on the JAL Building . On 27 July 1996 , JAL moved its headquarters into the JAL Building . The Flight Operation Center ( FOC ) at the JAL Building began on 20 September 1996 . A holding company for JAL and Japan Airlines System , a carrier merging into JAL , was established on 2 October 2002 ; the head office of that company , Japan Airlines System ( JALS ) ( 日本航空システム , Nihon Kōkū Shisutemu ) , was in 2 @-@ 15 @-@ 1 Kōnan in Shinagawa Intercity , Minato , Tokyo . On 11 August 2003 , the headquarters of JAS moved from Haneda Maintenance Center 1 to the JAL Building . On 25 November 2003 , the JALS headquarters moved to the JAL Building . Originally the JAL Building was co @-@ owned by Japan Airlines and Mitsubishi Trading Co . ; they co @-@ owned a subsidiary that owned the JAL Building . In 2004 the building was to be sold to Nomura Real Estate for 65 billion yen . The contract date was 1 December 2004 , and the handover date was 18 March 2005 .
The JAL Subsidiary JALUX Inc. at one time had its headquarters in the JAL Building . One group of employees moved out of the building on 26 July 2010 , and one moved out on 2 August 2010 .
= = = Livery = = =
= = = = Logo and basic liveries = = = =
The JAL livery is called the tsurumaru ( 鶴丸 ) or " crane circle . " It is an image of a Japanese red @-@ crown crane with its wings extended in full flight . The Tsurumaru JAL logo was created in 1958 by Jerry Huff , the creative director at Botsford , Constantine and Gardner of San Francisco , which had been the advertising agency for Japan Airlines from its earliest days . JAL had used several logos up until 1958 . When the airline arranged to buy new DC8 , they decided to create a new official logo for the inauguration of their jet service worldwide .
In the creation of the logo , Huff was inspired by the personal crests of Samurai families . In a book he ’ d been given , We Japanese , he found pages of crests , including the crane . On his choice of the crane , he writes : " I had faith that it was the perfect symbol for Japan Air Lines . I found that the Crane myth was all positive — it mates for life ( loyalty ) , and flies high for miles without tiring ( strength . ) "
The tsurumaru livery was in use until 2002 , when it was replaced by a livery called the " Arc of the Sun . " The livery featured the motif of a rising sun on a creamy parchment @-@ colored background .
JAL is a strong supporter of UNICEF and expresses its support by having a " We Support UNICEF " logo on each aircraft .
Following its corporate restructuring , Japan Airlines returned to the classic tsurumaru logo starting on 1 April 2011 . JA8299 , a Boeing 767 @-@ 300 , is the only remaining aircraft that has the " Arc of the Sun " livery
= = = = Special liveries = = = =
JAL is known for adopting special liveries . A Boeing 747 ( JA8908 ) carries an Adidas soccer livery in 2002 . Another Boeing 747 ( JA8907 ) is the Matsui Jet , featuring the famous Japanese baseball player Hideki Matsui in 2003 . The airline 's Boeing 767 – 300 ( JA8253 ) is the Expo 2005 aircraft . Various aircraft in the JAL fleet carry a Yokoso Japan logo supporting the Visit Japan campaign . During late 2005 , Japan Airlines began using a Boeing 777 ( JA8941 ) , featuring Japanese actor Shingo Katori on one side , and television series Saiyuki , along with its main character " Goku " on the other side .
JAL is also known for its liveries featuring Tokyo Disneyland and Tokyo DisneySea , as it is the official airline of the Tokyo Disney Resort . They sponsor the attraction Star Jets ( not related to past Star Jets fleet with the old tsurumaru livery ) , which feature a variation of the current livery on the ride vehicles . At one time there were more than six widebody aircraft painted with the special liveries .
JAL , whose fleet was entirely made of Boeing 747 aircraft , had painted all of its aircraft with tropical @-@ influenced liveries along with Reso 'cha titles . These aircraft are used on charter flights to holiday destinations in the Pacific , such as Hawaii . Reso 'cha is a marketing abbreviation for Resort Charter . Reso 'cha planes were formerly known as JAL Super Resort Express .
In April 2007 , JAL debuted a Boeing 777 – 300 ( JA8941 ) with a special Oneworld livery to promote the airlines 's entry to the global airline alliance . Previously this aircraft carried the Shingo Katori and the Saiyuki television livery . In 2008 , JAL repainted a single Boeing 777 – 200 to have a green rather than red arc on its tail , along with a green origami airplane on the fuselage , and named it the Eco Jet , to highlight the company 's efforts to reduce the environmental impact of commercial aviation . In 2009 , JAL repainted JA8941 again , as well as a JTA 737 @-@ 400 ( JA8933 ) to promote Kobukuro and their new album Calling as well as a live concert tour in Okinawa and around Japan . This livery was released officially on 30 July 2009 . It has since then been replaced with a special Doraemon livery .
On 4 September 2010 , in conjunction with the Boku no Miteiru Fūkei album , JAL and Arashi ( which one of the songs , " Movin ' On " , is used for a commercial ) introduced a new livery featuring the five members of Arashi in the aircraft ; the first flight was on the day after on 5 September .
= = = Branding = = =
Landor Associates created JAL 's brand identity in 1989 . After Japan Airlines and Japan Air System merged , the Tokyo office of Landor and JAL worked together to create a new brand identity . Landor decided to use the " arc of the sun " image . The 2000s rebranding began in April 2002 and completed in April 2004 . The brand identity firm designed 300 @,@ 000 specific items for JAL . JAL changed its branding again on 1 April 2011 , reverting to the original 1959 brand .
= = Destinations = =
Japan Airlines serves 33 international destinations in Asia , the Americas , Europe and Oceania , excluding codeshares . The airline 's international hubs are Tokyo 's Narita International Airport and Haneda Airport , Osaka 's Kansai International Airport and Osaka International Airport in Itami . The airline group also serves 59 domestic destinations within Japan .
In the fiscal year ended 31 March 2009 , the airline introduced or increased services on ten international routes , including between Tokyo ( Narita ) and New York , and between Osaka ( Kansai ) and Shanghai ; and it ceased operations on four international routes , including between Tokyo ( Narita ) and Xi 'an , and between Osaka ( Kansai ) and Qingdao . Domestically , JAL suspended 14 routes , including between Sapporo and Okinawa . Additionally , the airline expanded codesharing alliance with fellow Oneworld partners like American Airlines , British Airways , Cathay Pacific and Finnair , and other airlines , including Air France , China Eastern and Jetstar .
= = = Partnerships and codeshare agreements = = =
Japan Airlines has codeshare agreements or joint business agreements with the following Oneworld members :
Apart from those Oneworld partners , the airline also codeshares with the following airlines :
= = Fleet = =
= = = Passenger = = =
Japan Airlines operates a mixture of narrow- and wide @-@ body aircraft . The airline provides Economy Class service on all routes , Class J service ( a front cabin with larger seats ) on most major domestic routes , Premium Economy on some international routes , Executive Class ( business class ) on most long @-@ haul and some short @-@ haul international routes , and First Class on some long @-@ haul and domestic routes .
For its Boeing fleet ( not counting the Boeing 787 Dreamliner ) , Japan Airlines ' customer code is 46 . As an example , a Boeing 777 @-@ 200 ordered new by Japan Airlines bears the model name 777 @-@ 246 .
As of July 2016 , Japan Airlines operates an all @-@ Boeing fleet of 173 aircraft :
= = = Fleet gallery = = =
Hover over each photo to view label detail
Fleet notes
The Boeing customer code for Japan Airlines is 7x7 @-@ x46 for JAL International ( pre @-@ merger JAL aircraft ) ( i.e. 777 @-@ 246 ) and 7x7 @-@ x89 for JAL Domestic ( former JAS aircraft ) . ( i.e. 747 @-@ 489 ) The airline operates 10 @-@ abreast seating in the Economy cabin of the Japan domestic 777 fleet .
On 22 December 2004 , JAL selected the Boeing 787 Dreamliner as its next generation medium @-@ size aircraft fleet . The airline is seeking 30 firm deliveries and 20 options ; and joined other launch customers to be involved in the aircraft 's future development . The airline later increased the firm order to 35 aircraft on 3 April 2007 . Japan Airlines received the first Boeing 787 Dreamliner aircraft from Boeing on 25 March 2012 .
On 30 June 2005 , the airline confirmed an order for six new Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER aircraft , powered by General Electric CF6 @-@ 80C2 high @-@ bypass turbofan engines . The three freighter and three passenger models , valued at approximately US $ 800 million at list prices , were delivered between 2007 and 2008 .
On 22 February 2008 , it was reported that the airline has been considering the new Airbus A350 made by EADS unit Airbus , the Boeing 787 's direct competitor in the medium @-@ size aircraft market . Japan Airlines spokesman Stephen Pearlman said : " We have taken a look at the A350 . As far as adding this aircraft to our fleet in future goes , I think it is one of the strong candidates . " JAL ordered A350 aircraft on 7 October 2013 ( 18 -900 and 13 -1000 firm orders , plus 25 options ) .
= = = Cargo = = =
JAL Cargo ended dedicated freighter aircraft operations in October 2010 after more than 30 years of service . It operated both propeller and jet aircraft through the years , most recently Boeing 747 @-@ 400s ( including aircraft converted from passenger to freighter configuration ) and Boeing 767 @-@ 300Fs . Limited cargo activity is now maintained through JAL 's passenger aircraft lower deck holds .
= = = Fleet history = = =
The airline 's last McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 11 J @-@ Bird ( JA8582 ) operated its final flight as Japan Airlines Flight 730 from Hong Kong International Airport to Narita International Airport on 12 October 2004 . The aircraft was originally introduced into service on 1 April 1994 . In addition , the airline operated its last two McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10 flights on 31 October 2005 . One aircraft , JA8543 , operated as Japan Airlines Flight 736 from Hong Kong International Airport to Narita International Airport , touched down at 16 : 05 . Another aircraft , JA8541 , operated as Japan Airlines Flight 952 from Incheon International Airport to Narita International Airport , touched down at 16 : 37 . This marked the DC @-@ 10 's last flight with the airline , ending over 30 years of operations for this model .
The airline phased out three Boeing 747 @-@ 200Fs in the 2008 financial year ; and operated its last Boeing 747 – 300 Classic Jumbo Jet as JALways Flight 73 from Honolulu International Airport to Narita International Airport on 30 July 2009 , after 26 years of service to the airline group . The aircraft was met on arrival by the " Father of the 747 " , Mr Joseph F. " Joe " Sutter . One former JAL 747SR was being used as a NASA Shuttle Carrier Aircraft . The airline retired its last Boeing 747 ( JA8089 ) on 1 March 2011 . The last flight was a flight from Honolulu International Airport to Narita International Airport , ending 41 years of service with the Boeing 747 .
Aircraft that have previously been in service with Japan Airlines are ( in alphabetical order ) :
* JAL Cargo also operated freighter versions of the Boeing 747 @-@ 100 / 200 / 400 and Douglas DC @-@ 6 / 7 / 8 .
= = Services = =
= = = Cabin classes = = =
= = = = New cabin = = = =
JAL introduced new international First and Executive Class seats : the JAL Suite for First Class , featured a seat 20 percent roomier than the Skysleeper Solo in a 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 configuration ; and the JAL Shell Flat Neo Seat for Executive Class Seasons , a slightly revised version of the original Shell Flat Seat , with a wider seat ; expanded center console ; and the world 's first in @-@ flight photo art exhibit , Sky Gallery . These seats , along with the Premium Economy seats , debuted on Japan Airlines Flights 5 and 6 , operated on the Tokyo – New York route on 1 August 2008 . It expanded to the Tokyo – San Francisco route on 13 September 2008 , and the Tokyo – Chicago and Los Angeles in 2009 . Since 31 October 2010 , the new cabin is also used on flights from Narita to Jakarta , being the only Asian destination for which the new cabin is used .
Eight JAL Suites and 77 JAL Shell Flat Neo Seat are installed in each Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER aircraft , with 46 Premium Economy and 115 Economy seats taking up the rest of the aircraft cabin . The purpose is to improve income yield per passenger , while reducing fuel cost per passenger mile , utilizing the most efficient aircraft available .
In 2013 , JAL debuted new versions of their economy and premium economy seats called Sky Premium and Sky Wider Economy respectively . The Sky Premium seats , found on select 777 @-@ 300 's and soon 787 's , feature the same width as the Sky Shell seats but with a 4 " larger seat pitch of 42 " and a 3 " larger recline of up to 10 " compared to a 38 " pitch and 7 " recline on the Sky Shell seats . The Sky Wider Economy seats , found on select 767 's and select 777 @-@ 300 's , feature slimmer seats with 4 " more legroom , and another inch of width totaling up to 35 " of seat pitch , and a 19 " width compared to the 31 " pitch and 18 " width of standard economy seats , plus a larger PTV screen of up to 11 " . The newer 787 's will feature a new version of the Sky Wider seats called Sky Wider II , which will feature 5 " more legroom and 2 " more width totaling up to 36 " of seat pitch and a 20 " width in a less dense 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 setup instead of the 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 setup commonly used in a 787 's economy cabin .
= = = = International services = = = =
The airline 's international services with existing cabins feature the fully reclining First Class Skysleeper Solo or Skysleeper ; Executive Class Seasons Shell Flat Seat or Skyluxe Seat ; Premium Economy Sky Shell Seat ; and Economy Class . The First Class Skysleeper Solo reclines fully and features genuine leather upholstery from Poltrona Frau of Italy . The Executive Class Seasons Shell Flat Seat is a lie @-@ flat design with the ability to lower armrests to the same height as the seat when reclined . Premium Economy is a recent addition , it was first introduced on the Tokyo – London route on 1 December 2007 . It features a shell @-@ shaped seat that allows passengers to recline by sliding their seat forward , without having the seat in front intrude when reclining .
= = = = Japan domestic services = = = =
On Japan domestic services , the airline offers First Class , class J Executive Class and Economy Class . The First Class seat is made from premium genuine leather with a seat width of about 53 cm ( 21 in ) and a seat pitch of about 130 cm ( 51 in ) . Class J features ergonomically designed reclining seats that promote relaxation by allowing passengers to move naturally and maintain a balanced posture . JAL plans to begin refitting its domestic fleet with leather seats and in @-@ flight wireless internet service from May 2014 .
= = = In @-@ flight entertainment = = =
= = = = MAGIC = = = =
MAGIC , JAL 's in @-@ flight entertainment system , supported by the JAL Entertainment Network ( JEN ) , features the latest hit movies and videos , games and audio programs . There are four generations of the MAGIC system : MAGIC @-@ I , MAGIC @-@ II , MAGIC @-@ III , MAGIC @-@ IV and the new MAGIC @-@ V ( To be installed on the Boeing 787 @-@ 8 and selected Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER routes ) a ) Introduced on 1 December 2007 , the MAGIC @-@ III system provides Audio / Video On Demand ( AVOD ) entertainment to all passengers . The number of movie , music , video and game channels on MAGIC @-@ III was doubled from 57 to 130 by 2008 ; and it is installed on all seats on Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER , 777 @-@ 200ER and 777 @-@ 300ER aircraft . Aircraft with MAGIC @-@ I and MAGIC @-@ II have movies that automatically start when the AVOD system is turned on — once the aircraft reaches cruise level — and economy class passengers can tune in to watch the movie in progress ; and all movies restart upon completion . Executive and First Class passengers have full AVOD control . MAGIC systems also have JAL 's duty @-@ free shopping catalogue , including flight crew recommendations and a video of specials available on the flight . MAGIC @-@ V will feature the same entertainment as MAGIC @-@ III , but with a touch screen controller , along with a handset . There will be USB ports for iPod connectivity , and an easier to control handset . ( Being introduced on selected Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER routes in late October ) . The MAGIC @-@ III system is used on internationally configured Boeing 767 @-@ 300 with Skyluxe Seat , older internationally configured Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER with Skyluxe Seat , all Boeing 777 @-@ 200ER , older Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER with Skysleeper Solo / Suite first class and Shell Flat Seat / Neo Business class . The MAGIC @-@ IV is used on internationally configured Boeing 737 @-@ 800s , along with a newer look of Skyluxe Seat . It uses 9 @-@ inch touchscreens by Panasonic eFX . The MAGIC @-@ V system is deploying across the fleet , with selected Boeing 767 @-@ 300ERs ( Skyrecliner seat ) and B787 @-@ 8 ( Shell Flat Neo seat ) getting the newest IFE . Followed by refurbished Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs ( all aircraft ) and selected Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER aircraft ( including those with Skyluxe seat ) will get the MAGIC @-@ V along with new seats in all classes .
= = = = Aircraft cameras = = = =
On most JAL international flights , on @-@ plane cameras are available , either on the wings , the belly or on the tail . When the aircraft is in the pushback ; taxi ; takeoff ; ascent ; descent ; stacking ; landing ; and docking phases of flight , all TV 's in the cabin automatically tune into the video camera outside the aircraft to provide " Pilot Vision " to the passengers .
= = = = Additional media = = = =
Skyward , the airline group 's inflight magazine , reflecting the company motto of " Dream Skyward " . Prior to the merger with JAS , JAL 's inflight magazine was called Winds . All of the JAL Group magazines are provided by JALUX .
In a promotion , between 1 June and 31 August 2006 , all Executive and First Class passengers would be offered use of Nintendo DS Lites specially manufactured for air travel , with the wireless capabilities removed in order to conform with airline safety standards .
= = = In @-@ flight catering = = =
Japan Airlines offers meals on intercontinental routes , depending on the cabin class , destination and flight length . Western and Japanese menu selections are typically offered , including seasonal menu selections varied by destination . Special meal offerings can be requested in each class during booking , including children 's , religious , vegetarian , and other meals .
= = = Sakura Lounge = = =
Sakura Lounge , named after the Japanese word for cherry blossom , is Japan Airlines ' signature lounge . In addition , the airline also operates the following international , including First Class Lounge , Sakura Lounge annex and JAL Lounge ; and domestic lounges , including Diamond Premier Lounge and JAL Lounge . Access to the lounges depend on the class of travel or the membership status in the JAL Mileage Bank or JAL Global Club .
The Sakura Lounge offers complimentary beverages , including juice , soda drinks , coffee , tea , mineral water and alcohol drinks ; and snacks . A variety of reading materials are also available , such as major , local and sports newspapers ; weekly magazines and economy books . Business services include public phones , fax and copy machines ; and connect personal computer for internet communication using the wire LAN and the wireless LAN available in the Sakura lounges .
= = JAL Mileage Bank = =
JAL Mileage Bank ( JMB ) is the travel rewards program of JAL Group , including Japan Airlines , JALways , JAL Express , Japan Transocean Air , Japan Air Commuter , Hokkaido Air System and Ryukyu Air Commuter . The program 's airline partners also include JAL 's Oneworld partners , as well as Air France , China Eastern Airlines and Emirates . For the airline 's most frequent flyers , JMB offers Fly On Program , a frequent flyer service status program ; and JAL Global Club ( JGC ) , an exclusive club designed for experienced travelers .
The JMB program has no membership fee , and mileage will be valid to the last day of the 36th month following the month of the flight or transaction date . In addition , if a JMB member does not accumulate mileage within 36 months after becoming a member , or a JMB member 's account remains inactive at zero mileage for a consecutive 36 @-@ month period , JAL may withdraw or cancel the membership of such member .
= = = JMB Fly On Program = = =
The Fly On Program is the frequent flyer service status program and is divided into four membership levels , Crystal , Sapphire , JGC Premier and Diamond , based on the member 's travel in the last calendar year . Additionally , a minimum of four JAL Group flights on eligible fare classes are required . Members earn Fly On points on eligible fare classes on JAL Group and Oneworld member airlines . These are used to calculate the member 's eligibility for membership renewal , upgrade or downgrade during the membership year . Higher @-@ tiered members are provided with increased travel benefits such as bonus mileage , additional baggage allowance , priority boarding and airport lounge access . There are two phases to the Fly On Program service benefits ; one begins after two months following qualification for membership and the other begins from April of the following year . Membership is valid until 31 March of the second year following membership qualification .
= = = = Crystal = = = =
Crystal level is achieved or retained when the member earns 30 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 30 flights and minimum of 10 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . Services and benefits after two months of membership qualification include priority waitlisting , 50 percent bonus mileage , airport lounge access for Japan domestic flights with lounge coupons via mileage deduction , priority check @-@ in at Executive Class counters for international flights , JGC counters and priority baggage for class J on JAL Group domestic flights , 10 kg ( 22 lb ) or one piece of extra baggage allowance , priority boarding on international flights , priority airport standby and class J upgrade with class J coupon via mileage deduction . Services and benefits from April of the following year include 10 upgrade points for complimentary flight upgrades . JMB Crystal membership level is equivalent to Oneworld Sapphire tier status , which entitles members to Oneworld Ruby benefits when travelling on a Oneworld member airline .
= = = = Sapphire = = = =
Sapphire level is achieved or retained when the member earns 50 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 50 flights and minimum of 15 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . Additional services and benefits for Sapphire members after two months of membership qualification include 100 percent bonus mileage , JAL or Sakura Lounge access with one guest when flying on JAL Group airline flights . Priority check @-@ in at First Class counters for international flights and JGC counters for Japan domestic flights , priority baggage , 20 kg ( 44 lb ) or two pieces of extra baggage allowance and access to JAL Fast Security Lane . Additional services and benefits for Sapphire members from April of the following year include 20 upgrade points for complimentary flight upgrades . JMB Sapphire members will be invited to join the JGC , which is dedicated to cater for experienced travelers . JMB Sapphire membership level is equivalent to Oneworld Sapphire tier status , which entitles members to Oneworld Sapphire benefits when travelling on a Oneworld member airline .
= = = = JGC Premier = = = =
JGC Premier is achieved or retained when the member earns 80 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 80 flights and minimum of 25 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . Additional services and benefits for JGC Premier members after two months of membership qualification include mileage expiry suspension during membership period , First Class and Diamond / Premier Lounge access with one guest when flying on JAL Group airline flights , and priority check @-@ in at First Class counters and priority boarding for both international and domestic flights . Additional services and benefits for JGC Premier members from April of the following year include three complimentary transferable JAL and Sakura Lounge coupons , 30 upgrade points for complimentary flight upgrades , one complimentary JAL Hotels one night stay coupon , five complementary passes to the Century 21 Club and one flower gift coupon . JGC Premier membership level is equivalent to Oneworld Emerald tier status , which entitles members to Oneworld Emerald benefits when travelling on a Oneworld member airline .
= = = = Diamond = = = =
The highest membership level in the Fly On Program of the JAL Mileage Bank . Diamond level is achieved or retained when the member earns 100 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 120 flights and minimum of 35 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . Additional services and benefits for Diamond members after two months of membership qualification include 125 percent bonus mileage and any seat award tickets with double mileage deduction . Additional services and benefits for Diamond members from April of the following year include 40 upgrade points for complimentary flight upgrades , two complimentary JAL Hotels one night stay coupons and Century 21 Club membership . JMB Diamond membership level is equivalent to Oneworld Emerald tier status , which entitles members to Oneworld Emerald benefits when travelling on a Oneworld member airline .
= = = JAL Global Club = = =
The JAL Global Club is an exclusive club dedicated to catering to JAL Group 's most experienced and valuable travelers . Membership is available to JMB members who have earned 50 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 50 flights and minimum of 15 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . In addition , membership can be enrolled under JALCARD Club @-@ A , Club @-@ A Gold or JAL 's Diners Club membership after payment of an annual fee . Lifetime membership will be given as long as a one @-@ time qualifying member continues to pay the JALCARD annual fee . The Oneworld tier status as a JGC member will depend on the JMB Fly On program membership levels , with the following exception : JGC members will automatically attain Oneworld Sapphire status upon enrollment , regardless of the number of FLY ON Points accumulated in the previous calendar year .
JGC benefits include 3 @,@ 000 bonus miles for the first JAL Group eligible flight flown every year , JAL or Sakura Lounge access with one guest , priority baggage , 20 kg ( 44 lb ) or two pieces of extra baggage allowance , priority check @-@ in , personalized leather baggage tags , annual gifts of a calendar and a diary and exclusive use of member lounges at designated hotels . In addition , JALCARD Club @-@ A , Club @-@ A Gold and JAL Diners Club holders receive 35 percent JALCARD flight bonus mileage .
= = In popular culture = =
Japan Airlines has been the focus of several television programs in Japan over the years , most being dramas revolving around cabin attendants . Attention Please was a drama in 1970 that followed the story of a young girl who joins JAL to be a cabin attendant while overcoming many difficulties . This show was remade in 2006 again as Attention Please starring Aya Ueto who joins a class of cabin attendant nominees and later graduates . Most of the action of the story of the 2006 series takes place at JAL 's Haneda flight operations headquarters . The series has had two specials since the original , marking the main character 's transition into JAL 's international operations .
During the 1980s , JAL was also the focus of another drama entitled Stewardess Monogatari which featured another young girl during training to be a JAL cabin attendant . During the 1990s , JAL featured several commercials with celebrities , including Janet Jackson who danced and sang to a backdrop of JAL 747s on rotation .
The Airline has also been mentioned or shown in anime as well . In K @-@ ON ! ! The movie a JAL Boeing 777 in J @-@ Bird livery was used on a flight from Narita to London Heathrow .
A JAL 747 was also shown at the beginning of the live action version of the Prince of Tennis movie .
The company 's internal processes prior to the crash of Japan Airlines Flight 123 and its reaction to the accident are subject of the book Shizumanu Taiyō and the 2009 Japanese movie of the same name , albeit the company being fictionalized as National Airlines .
= Luis Muñoz Marín =
José Luis Alberto Muñoz Marín ( February 18 , 1898 – April 30 , 1980 ) , known as Luis Muñoz Marín , was a Puerto Rican poet , journalist , politician and statesman , regarded as the " Father of Modern Puerto Rico , " and the " Architect of the Commonwealth . " In 1948 he was the first democratically elected Governor of Puerto Rico , spearheading an administration that engineered profound economic , political and social reforms ; accomplishments that were internationally lauded by many politicians , statesmen , political scientists and economists of the period . Marin was instrumental in the destruction of the Nationalist party and its efforts to gain independence .
= = Early life and education = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Luis Muñoz Marín was born on February 18 , 1898 at 152 Calle de la Fortaleza in Old San Juan . He was the son of Luis Muñoz Rivera and Amalia Marín Castilla . His father was a poet , publisher , and a politician , responsible for founding two newspapers , El Diario and La Democracia . Days before Luis ' birth , his father traveled to Spain to present a proposal of autonomy for Puerto Rico , which was accepted . His father was elected to serve as Secretary of State of Puerto Rico and Chief of the Cabinet for the Government of Puerto Rico .
On October 18 , 1898 , Puerto Rico was taken by the United States following Spain 's defeat in the Spanish – American War . Luis 's father assisted in establishing an insular police force , but opposed the military colonial government established by the United States . He resigned from office on February 4 , 1899 . Later he was elected to the House of Delegates of Puerto Rico . In 1910 , he was elected as Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico , serving the island as a representative to Congress from 1911 until his death in 1916 .
One of Muñoz Marín 's paternal great @-@ grandfathers , Luis Muñoz Iglesias , was born on October 12 , 1797 , in Palencia , Spain . At age 14 , he had joined the Spanish Army and battled Napoleon Bonaparte 's French Army in the Peninsular War . Afterward he decided to make his career in the army ' he was awarded decorations after fighting against Simón Bolívar during the Admirable Campaign of independence in Latin America . Once the conflict was over , he traveled to Puerto Rico along with his commanding officer , Miguel de la Torre . He subsequently settled in a farm in Cidra and married María Escolástica Barrios .
In 1901 when Muñoz Marín was three years old , a group of statehood supporters broke into his father 's El Diario 's building and vandalized most of the equipment . Following this incident , the family moved to Caguas . After receiving further threats from the statehood movements , the family moved to New York City . There Muñoz Marín learned English , while his father founded the bilingual newspaper , Puerto Rico Herald . During the following years , the family frequently traveled between both locations . His father founded the Unionist Party in Puerto Rico , which won the election in 1904 . Following the party 's victory , his father was elected as a member of the House of Delegates .
Luis Muñoz Marín began his elementary education at William Penn Public School in Santurce , a district of San Juan . Most classes were taught in English , a change imposed by the American colonial government . Muñoz Marín 's knowledge of English allowed him to be advanced to second grade , although he had some difficulty the next year . In 1908 , Muñoz Marín was enrolled in a small private school in San Juan . Working with the teacher Pedro Moczó , in two years he covered all the material normally taught to students between third and eighth grade , passing tests with good grades .
In 1910 , his father was elected as Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico . This position is a non @-@ voting delegate to the United States Congress . Muñoz Marín briefly moved to New York with his mother before moving to Washington , D.C. , at his father 's insistence .
In 1911 , he began his studies at the Georgetown Preparatory School but disliked its strict discipline and failed the tenth grade . In 1915 , his father enrolled him at Georgetown University Law Center , but Muñoz Marín was uninterested and wanted to become a poet .
In late 1916 , Muñoz Marín and his mother were called to Puerto Rico by their friend Eduardo Georgetti , who said Luis ' father was suffering from an infection spreading from his gallbladder . Muñoz Rivera died on November 15 , 1916 , when Luis was eighteen .
= = = Poetry and ideological contrasts = = =
A month later Muñoz Marín and his mother returned to New York ; he sold his law books and refused to return to Georgetown . Within one month he published a book titled Borrones , composed of several stories and a one @-@ act play . For several months , he served as the congressional clerk to Félix Córdova Dávila , who succeeded Muñoz Marín 's father as Resident Commissioner .
= = Marriage and family = =
On July 1 , 1919 Muñoz Marín married Muna Lee , an American writer from Raymond , Mississippi who had grown up in Oklahoma . Lee was a leading Southern feminist and a rising writer of Pan @-@ American poetry . They had a daughter and a son together , but often lived apart before separating in 1938 .
During the 1920s Muñoz Marín spent the majority of his time in Greenwich Village in Hawaii , where he lived apart from his wife and young children . During those years he repeatedly asked his wife and mother to send him money , and indulged in a " Bohemian life " that seriously strained his marriage . Muñoz Marín and his wife Muna Lee underwent a legal separation in 1938 .
During his first campaign for the Puerto Rico Senate in 1932 , Muñoz Marín was accused of being a narcotics addict ; he was alleged to be addicted to opium .
Before his campaigns of 1938 and 1939 , while he was still legally married , Muñoz Marín met Inés Mendoza . A teacher , she became his mistress and was fired for complaining about the prohibition against classes in Spanish . They agreed that substituting " one language for another is to diminish that country 's capacity to be happy " . Muñoz Marín asked Mendoza to " stay with him all his life . "
In 1940 , a month after his election as President of the Senate in Puerto Rico , Muñoz Marín and Mendoza had a daughter , Victoria , named to commemorate his success . He and Mendoza officially married in 1946 , and they had a second daughter , Viviana .
In the 1980s , their daughter Victoria Muñoz Mendoza became active in Puerto Rican politics . In 1992 , she became the first woman to run as a candidate for the governorship of Puerto Rico .
= = Formation of political ideas = =
In 1920 , Muñoz Marín was selected to deliver a check to Santiago Iglesias , the president of the Socialist Party of Puerto Rico . Excited about the prospect of meeting him , they moved to Puerto Rico , where the couple 's first daughter , Munita , was born . Upon arriving , he noticed that some of the landowners were paying the jíbaros , the mountain @-@ dwelling peasants of Puerto Rico , two dollars in exchange for their votes . He joined the Socialist Party , a decision regarded as a " disaster " by his family . In October 1920 , the Socialist Party recruited members of the Republican Party in order to win upcoming elections . Disappointed , Muñoz Marín returned to the mainland , moving to New Jersey with his family . Shortly after , his first son , Luis Muñoz Lee , was born .
In 1923 , he returned alone to Puerto Rico , supposedly to publish a book that collected several of his father 's previously unpublished works . After collecting $ 5 @,@ 000 from his father 's friends for this alleged " publication " Muñoz Marín spent the money , did not write the book , and quickly left the island . Several years later , after things had quieted down , Antonio R. Barceló , who was the president of the newly formed Coalition , made up of the Republican and Socialist parties , called Muñoz Marín to work on La Democracia . After having problems with some members of the party 's Republican faction , due to his support for island autonomy , Muñoz Marín returned to New York . Here he wrote for The American Mercury and The Nation .
In 1931 , after traveling throughout the United States , Muñoz Marín noticed the instability of the country 's economy — and his own personal finances — after the stock market crash . Deciding exploiting his father 's name in Puerto Rican politics was better than starving in Greenwich village , he borrowed money from a group of friends and returned to the island . Upon arriving , he discovered that Hurricane San Felipe Segundo had destroyed most of the sugar crops where the jíbaros worked , leaving the majority unemployed .
= = Political career = =
= = = Senator = = =
By the 1930s , Puerto Rico 's political scenario had changed ; the only party actively asking for independence was the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party . That organization 's president , Pedro Albizu Campos , occasionally met with Muñoz Marín . He was impressed by the substance of Albizu 's arguments , but their styles to achieve autonomy and
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social reforms were different .
In 1932 , Antonio R. Barceló abandoned the Coalition , which by this time had weakened , and he worked to establish a new independence movement . Barceló adopted several of Muñoz Marín 's ideas of social and economic reforms and autonomy , using them to form the ideology of the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico . Muñoz Marín joined the Liberal Party and led La Democracia , which had become the party 's official newspaper . He had decided to become a politician to achieve reform . In speeches , he discussed ways to provide more land , hospitals , food and schools to the general public .
On March 13 , 1932 , Muñoz Marín was nominated by the party for the post of senator . Although the party did not win a majority in the 1932 elections , Muñoz Marín received enough votes to gain a position in the Puerto Rican Senate . Shortly after , Rudy Black , a reporter for La Democracia , arranged a meeting between him and Eleanor Roosevelt . Wanting her to see Puerto Rico 's problems personally , he persuaded her to visit the main island .
In August 1932 , Muñoz Marín received Eleanor Roosevelt in Fort San Felipe del Morro and La Fortaleza before traveling to El Fanguito , a poor sector that had suffered much damage in the hurricane . When photos of her visit were published , former American governors and the incumbent were outraged to have been overlooked . Following his wife 's report , Franklin D. Roosevelt included Puerto Rico in the New Deal program . Muñoz Marín became a popular political figure due to his involvement in the program , which provided for considerable investment of federal funds in Puerto Rico to develop infrastructure and housing .
Following the government police massacre of Nationalist protesters at the University of Puerto Rico in Río Piedras in 1935 , the US Senator Millard Tydings from Maryland supported a bill in 1936 to give independence to Puerto Rico . ( He had co @-@ sponsored the Tydings – McDuffie Act , which provided independence to the Philippines after a 10 @-@ year transition under a limited autonomy . ) All the Puerto Rican parties supported the bill , but Muñoz Marín opposed it . Tydings did not gain passage of the bill .
Muñoz Marín criticized the bill for what he said would be adverse effects on the island 's economy . He compared it to a principle known as Ley de Fuga ( Law of flight ) . This was the term for a police officer arresting a man , releasing him , and shooting him in the back while the policeman retreated , claiming the suspect had " fled . "
As a result of his opposition to the bill and disagreement with Antonio R. Barceló , Muñoz Marín was expelled from the Liberal Party . Muñoz Marín 's expulsion severely affected his public image .
He created a group named Acción Social Independentista ( ASI ) ( " Pro @-@ Independence Social Action " ) which later became the Partido Liberal Neto , Auténtico y Completo . This organization served as opposition to the Liberal Party , which was led by Barceló .
In 1938 , Muñoz Marín helped create the Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico ( Partido Popular Democratico , or PPD ) . The party committed to helping the jíbaros , regardless of their political beliefs , by promoting a minimum wage , initiatives to provide food and water , cooperatives to work with agriculture , and the creation of more industrial alternatives . Muñoz Marín concentrated his political campaigning in the rural areas of Puerto Rico . He attacked the then common practice of paying off rural farm workers to influence their vote , insisting that they " lend " their vote for only one election . The party 's first rally attracted solid participation , which surprised the other parties .
= = = President of the Senate = = =
In 1940 , the Popular Democratic Party won a majority in the Senate of Puerto Rico , which was attributed to his campaigning in the rural areas . Muñoz Marín was elected as the fourth President of the Senate .
During his term as President of the Senate , Muñoz was an advocate of the working class of Puerto Rico . Along with Governor Rexford Tugwell , the last non @-@ Puerto Rican US @-@ appointed Governor , and the republican @-@ socialist coalition which headed the House of Representatives , Muñoz helped advance legislation for agricultural reform , economic recovery , and industrialization . This program became known as Operation Bootstrap . It was coupled with a program of agrarian reform ( land redistribution ) which limited the area to be held by large sugarcane interests . During the first four decades of the 20th century , Puerto Rico 's dominant economic commodity had been sugarcane by @-@ products .
Operation Bootstrap encouraged investors to transfer or create manufacturing plants , offering them local and federal tax concessions , while maintaining access to American markets free of import duties . The program facilitated a shift to an industrial economy . During the 1950s , labor @-@ intensive light industries were developed on the island , such as textiles ; manufacturing later gave way to heavy industry , such as petrochemicals and oil refining , in the 1960s and 1970s . Taught in Spanish , jíbaros were trained to work in jobs being promoted by the government . Muñoz Marín backed legislation to limit the amount of land a company could own . His development programs brought some prosperity for an emergent middle class . A rural agricultural society was transformed into an industrial working class . Muñoz Marín also launched Operación Serenidad ( " Operation Serenity " ) , a series of projects geared toward promoting education and appreciation of the arts .
Civil rights groups and the Catholic Church criticized Operation Bootstrap , for what they saw as government @-@ promoted birth control , encouragement of surgical sterilization , and fostering the migration of Puerto Ricans to the United States mainland .
= = = Passage of Law 53 ( the Gag Law ) = = =
In 1948 , the Puerto Rican Senate passed Law 53 , also known as the Gag Law , which would restrain the rights of the independence and Nationalist movements in the island . Marin was instrumental in the passage of this law as he was the in control of the Senate at the time . The passage of the law allowed him to arrest any suspected nationalist without cause and or due process and so allowed him to squash any potential question to his authority .
The Ley de la Mordaza ( a gag law ) passed the legislature on May 21 , 1948 and was signed into law on June 10 , 1948 , by the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico , Jesús T. Piñero . It closely resembled the anti @-@ communist Smith Act passed in the United States , and was perceived as an effort to suppress opposition to the PPD and the independence movement .
Under this law it became a crime to own or display a Puerto Rican flag anywhere , even in one 's own home . It also became a crime to speak against the U.S. government ; to speak in favor of Puerto Rican independence ; to print , publish , sell or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government ; or to organize any society , group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent . Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be sentenced to ten years ' imprisonment , a fine of $ 10 @,@ 000 dollars ( US ) , or both .
According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa , a member of the Partido Estadista Puertorriqueño ( Puerto Rican Statehood Party ) and the only non @-@ member of PPD in the Puerto Rican House , the law was repressive and in direct violation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution , which guarantees freedom of speech . Figueroa pointed out that every Puerto Rican was born with full citizenship , and full U.S. constitutional protections .
Muñoz Marín used Law 53 to arrest thousands of Puerto Ricans without due process - including members of other political parties , and people who did not vote for him .
= = = World War II = = =
During the early stages of World War II , many thousands of Puerto Ricans were drafted to serve in the United States Army . This eased problems of overpopulation in the main island . Muñoz Marín promoted the construction of public housing projects to resolve a housing shortage . During the war he established low @-@ interest scholarships and loans for the residents who were not drafted . To address health issues , he established free public clinics , which opened throughout Puerto Rico .
In 1944 the Popular Republican Party won a majority again in the election , repeating the political victory of the previous elections . In 1947 , Congress approved legislation allowing Puerto Ricans to elect their own Governor . Muñoz Marín successfully campaigned for the post and was the first democratically elected Governor of Puerto Rico and the second Puerto Rican to serve in that post .
= = = Governor = = =
Muñoz Marín officially took office on January 2 , 1949 . He held the post of Governor for sixteen years , being re @-@ elected again in 1952 , 1956 and 1960 . In 1957 , Muñoz Marín was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree ( LL.D. ) from Bates College .
Having made progress on illiteracy and other social problems , the party began debating how to establish an autonomous government . Muñoz Marín and his officials agreed to adopt an " Free Associated State " structure , which had been proposed by Barceló decades before . In Spanish the proposal 's name remained unchanged , but in English , it was commonly referred to as a " Commonwealth " , to avoid confusion with full statehood . The main goal of the proposal was to provide more autonomy to the island , including executive functions similar to those in states , and to pass a constitution .
During his terms as governor , a Constitutional Convention of Puerto Rico , was called . Muñoz Marín participated in that and the drafting of the Constitution of Puerto Rico . It was passed by 82 % of the people of Puerto Rico , and approved by the United States Congress in 1952 . Supporters of independence left the PPD and founded the Puerto Rican Independence Party soon after .
The Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico , led by Albizu Campos , also supported full independence and had abandoned the electoral process after low support . On October 30 , 1950 , a group of Puerto Rican nationalists attacked the governor 's mansion , La Fortaleza , as part of widespread armed revolts that day , which included the Jayuya and the Utuado Uprisings . Muñoz Marín mobilized the Puerto Rican National Guard under the command of Puerto Rico Adjutant General Luis R. Esteves and sent them to confront the Nationalists in various towns , besides San Juan , such as Jayuya and Utuado . He ordered the police to arrest many of the Nationalists , including Albizu Campos . Subsequently , the Muñoz Marín administration used law 53 , known as Ley de Mordaza ( lit . " the gag law " ) to arrest thousands of Puerto Ricans without due process , including pro @-@ independence supporters who were not involved in the uprisings .
The inauguration acts for the establishment of the Estado Libre Associado took place on July 25 , 1952 . Security for the event was tightened to avoid any incident , and invitations were issued . Muñoz Marín feared that the new status could affect the Puerto Rican culture or " Americanize " the island 's language . The government began promoting cultural activities , founding the Pablo Casals Festival , Music Conservatory , and Puerto Rico 's Institute of Culture .
During the decade of the 1950s , most jíbaros pursued work in factories instead of agriculture , to avoid the losses from frequent hurricanes . Many people migrated to New York City during this period for its good industrial jobs . Muñoz Marín said that he " did not agree with " the " continuing situation " , and that the " battle for good life , should not have all its emphasis placed on industrialization . Part of it must be placed on agriculture . " American critics felt that he encouraged the migration to reduce overpopulation . Despite efforts to provide more work in agriculture on the islands , the migration continued .
On December 6 , 1962 , Muñoz Marín was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by US President John F. Kennedy . By 1964 , Muñoz Marín had been governor for sixteen years . A group of younger members of the Popular Democratic Party felt that he should retire . They suggested that he resign , and presented a proposal for term limits — two terms for elected officials . The group named themselves Los veinte y dos ( " The twenty @-@ twos " ) and began running a campaign , calling on civilians for support .
Victoria , Muñoz Marín 's youngest daughter joined the group , which he didn 't oppose . The day before the party had an assembly to elect its candidates , Muñoz Marín announced his decision not to run for another term . He recommended Roberto Sánchez Vilella , his Secretary of State , for the party 's candidacy. when the crowd called for " four more years " , Muñoz Marín said , " I am not your strength ... You are your own strength . " Sánchez Vilella was elected as governor .
= = Later years = =
After leaving the post of governor , Muñoz Marín continued his public service until 1970 as a member of the Puerto Rico Senate . In 1968 , he had a serious dispute with Governor Sánchez Vilella . Still an influential figure inside the Popular Democratic Party , Muñoz Marín decided not to support Sánchez 's re @-@ election bid .
Governor Sánchez purchased the franchise of The People 's Party ( Partido del Pueblo ) and decided to run for governor under this new party .
The PPD was defeated for the first time , and Luis A. Ferré was elected as governor . Muñoz Marín and Sánchez Vilella 's friendship was severely strained after this .
= = = Retirement = = =
After resigning his senate seat in 1970 , Muñoz Marín temporally moved to Italy , where one of his daughters , Viviana , had established residence . During this time he traveled to various destinations in Europe , including France , Spain and Greece .
He returned to Puerto Rico two years later , when he began writing an autobiography . He promoted the gubernatorial candidacy of the senate 's president Rafael Hernández Colón , the new leader of the Popular Democratic Party .
Late in his life , Muñoz Marín 's health weakened . On January 5 , 1976 , he suffered a severe stroke , which temporarily affected his ability to move , read and speak . On April 30 , 1980 , he died at the age of 82 , after suffering complications from a severe fever . His funeral became an island @-@ wide event , dwarfing his own father 's funeral in 1916 , and attended by tens of thousands of followers .
= = Legacy and honors = =
On November 13 , 1961 , John F. Kennedy honored Luis Muñoz Marín for his accomplishments with a state dinner at the White House , and in 1963 he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom , with Special Distinction . The citation read : " Poet , politician , public servant , patriot , he has led his people to new heights of dignity and purpose and transformed a stricken land into a vital society . " He also received the highest decorations from various other governments , including France which awarded him the prestigious Grand Cross of the French Legion , Panama which conferred on him the Order of the Vasco Núnez de Balboa , and Peru which honored him with the Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun .
He received Honorary Doctor of Laws degrees from Rutgers University , Bates College , the University of Kansas , Columbia University , and Harvard University , where he gave several lectures concerning Puerto Rico 's progress and International Relations ; he was also a Commencement Day Speaker for the University in 1955 .
Muñoz Marín 's tenure as governor contributed to immense changes in Puerto Rico , no political leader has had a greater impact on the island . Under Luis Muñoz Marín 's leadership , Puerto Rico drafted its own constitution and gained autonomy .
Muñoz Marín was featured twice on the cover of TIME magazine , in 1949 and 1958 . The articles called him " one of the most influential politicians in recent times , whose works will be remembered for years to come . "
In Rexford Tugwell 's book " The Art of Politics , as Practiced by Three Great Americans : Franklin Delano Roosevelt , Luis Muñoz Marín , and Fiorello H. LaGuardia " , Tugwell described Munoz 's achievement , " Munoz led a movement and created a party , which consolidated the latent power of the stricken Puerto Rican mass and used it to force into being a disciplined program for rejuvenation . This effort has significance beyond itself . It soon became a wonder of a world looking for the means to lift backward peoples from the stew of poverty and demagoguism , which has become so characteristic of all the old colonial area . He was the creator , as much as one man could be , of a new status for a whole people and a new relationship among political entities . The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was a brilliant invention and its bringing into being a remarkable achievement . "
American author , political professor and expert on Latin American affairs Henry Wells wrote " The Modernization of Puerto Rico : A Political Study of Changing Values and Institutions " which was published in 1969 .
He was presented with the Key to the City of Managua , Nicaragua , by Nicaraguan President Luis Somoza Debayle
Puerto Rico 's largest international airport : The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport , is named in his honor .
In 1990 , the U.S. Postal Service issued a stamp honoring him in their Great Americans Series .
= = Quotations = =
" What is the vote ? The vote is the only weapon that you have to defend yourself from exploitation . The vote is the only weapon you have to make a government that is yours and of men like yourself that need bread , land , justice and freedom . It is the only weapon that you have to make a government that is not of the big corporations that take millions from the misery of your family and the hunger of your children . If you are being watched by a bandit that wants to take your house and plow . And if you were given a weapon to defend yourself . Would you sell that weapon to the bandit for a few coins ? Or would you use it to stop the bandit from taking your house and plow ? If you are a man you will use that weapon to defend your home and your plow . "
" The gallant contribution that the soldiers of the 65th and 296th Infantry regiments have made alongside their fellow citizens of the United States , defending our common ideals against those who try to subvert the freedom of the human race , make the transfer of their regimental colors an occasion of profound meaning to all of us . "
" We are at the beginning of a new decade . We should , of course , continue and accelerate the integral development of Puerto Rico in all its aspects . There is something , however , that merits our principal attention , our most devoted dedication , in these new times . We dedicated the decade that began in the year 1940 to the battle to abolish poverty . And to do so , we put aside the political status issue . In the beginning of the 1950s we put special energy in the creation of a new political status , vitally adapted to the economic necessities of Puerto Rico . In the decade we now begin I propose that we put special attention to the kind of civilization , the type of culture , how deep and good the quality of life the people of Puerto Rico want to create on the basis of the growing economic prosperity . Economic development is not an end in itself , but the basis for a good civilization . Political status is not an end in itself , but a means to economic realization and the development of a good civilization . "
" The situation affecting the people of this small island is grave , but our people are greater than the problems we are encountering . The pain of this nation is great , its valor is greater . Its qualities of spirit are magnificent , if we can only begin to learn to use those magnificent qualities of spirit . "
" I would call the Democratic Left in Latin America the group which secures social advances for all the people , in a framework of freedom and consent . "
" The dignity of man and the humility of man ; the equality in the dignity and the humility of man- this is democracy . Some know more and others know less , but we all die the same , and our knowledge of death is the same . Some do more and others do less , but we all do what we can , and in that we are all similar . Democracy , in its profoundest sense , in its truest sense , in its most irrefutable sense , in its most vivid sense , is the quality of the human spirit in the face of human life . "
" Let us urgently devise the basic objectives in housing , in health , in education , in economic productivity , in communications , which may be attainable by different areas of the hemisphere , according to their human and material resources . Let us solemnly declare that our essential goal -the goal of all Americans , North and South- is the abolition of extreme poverty , in the areas of misery remaining in regions of the U.S and in the altiplano of Bolivia , the plains of Venezuela , the coffee lands of Puerto Rico and Central America , the sierras of Mexico – to wipe out extreme poverty in this hemisphere within the lifetime of children already born . Let us encourage government and private initiative to share in a good partnership with a view to better distributive justice for all ; and let 's not be doctrinaire about it . Let us not be doctrinaire either as to socialism or capitalism , but only as to freedom and human dignity . Let us give friendly support to all groups thinking in terms of a greater , truly hemispheric America , not merely Latin , not merely Anglo @-@ Saxon , and not merely temporary while a Russian danger lasts . An America to serve the world . "
" Two variations of a way of life , two manners of a common cultural heritage come into contact in Puerto Rico and have the opportunity of influencing each other for better or for worse . It is the job of all of us to make it be for better , to see that this interaction of cultural forces , while minimizing clashes and frictions , do constantly enrich the social and economic well @-@ being , the standard of values , the mores and aspirations of the peoples of this Hemisphere . "
" Diversity within unity . It is to that image of creative diversity within the equally creative great whole ... to that realization , that flowering and enrichment , that Puerto Rico wants to contribute in its association with the United States .
= = Ancestors of Luis Muñoz Marín = =
= = Political succession = =
= Haseeb Ahsan =
Haseeb Ahsan ( Urdu : حسيب احسن ; 15 July 1939 – 8 March 2013 ) was a Pakistani cricketer who played 12 Tests for Pakistan between 1958 and 1962 . He was born in Peshawar , Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . A right @-@ arm off spinner , he took 27 wickets in Test cricket at an average of 49 @.@ 25 , including two five @-@ wicket hauls . During his first @-@ class career , he played 49 matches and took 142 wickets at an average of 27 @.@ 71 . Former Pakistan cricketer Waqar Hasan said about him that he " was a fighter to the core and served Pakistan cricket with honour and dignity . "
Ahsan had conflicts with former Pakistan captain Javed Burki . A controversy regarding his bowling action resulted in the premature end of his international career when he was only 23 . He worked as chief selector , team manager of Pakistan , and member of the 1987 Cricket World Cup organising committee . He died in Karachi on 8 March 2013 , aged 73 .
= = Cricketing career = =
Ahsan played 49 first @-@ class matches for Pakistan , Karachi , Pakistan International Airlines ( PIA ) , Rawalpindi Peshawar and other teams between 1955 and 1963 . During his first @-@ class career , he achieved five or more wickets in an innings on thirteen occasions , and ten or more wickets in a match two times .
Ahsan made his first @-@ class debut for North West Frontier Province and Bahawalpur , playing his only match of the season against the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1955 – 56 . He played three matches for Peshawar during 1956 – 57 with his best bowling figures came against Punjab B , taking eight for 76 . In the next season , he was more effective with the ball , taking 43 wickets in nine matches . In the same season , he achieved his best bowling figures in first @-@ class cricket , taking eight for 23 against Punjab B. During the season , Ahsan made his Test debut against the West Indies at the Kensington Oval , in the same match in which Hanif Mohammad scored 337 runs ; during the first match of the 1958 series between the teams , Ahsan conceded 84 runs in 21 overs without taking a wicket . He played three matches of the series and took five wickets .
Ahsan took only 14 wickets in the next two first class seasons ; his best bowling figures were five for 51 . He was a part of the Pakistan cricket team that toured India in 1960 – 61 , where he played nine matches , including five Tests , and took 24 wickets at an average of 28 @.@ 75 . During the 1960 – 61 season , Ahsan took 26 wickets , including six for 80 against the West Zone . In Test cricket , he was most successful against India , taking fifteen wickets at an average of 32 @.@ 66 . His best bowling figures were six wickets for 202 , against the same team at the Nehru Stadium . During the 1961 – 62 and 1962 seasons , Ahsan took 28 wickets in ten matches , including a five @-@ wicket haul against Worcestershire . In the next two domestic seasons , he played eight matches and took 12 wickets , including five for 43 runs , against Sargodha cricket team while playing for PIA during the Ayub Trophy . He played his last Test at the National Stadium , Karachi , where he took two wickets conceding 64 runs .
By the end of his career , Ahsan had taken 27 wickets in 12 Test matches at an average of nearly 50 , including two five @-@ wicket hauls . He made 61 runs , his highest score was 14 .
= = Administrative career = =
During the 1980s , Ahsan was the chief selector and manager of the Pakistan cricket team . It was he who first selected Wasim Akram for the series against New Zealand in 1984 – 85 . Akram described him as " a powerful selector , [ who ] spotted young talent and threw them into the bigger battles " . He was Technical Committee 's chairman for the 1987 Cricket World Cup and one of the members of the tournament organising committee . During the same tournament , he served as a team manager for Pakistan . In 2003 , former Pakistan Cricket Board 's ( PCB ) Tuqir Zia appointed him as President of the Sindh Cricket Association . He was also the Ireland 's honorary Counsel General and director of the Karachi 's American Express . PCB chairman Zaka Ashraf said of Ahsan that he was " not only a superb Test cricketer but also was a good administrator who intimately knew the game " . He was the member of the panel that heard the appeals opposed to doping bans that were imposed on Shoaib Akhtar and Mohammad Asif . His colleagues described him that he was a " perfect administrator " .
= = Personal life and controversies = =
Ahsan was born in Peshawar , North @-@ West Frontier Province ( now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa ) on 15 July 1939 , and was an Urdu @-@ speaker . He was educated at Islamia College , Peshawar . Ahsan was never married . Former Pakistan cricketer , Aftab Baloch , said Ahsan that he was a " fine gentleman " . He had conflicts with former Pakistan captain Javed Burki . A controversy regarding his bowling action arose during a Test match against India . This was sixth match in which he was " called for throwing . " He continued his bowling until the issue reappeared during Pakistan tour to England in 1962 ; the controversy ended his international career at the age of 23 .
= = Death = =
Ahsan suffered from renal failure for two years . He was on dialysis and was admitted at the Aga Khan Hospital , Karachi . President of Karachi City Cricket Association ( KCCA ) Sirajul Islam Bukhari stated about him that he " fought illness with courage . " He died in Karachi on 8 March 2013 at the age of 73 . Ahsan was buried at the PECHS graveyard . PCB chairman , chief operating officer Subhan Ahmad and Director General Javed Miandad condoled his death . Chief Minister of the Punjab Shahbaz Sharif " expressed deep sense of grief and sorrow " on his death .
= Typhoon Bess ( 1982 ) =
Typhoon Bess struck Japan in early August 1982 , resulting in severe damage . The eleventh tropical storm , sixth typhoon , and first super typhoon of the 1982 Pacific typhoon season , the system first developed on July 21 . Two days later , it was upgraded into a tropical storm , and subsequently began to intensify while tracking northwest . Bess attained typhoon intensity on July 24 , before it briefly turned southwest . After turning north @-@ northwest , the typhoon entered a period of rapid intensification and late on July 28 reached peak winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) . After turning north , Bess began to weaken as it encountered less favorable conditions . On August 1 , Bess was downgraded into a tropical storm . Shortly after that , the storm struck southeastern Japan , and on August 2 merged with a low pressure area atop of the Sea of Japan .
Typhoon Bess cut threw a 400 km ( 250 mi ) swath that included the most populated portion of Japan . Bess caused ¥ 591 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 2 @.@ 32 billion ) in damage and 95 casualties . Furthermore , 119 others were hurt . Four people were killed due to landslides , while two other individuals were buried alive . A series of landslides stranded about 2 @,@ 000 people , including 1 @,@ 500 children . In all , 43 dwellings were destroyed and 17 @,@ 000 homes were flooded . A total of 59 roads were impassable , 42 bridges were destroyed and 785 landslides occurred . Fifteen railway lines were disrupted due to torrential rainfall . In addition , 2 @,@ 857 acres of farmland were flooded , 101 bridges were washed out and roads were damaged at more than 1 @,@ 000 locations . Two boats sunk . Roughly 25 @,@ 000 people were displaced . Following the storm , 2 @,@ 100 policeman and firefighters dug through debris to rescue people . Following the season , the name Bess was retired from the list of names .
= = Meteorological history = =
A large monsoon trough was anchored south of Guam towards the end of July . By July 21 , three areas of disturbed weather had formed . Although the westernmost disturbance dissipated , the easternmost two continued to develop , one of which would later become Typhoon Andy . A Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was issued for the easternmost system at 1900 UTC on July 21 as sea level pressures fell and convection increased within the vicinity of the disturbance . After becoming better organized , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started monitoring the system . Later on July 22 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) started monitoring the same system as it developed rainbands and a further increase in thunderstorm activity . Initially , the JTWC correctly predicted the low to move northwest . Hurricane Hunters indicated that the low and mid @-@ level centers were not vertically aligned . On July 23 , both the JMA and JTWC upped the depression into a tropical storm . Bess then began to intensify . At 0600 UTC on July 24 , Bess was upgraded to a severe tropical storm by the JMA . After the formation of an eye , both agencies classified Bess as a typhoon .
By July 24 , Typhoon Bess began to move north @-@ northwest and slow down due to the westward building of the subtropical ridge to the north . The JTWC expected Bess to turn west ; however , Bess instead turned southwest on July 25 due to interactions with a trough . By this time , the JMA estimated winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Shortly thereafter , the JTWC increased the intensity of the typhoon to 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) . After performing a small loop , the storm maintained its intensity until July 27 , when the JMA raised the wind speed of Bess to 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . The typhoon then turned north @-@ northwest while slowly intensifying . On July 28 , the system turned northwest along the southwestern edge of the ridge . That afternoon , the JMA estimated winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Subsequently , Typhoon Bess entered an episode of rapid deepening . Only a few hours later , the JMA reported that Bess had attained its peak intensity of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) , which it would maintain for 12 hours . At 0000 UTC on July 29 , according to the JMA , the typhoon attained a minimum barometric pressure of 900 mbar ( 27 inHg ) . Later that morning , the JTWC estimated that Bess attained its peak intensity of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , a Category 5 hurricane @-@ equivalent on the SSHWS , though JMA data suggests that Bess was weakening by this time . At this time , Typhoon Bess was located 460 km ( 285 mi ) to the southeast of Iwo Jima .
After slowing down further , Bess curved north along the southern periphery of a weakness in the subtropical ridge . Even though the JTWC expected Bess to recurve well east of Japan within 36 hours , this did not materialize . On July 30 , the JMA lowered the intensity of the typhoon to 190 km / h ( 120 mph ) . During the evening hours of July 31 , the JMA further the intensity of the storm to 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Bess continued to weaken while accelerating . The next day , August 1 , the JMA downgraded Bess into a severe tropical storm . Later that morning , the JMA downgraded Bess into a tropical storm . Around this time , the tropical storm made landfall along central Honshu . Shortly thereafter , the JTWC reported that Bess was no longer a typhoon . On August 2 , Bess merged with a low pressure area over the Sea of Japan . The JMA ceased monitoring the typhoon midday on August 3 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Typhoon Bess cut through a 400 km ( 250 mi ) swath across the most populated portions of Japan ; damage was reported in 30 of the 45 provinces . As a precaution , flood warnings were issued near Tokyo , which warned of possible landslides . An " alert " was issued for the Bonin Islands for vessels . By Mount Hidegadake , in Nara , a peak rainfall total of 1 @,@ 078 mm ( 42 @.@ 4 in ) , including 922 mm ( 36 @.@ 3 in ) in 24 hours . A peak hourly total of 103 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) was recorded in Toba in Mie . A maximum wind of 104 km / h ( 65 mph ) was recorded at Tsukubasan in Ibaraki .
Overall , Super Typhoon Bess was responsible for ¥ 591 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 2 @.@ 32 billion ) in damage and 95 fatalities . According to police reports , 26 people were initially missing . A total of 119 were hurt . Four people were killed in Osaka due to landslides , while two people were buried alive in Yokohama via mudslides . At the foot of Mt . Fuji , a series of mudslides buried 36 vehicles , killed one person and injured five policemen . The landslides stranded approximately 2 @,@ 000 persons , including 1 @,@ 500 primary school children on a camping trip . In Mie , Bess was considered the worst storm to affect the city in 23 years , where 17 fatalities occurred and seven were initially listed missing . Elsewhere , in Nara , a couple was killed and a boy was hurt . Throughout western Japan , five people were rendered missing in heavy rains that caused at least five landslides and damaged 15 automobiles . Along Tokyo Bay , high waves from Typhoon Bess left windows 11 stories high coated with salt . Although Tokyo was on the eastern edge of the storm , large trees were uprooted nevertheless due to high winds . Five people were wounded in the city . Many cars and trucks were stranded due to mudslides ; air traffic was also paralyzed .
In all , 43 dwellings were destroyed and 17 @,@ 000 homes were flooded . Due to the storm , 59 roads were impassable . In addition , 42 bridges were destroyed and 785 landslides occurred . According to railroad authorities , 15 railroad lines were either totally or partially disrupted due to torrential rains , forcing the cancellation of 27 scheduled trains and delaying 211 others . Police reports suggest that 2 @,@ 857 acres ( 1 @,@ 155 ha ) of farmland were flooded , 101 bridges were washed out , and roads were damaged at 1 @,@ 094 places . Additionally , 25 ships ran aground or were washed away and two boats sunk . A total of 25 @,@ 000 individuals were left homeless , including 24 @,@ 702 people which evacuated from their homes .
Following the storm , 2 @,@ 100 police and firemen dug furiously through mud and debris in search of the missing . The name Bess was previously retired in 1974 and replaced with Bonnie . However , when the list of typhoon names was changed to incorporate male names in 1979 , the name was re @-@ introduced to the roster . After this usage of the name Bess , it was retired for the second time and was replaced with Brenda . This marked the only occasion where a single name was removed twice in the same basin .
= Manila Light Rail Transit System =
The Manila Light Rail Transit System , popularly and informally known as the LRT , is a metropolitan rail system serving the Metro Manila area in the Philippines . Although referred to as a light rail system because it originally used light rail vehicles , it has characteristics that make it more akin to a rapid transit ( metro ) system , such as high passenger throughput , exclusive right @-@ of @-@ way and later use of full metro rolling stock . The system is operated by the Light Rail Transit Authority ( LRTA ) , a government @-@ owned and controlled corporation under the authority of the Department of Transportation and Communications ( DOTC ) . Along with the Manila Metro Rail Transit System ( MRT @-@ 3 , also called the new Yellow Line ) , and Philippine National Railways 's commuter line , the system makes up Metro Manila 's rail infrastructure .
Quick and inexpensive to ride , the system serves 2 @.@ 1 million passengers each day . Its 33 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 20 @.@ 8 mi ) of mostly elevated route form two lines which serve 31 stations in total . LRT Line 1 ( LRT @-@ 1 ) , also called the Green Line ( formerly Yellow Line ) , opened in 1984 and travels a north – south route . LRT Line 2 ( LRT @-@ 2 ) , the Blue Line ( formerly Purple Line ) , was completed in 2004 and runs east – west . The original LRT @-@ 1 was built as a no @-@ frills means of public transport and lacks some features and comforts , but the new LRT @-@ 2 has been built with additional standards and criteria in mind like barrier @-@ free access . Security guards at each station conduct inspections and provide assistance . A reusable plastic magnetic ticketing system has replaced the previous token @-@ based system , and the Flash Pass introduced as a step towards a more integrated transportation system .
Many passengers who ride the system also take various forms of road @-@ based public transport , such as buses , to and from a station to reach their intended destination . Although it aims to reduce traffic congestion and travel times in the metropolis , the transportation system has only been partially successful due to the rising number of motor vehicles and rapid urbanization . The network 's expansion is set on tackling this problem .
= = Network = =
The network consists of two lines : the original LRT Line 1 ( LRT @-@ 1 ) or Green Line , and the more modern LRT Line 2 ( LRT @-@ 2 ) , or Blue Line . The LRT @-@ 1 is aligned in a general north – south direction along over 17 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 10 @.@ 7 mi ) of fully elevated track . From Monumento it runs south above the hustle and bustle of Rizal and Taft Avenues along grade @-@ separated concrete viaducts allowing exclusive right @-@ of @-@ way before ending in Baclaran . A four @-@ station east – west extension along Epifanio de los Santos Avenue that will connect Monumento to the North Avenue MRT Station is currently under construction . Including the extension 's two recently opened stations , Balintawak and Roosevelt , the LRT @-@ 1 has twenty stations . The LRT @-@ 2 or Line 2 consists of eleven stations in a general east – west direction over 13 @.@ 8 kilometers ( 8 @.@ 57 mi ) of mostly elevated track , with one station lying underground . Commencing in Recto , the line follows a corridor defined by Claro M. Recto and Legarda Avenues , Ramon Magsaysay and Aurora Boulevards , and the Marikina @-@ Infanta Highway before reaching the other end of the line at Santolan . The system passes through the cities of Caloocan , Manila , Marikina , Pasay , Pasig , Quezon City , and San Juan .
Every day around 430 @,@ 000 passengers board the LRT @-@ 1 , and 175 @,@ 000 ride the LRT @-@ 2 . During peak hours , the LRT @-@ 1 fields 24 trains ; the time interval between the departure of one and the arrival of another , called headway , is a minimum of 3 minutes . The LRT @-@ 2 runs 12 trains with a minimum headway of 5 minutes . With the proper upgrades , the Yellow Line is designed to potentially run with headway as low as 1 @.@ 5 minutes . The LRT @-@ 2 can run with headway as low as 2 minutes with throughput of up to 60 @,@ 000 passengers per hour per direction ( pphpd ) .
In conjunction with the MRT @-@ 3 — also known as the new Yellow Line , a similar but separate metro rail system operated by the private Metro Rail Transit Corporation ( MRTC ) — the system provides the platform for the vast majority of rail travel in the Metro Manila area . Together with the PNR , the three constitute the SRTS . Recto and Doroteo Jose serve as the sole interchange between both lines of the LRTA . Araneta Center @-@ Cubao and EDSA stations serve as interchanges between the LRTA and the MRTC networks . To transfer lines , passengers will need to exit from the station they are in then pass through covered walkways connecting the stations . Blumentritt LRT Station meanwhile is immediately above its PNR counterpart .
Baclaran , Central Terminal , and Monumento are the LRT @-@ 1 's three terminal stations ; Recto , Araneta Center @-@ Cubao , and Santolan are the terminal stations on the LRT @-@ 2 . All of them are located on or near major transport routes where passengers can take other forms of transportation such as privately run buses and jeepneys to reach their ultimate destination both within Metro Manila and in neighboring provinces . The system has two depots : the LRT @-@ 1 uses the Pasay Depot at LRTA headquarters in Pasay , near Baclaran station , while the LRT @-@ 2 uses the Santolan Depot built by Sumitomo in Pasig .
The LRT @-@ 1 and LRT @-@ 2 are open every day of the year from 5 : 00 am PST ( UTC + 8 ) until 10 : 00 pm on weekdays , and from 5 : 00 am until 9 : 30 pm on weekends , except when changes have been announced . Notice of special schedules is given through press releases , via the public address system in every station , and on the LRTA website .
= = History = =
The system 's roots date back to 1878 , when an official from Spain 's Department of Public Works for the Philippines submitted a proposal for a Manila streetcar system . The system proposed was a five @-@ line network emanating from Plaza San Gabriel in Binondo , running to Intramuros , Malate , Malacañan Palace , Sampaloc and Tondo . The project was approved and in 1882 , Spanish businessman Jacobo Zobel de Zangroniz , Spanish engineer Luciano M. Bremon , and Spanish banker Adolfo Bayo , founded the Compañia de los Tranvias de Filipinas to operate the concession granted by the Spanish colonial government . The Malacañan Palace line was later replaced with a line linking Manila to Malabon , and construction began in 1885 . Four German @-@ made steam @-@ operated locomotives and eight coaches for nine passengers each , composed the initial assets of the company . The Manila @-@ Malabon line was the first line of the new system to be finished , opening to the public on October 20 , 1888 , with the rest of the network opening in 1889 . From the beginning it proved to be a very popular line , with services originating from Tondo as early as 5 : 30 a.m. and ending at 7 : 30 p.m. , while trips from Malabon were from 6 : 00 a.m. until 8 : 00 p.m. , every hour on the hour in the mornings , and every half @-@ hour beginning at 1 : 30 p.m. in the afternoon .
With the American takeover of the Philippines , the Philippine Commission allowed the Manila Electric Railroad and Light Company ( Meralco ) to take over the properties of the Compañia de los Tranvias de Filipinas , with the first of twelve mandated electric tranvia ( tram ) lines operated by Meralco opening in Manila in 1905 . At the end of the first year around 63 kilometers ( 39 mi ) of track had been laid . A five @-@ year reconstruction program was initiated in 1920 , and by 1924 , 170 cars serviced many parts of the city and its outskirts . Although it was an efficient system for the city 's 220 @,@ 000 inhabitants , by the 1930s the streetcar network had stopped expanding .
The system was closed during World War II . By the war 's end , the tram network was damaged beyond repair amid a city that lay in ruins . It was dismantled and jeepneys became the city 's primary form of transportation , plying the routes once served by the tram lines . With the return of buses and cars to the streets , traffic congestion became a problem . In 1966 , the Philippine government granted a franchise to Philippine Monorail Transport Systems ( PMTS ) for the operation of an inner @-@ city monorail . The monorail 's feasibility was still being evaluated when the government asked the Japan International Cooperation Agency ( JICA ) to conduct a separate transport study . Prepared between 1971 and 1973 , the JICA study proposed a series of circumferential and radial roads , an inner @-@ city rapid transit system , a commuter railway , and an expressway with three branches . After further examination , many recommendations were adopted ; however , none of them involved rapid transit and the monorail was never built . PMTS ' franchise subsequently expired in 1974 .
Another study was performed between 1976 and 1977 , this time by Freeman Fox and Associates and funded by the World Bank . It originally suggested a street @-@ level railway , but its recommendations were revised by the newly formed Ministry of Transportation and Communications ( now the DOTC ) . The ministry instead called for an elevated system because of the city 's many intersections . However , the revisions increased the price of the project from ₱ 1 @.@ 5 billion to ₱ 2 billion . A supplementary study was conducted and completed within three months .
President Ferdinand Marcos created the Light Rail Transit Authority ( LRTA ) on July 12 , 1980 , by virtue of Executive Order No. 603 giving birth to what was then dubbed the " Metrorail " . First Lady Imelda Marcos , then governor of Metro Manila and minister of human settlements , became its first chairman . Although responsible for the operations of the LRT @-@ 1 and LRT @-@ 2 , the LRTA primarily confined itself to setting and regulating fares , planning extensions and determining rules and policies , leaving the day @-@ to @-@ day operations to a sister company of Meralco called the Meralco Transit Organization ( METRO Inc . ) . Initial assistance for the project came in the form of a ₱ 300 million soft loan from the Belgian government , with an additional ₱ 700 million coming from a consortium of companies comprising SA Ateliers de Constructions Electriques de Charleroi ( ACEC ) and BN Constructions Ferroviaires et Métalliques ( today both part of Bombardier Transportation ) , Tractionnel Engineering International ( TEI ) and Transurb Consult ( TC ) . Although expected to pay for itself from revenues within twenty years of the start of operation , it was initially estimated that the system would lose money until at least 1993 . For the first year of operation , despite a projected ₱ 365 million in gross revenue , losses of ₱ 216 million were thought likely .
Construction of the LRT Line 1 started in September 1981 with the Construction and Development Corporation of the Philippines ( now the Philippine National Construction Corporation ) as the contractor with assistance from Losinger , a Swiss firm , and the Philippine subsidiary of Dravo , an American firm . The government appointed Electrowatt Engineering Services of Zürich to oversee construction and eventually became responsible for the extension studies of future expansion projects . The line was test @-@ run in March 1984 , and the first half of LRT @-@ 1 , from Baclaran to Central Terminal , was opened on December 1 , 1984 . The second half , from Central Terminal to Monumento , was opened on May 12 , 1985 . Overcrowding and poor maintenance took its toll a few years after opening . In 1990 , the LRT @-@ 1 fell so far into disrepair due to premature wear and tear that trains headed to Central Terminal station had to slow to a crawl to avoid further damage to the support beams below as cracks reportedly began to appear . The premature ageing of LRT @-@ 1 led to an extensive refurbishing and structural capacity expansion program with a help of Japan 's ODA .
For the next few years LRT @-@ 1 operations ran smoothly . In 2000 , however , employees of METRO Inc. went on strike , paralyzing LRT @-@ 1 operations from July 25 to August 2 , 2000 . Consequently , the LRTA did not renew its operating contract with METRO Inc. that expired on July 31 , 2000 , and assumed all operational responsibility . At around 12 : 15 pm on December 30 , 2000 , a bomb — later learned to have been planted by Islamic terrorists — went off in the front coach of a LRT @-@ 1 train pulling into Blumentritt station , killing 11 and injuring over 60 people in the most devastating of a series of attacks that day , now known as the Rizal Day bombings .
With Japan 's ODA amounting to 75 billion yen in total , the construction of the LRT Line 2 began in the 1990s , and the first section of the line , from Santolan to Araneta Center @-@ Cubao , was opened on April 5 , 2003 . The second section , from Araneta Center @-@ Cubao to Legarda , was opened exactly a year later , with the entire line being fully operational by October 29 , 2004 . During that time the LRT @-@ 1 was modernized . Automated fare collection systems using magnetic stripe plastic tickets were installed ; air @-@ conditioned trains added ; pedestrian walkways between Lines 1 , 2 , and MRT @-@ 3 Lines completed . In 2005 , the LRTA made a profit of ₱ 68 million , the first time the agency made a profit since the LRT @-@ 1 became operational in 1984 .
On September 12 , 2015 , Light Rail Manila Corporation ( LRMC ) , a joint venture company of Metro Pacific 's Metro Pacific Light Rail Corporation ( MPLRC ) , Ayala Corporation ’ s AC Infrastructure Holdings Corporation ( AC Infra ) , and the Philippine Investment Alliance for Infrastructure ’ s Macquarie Infrastructure Holdings ( Philippines ) PTE Ltd . ( MIHPL ) , started a 32 @-@ year concession for the operation and maintenance of LRT Line 1 and the construction of a ₱ 65 billion extension project to Bacoor , Cavite .
= = Stations = =
With the exception of Katipunan ( which is underground ) , the LRTA 's 31 stations are elevated . They follow one of two different layouts . Most LRT @-@ 1 stations are composed of only one level , accessible from the street below by stairway , containing the station 's concourse and platform areas separated by fare gates . The boarding platforms measure 100 meters ( 328 ft 1 in ) long and 3 @.@ 5 meters ( 11 ft 6 in ) wide . Baclaran , Central Terminal , Carriedo , Balintawak , Roosevelt and North Avenue stations on the LRT @-@ 1 , and all LRT @-@ 2 stations are composed of two levels : a lower concourse level and an upper platform level ( reversed in the case of Katipunan ) . Fare gates separate the concourse level from the stairs and escalators that provide access to the platform level . All stations have side platforms except for Baclaran , which has one side and one island platform , and Santolan , which has an island platform .
The concourse area at LRTA stations typically contain a passenger assistance office ( PAO ) , ticket purchasing areas ( ticket counters and / or ticket machines ) , and at least one stall that sells food and drinks . Terminal stations also have a public relations office . Stores and ATMs are usually found at street level outside
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jump on and off ladders and walls , and by using the directional pad , he can climb up or down ladders . Ryu can spring off walls by holding the directional pad in the opposite direction he is facing and pressing the jump button . He cannot attack while on walls or ladders . Players can use this technique to get Ryu to climb up spaces between walls and columns by holding down the jump button and alternating between left and right on the directional pad . Ryu can also vertically climb a single wall by springing off it and then quickly pressing the directional pad back towards the wall .
= = Development = =
Ninja Gaiden was developed by Tecmo , who also developed the Tecmo Bowl and Rygar series . The game was released in December 1988 in Japan under the title Ninja Ryukenden , which literally translates to Legend of the Dragon Sword . It was developed and released around the same time as the beat ' em up arcade version of the same name ; neither of the two games were ports of each other but were parallel projects developed by different teams . According to developer Masato Kato ( listed as " Runmaru " in the game 's credits ) , the term " ninja " was gaining popularity in North America , prompting Tecmo to develop a ninja @-@ related game for the NES at the same time the arcade version of Ninja Gaiden was being developed . The NES version was developed and directed by Hideo Yoshizawa ( listed as " Sakurazaki " ) . Ninja Gaiden was also Masato Kato 's first full @-@ time project as a video game designer , and he contributed the game 's graphics , animations and instruction manual illustrations .
Drawing inspiration from the Mario series , Yoshizawa kept the same title but changed everything else ; it became a platformer as opposed to a beat ' em up such as Double Dragon ; the gameplay was modeled after Konami 's Castlevania , with Ryu being equipped with a katana @-@ like Dragon Sword , shurikens , and ninpo techniques such as fire wheels . In designing the protagonist Ryu Hayabusa , the development team wanted him to be unique from other ninjas . They designed him with a ninja vest in order to place emphasis on his muscles , and they furnished him with a cowl that arched outward . They originally wanted to equip Ryu with sensors and a helmet with an inside monitor to check his surroundings , but that idea was scrapped . According to Kato , they utilized specific locations and environments to justify the need for having a ninja for a main character .
Yoshizawa placed greater emphasis on story as opposed to the arcade version , and he wrote and designed the plot that included over 20 minutes of cinematic cutscenes – the first time an NES game contained such sequences . Tecmo called the cutscene system " Tecmo Theater " , in which the game reveals the storyline between Acts through the usage of animated sequences . These sequences are used at the beginning of each Act to introduce new characters such as Irene Lew , Walter Smith , and the Jaquio . This feature uses techniques such as close @-@ ups , alternate camera angles , differing background music , and sound effects . It was used to make the game more enjoyable for players . Unlike earlier titles such as Final Fantasy , the cutscenes consisted of large anime art on the top half of the screen with dialogue on the bottom half . This made the artistic style more reminiscent of other manga titles such as Lupin III and Golgo 13 . Dimitri Criona , Tecmo USA 's director of sales and marketing , said that the advantages of console games over arcade games allowed the creation of a longer game and the inclusion of cutscenes , which Tecmo trademarked as " cinema screens " ; he noted the lack of motivation to drop quarters that has allowed this on home consoles , which required a different reward structure than in arcade games . The game contains a feature that was originally a glitch but left in the final game intentionally , according to Masato Kato . When losing to any of the final three bosses in the game , the player is sent back to the beginning of the sixth act .
When the game 's text was translated from Japanese to English , the game needed to be reprogrammed in order to accomplish this ; different companies handled this process in different ways . Tecmo 's Japanese writers wrote rough translations in English , and they would then fax them to the American division . According to Criona , the American division would " edit it and put it back together , telling the story in a context that an American English speaker would understand . This would go back and forth several times . " Moreover , the game 's text was stored in picture files instead of raw computer text , and because of the NES ' hardware limitations , the English text need to be very clear and concise to fall within those limitations ; many times , different words with the same meaning but with less characters had to be used . All symbols and objects were scrutinized by Nintendo of America , who had specific rules on what could be included for North American releases ; for instance , any Satanic , Christian , or any other religious , sexual , or drug @-@ related references were not allowed .
= = = Release = = =
Since the game 's title was deemed too difficult to read for English audiences , it was renamed when it was released in Western markets . In early 1988 advertisements from Nintendo Fun Club News , Tecmo used Dragon Ninja as a tentative title for the U.S. release . They decided to use the title Ninja Gaiden when the game was released in the U.S. in March 1989 ; the title literally meant " Ninja Side @-@ Story " , but the game was not intended as a spin @-@ off of the arcade version . According to an interview with developer Masato Kato , the staff , determining how to translate " Ryukenden " into English , went with Ninja Gaiden " because it sounded cool " . In Europe , the game was scheduled to be released in September 1990 , but the release was delayed until September 1991 . It was retitled as Shadow Warriors – just as Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles was renamed Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles – as ninjas were considered a taboo subject in Europe . It was one of many ninja @-@ related video games around the time , such as The Legend of Kage , Ninja Warriors , and Shinobi .
Upon Ninja Gaiden 's North American release , Nintendo of America , whose play @-@ testers liked the game and gave it high ratings , decided to help with its marketing . It was featured prominently in Nintendo 's house organ Nintendo Power ; according to Criona , it did not take a lot of effort to market the game through the magazine , nor did Tecmo or Nintendo do much else to promote it . The game 's demand eventually exceeded its supply . While Tecmo anticipated that the game would be a hit , they did not realize at the time its impact it would have in the video game industry , according to Kohler , " with its groundbreaking use of cinematics " . Yoshizawa would go on to direct the sequel Ninja Gaiden II : The Dark Sword of Chaos ( 1990 ) and remained as an executive producer for Ninja Gaiden III : The Ancient Ship of Doom ( 1991 ) , while Masato Kato took over directing the game design .
Ninja Gaiden received preview coverage in the January – February 1989 issue of Nintendo Power in its " Pak Watch " section , where it " got the highest marks of any title we 've [ the magazine 's staff ] seen in a long time " , and that it was expected to be No. 1 on their " Player 's Poll " quickly . The preview compared Ryu 's ability to climb and spring off walls to the gameplay in Metroid . The game was unveiled at the 1989 International Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas , and its display featured a demo of the game and a live person dressed as a ninja . Tecmo predicted that the game would be the top @-@ selling third @-@ party title for the NES .
= = Ports = =
= = = PC Engine = = =
The game was first ported to the PC Engine in 1992 and was published by Hudson Soft and released only in Japan ; it featured an alternate English and Traditional Chinese translation , more colorful and detailed graphics , and difficulty and gameplay tweaks . In order to switch among the three different languages , the player will have to pause the Select + I + II together at the title screen .
= = = SNES = = =
It appeared as a remake for the Ninja Gaiden Trilogy compilation for the Super NES in 1995 . Some reviewers appreciated the redrawn graphics and music in this version , but others found them to be an inadequate effort . Electronic Gaming Monthly reviewers compared it unfavorably to another updated NES remake , Mega Man : The Wily Wars ; they called the version " an exact port @-@ over with no noticeable enhancements in graphics , sound and play control " .
= = = Other ports and re @-@ releases = = =
The Ninja Gaiden has since been ported to other consoles . Along with the other two games in the Ninja Gaiden trilogy , the SNES version was featured as an unlockable game in the 2004 Xbox Ninja Gaiden game .
The NES version was released on Wii 's Virtual Console on April 10 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 04 @-@ 10 ) in Japan and on May 14 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 05 @-@ 14 ) in North America . Europeans , Australians , and New Zealanders have been able to purchase the game as part of " Hanabi Festival " on September 21 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 09 @-@ 21 ) . The PC Engine version was also released for Virtual Console in Japan on April 21 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 04 @-@ 21 ) . The NES version was also released for the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console , with an original release date set for November 8 , 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 11 @-@ 08 ) . However , it was delayed until December 13 , 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 12 @-@ 13 ) .
= = Reception = =
Ninja Gaiden received strong publicity in Nintendo Power in 1989 and 1990 . It was featured on the cover of the magazine 's March – April 1989 issue and was referenced in the following issue in a Howard and Nester comic strip . It was one of the featured games in both March – April and May – June 1989 issues of the magazine ; both issues included a walkthrough up to the fifth Act , a review , and a plot overview . Underlining the game 's difficulty , it appeared in several issues in the magazine 's " Counselor 's Corner " and " Classified Information " help sections . The game debuted at No. 3 on its " Top 30 " list for July – August 1989 , behind Zelda II : The Adventure of Link and Super Mario Bros. 2 ; it stayed at No. 3 in the following September – October 1989 issue . The game was featured in the " Nintendo Power Awards ' 89 " as one of the top games that year . It was nominated for " Best Graphics and Sound " , " Best Challenge " , " Best Theme , Fun " , " Best Character " ( Ryu Hayabusa ) , " Best Ending " , and " Best Overall " ; and it won for " Best Challenge " and " Best Ending " . In its preview of Ninja Gaiden II : The Dark Sword of Chaos , the magazine said that " the colorful , detailed and dynamic cinema scenes of the original Ninja Gaiden set a standard for action game narration that has since been widely emulated . These cinema scenes made Ninja Gaiden play almost like a movie . "
The game received strong reviews and publicity from other video gaming magazines at the time . In a review from VideoGames & Computer Entertainment , the presentation and gameplay was compared to Castlevania , while the cinematic cutscenes were compared favorably to Karateka and other computer games by Cinemaware . The review praised the game 's animation in these cutscenes and noted Tecmo 's usage of close @-@ ups and body movements . The reviewer said that while the cutscenes were not fluid , they were effective and entertaining and gave important information as to what the player was supposed to do . He appreciated that the game had unlimited continues which slightly offset its difficulty , but he criticized it for having overdetailed background graphics especially in the indoor levels , saying that some bottomless pits and items in these levels become slightly camouflaged . From July to October 1989 , the game was listed at No. 1 on Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Top Ten Video Games " list ; it fell to No. 2 on the list behind Mega Man 2 in the following November issue . In their " Best and Worst of 1989 " , it received awards for " Best Game of the Year " for the NES and " Best Ending in a Video Game " for all consoles . The staff said that Ninja Gaiden " proved to be an instant winner " with its cinematic cutscenes and unique gameplay . They added that the game 's climax was better than some movies ' climaxes at the time and that it established continuity for a sequel , which would be released the following year . Later in June 1994 , the magazine ranked it at No. 4 in a special list of " Top Ten Most Difficult Games " of all time for all consoles .
Ninja Gaiden was featured on the cover of the pilot issue of UK magazine Mean Machines in July 1990 ; the magazine was distributed as part of the July 1990 issue of Computer and Video Games . In its review , Julian Rignall compared the game to its beat ' em up arcade counterpart , which was titled Shadow Warriors . He noted that the game has great graphics that feature diverse backgrounds and character sprites ; he gave special praise to its usage of cartoon @-@ like animation sequences between Acts in which the game 's plot unfolds . He enjoyed the game 's difficulty especially with the bosses , but he noted that the game will seem tough at first until players get accustomed to the controls . He criticized the game for its sound , which he said did not fit with the graphics and was " racy " , but said that " what 's there is atmospheric and suits the action " . He highly recommended the game to fans of the beat ' em up and combat genres .
The game ( the NES version now officially titled Shadow Warriors in Europe ) was reviewed again in Mean Machines ' July 1991 issue . In the review , Matt Regan and Paul Glancey praised the game 's detailed and animated character sprites and its difficulty level . Regan was impressed with the game 's high standards of gameplay , sound , and overall depth ; he noted the game 's frustrating difficulty but pointed out that it has unlimited continues . Glancey compared the game to the 1990 NES version of Batman with the similarities of wall @-@ jumping mechanics ; he said that its graphics were not as well @-@ developed as Batman 's but were still satisfactory . He praised its detailed sprites and their animations along with the " Tecmo Theater " concept , noting that the cutscenes " help supply a lot of atmosphere " . He said that it is of the best arcade @-@ style games on the NES as well as the best ninja @-@ related game on the system .
The game received some praise and criticism in the August 1991 issue of German magazine Power Play . The review praised the game for its attention to detail and challenge and noted that players need to master certain gameplay skills to move on . Criticisms included a " lack of variety " and dullness in gameplay , in which it was compared to a " visit to the tax office " . The PC Engine version was briefly mentioned in the December 1991 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly as part of a review of games that have been released outside the U.S. They noted the faithful translation from the NES version as well as the revamped and more detailed graphics ; they said that " PC Engine owners should not miss this one ! "
= = = Legacy = = =
In 2004 , Tecmo began releasing low @-@ priced episodic installments of Ninja Gaiden for AT & T and Verizon mobile phones on both BREW and Java platforms . The official English Tecmo Games mobile website advertised it for a future release along with a mobile version of Tecmo Bowl . They planned to release the entire game throughout 2004 in a series of four installments – similar to what Upstart Games did when they ported the NES version of Castlevania to mobile phones . The port featured the same visuals and soundtrack found on the NES version , and each installment was to consist of several levels of gameplay at a time . The first installment , titled Ninja Gaiden Episode I : Destiny , was released on July 15 , 2004 ( 2004 @-@ 07 @-@ 15 ) , and it included only the first Act from the NES version but added two new levels . The second installment was planned to be released in North America and was previewed by GameSpot in September 2004 , but it – along with the third and fourth installments – was never released .
The mobile phone port of Ninja Gaiden was met with some praise and criticism . IGN 's Levi Buchanan and GameSpot 's Damon Brown praised the port for its accurate translation from the NES to mobile phones , saying that the gameplay , graphics , and cinematic cutscenes remain true to the NES version . They praised the game 's controls , despite the game 's omission of the ability to duck so that pressing " down " on the phone 's directional pad could be used for secondary weapons ; Brown said the port had better controls than most other mobile phone games at the time . They both criticized the port for its lack of sound quality , but Buchanan said that this was not Tecmo 's fault . In a preview of the port , GameSpot 's Avery Score pointed to generally inferior American @-@ made handsets as the reason for its sound shortcomings .
Retro Gamer took a look back at Ninja Gaiden in its March 2004 issue , in the midst of the release of the 2004 Xbox remake . They said that the game broke the mold of conventional video game titles by including a plot with cinematic cutscenes added between gameplay segments . They added that the concept of adding cinematics for a game 's introduction , plot , and ending was a new concept which " naturally impressed the gaming public " . They noted the game 's high difficulty level , saying that the game " threw up an immense challenge even for the veteran gamer , and almost dared you to complete it mentally and physically intact " . Chris Kohler , in his 2004 book Power @-@ Up : How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life , said , while it wasn 't as far @-@ reaching as Tecmo Bowl , " it ended up revolutionizing video games with its courageous , unique , and trailblazing use of cinema scenes " .
Upon its release on the Virtual Console , Ninja Gaiden was met with high praise , especially for its elaborate story , amount of narrative , and usage of anime @-@ like cinematic sequences . Some critics have bemoaned its gameplay for being too similar to Castlevania ; similarities include identical displays on the top of the screen , items contained in breakable lanterns , and a nearly identical " secondary weapons " feature . A 1UP.com review noted that the two games have different dynamics and that several actions possible in Ninja Gaiden would be impossible in Castlevania . Contemporary reviews have considered the game " groundbreaking " for its pioneering use of stylized cutscenes , high quality music , and dark atmosphere . One review said that the game makes up for its high difficulty level with good gameplay . IGN said that it is one of the best platforming video games of all time .
Reviewers have criticized the game for its high and unforgiving difficulty level especially late in the game . A review from 1UP.com referred to the latter levels as an " unfair display of intentional cheapness " . In his review of the Virtual Console version , GameSpot 's Alex Navarro said " the game will beat you to a pulp " and that it " assaults you time and time again with its punishing difficulty , insidiously placed enemies , and rage @-@ inducing boss fights " . According to his review , the game starts easy , but the difficulty starts to increase halfway through the second Act and continues through the sixth Act ; Navarro describes the sixth Act 's difficulty as being " one of the bottom levels of gaming hell " . IGN said that this game was one of the most difficult video games of all time , setting the trend for the rest of the series ; however , they pointed out that its difficulty and graphics are " defining characteristics [ that ] have carried over through the years into modern day [ Ninja ] Gaiden sequels " . ScrewAttack listed the game as the seventh hardest title in the NES library .
Over fifteen years after its creation , Ninja Gaiden has maintained its position as one of the most popular games for the NES . A 2006 Joystiq reader poll , with over 12 @,@ 000 votes , listed the game at No. 10 in a list of top NES games . Another reader poll from GameSpot listed the game at No. 10 in its top 10 NES games list . It was No. 17 on IGN 's " Top 100 NES Games " list . In August 2001 in its 100th issue , Game Informer listed the game at No. 93 in their " Top 100 Games of All Time " list . In 2006 Electronic Gaming Monthly featured a follow @-@ up to their " The 200 Greatest Videogames of Their Time " , in which readers wrote in and discussed games they felt were ignored on the list ; the game was listed at No. 16 in the top 25 games discussed . At the end of 2005 , Nintendo Power ran a serial feature titled " The Top 200 Nintendo Games Ever " . The list , which included games for all Nintendo systems , had the game at No. 89 . In August 2008 , the same magazine ranked it the tenth best NES game of all time ; they praised the gameplay and described the cinematic cutscenes as revolutionary for its time . The game 's music received honorable mention in IGN 's list of " Best 8 @-@ Bit Soundtracks " . Its introduction was featured in IGN 's " Top 100 Video Game Moments " list at # 53 ; it was also listed as the second best video game cutscene of all time in Complex magazine .
Nintendo Power honored the game in its November 2010 issue , which celebrated the 25th anniversary of the NES . The magazine listed its box art , which depicts a ninja with a burning city in the background , as one of its favorite designs in the NES library . The magazine 's Editor in Chief Chris Slate was equally impressed by the game 's box art . He also reminisced the game 's high level of difficulty with its re @-@ spawning enemies and enemy birds that knocked players into pits , saying this game " may have taught me how to curse " . He further praised gameplay features such as clinging on walls and using ninpo techniques , and he noted the game 's cinematic cutscenes , including the ominous opening sequence that featured two ninjas who launch into the air at each other and clashing their swords in the moonlight . He said that " Ninja Gaiden was about as cool as an 8 @-@ bit game could be , especially for ninja @-@ crazed kids of the ' 80s who , like me , had worn out their VHS copies of Enter the Ninja " . In a July 2011 issue , Retro Gamer listed the game 's opening as one of the most popular ones at the time . The magazine noted how its usage of cutscenes , animations , and overall presentation put the game above most other action titles at the time . While it lauded the controls and gameplay elements , as with other reviews , it criticized the difficulty , calling it " one of the most challenging games on the console " . It noted how defeated enemies re @-@ spawn in certain spots , how enemies are placed on the edges of platforms , and the structure of the final level .
= = Related media = =
In July 1990 Scholastic Corporation published a novelization of Ninja Gaiden under the Worlds of Power series of NES game adaptations , created and packaged by Seth Godin under the pseudonym " F. X. Nine " . Godin and Peter Lerangis , under the pseudonym " A. L. Singer " , wrote the novelization . As with the other Worlds of Power books , the amount of violence present in the video game was toned down in the novelization , because Godin and Scholastic were concerned that some of the material in the video game was inappropriate for a young audience . The novel did not strictly adhere to the game 's storyline ; for instance , the ending was changed so that Ryu 's father survived . Ryu 's father remained alive in the story because Godin believed that the revised ending was consistent with the Worlds of Power character and as real @-@ life fathers Godin and Lerangis felt reluctance to leave Ryu without a father . The book 's cover , otherwise a replication of the North American box art , had the kunai held in Ryu 's front hand was airbrushed out , leaving him to prod the air with an empty fist .
A soundtrack CD , Ninja Ryukenden : Tecmo GSM @-@ 1 , was released by Pony Canyon in February 1989 . The first half of the CD starts with an arranged medley of the game 's music . It then continues with enhanced versions of the game 's music which utilized stereophonic sound and additional PCM channels . The remainder of the CD features music from the arcade version .
= Synthetic diamond =
A synthetic diamond ( also known as an artificial diamond , cultured diamond , or cultivated diamond ) is diamond produced in an artificial process , as opposed to natural diamonds , which are created by geological processes . Synthetic diamond is also widely known as HPHT diamond or CVD diamond after the two common production methods ( referring to the high @-@ pressure high @-@ temperature and chemical vapor deposition crystal formation methods , respectively ) . While the term synthetic is associated by consumers with imitation products , artificial diamonds are made of the same material ( pure carbon , crystallized in isotropic 3D form ) . In the U.S. , the Federal Trade Commission has indicated that the alternative terms laboratory @-@ grown , laboratory @-@ created , and [ manufacturer @-@ name ] -created " would more clearly communicate the nature of the stone " .
Numerous claims of diamond synthesis were documented between 1879 and 1928 ; most of those attempts were carefully analyzed but none were confirmed . In the 1940s , systematic research began in the United States , Sweden and the Soviet Union to grow diamonds using CVD and HPHT processes . The first reproducible synthesis was reported around 1953 . Those two processes still dominate the production of synthetic diamond . A third method , known as detonation synthesis , entered the diamond market in the late 1990s . In this process , nanometer @-@ sized diamond grains are created in a detonation of carbon @-@ containing explosives . A fourth method , treating graphite with high @-@ power ultrasound , has been demonstrated in the laboratory , but currently has no commercial application .
The properties of synthetic diamond depend on the details of the manufacturing processes ; however , some synthetic diamonds ( whether formed by HPHT or CVD ) have properties such as hardness , thermal conductivity and electron mobility that are superior to those of most naturally formed diamonds . Synthetic diamond is widely used in abrasives , in cutting and polishing tools and in heat sinks . Electronic applications of synthetic diamond are being developed , including high @-@ power switches at power stations , high @-@ frequency field @-@ effect transistors and light @-@ emitting diodes . Synthetic diamond detectors of ultraviolet ( UV ) light or high @-@ energy particles are used at high @-@ energy research facilities and are available commercially . Because of its unique combination of thermal and chemical stability , low thermal expansion and high optical transparency in a wide spectral range , synthetic diamond is becoming the most popular material for optical windows in high @-@ power CO2 lasers and gyrotrons . It is estimated that 98 % of industrial grade diamond demand is supplied with synthetic diamonds .
Both CVD and HPHT diamonds can be cut into gems and various colors can be produced : clear white , yellow , brown , blue , green and orange . The appearance of synthetic gems on the market created major concerns in the diamond trading business , as a result of which special spectroscopic devices and techniques have been developed to distinguish synthetic and natural diamonds .
= = History = =
After the 1797 discovery that diamond was pure carbon , many attempts were made to convert various cheap forms of carbon into diamond . The earliest successes were reported by James Ballantyne Hannay in 1879 and by Ferdinand Frédéric Henri Moissan in 1893 . Their method involved heating charcoal at up to 3500 ° C with iron inside a carbon crucible in a furnace . Whereas Hannay used a flame @-@ heated tube , Moissan applied his newly developed electric arc furnace , in which an electric arc was struck between carbon rods inside blocks of lime . The molten iron was then rapidly cooled by immersion in water . The contraction generated by the cooling supposedly produced the high pressure required to transform graphite into diamond . Moissan published his work in a series of articles in the 1890s .
Many other scientists tried to replicate his experiments . Sir William Crookes claimed success in 1909 . Otto Ruff claimed in 1917 to have produced diamonds up to 7 mm in diameter , but later retracted his statement . In 1926 , Dr. J Willard Hershey of McPherson College replicated Moissan 's and Ruff 's experiments , producing a synthetic diamond ; that specimen is on display at the McPherson Museum in Kansas . Despite the claims of Moissan , Ruff , and Hershey , other experimenters were unable to reproduce their synthesis .
The most definitive replication attempts were performed by Sir Charles Algernon Parsons . A prominent scientist and engineer known for his invention of the steam turbine , he spent about 40 years ( 1882 – 1922 ) and a considerable part of his fortune trying to reproduce the experiments of Moissan and Hannay , but also adapted processes of his own . Parsons was known for his painstakingly accurate approach and methodical record keeping ; all his resulting samples were preserved for further analysis by an independent party . He wrote a number of articles — some of the earliest on HPHT diamond — in which he claimed to have produced small diamonds . However , in 1928 , he authorized Dr. C.H. Desch to publish an article in which he stated his belief that no synthetic diamonds ( including those of Moissan and others ) had been produced up to that date . He suggested that most diamonds that had been produced up to that point were likely synthetic spinel .
= = = GE diamond project = = =
In 1941 , an agreement was made between the General Electric ( GE ) , Norton and Carborundum companies to further develop diamond synthesis . They were able to heat carbon to about 3 @,@ 000 ° C ( 5 @,@ 430 ° F ) under a pressure of 3 @.@ 5 gigapascals ( 510 @,@ 000 psi ) for a few seconds . Soon thereafter , the Second World War interrupted the project . It was resumed in 1951 at the Schenectady Laboratories of GE , and a high @-@ pressure diamond group was formed with Francis P. Bundy and H.M. Strong . Tracy Hall and others joined this project shortly thereafter .
The Schenectady group improved on the anvils designed by Percy Bridgman , who received a Nobel Prize for his work in 1946 . Bundy and Strong made the first improvements , then more were made by Hall . The GE team used tungsten carbide anvils within a hydraulic press to squeeze the carbonaceous sample held in a catlinite container , the finished grit being squeezed out of the container into a gasket . The team recorded diamond synthesis on one occasion , but the experiment could not be reproduced because of uncertain synthesis conditions , and the diamond was later shown to have been a natural diamond used as a seed .
Hall achieved the first commercially successful synthesis of diamond on December 16 , 1954 , and this was announced on February 15 , 1955 . His breakthrough was using a " belt " press , which was capable of producing pressures above 10 GPa ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 psi ) and temperatures above 2 @,@ 000 ° C ( 3 @,@ 630 ° F ) . The press used a pyrophyllite container in which graphite was dissolved within molten nickel , cobalt or iron . Those metals acted as a " solvent @-@ catalyst " , which both dissolved carbon and accelerated its conversion into diamond . The largest diamond he produced was 0 @.@ 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 0059 in ) across ; it was too small and visually imperfect for jewelry , but usable in industrial abrasives . Hall 's co @-@ workers were able to replicate his work , and the discovery was published in the major journal Nature . He was the first person to grow a synthetic diamond with a reproducible , verifiable and well @-@ documented process . He left GE in 1955 , and three years later developed a new apparatus for the synthesis of diamond — a tetrahedral press with four anvils — to avoid violating a U.S. Department of Commerce secrecy order on the GE patent applications . Hall received the American Chemical Society Award for Creative Invention for his work in diamond synthesis .
= = = Later developments = = =
An independent diamond synthesis was achieved on February 16 , 1953 in Stockholm by the ASEA ( Allmänna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget ) , one of Sweden 's major electrical manufacturing companies . Starting in 1949 , ASEA employed a team of five scientists and engineers as part of a top @-@ secret diamond @-@ making project code @-@ named QUINTUS . The team used a bulky split @-@ sphere apparatus designed by Baltzar von Platen and Anders Kämpe . Pressure was maintained within the device at an estimated 8 @.@ 4 GPa for an hour . A few small diamonds were produced , but not of gem quality or size . The work was not reported until the 1980s . During the 1980s , a new competitor emerged in Korea , a company named Iljin Diamond ; it was followed by hundreds of Chinese enterprises . Iljin Diamond allegedly accomplished diamond synthesis in 1988 by misappropriating trade secrets from GE via a Korean former GE employee .
Synthetic gem @-@ quality diamond crystals were first produced in 1970 by GE , then reported in 1971 . The first successes used a pyrophyllite tube seeded at each end with thin pieces of diamond . The graphite feed material was placed in the center and the metal solvent ( nickel ) between the graphite and the seeds . The container was heated and the pressure was raised to about 5 @.@ 5 GPa . The crystals grow as they flow from the center to the ends of the tube , and extending the length of the process produces larger crystals . Initially , a week @-@ long growth process produced gem @-@ quality stones of around 5 mm ( 1 carat or 0 @.@ 2 g ) , and the process conditions had to be as stable as possible . The graphite feed was soon replaced by diamond grit because that allowed much better control of the shape of the final crystal .
The first gem @-@ quality stones were always yellow to brown in color because of contamination with nitrogen . Inclusions were common , especially " plate @-@ like " ones from the nickel . Removing all nitrogen from the process by adding aluminium or titanium produced colorless " white " stones , and removing the nitrogen and adding boron produced blue ones . Removing nitrogen also slowed the growth process and reduced the crystalline quality , so the process was normally run with nitrogen present .
Although the GE stones and natural diamonds were chemically identical , their physical properties were not the same . The colorless stones produced strong fluorescence and phosphorescence under short @-@ wavelength ultraviolet light , but were inert under long @-@ wave UV . Among natural diamonds , only the rarer blue gems exhibit these properties . Unlike natural diamonds , all the GE stones showed strong yellow fluorescence under X @-@ rays . The De Beers Diamond Research Laboratory has grown stones of up to 25 carats ( 5 @.@ 0 g ) for research purposes . Stable HPHT conditions were kept for six weeks to grow high @-@ quality diamonds of this size . For economic reasons , the growth of most synthetic diamonds is terminated when they reach a mass of 1 carat ( 200 mg ) to 1 @.@ 5 carats ( 300 mg ) .
In the 1950s , research started in the Soviet Union and the US on the growth of diamond by pyrolysis of hydrocarbon gases at the relatively low temperature of 800 ° C. This low @-@ pressure process is known as chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) . William G. Eversole reportedly achieved vapor deposition of diamond over diamond substrate in 1953 , but it was not reported until 1962 . Diamond film deposition was independently reproduced by Angus and coworkers in 1968 and by Deryagin and Fedoseev in 1970 . Whereas Eversole and Angus used large , expensive , single @-@ crystal diamonds as substrates , Deryagin and Fedoseev succeeded in making diamond films on non @-@ diamond materials ( silicon and metals ) , which led to massive research on inexpensive diamond coatings in the 1980s .
In recent years , there has been a rise in cases of undisclosed synthetic diamond melee being found in set jewelry and within diamond parcels sold in the trade . Due to the relatively inexpensive cost of diamond melee , as well as relative lack of universal knowledge for identifying large quantities of melee efficiently , not all dealers have made an effort to test diamond melee to correctly identify whether it is of natural or man @-@ made origin . However , international laboratories are now beginning to tackle the issue head @-@ on , with significant improvements in synthetic melee identification being made .
= = Manufacturing technologies = =
There are several methods used to produce synthetic diamond . The original method uses high pressure and high temperature ( HPHT ) and is still widely used because of its relatively low cost . The process involves large presses that can weigh hundreds of tons to produce a pressure of 5 GPa at 1500 ° C. The second method , using chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) , creates a carbon plasma over a substrate onto which the carbon atoms deposit to form diamond . Other methods include explosive formation ( forming detonation nanodiamonds ) and sonication of graphite solutions .
= = = High pressure , high temperature = = =
In the HPHT method , there are three main press designs used to supply the pressure and temperature necessary to produce synthetic diamond : the belt press , the cubic press and the split @-@ sphere ( BARS ) press . Diamond seeds are placed at the bottom of the press . The internal part of press is heated above 1400 ° C and melts the solvent metal . The molten metal dissolves the high purity carbon source , which is then transported to the small diamond seeds and precipitates , forming a large synthetic diamond .
The original GE invention by Tracy Hall uses the belt press wherein the upper and lower anvils supply the pressure load to a cylindrical inner cell . This internal pressure is confined radially by a belt of pre @-@ stressed steel bands . The anvils also serve as electrodes providing electric current to the compressed cell . A variation of the belt press uses hydraulic pressure , rather than steel belts , to confine the internal pressure . Belt presses are still used today , but they are built on a much larger scale than those of the original design .
The second type of press design is the cubic press . A cubic press has six anvils which provide pressure simultaneously onto all faces of a cube @-@ shaped volume . The first multi @-@ anvil press design was a tetrahedral press , using four anvils to converge upon a tetrahedron @-@ shaped volume . The cubic press was created shortly thereafter to increase the volume to which pressure could be applied . A cubic press is typically smaller than a belt press and can more rapidly achieve the pressure and temperature necessary to create synthetic diamond . However , cubic presses cannot be easily scaled up to larger volumes : the pressurized volume can be increased by using larger anvils , but this also increases the amount of force needed on the anvils to achieve the same pressure . An alternative is to decrease the surface area to volume ratio of the pressurized volume , by using more anvils to converge upon a higher @-@ order platonic solid , such as a dodecahedron . However , such a press would be complex and difficult to manufacture .
The BARS apparatus is the most compact , efficient , and economical of all the diamond @-@ producing presses . In the center of a BARS device , there is a ceramic cylindrical " synthesis capsule " of about 2 cm3 in size . The cell is placed into a cube of pressure @-@ transmitting material , such as pyrophyllite ceramics , which is pressed by inner anvils made from cemented carbide ( e.g. , tungsten carbide or VK10 hard alloy ) . The outer octahedral cavity is pressed by 8 steel outer anvils . After mounting , the whole assembly is locked in a disc @-@ type barrel with a diameter about 1 meter . The barrel is filled with oil , which pressurizes upon heating , and the oil pressure is transferred to the central cell . The synthesis capsule is heated up by a coaxial graphite heater and the temperature is measured with a thermocouple .
= = = Chemical vapor deposition = = =
Chemical vapor deposition is a method by which diamond can be grown from a hydrocarbon gas mixture . Since the early 1980s , this method has been the subject of intensive worldwide research . Whereas the mass @-@ production of high @-@ quality diamond crystals make the HPHT process the more suitable choice for industrial applications , the flexibility and simplicity of CVD setups explain the popularity of CVD growth in laboratory research . The advantages of CVD diamond growth include the ability to grow diamond over large areas and on various substrates , and the fine control over the chemical impurities and thus properties of the diamond produced . Unlike HPHT , CVD process does not require high pressures , as the growth typically occurs at pressures under 27 kPa .
The CVD growth involves substrate preparation , feeding varying amounts of gases into a chamber and energizing them . The substrate preparation includes choosing an appropriate material and its crystallographic orientation ; cleaning it , often with a diamond powder to abrade a non @-@ diamond substrate ; and optimizing the substrate temperature ( about 800 ° C ) during the growth through a series of test runs . The gases always include a carbon source , typically methane , and hydrogen with a typical ratio of 1 : 99 . Hydrogen is essential because it selectively etches off non @-@ diamond carbon . The gases are ionized into chemically active radicals in the growth chamber using microwave power , a hot filament , an arc discharge , a welding torch , a laser , an electron beam , or other means .
During the growth , the chamber materials are etched off by the plasma and can incorporate into the growing diamond . In particular , CVD diamond is often contaminated by silicon originating from the silica windows of the growth chamber or from the silicon substrate . Therefore , silica windows are either avoided or moved away from the substrate . Boron @-@ containing species in the chamber , even at very low trace levels , also make it unsuitable for the growth of pure diamond .
= = = Detonation of explosives = = =
Diamond nanocrystals ( 5 nm in diameter ) can be formed by detonating certain carbon @-@ containing explosives in a metal chamber . These nanocrystals are called " detonation nanodiamond " . During the explosion , the pressure and temperature in the chamber become high enough to convert the carbon of the explosives into diamond . Being immersed in water , the chamber cools rapidly after the explosion , suppressing conversion of newly produced diamond into more stable graphite . In a variation of this technique , a metal tube filled with graphite powder is placed in the detonation chamber . The explosion heats and compresses the graphite to an extent sufficient for its conversion into diamond . The product is always rich in graphite and other non @-@ diamond carbon forms and requires prolonged boiling in hot nitric acid ( about 1 day at 250 ° C ) to dissolve them . The recovered nanodiamond powder is used primarily in polishing applications . It is mainly produced in China , Russia and Belarus and started reaching the market in bulk quantities by the early 2000s .
= = = Ultrasound cavitation = = =
Micron @-@ sized diamond crystals can be synthesized from a suspension of graphite in organic liquid at atmospheric pressure and room temperature using ultrasonic cavitation . The diamond yield is about 10 % of the initial graphite weight . The estimated cost of diamond produced by this method is comparable to that of the HPHT method ; the crystalline perfection of the product is significantly worse for the ultrasonic synthesis . This technique requires relatively simple equipment and procedures , but it has only been reported by two research groups , and has no industrial use as of 2012 . Numerous process parameters , such as preparation of the initial graphite powder , the choice of ultrasonic power , synthesis time and the solvent , are not yet optimized , leaving a window for potential improvement of the efficiency and reduction of the cost of the ultrasonic synthesis .
= = Properties = =
Traditionally , the absence of crystal flaws is considered to be the most important quality of a diamond . Purity and high crystalline perfection make diamonds transparent and clear , whereas its hardness , optical dispersion ( luster ) and chemical stability ( combined with marketing ) , make it a popular gemstone . High thermal conductivity is also important for technical applications . Whereas high optical dispersion is an intrinsic property of all diamonds , their other properties vary depending on how the diamond was created .
= = = Crystallinity = = =
Diamond can be one single , continuous crystal or it can be made up of many smaller crystals ( polycrystal ) . Large , clear and transparent single @-@ crystal diamonds are typically used in gemstones . Polycrystalline diamond ( PCD ) consists of numerous small grains , which are easily seen by the naked eye through strong light absorption and scattering ; it is unsuitable for gems and is used for industrial applications such as mining and cutting tools . Polycrystalline diamond is often described by the average size ( or grain size ) of the crystals that make it up . Grain sizes range from nanometers to hundreds of micrometers , usually referred to as " nanocrystalline " and " microcrystalline " diamond , respectively .
= = = Hardness = = =
Synthetic diamond is the hardest material known , where hardness is defined as resistance to indentation . The hardness of synthetic diamond depends on its purity , crystalline perfection and orientation : hardness is higher for flawless , pure crystals oriented to the [ 111 ] direction ( along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice ) . Nanocrystalline diamond produced through CVD diamond growth can have a hardness ranging from 30 % to 75 % of that of single crystal diamond , and the hardness can be controlled for specific applications . Some synthetic single @-@ crystal diamonds and HPHT nanocrystalline diamonds ( see hyperdiamond ) are harder than any known natural diamond .
= = = Impurities and inclusions = = =
Every diamond contains atoms other than carbon in concentrations detectable by analytical techniques . Those atoms can aggregate into macroscopic phases called inclusions . Impurities are generally avoided , but can be introduced intentionally as a way to control certain properties of the diamond . Growth processes of synthetic diamond , using solvent @-@ catalysts , generally lead to formation of a number of impurity @-@ related complex centers , involving transition metal atoms ( such as nickel , cobalt or iron ) , which affect the electronic properties of the material .
For instance , pure diamond is an electrical insulator , but diamond with boron added is an electrical conductor ( and , in some cases , a superconductor ) , allowing it to be used in electronic applications . Nitrogen impurities hinder movement of lattice dislocations ( defects within the crystal structure ) and put the lattice under compressive stress , thereby increasing hardness and toughness .
= = = Thermal conductivity = = =
Unlike most electrical insulators , pure diamond is a good conductor of heat because of the strong covalent bonding within the crystal . The thermal conductivity of pure diamond is the highest of any known solid . Single crystals of synthetic diamond enriched in 12C ( 99 @.@ 9 % ) , isotopically pure diamond , have the highest thermal conductivity of any material , 30 W / cm · K at room temperature , 7 @.@ 5 times higher than copper . Natural diamond 's conductivity is reduced by 1 @.@ 1 % by the 13C naturally present , which acts as an inhomogeneity in the lattice .
Diamond 's thermal conductivity is made use of by jewelers and gemologists who may employ an electronic thermal probe to separate diamonds from their imitations . These probes consist of a pair of battery @-@ powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip . One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip : if the stone being tested is a diamond , it will conduct the tip 's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop . This test takes about 2 – 3 seconds .
= = Applications = =
= = = Machining and cutting tools = = =
Most industrial applications of synthetic diamond have long been associated with their hardness ; this property makes diamond the ideal material for machine tools and cutting tools . As the hardest known naturally occurring material , diamond can be used to polish , cut , or wear away any material , including other diamonds . Common industrial applications of this ability include diamond @-@ tipped drill bits and saws , and the use of diamond powder as an abrasive . These are by far the largest industrial applications of synthetic diamond . While natural diamond is also used for these purposes , synthetic HPHT diamond is more popular , mostly because of better reproducibility of its mechanical properties . Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high speeds , as carbon is soluble in iron at the high temperatures created by high @-@ speed machining , leading to greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives .
The usual form of diamond in cutting tools is micrometer @-@ sized grains dispersed in a metal matrix ( usually cobalt ) sintered onto the tool . This is typically referred to in industry as polycrystalline diamond ( PCD ) . PCD @-@ tipped tools can be found in mining and cutting applications . For the past fifteen years , work has been done to coat metallic tools with CVD diamond , and though the work still shows promise it has not significantly replaced traditional PCD tools .
= = = Thermal conductor = = =
Most materials with high thermal conductivity are also electrically conductive , such as metals . In contrast , pure synthetic diamond has high thermal conductivity , but negligible electrical conductivity . This combination is invaluable for electronics where diamond is used as a heat sink for high @-@ power laser diodes , laser arrays and high @-@ power transistors . Efficient heat dissipation prolongs the lifetime of those electronic devices , and the devices ' high replacement costs justify the use of efficient , though relatively expensive , diamond heat sinks . In semiconductor technology , synthetic diamond heat spreaders prevent silicon and other semiconducting materials from overheating .
= = = Optical material = = =
Diamond is hard , chemically inert , and has high thermal conductivity and a low coefficient of thermal expansion . These properties make diamond superior to any other existing window material used for transmitting infrared and microwave radiation . Therefore , synthetic diamond is starting to replace zinc selenide as the output window of high @-@ power CO2 lasers and gyrotrons . Those synthetic diamond windows are shaped as disks of large diameters ( about 10 cm for gyrotrons ) and small thicknesses ( to reduce absorption ) and can only be produced with the CVD technique .
Recent advances in the HPHT and CVD synthesis techniques improved the purity and crystallographic structure perfection of single @-@ crystalline diamond enough to replace silicon as a diffraction grating and window material in high @-@ power radiation sources , such as synchrotrons . Both the CVD and HPHT processes are also used to create designer optically transparent diamond anvils as a tool for measuring electric and magnetic properties of materials at ultra high pressures using a diamond anvil cell .
= = = Electronics = = =
Synthetic diamond has potential uses as a semiconductor , because it can be doped with impurities like boron and phosphorus . Since these elements contain one more or one less valence electron than carbon , they turn synthetic diamond into p @-@ type or n @-@ type semiconductor . Making a p – n junction by sequential doping of synthetic diamond with boron and phosphorus produces light @-@ emitting diodes ( LEDs ) producing UV light of 235 nm . Another useful property of synthetic diamond for electronics is high carrier mobility , which reaches 4500 cm2 / ( V · s ) for electrons in single @-@ crystal CVD diamond . High mobility is favorable for high @-@ frequency field @-@ effect transistors . The wide band gap of diamond ( 5 @.@ 5 eV ) gives it excellent dielectric properties . Combined with the high mechanical stability of diamond , those properties are being used in prototype high @-@ power switches for power stations .
Synthetic diamond transistors have been produced in the laboratory . They are functional at much higher temperatures than silicon devices , and are resistant to chemical and radiation damage . While no diamond transistors have yet been successfully integrated into commercial electronics , they are promising for use in exceptionally high @-@ power situations and hostile non @-@ oxidizing environments .
Synthetic diamond is already used as radiation detection device . It is radiation hard and has a wide bandgap of 5 @.@ 5 eV ( at room temperature ) . Diamond is also distinguished from most other semiconductors by the lack of a stable native oxide . This makes it difficult to fabricate surface MOS devices , but it does create the potential for UV radiation to gain access to the active semiconductor without absorption in a surface layer . Because of these properties , it is employed in applications such as the BaBar detector at the Stanford Linear Accelerator and BOLD ( Blind to the Optical Light Detectors for VUV solar observations ) . A diamond VUV detector recently was used in the European LYRA program .
Conductive CVD diamond is a useful electrode under many circumstances . Photochemical methods have been developed for covalently linking DNA to the surface of polycrystalline diamond films produced through CVD . Such DNA modified films can be used for detecting various biomolecules , which would interact with DNA thereby changing electrical conductivity of the diamond film . In addition , diamonds can be used to detect redox reactions that cannot ordinarily be studied and in some cases degrade redox @-@ reactive organic contaminants in water supplies . Because diamond is mechanically and chemically stable , it can be used as an electrode under conditions that would destroy traditional materials . As an electrode , synthetic diamond can be used in waste water treatment of organic effluents and the production of strong oxidants .
= = = Gemstones = = =
Synthetic diamonds for use as gemstones are grown by HPHT or CVD methods , and currently represent approximately 2 % of the gem @-@ quality diamond market . However , there are indications that the market share of synthetic jewelry @-@ quality diamonds may grow as advances in technology allows for larger higher @-@ quality synthetic production on a more economic scale . They are available in yellow and blue , and to a lesser extent colorless ( or white ) . The yellow color comes from nitrogen impurities in the manufacturing process , while the blue color comes from boron . Other colors , such as pink or green , are achievable after synthesis using irradiation . Several companies also offer memorial diamonds grown using cremated remains .
Gem @-@ quality diamonds grown in a lab can be chemically , physically and optically identical ( and sometimes superior ) to naturally occurring ones . The mined diamond industry has undertaken legal , marketing and distribution countermeasures to protect its market from the emerging presence of synthetic diamonds . Synthetic diamonds can be distinguished by spectroscopy in the infrared , ultraviolet , or X @-@ ray wavelengths . The DiamondView tester from De Beers uses UV fluorescence to detect trace impurities of nitrogen , nickel or other metals in HPHT or CVD diamonds .
At least one maker of laboratory @-@ grown diamonds has made public statements about being " committed to disclosure " of the nature of its diamonds , and laser @-@ inscribes serial numbers on all of its gemstones . The company web site shows an example of the lettering of one of its laser inscriptions , which includes both the words " Gemesis created " and the serial number prefix " LG " ( laboratory grown ) .
In May 2015 , a record was set for an HPHT colorless diamond at 10 @.@ 02 carats . The faceted jewel was cut from a 32 @.@ 2 @-@ carat stone that was grown within 300 hours .
Traditional diamond mining has led to human @-@ rights abuses in Africa and elsewhere . The 2006 Hollywood movie Blood Diamond helped to publicize the situation . Consumer demand for synthetic diamonds is increasing , albeit from a small base , as customers look for stones which are ethically sound , and are cheaper .
According to a report from the Gem & Jewellery Export Promotional Council , synthetic diamonds accounted for 0 @.@ 28 % of diamond produced for use as gem stones in 2014 . Lab diamond jewellery is sold in the United States by brands including Pure Grown Diamonds ( formerly known as Gemesis ) and Lab Diamonds Direct ; and in the UK by Nightingale online jewellers .
= Oryzomys albiventer =
Oryzomys albiventer is a rodent in the genus Oryzomys of family Cricetidae from interior western Mexico , in the states of Jalisco , Guanajuato , and Michoacán . First described in 1901 as a separate species , it was later lumped under O. couesi and the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) until it was reinstated as a species in 2009 . It differs from neighboring Oryzomys populations in size and measurements and is a large , brightly colored species with a long tail and robust skull and molars . Its range has been much impacted by agricultural development , but isolated populations are thought to persist .
= = Taxonomy = =
Oryzomys albiventer was first described by C.H. Merriam in 1901 on the basis of ten specimens from Ameca , Jalisco . He named the animal albiventer after the white color of its underparts and considered it most closely related to Oryzomys aquaticus ( currently included in Oryzomys couesi ) . Two years later , D.G. Eliot described Oryzomys molestus on the basis of a single individual from Ocotlán , Jalisco ; the name molestus means " troublesome , irksome " . Eliot considered Oryzomys fulgens , another current synonym of O. couesi , as the closest relative of his new species . In his 1918 review of North American Oryzomys , E.A. Goldman assessed the holotype of O. molestus , an old male , as merely a large example of albiventer , and reduced albiventer to one of many subspecies of O. couesi . He considered it closely related to three other highland Mexican forms . In 1960 , E.R. Hall argued that O. couesi was the same species as the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) of the United States , and listed albiventer as a subspecies of the latter . Later , O. couesi was again accepted as separate from the marsh rice rat , but O. albiventer was still classified under O. couesi .
In a 2009 revision of the Oryzomys of western Mexico , M.D. Carleton and J. Arroyo @-@ Cabrales noted substantial differences in coloration and measurements between highland populations ( albiventer ) and lowland populations ( mexicanus ) in Jalisco . On the basis of these differences , they recognized O. albiventer as a species separate from the lowland populations , which they classified under O. couesi . They confirmed that Eliot 's molestus was based on a large example of O. abiventer , but left the status of the three forms Goldman had associated with albiventer — crinitus , aztecus , and regillus — open , noting that there was no convincing evidence that these represented the same species as O. albiventer . The identity and exact provenance of fulgens ( supposed to be from the Valley of Mexico ) , and consequently its relationship to O. albiventer , remain unknown .
O. albiventer is part of the genus Oryzomys , which currently includes about eight species distributed from the eastern United States ( O. palustris ) into northwestern South America ( O. gorgasi ) . O. albiventer is further part of the O. couesi section , which is centered on the widespread Central American O. couesi and also includes various other species with more limited and peripheral distributions . Many aspects of the systematics of the O. couesi section remain unclear and it is likely that the current classification underestimates the true diversity of the group . Oryzomys previously included many other species , which were progressively removed in various studies culminating in a contribution by Marcelo Weksler and coworkers in 2006 that removed more than forty species from the genus . All are classified in the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , a diverse assemblage of American rodents of over a hundred species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
In 1904 , Eliot used the common name " white @-@ bellied rice rat " for O. albiventer and " Ocotlan rice rat " for O. molestus . In 1918 , Goldman also used " white @-@ bellied rice rat " for O. albiventer .
= = Description = =
Oryzomys albiventer is a large and long @-@ tailed Oryzomys . The upperparts are brightly ochraceous , becoming grayer toward the front . The hairs on the underparts are pale gray near the bases and white in the outer half , so that the underparts appear pale grayish according to Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales ( not white as claimed by Merriman ) . The tail is dark above and light below . The skull and molars are relatively robust . O. albiventer has broad zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) , long incisive foramina ( perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars ) , and long nasal bones that extend behind the premaxillary bones . Compared to its lowland relative O. couesi mexicanus , O. albiventer is larger and more brightly colored and has larger molars but narrower incisive foramina .
In twelve specimens , total length is 245 to 314 mm ( 9 @.@ 6 to 12 @.@ 4 in ) , averaging 285 @.@ 4 mm ( 11 @.@ 24 in ) ; head and body length is 116 to 142 mm ( 4 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 6 in ) , averaging 130 @.@ 0 mm ( 5 @.@ 12 in ) ; tail length is 129 to 173 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 to 6 @.@ 8 in ) , averaging 155 @.@ 4 mm ( 6 @.@ 12 in ) ; hindfoot length is 33 to 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) , averaging 36 @.@ 1 mm ( 1 @.@ 42 in ) ; and skull length ( occipitonasal length ) is 30 @.@ 0 to 34 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 to 1 @.@ 36 in ) , averaging 32 @.@ 9 mm ( 1 @.@ 30 in ) .
= = Distribution and conservation = =
O. albiventer occurs at about 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 800 m ( 3 @,@ 900 to 5 @,@ 900 ft ) elevation in northern Michoacán , southern Guanajuato , and central and eastern Jalisco , mostly in the area around Lake Chapala . Its range has seen massive agricultural development and although populations may survive , the current distribution of the species is certainly highly fragmented . More survey work is needed to assess the distribution and status of O. albiventer .
= Benjaminville Friends Meeting House and Burial Ground =
The Benjaminville Friends Meeting House and Burial Ground is a Friends Meeting House of the Religious Society of Friends ( Quakers ) , located north of the rural village of Holder in McLean County , Illinois . It was once the site of a now @-@ defunct village called Benjaminville , founded in 1856 after Quakers settled the area . More Quakers followed , and the burial ground , then the current meeting house in 1874 , were constructed . This site , listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places since 1983 , is all that remains of that village .
The burial ground preceded the meeting house , as the site was home to another meeting house that was constructed in 1859 . The Benjaminville Meeting House represents a well @-@ constructed example of Quaker meeting house architecture and contains within its design many of the major elements associated with the style . It is unique in that it allowed both male and female friends to worship together in the same room . The burial ground , however , maintains a strict separation , not by gender but by religious affiliation ; there are three sections , one for Quakers , one for non @-@ Quakers , and one for distant relatives of both .
= = Building = =
= = = Location = = =
The Benjaminville Friends Meeting House is located on a relatively elevated area of land east of Bloomington , Illinois , near the community of Holder . The land was originally flat , treeless prairie but today is designated mostly for agricultural use . The unincorporated community of Bentown is located nearby as well . To the east a large wind farm is being constructed within Arrowsmith Township . The building is the last extant structure in the now @-@ defunct village of Benjaminville , Illinois .
= = = History = = =
In 1859 , three years after the first Quaker settlers arrived in the area , a meeting house was constructed on the site of the present @-@ day Friends meeting house for US $ 1 @,@ 000 . Quakers continued to flow into the area through the 1860s and in 1874 the current Friends meeting house was constructed and it has seen little change since it was built . Some minor alterations have taken place , including the addition of a concrete porch to the entryway and a shed on the east ( rear ) facade . The shed was added around 1910 to serve as a storage space and a privy . The building became a social , political , and religious hub for the area Quakers and the site was visited by Friends from other meeting houses around the state . The building is no longer owned by a religious institution , though there are occasional services held there .
= = = Architecture = = =
The Benjaminville Friends Meeting House is located on a 2 @.@ 5 acres ( 10 @,@ 000 m2 ) site planted with grass and native deciduous trees . The location is surrounded by crops and is well isolated from other nearby structures . The rectangular , balloon framed building is situated on an east @-@ west axis , with its front facade facing west . The long side measures 42 ft ( 13 m ) and the shorter gable ends of the building measure 32 ft ( 10 m ) . The building 's entrance is found on its south elevation and consists of dual doors which bisect the walls at the jambs . The Friends meeting house in Benjaminville is a typical example of traditional Quaker meeting houses . Elements common to Quaker meeting houses east of the Allegheny Mountains and found on the Benjaminville example are : plain , undecorated interiors , lack of stained glass , rectangular shaped log or frame construction , some type of partition within the interior space , an attached burial ground , exterior simplicity , separate men 's and women 's entrances , and the entryway location along the long wall .
The interior room , like the exterior , is oriented east @-
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charted in several European countries , appearing in the top ten of Ireland and Hungary , and elsewhere in charts in Austria , Germany , and Belgium , and Switzerland , among others . The chartings in European countries propelled the song to peak at nineteen on the European Hot 100 .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was filmed November 14 , 2009 , and premiered on Disney Channel following the December 11 , 2009 airing of Phineas and Ferb Christmas Vacation . The special effects of the video are more complex than that of the band 's first single , " Falling Down " . Lead singer Gomez said , " The video is very different from any other video that I 've done , " and added , " it has a lot more fierce clothes and a lot of fun colors . " Two alternate video versions were released for the Ralphi Rosario Remix and the Dave Audé Remix . The video features Gomez sporting different outfits and appearing on black , red , and pink backdrops with the band performing the song . The music video was directed by Chris Dooley . Chris Ryan of MTV News called Gomez a " dancing queen " and said that she " seems cool and confident throughout the video . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lead vocals : Selena Gomez
Songwriters : Antonina Armato , Tim James , Devrím Karaoglu
Production : Antonina Armato , Tim James , Devrím Karaoglu ( co @-@ production )
Mixing : Tim James , Paul Palmer
Source
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Certifications = = =
Since May 9 , 2013 , RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Chart precession and succession = = =
= = Release history = =
= Paul G. Goebel =
Paul Gordon Goebel ( May 28 , 1901 – January 26 , 1988 ) was an American football end who played for the University of Michigan Wolverines from 1920 to 1922 . He was an All @-@ American in 1921 and was the team 's captain in 1922 . He played professional football from 1923 to 1926 with the Columbus Tigers , Chicago Bears , and New York Yankees . He was named to the NFL All @-@ Pro team in 1923 and 1924 .
After his football career ended , he operated a sporting good store in Grand Rapids . He officiated football games for the Big Ten Conference for 16 years and also served in the U.S. Navy on an aircraft carrier in World War II . He was active in Republican Party politics in Grand Rapids , Michigan , and was one of the organizers of a reform movement to oust the city 's political boss , Frank McKay . As an anti @-@ McKay reform candidate , Goebel was three times elected mayor of Grand Rapids in the 1950s . He was later elected to the University of Michigan Board of Regents , where he served from 1962 to 1970 .
Goebel also played an important role in the career of U.S. President Gerald R. Ford . Goebel was friends with Ford 's mother and stepfather and recommended Ford to head football coach Harry Kipke at the University of Michigan . When Ford returned from World War II , Goebel urged him to run for U.S. Congress and was part of the original Ford @-@ for @-@ Congress committee . Goebel was later the chairman of a committee formed in 1960 to name Ford as the Republican Party 's Vice Presidential candidate on the ticket with Richard Nixon .
= = Football player at the University of Michigan = =
Goebel enrolled at the University of Michigan in 1919 . He studied engineering and received his degree in 1923 . While at Michigan , he played football under head coach Fielding H. Yost . He played at the end where he developed a reputation as one of the country 's best forward pass receivers and as a tenacious defensive player . At 6 @-@ feet , 3 @-@ inches , Goebel was a tall player in his era . He started seven games in each of the 1920 and 1921 seasons at right end for the Wolverines , and was limited due to injury to five games in 1922 . In 1921 , he was chosen as an All @-@ American and was voted the captain of the 1922 team . Goebel also excelled as an honor student in the University 's engineering school . Goebel also earned the Big Ten Conference Medal of Honor for proficiency in academics and athletics .
= = = Goebel 's steel knee brace = = =
Prior to the 1922 season , Goebel " threw out his knee " and was fitted with a steel hinge – an early version of a knee brace . However , the steel contraption required oiling and overheated when the oil dried , thus limiting Goebel 's ability to play a complete game in 1922 . One 1922 newspaper article described Goebel 's knee brace this way : " To enable Goebel to play , the Michigan trainers devised a steel brace – a hinge . This apparatus attached above and below the knee gave Goebel fairly good leg action because of the hinge . Before each game , Goebel liberally oiled the hinge to get free action because of the hinge . " Goebel 's playing time was limited because " the constant action would dry the oil and then the steel would become so hot that Goebel could not continue playing . " During the 1922 game against Illinois , Goebel 's skin was burned by the steel .
= = = Dedication Day at Ohio Stadium = = =
Despite the limitations of the knee brace , Goebel led the Wolverines to victory in the first game played at Ohio Stadium . The official " Dedication Day " for the stadium was October 21 , 1922 , and the opponent was Michigan . Ohio State fans recalled for years afterward how Goebel and his teammate Harry Kipke managed to turn Dedication Day sour for the Buckeyes . Michigan shut out the Buckeyes , 19 @-@ 0 , with Goebel and Kipke scoring all the points . In the first period , Goebel blocked a punt and then kicked a long field goal from the 30 @-@ yard line for the game 's first points . He also penetrated into the Ohio State backfield in the second quarter to recover a fumble . As the game wore on , the Buckeyes " seemed to realize ( Goebel 's ) importance in the Michigan lineup because he was forced to take plenty of punishment . " Football writer Billy Evans described Goebel 's performance against Ohio State this way :
" No end in recent years has played a greater game ( than ) that which Goebel put up against Ohio State . For three periods Goebel was the mainspring of the Michigan eleven . He seemed to be in every play . It was always Goebel who was gumming things up for State . No man could go through an entire game at the speed with which Goebel played in the first three quarters . It was beyond the power of any human being . With a few minutes to play in the third period the big fellow practically collapsed . Even when three or four of his teammates were carrying him off the field the old spirit was still there . He tried to induce his teammates that he was able to play , and tried to break away from their grasp , but the punch was gone and he was forced to give way as the big crowd cheered him to the echo . If any one man made possible the defeat of State by Michigan , it was Captain Paul Goebel . "
The rotunda at Ohio Stadium is painted with maize flowers on a blue background due to the outcome of the 1922 dedication game against , an enduring tribute to Goebel 's performance that day . Another writer summed up Goebel 's 1922 season : " Captain Paul Goebel of Michigan has commanded no little attention this season . He is fast and furious . His particular forte lies in his ability to not only plunge in and break up the interference of the opposing team , but after so doing , nail the man with the ball and down him in his tracks . "
= = = The tradition of the # 1 jersey at Michigan = = =
Goebel was particularly adept as a pass receiver . A 1923 wire service report in the Capital Times noted that Goebel was " considered one of the best ends in the country and his work on receiving forward passes hasn 't been excelled on the gridiron . " In what would become a tradition at Michigan 60 years later , Goebel was the first All @-@ American receiver at Michigan to wear the # 1 jersey . Others to follow that tradition are Anthony Carter , Derrick Alexander , David Terrell , and Braylon Edwards .
= = = The death of Bernard Kirk = = =
Across the field from right end Goebel , Bernard Kirk played left end for the Wolverines in 1921 and 1922 . Kirk was a talented player who was set to graduate with Goebel in 1923 . However , Kirk died in an automobile accident on December 17 , 1922 . Goebel was a pall @-@ bearer along with Harry Kipke , Frank Steketee , and other Michigan football players at Kirk 's funeral in Ypsilanti , Michigan . Kirk had been a popular figure , and his funeral was covered widely in the national press , with Michigan Governor Alex Groesbeck , U @-@ M President Marion LeRoy Burton , and the coaches of the Big Ten Conference football teams all in attendance .
Goebel also served years later as a pall bearer at the funeral of his coach , Fielding H. Yost , in August 1946 .
= = Professional football = =
In February 1923 , Goebel refused an offer to become the head football coach at Wichita State University ( then known as Fairmount College ) , saying he planned to enter the engineering profession after graduation . Instead , Goebel opted to play professional football . He played professional football for the Columbus Tigers from 1923 @-@ 1925 , the Chicago Bears in 1925 , and the New York Yankees ( the football team ) in 1926 . In his first year in the NFL , Goebel played in all ten of the team 's games for the Columbus Tigers and was named to the All @-@ Pro Team . He threw one touchdown pass and caught another . He was credited with eight points scored including two extra points .
In 1924 , Goebel was again selected as an All @-@ Pro player with the Tigers , playing in ten games , making two touchdown receptions , and returning a fumble for a touchdown . In all , he was credited with three touchdowns and 18 points in 1924 . While playing end for the Columbus Tigers in 1924 , Goebel was involved in one of the oddest plays in NFL history . Goebel was the intended receiver of a forward pass , but the ball popped out of his arms and was snatched out of the air by Oscar Knop of the Chicago Bears . Knop began running for the goal line with the ball , but he was running the wrong way toward a safety . After running 30 yards , Knop was caught from behind and tackled by his teammate Ed Healey on the four @-@ yard line .
In 1926 , Goebel played for the Yankees alongside Red Grange . After the close of the 1926 football season , he went to Los Angeles where he took a minor role in Grange 's latest film . In May 1927 , Goebel announced his retirement from professional football . He said he would devote his time to the sporting goods store he operated in Grand Rapids . Goebel had been playing professional football every season since he finished at Michigan .
= = Football official and sporting good businessman = =
After retiring from professional football , Goebel worked in his sporting good business in Grand Rapids , and also worked during football season as a game official for the Big Ten Conference . For 16 years between 1935 to 1952 , he was a Big Ten football official . He also officiated in Rose Bowl , Notre Dame , and Army @-@ Navy games .
Goebel played a role in a famous Ohio State @-@ Illinois game on November 13 , 1943 . The game was Paul Brown 's last game as coach of the Buckeyes . With the score tied 26 @-@ 26 , Ohio State threw an incomplete forward pass into the end zone as the gun sounded . The game appeared to have ended in a tie , the teams left the field , and the stands emptied . However , Ohio State assistant coach Ernie Godfrey had noticed Goebel , who was the head linesman , drop a handkerchief to signal a penalty . On hearing the gun sound , Goebel had picked up the handkerchief and put it back in his back pocket . Godfrey confronted Goebel , who conceded that Illinois was offsides . Twenty minutes later , the teams came back onto the field and the Buckeyes kicked a 33 @-@ yard field goal to give Coach Brown a 29 @-@ 26 win in his final game .
During World War II , Goebel served in the U.S. Navy as Lieutenant Commander on an aircraft carrier . His final game as an official was the 1952 Rose Bowl between Illinois and Stanford , in which he was the head linesman .
Goebel was also a fisherman , winning the title of Trout King at the National Trout Festival in 1949 .
= = Relationship with Gerald R. Ford = =
Goebel was a friend of Gerald R. Ford 's mother and stepfather in Grand Rapids . Goebel played an important role in guiding Ford to the University of Michigan . When Ford graduated from Grand Rapids South High School , Goebel recognized Ford ’ s ability as a football player and recommended him to his former teammate Harry Kipke , who had taken over as Michigan ’ s head football coach . Kipke recruited Ford , who became Michigan 's Most Valuable Player in 1934 .
In 1940 , Goebel was part of a citizen 's group in Grand Rapids seeking to overthrow Grand Rapids ' political boss , Frank McKay . McKay had dismissed Ford ’ s political interest in 1940 , and this led to a long political alliance between Goebel and Ford . Ford went to work with Goebel as part of the anti @-@ McKay citizen ’ s group . Together , they organized the " Home Front , " the purpose of which was to throw out Boss McKay . Ford was elected president of the organization , his first experience in political organizing .
Ford and Goebel both served in the U.S. Navy during World War II , and after the war , Ford urged Goebel to run for Congress against the incumbent , an isolationist named Barney Jonkman . Goebel declined to run , but suggested to Ford that , " if you think he ought to be beaten , why don 't you run ? " Ford did run for Congress in 1948 , and Goebel was one of his close circle of early supporters , the original Ford @-@ for @-@ Congress group . Ford won the election and won re @-@ election for twelve more terms . In 1960 , Goebel was a leader in the movement to nominate Ford as the Vice Presidential candidate on the ticket with Richard Nixon , serving as Chairman of the " Ford for Vice President Committee " at the Republican National Convention in Chicago .
When Goebel 's son , Paul G. Goebel , Jr . , ran for Ford 's Congressional seat in 1974 , then President Ford returned to Grand Rapids to campaign for Goebel 's son . Ford delivered a speech at Calvin College in Grand Rapids the week before the election in which he said : " Paul Goebel I have known since he was just a lad . His dad knew me when I was back at South High--an inspired if not very competent football player . But I have known the Goebel family a long time , and they are strong and they are tall , and they are the kind of people who are dedicated to public service . Paul , Jr . ' s , father was ; Paul , Jr . , himself is . And I have seen nothing but the finest in that family , and young Paul , he epitomizes all the great characteristics of that family . "
= = Political career = =
= = = Mayor of Grand Rapids = = =
Goebel himself ran for office in 1950 . He ran for mayor of Grand Rapids as part of the same anti @-@ McKay reform movement that brought Gerald Ford to office . According to one newspaper account , Goebel " spearheaded a reform movement which brought him into office in 1950 , " ousting incumbent George W. Welsh , who had been elected mayor five times and also served as the state 's lieutenant governor . At the time , Goebel was the partner in a sporting goods store and was described in the press as tall and rangy , a candidate " who looks like a blond Abraham Lincoln without a beard . " Goebel was re @-@ elected in 1952 for a second two @-@ year term . In October 1953 , Goebel announced he would not run for a third term , saying he had no further political ambitions and would devote his time to his family and business . Within a short time , however , he changed his mind and ran for a third term with the support of the reformist Citizens Action Group . In February 1954 , Goebel received the most votes of any candidate in his third race for mayor ( 19 @,@ 564 for Goebel to 10 @,@ 831 for George Veldman ) , but he failed to secure a majority , and a runoff was held . Veldman defeated Goebel in the runoff by a margin of 203 votes . Goebel requested a recount , but he was unsuccessful . In 1956 , he won re @-@ election as mayor of Grand Rapids and served a final term from 1956 @-@ 1958 . In 1957 , Goebel was included in published lists of potential candidates to run as the Republican candidate for governor . In January 1958 , Goebel announced that he would not seek re @-@ election as mayor . He said he had no plans to seek another political office .
= = = University of Michigan Board of Regents = = =
In 1962 , Goebel returned to politics , winning a seat on the Board of Regents of the University of Michigan , where he served from 1962 @-@ 1970 . In 1968 , the Regents voted to eliminate curfews for all women students in residence halls and to allow each housing unit to set its own visitation hours . Goebel was the sole dissenter , saying : " If my judgment is proved wrong , no one will be happier than I. " In July 1970 , Goebel announced that he would retire from the Regents at the end of his term on December 31 , 1970 . At age 69 , he said the expected strain of another campaign influenced his decision .
= = = Other civic and political roles = = =
Through the 1950s and 1960s , Goebel also occupied himself with other civic and political projects , including serving as a member of the YMCA International World Service Committee in the 1960s , representing Governor George Romney and the State of Michigan at the 1965 Rose Bowl game , acting as chairman of the national committee of the University of Michigan in the mid @-@ 1960s to raise $ 55 million , acting as a delegate to Republican National Convention in 1956 and a delegate to Michigan state constitutional convention from 1961 @-@ 1962 , and serving as a member of Michigan Republican State Central Committee in 1969 . He was also a member of the State of Michigan Higher Education Assistance Authority , Chairman of the State of Michigan Board of Ethics , Director of the U @-@ M National Alumni Association and President of the Varsity “ M " Club . Goebel was a Congregationalist and a member of the Freemasons , the Rotary Club , and Tau Beta Pi .
= = Family = =
Goebel 's wife , Margaret Goebel , was a graduate nurse , a columnist for a Grand Rapids newspaper , and Chairman of Governor George Romney ’ s Commission on the Status of Women . She also worked with the Grand Rapids Red Cross , the Council on World Affairs , the Urban League and was appointed by President Kennedy in 1962 to the Civil Defense Advisory Council . Goebel and his wife had two children . Their son Paul G. Goebel , Jr . , was an aide to Rep. Gerald R. Ford and Vice President Richard M. Nixon . Paul Gobel , Jr . , also operated an insurance business in Grand Rapids known as the Paul Goebel group .
= = Honors and accolades = =
Goebel 's honors over the years include the following :
Selected as an All @-@ American in 1921 .
Voted captain of the 1922 Michigan Wolverines football team .
Named to the NFL " All @-@ Pro " team in 1923 and 1924 .
In 1968 , several donors made gifts to the University of Michigan College of Engineering to establish an endowed chair for the Paul G. Goebel Professor of Engineering . The gifts came from donors who sought to honor Goebel for his contributions to the University . In April 1993 , Yoram Koren was named as the Goebel Professor of Engineering .
In 1971 , Goebel was given the Distinguished Alumni Service Award . The award , which is presented annually , recognizes alumni who have distinguished themselves " by reason of services performed on behalf of the University of Michigan , or in connection with its organized alumni activities . " The Distinguished Alumni Service Award is the highest honor the Alumni Association can bestow upon an alumna / us on behalf of the University .
Inducted into Grand Rapids Sports Hall of Fame in 1971 .
In 1984 , Goebel was the fourth recipient of the Ufer Award . Since 1981 , the Ufer Award has been presented each year to a Letterwinners “ M ” Club member in recognition for his or her outstanding service to the University of Michigan Athletic Program .
Inducted into the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in 1981 . Only seven football players ( Bennie Oosterbaan , Gerald Ford , Tom Harmon , Willie Heston , Germany Schulz , Ron Kramer , and Benny Friedman ) were inducted into the Hall of Honor before Goebel .
The U @-@ M Club of Grand Rapids each year awards the Paul G. Goebel , Sr. , Distinguished Alumni in Athletic Awards . Past recipients include Julius Franks .
= Marquette Building ( Chicago ) =
The Marquette Building , completed in 1895 , is a Chicago landmark that was built by the George A. Fuller Company and designed by architects Holabird & Roche . The building is currently owned by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation . It is located in the community area known as the " Loop " in Cook County , Illinois , United States .
The building was one of the early steel frame skyscrapers of its day , and is considered one of the best examples of the Chicago School of architecture . The building originally had a reddish , terra cotta exterior that is now somewhat blackened due to decades of Loop soot . It is noted both for its then cutting edge frame and its ornate interior .
Since being built , the building has received numerous awards and honors . It was designated a Chicago Landmark on June 9 , 1975 , and it is considered an architectural masterpiece . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on August 17 , 1973 . It was a named a National Historic Landmark on January 7 , 1976 . The building 's preservation has been a major focus of the Landmarks Preservation Council of Illinois . The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation completed an extensive four @-@ year restoration in 2006 .
= = History = =
The building was named after Father Jacques Marquette , the first European settler in Chicago , who explored the Chicago region in 1674 and wintered in the area for the 1674 @-@ 5 winter season . It was designed by William Holabird and Martin Roche , with Coydon T. Purdy , architects of the firm Holabird & Roche .
In the 1930s the building was the downtown headquarters for over 30 railroad companies . Around 1950 , the terra @-@ cotta cornice was removed from the Marquette Building when an additional story was added . The building has been in continuous use as an office building since its construction .
In 1977 , Banker 's Life and Casualty Company , owned by John D. MacArthur , acquired the Marquette Building . After his death in 1978 , the building became the headquarters for the MacArthur Foundation , which bears his name .
The lobby of the Marquette Building connects with the D.H. Burnham & Company – designed Edison Building to the west , providing a pedway from Dearborn to Clark . After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , many downtown buildings closed to the public , which eliminated warm , dry , indoor walking routes providing shortcuts through full city blocks , but the Marquette Building did not .
= = Architecture = =
The building features several distinct elements that have earned it honors as a Chicago Landmark , a National Historic Landmark , and a National Register Historic Place . It is considered an exemplary model of the Chicago School of Architecture . The architects , Holabird & Roche , used trademark long horizontal bay " Chicago windows " on the Marquette Building . These are large panes of glass flanked by narrow sash windows . The grid @-@ like window frames and spandrels are facilitated by the steel structure which enables non @-@ load @-@ bearing masonry walls . This was one of the first steel framed skyscrapers . Wave @-@ like moldings decorate the façade , which is made of horizontally banded brown terra cotta . The building is built around a central light court featuring an ornate , two @-@ story lobby .
The ensemble of mosaics , sculptures , and bronze of the Marquette Building entry and interior honors Jacques Marquette ’ s 1674 @-@ 5 expedition . Four bas relief panels over the main entrance by sculptor Hermon Atkins MacNeil show different scenes from Marquette 's trip through the Great Lakes region , ending with one depicting his burial . The revolving door panels feature carvings of panther 's heads . The hexagonal railing around the lobby atrium is decorated with a mosaic frieze by the Tiffany studio depicting events in the life of Jacques Marquette , his exploration of Illinois , and Native Americans he met . The mosaics are by Louis Comfort Tiffany and his chief designer and art director , Jacob Adolph Holzer ; they contain panels of lustered Tiffany glass , mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , and semi @-@ precious stones .
= = Restoration = =
The preservation of this building was championed by the Landmarks Preservation Council of Illinois . In 2001 , the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation , its current owners , began a multi @-@ year renovation . The restoration to the exterior proceeded in two phases : reconstructing the cornice and replacing the 17th story windows to match the original windows ; and cleaning and restoring the masonry and restoring the remainder of the windows . Restoration architect Thomas " Gunny " Harboe directed this work .
On September 12 , 2006 , The Commission on Chicago Landmarks honored 21 landmark buildings , homeowners , and businesses with the Chicago Landmark Award for Preservation Excellence at the eighth @-@ annual Landmarks ceremony . The award recognizes work involving notable improvements to individual Chicago landmarks or to buildings within Chicago Landmark Districts .
On October 16 , 2007 , the Foundation opened a new interactive audio visual exhibit on the first floor , detailing the history of the building and its contribution to Chicago architecture . The free exhibit , which is open to the public , will run indefinitely .
= = Additional sources = =
Riedy , James L. , Chicago Sculpture , University of Illinois Press , Urbana , IL 1981
Rooney , William A. , Architectural Ornamentation in Chicago , Chicago Review Press , Chicago , 1984
= Cotton production in Pakistan =
Cotton production is integral to the economic development of Pakistan . The nation is largely dependent on the cotton industry and its related textile sector , and the crop has been given a principal status in the country . Cotton is grown as an industrial crop in 15 % of the nation 's land during the monsoon months of May to August , known as the kharif period , and is grown at a smaller scale between February and April . Record production of cotton was reported at 15 million bales of 470 pounds ( 210 kg ) each in the form of phutti ( seed cotton ) during 2014 – 15 , which was an 11 % rise compared to the previous season ( 2013 – 14 ) . Production @-@ wise , as of 2012 – 13 , Pakistan occupied the fourth position among the cotton growers of the world , the first three being China , India and the United States , in that order . In respect of exports of raw cotton , Pakistan holds third position , and is the fourth in consumption ( about 30 and 40 per cent of its production ) . It is the largest exporter of cotton yarn .
= = History = =
The earliest known historical traces of cotton were found at Mehrgarh near the city of Quetta , making Pakistan one of the first regions of cotton cultivation . Cotton was discovered in threads on a copper bead at a burial site dated to the Neolithic period ( 6000 BC ) . The mineralised threads were subject to metallurgical analysis with a combination of a reflected @-@ light microscope and a scanning electron microscope , revealing that they were of cotton ( genus Gossypium ) . Cotton cultivation became more widespread during the Indus Valley Civilisation , which covered parts of present day eastern Pakistan and northwestern India . Archaeobotanical evidence of seeds has been traced to 5000 BC in Mehrgarh , though it is not clear if they belonged to a wild or cultivated variety . Use of cotton cloth in the Indus Valley cities of Mohenjo @-@ daro and Harappa dates to 2 @,@ 500 BC . Cotton pollen has been recorded at Balakot . At Harappa ( Mature Harappan period 2500 @-@ 2000 BC ) , evidence of cotton threads has been found tied to the handle of a mirror , an antiquity from a female burial site , and around a copper razor . There is also much other evidence of cotton in some form , such as Malavaceae ( flowering plant ) pollen type , similar to Gossypium in Balakot ( Mature Harappan period , 2500 @-@ 2000 BC ) ; as seeds at Banawali ( Mature Harappan , 2200 @-@ 1900 BC ) , Sanghol ( Late Harappan , 1900 @-@ 1400 BC ) , Kanmer , Kacchh ( Late Harappan , 2 @,@ 000 @-@ 1 @,@ 700 BC ) , Imlidhi Khurd and Gorakhpur ( 1300 @-@ 800 BC ) ; as fibres in Late Ochre @-@ Coloured Pottery at Sringaverapura ( 1200 @-@ 700 BC ) ; and in Hallur as seeds and fragments of the Early Iron Age ( 950 @-@ 900 BC ) .
= = Growing regions = =
Cotton is purely a cellulose fibre crop , one of the four major crops in the country , and is known by popular epithets as “ King cotton ” and “ white gold ” . It forms the primary input for the textile industry of Pakistan .
Cotton is integral to Pakistan 's economy . According to an analysis in the USDA Foreign Agricultural Service report of 2015 , it is grown as an industrial crop in 15 % of the nation 's land . It is grown during the monsoon months of May to August , known as the kharif period . It is also grown on a smaller scale between February and April .
Cotton is grown mostly in the two provinces of Punjab and Sindh , with the former accounting for 79 % and the latter for 20 % of the nation 's cotton growing land . It is also grown in Khyber Pakhtoon Khawah ( KPK ) and Balochistan provinces . The total land area of cotton cultivation was reported as 2 @,@ 950 @,@ 000 hectares ( 7 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 acres ) during the 2014 – 15 growing season . Generally , small farmers with land holdings less than 5 hectares ( 12 acres ) in size form the largest group of growers ; farmers holding less than 2 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) account for 50 % of the farms . Land holdings with 25 hectares ( 62 acres ) under cotton cultivation form less than 2 % of farms . According to a 2013 estimate , there were 1 @.@ 6 million farmers ( out of a total of 5 million in all sectors ) engaged in cotton farming , growing more than 3 million hectares .
= = Varieties = =
Farmers have widely adopted Bacillus thuringiensis ( Bt ) cotton since its first trial in Sindh province in 2002 . It is now used in 95 % of the area . The Punjab Seed Council has approved the use of 18 Bt cotton and non @-@ Bt varieties for cultivation . These are : 12 BT varieties FH @-@ 114 , CIM @-@ 598 , SITARA @-@ 009 , A @-@ one , BH @-@ 167 , MIAD @-@ 852 , CIM @-@ 573 , SLH @-@ 317 , TARZAN @-@ 1 , NS @-@ 141 , IR @-@ NIBGE @-@ 3 , MNH @-@ 886 , and six non @-@ BT varieties NIBGE − 115 , FH @-@ 941 , FH @-@ 942 , IR @-@ 1524 , Ali Akbar @-@ 802 and NEELAM @-@ 121 . In Sindh province , local Sindh varieties of cotton are also grown in about 40 % of the area . They are generally planted from April to July , and harvested during August – December .
= = Production = =
Cotton serves as the base for the nation 's industrial sector . Production of cotton was reported at a record high of 15 million bales of 470 lbs each in the form of phutti ( seed cotton ) during 2014 – 15 ; this was an 11 % increase compared to the previous season ( 2013 – 14 ) . Its phenomenal growth was from 1 @.@ 38 million bales in 1961 to 11 @.@ 138 million bales in 2014 , with the estimated 2014 – 15 figures showing a further increase to 15 million bales . Between 1980 – 81 and 1990 – 91 , the growth in production was rapid , with production rising from 0 @.@ 70 million to 2 @.@ 2 million tonnes , which was called the " magic year " of Pakistan 's cotton industry . This was attributed to better pest control measures , use of improved seed types and increased use of fertilisers . The cotton and textile industries are integrated and account for 1 @,@ 000 ginneries , 425 textile mills , and 300 cottonseed crushers and oil refiners . Cotton hybrids , created by crossing the Bt gene into traditional varieties , have been developed by local firms dealing with seeds . In Sindh province cotton is grown in more than one million acres in the districts of Benazirabad , Hyderabad , Jamshoro , Mirpur Khas , Naushero Feroz , Sanghar , Badin , Sukkar , Ghotki , Tharparkar , Thatta and Umar Kot .
In terms of production , Pakistan is at the fourth position among the cotton growers of the world ; the first three are China , India and the United States , in that order Raw cotton exported from Pakistan holds third position in the world as per records of 2012 @-@ 13 . Consumption @-@ wise it holds the fourth position ( about 30 and 40 per cent of its production ) . It is the largest exporter of cotton yarn .
Cotton produced within the country is of medium staple . Hence long staple cotton is imported to produce quality fabrics for export . Medium staple cotton , also called standard medium @-@ staple cotton is American Upland type with staple length varying from about 1 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 3 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 51 – 1 @.@ 30 in ) . Long @-@ staple cottons have relatively longer fibre , are expensive and used mostly to make fine fabrics , yarns , and hosiery . The country 's economic development is largely dependent on the cotton industry and its related textile sector , and this has given a principal status to cotton in the country . Apart from use in textiles in the form of cotton lint , yarn , thread , cloth , and garments , its seeds are used for oil extraction .
= = Diseases = =
Viruses and pests affect yield of Bt cotton varieties . Cotton leaf curl virus , which is a plant pathogenic virus of the family Geminiviridae , stunts plant growth seriously affecting yield . Pests like White Fly , Mealy Bugs , Aphids , Pink Boll Worm infect the plants reducing yield .
= = Exports = =
474 @,@ 091 bales of 470 lbs each were exported during the 2014 – 15 season , an increase from 382 @,@ 006 bales in 2014 – 15 . The cotton and textile industries play a dominant role in exports ; cotton accounts for 55 percent of country 's export earnings , and Pakistan has a 14 % share of the world 's cloth exports . The European Union ( EU ) granted Generalized System of Preferences " Plus " status to Pakistan in 2013 , which has promoted textile exports to the EU .
= = Legal framework = =
Though a bio @-@ safety regulatory system was part of the 18th Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan that " devolved " several functions to the provinces , the system is still unclear with regard to regulators who can oversee the approval of new seed technologies . In this context the three regulatory acts which are under approval stage are the Plant Breeders ’ Rights Act , Amendments to the 1976 Seed Act , and the Biosafety Law . According to the USDA Foreign Agricultural Service report of 2015 , passage of these laws is crucial to the introduction of new biotech events .
= Gordon Ramsay Plane Food =
Gordon Ramsay Plane Food is a restaurant owned by chef Gordon Ramsay and located within Terminal 5 of Heathrow Airport , London . The restaurant cost £ 2 @.@ 5 million to build and due to its location within the airside area of the airport , there are restrictions on the use of gas and the types of cutlery which may be used . It opened in 2008 alongside the rest of Terminal 5 , and with several other Ramsay @-@ related openings that year . Ramsay said that he aimed to keep the menu lean without the use of heavy sauces , and menus are also offered for quick dining as well as takeaway cool boxes which contain a three course meal to be eaten on a plane .
Critics have been mostly positive , although one initial poor review by Jan Moir was picked up by the mainstream media . The concept of the cool boxes was also praised . It was Ramsay 's first airport @-@ based restaurant , and in 2013 he announced that he was planning to take the concept to a number of airports within the United States .
= = Description = =
Gordon Ramsay Plane Food is located on the sixth floor of Terminal 5 within Heathrow Airport , London , next to the Wagamama restaurant . It is airside , meaning that only passengers who are about to go on a flight can access Plane Food . The restaurant cost £ 2 @.@ 5 million to set up , and Ramsay signed an initial lease for ten years with the airport . The chef patron of the restaurant is Stuart Giles , who had previously worked at Ramsay 's Boxwood Cafe .
The interior is decorated with a marble bar , above which hangs a painting by Barnaby Gorton worth £ 90 @,@ 000 . There are large windows at one end of the restaurant , which look out onto the airport itself . The restaurant has a seating capacity for 175 diners .
As with all restaurants at Terminal 5 , Plane Food cannot use gas equipment due to safety reasons and so electric ovens and hobs are used instead as well as a single microwave . The cutlery is also a standard airport size so that the knives cannot be used as weapons . Ramsay requires that staff who working at Plane Food must gain work experience in another one of his restaurants first .
= = = Menu = = =
Pricing is similar to other restaurants owned by Ramsay , and it is intended to bring a fine dining experience out of specialist airport lounges and make it available to any traveller . Starters include a pea , leek and goat cheese tart , while mains include sea bass which is steamed and served alongside lemongrass and white asparagus . Chocolate fondue with marshmallows and waffles are among the options for dessert as well as a knickerbocker glory . Traditional fine dining dishes are also included on the menu , such as Sevruga caviar . Ramsay said in interviews around the launch of the restaurant that he aimed to keep " it all very lean , lean , lean . No heavy sauces " . He compared the menu to a cross between The Ivy , his own Boxwood Cafe and The Wolseley . A specific menu is offered for quick dining , called " Plane Fast " . This has multiple @-@ course meals which aim to be served within 25 minutes .
The restaurant also sells takeaway cool boxes designed to be taken on flights to eat instead of airline food . There are up to four choices for each of three courses . Options include a tiger prawn and watercress salad , and roast beef with truffle with a green bean salad . Desserts include a chocolate and pecan brownie with crème Chantilly .
= = History = =
Plane Food was announced in December 2007 to launch upon the opening of Heathrow Airport 's new Terminal 5 on 27 March 2008 . It was Gordon Ramsay 's ninth restaurant opening in London , and his first in an airport . It was opened around the same time as Ramsay 's first restaurant in France , Gordon Ramsay au Trianon , located within the Palace of Versailles . He also expanded his restaurant empire in other areas during 2008 , with Murano ( alongside Angela Hartnett ) , York & Albany and Maze Grill also opening . Partly due to the delays in opening the terminal , the restaurant made a loss of £ 780 @,@ 767 during the first year .
During 2009 , Ramsay had financial issues with tax payments . A liquidation petition was placed by HM Revenue and Customs against Plane Food , Maze , Restaurant Gordon Ramsay and The Narrow . He was given two weeks to pay the tax debts accumulated by Plane Food . It was announced on 10 December that he had achieved this and the restaurant remained open . His 2010 opening , Bread Street Kitchen , was based on the same concept as Plane Food , as its location within the One New Change office and retail development created a similar need to cater for quick dining and a high volume of single diners .
In 2013 , Ramsay announced that he plans to expand the Plane Food concept to several sites in the United States including Chicago O 'Hare International Airport , and airports at Los Angeles , Las Vegas and New York . A partnership was also formed during that year with No.1 Traveller to provide a lounge experience within Terminal 5 for passengers .
= = Reception = =
Food critic Jan Moir was the first to review the restaurant after opening , after some five hours on the first day . She didn 't think that the quality of the food was enough to attract first and executive class passengers . Moir was also concerned that the pricing was too expensive for those travelling in economy . She said that the required use of electric stoves instead of gas resulted in her steak resembling a " parched leather shoe rotting in the rain " . Jasper Gerard , in his review for The Daily Telegraph said that he enjoyed the caviar and the sea bass dishes , but didn 't like the vegetable accompaniments . He criticised negative reviews of the restaurant , saying " Are they comparing like with like ? Heathrow will never be Royal Hospital Ro [ ad ] , Ramsay 's Chelsea nosh house , but it 's hardly a kitchen nightmare " .
Tam Cowan also reviewed it shortly after opening for the Daily Record . He gave it a score of 20 out of 25 , finding it difficult to believe that food of such good quality was being served inside an airport . He called a macaroni gratin with mushrooms and Parmigiano @-@ Reggiano cheese " fantastic " and said that an apple crumble was " awesome " . Mark Bollard , in his review of the restaurant for the Evening Standard in 2009 , was not expecting much from the restaurant . However , he called his Caesar salad starter a " revelation " and said that the chocolate brownie was " dense , dark and rich " . Although he was disappointed with the polenta chips , he said overall that the food was " utterly sublime " and he suggested that Ramsay should expand the concept to train stations across London . In 2012 , John Walsh wrote about Jamie Oliver 's restaurant at Gatwick Airport , saying that Ramsay 's Plane Food had " pioneered the concept of non @-@ revolting airport food " .
Tim Clark , writing for the Daily Mail , praised the takeaway box concept , saying that to " tuck into a smoked salmon and cream cheese sandwich with apple and walnut salad was a delight " . However , he said that the Croque monsieur was bland and he didn 't like the lack of a drink . He thought that it was a value for money option and was the " first real stab at giving passengers a choice while they are flying . " Chris Haslam reviewed a number of in @-@ flight meal options on various airlines as well as Plane Food in an article for the Sunday Times . He gave it a score of 7 out of 10 , saying about the takeaway cool boxes that " as long as it lasts , it 's like being in business class " .
= Stars ( M. C. Escher ) =
Stars is a wood engraving print created by the Dutch artist M. C. Escher in 1948 , depicting two chameleons in a polyhedral cage floating through space .
Although the compound of three octahedra used for the central cage in Stars had been studied before in mathematics , it was most likely invented independently for this image by Escher without reference to those studies . Escher used similar compound polyhedral forms in several other works , including Crystal ( 1947 ) , Study for Stars ( 1948 ) , Double Planetoid ( 1949 ) , and Waterfall ( 1961 ) .
The design for Stars was likely influenced by Escher 's own interest in both geometry and astronomy , by a long history of using geometric forms to model the heavens , and by a drawing style used by Leonardo da Vinci . Commentators have interpreted the cage 's compound shape as a reference to double and triple stars in astronomy , or to twinned crystals in crystallography . The image contrasts the celestial order of its polyhedral shapes with the more chaotic forms of biology .
Prints of Stars belong to the permanent collections of major museums including the Rijksmuseum , the National Gallery of Art , and the National Gallery of Canada .
= = Description = =
Stars is a wood engraving print ; that is , it was produced by carving the artwork into the end grain of a block of wood ( unlike a woodcut which uses the side grain ) , and then using this block to print the image . It was created by Escher in October 1948 . Although most published copies of Stars are monochromatic , with white artwork against a black background , the copy in the National Gallery of Canada is tinted in different shades of turquoise , yellow , green , and pale pink .
The print depicts a hollowed @-@ out compound of three octahedra , a polyhedral compound composed of three interlocking regular octahedra , floating in space . Numerous other polyhedra and polyhedral compounds float in the background ; the four largest are , on the upper left , the compound of cube and octahedron ; on the upper right , the stella octangula ; on the lower left , a compound of two cubes ; and on the lower right , a solid version of the same octahedron 3 @-@ compound . The smaller polyhedra visible within the print also include all of the five Platonic solids and the rhombic dodecahedron . In order to depict polyhedra accurately , Escher made models of them from cardboard .
Two chameleons are contained within the cage @-@ like shape of the central compound ; Escher writes that they were chosen as its inhabitants " because they are able to cling by their legs and tails to the beams of their cage as it swirls through space " . The chameleon on the left sticks out his tongue , perhaps in commentary ; H. S. M. Coxeter observes that the tongue has an unusual spiral @-@ shaped tip .
= = Influences = =
Escher 's interest in geometry is well known , but he was also an avid amateur astronomer , and in the early 1940s he became a member of the Dutch Association for Meteorology and Astronomy . He owned a 6 cm refracting telescope , and recorded several observations of binary stars .
The use of polyhedra to model heavenly bodies can be traced back to Plato , who in the Timaeus identified the regular dodecahedron with the shape of the heavens and its twelve faces with the constellations of the zodiac . Later , Johannes Kepler theorized that the distribution of distances of the planets from the sun could be explained by the shapes of the five Platonic solids , nested within each other . Escher kept a model of this system of nested polyhedra , and regularly depicted polyhedra in his artworks relating to astronomy and other worlds .
Escher learned his wood engraving technique from Samuel Jessurun de Mesquita . He illustrated the octahedral compound of Stars in the beveled wire @-@ frame style that had been used by Leonardo da Vinci in his illustrations for Luca Pacioli 's 1509 book , De divina proportione .
The stella octangula ( Latin for " eight @-@ pointed star " ) in the upper right of Stars was first described by Pacioli , and later rediscovered by Kepler , who gave it its astronomical name . H. S. M. Coxeter reports that the shape of the central chameleon cage in Stars had previously been described in 1900 by Max Brückner , whose book Vielecke und Vielflache includes a photograph of a model of the same shape . However , Escher was not aware of this reference and Coxeter writes that " It is remarkable that Escher , without any knowledge of algebra or analytic geometry , was able to rediscover this highly symmetrical figure . "
= = Analysis = =
Martin Beech interprets the many polyhedral compounds within Stars as corresponding to double stars and triple star systems in astronomy . Beech writes that , for Escher , the mathematical orderliness of polyhedra depicts the " stability and timeless quality " of the heavens , and similarly Marianne L. Teuber writes that Stars " celebrates Escher 's identification with Johannes Kepler 's neo @-@ Platonic belief in an underlying mathematical order in the universe " .
Alternatively , Howard W. Jaffe interprets the polyhedral forms in Stars crystallographically , as " brilliantly faceted jewels " floating through space , with its compound polyhedra representing crystal twinning . However , R. A. Dunlap points out the contrast between the order of the polyhedral forms and the more chaotic biological nature of the chameleons inhabiting them . In the same vein , Beech observes that the stars themselves convey tension between order and chaos : despite their symmetric shapes , the stars are scattered apparently at random , and vary haphazardly from each other . As Escher himself wrote about the central chameleon cage , " I shouldn 't be surprised if it wobbles a bit . "
= = Related works = =
A closely related woodcut , Study for Stars , completed in August 1948 , depicts wireframe versions of several of the same polyhedra and polyhedral compounds , floating in black within a square composition , but without the chameleons . The largest polyhedron shown in Study for Stars , a stellated rhombic dodecahedron , is also one of two polyhedra depicted prominently in Escher 's 1961 print Waterfall .
The stella octangula , a compound of two tetrahedra that appears in the upper right of Stars , also forms the central shape of another of Escher 's astronomical works , Double Planetoid ( 1949 ) . The compound of cube and octahedron in the upper left was used earlier by Escher , in Crystal ( 1947 ) .
Escher 's later work Four Regular Solids ( Stereometric Figure ) returned to the theme of polyhedral compounds , depicting a more explicitly Keplerian form in which the compound of the cube and octahedron is nested within the compound of the dodecahedron and icosahedron .
= = Collections and publications = =
Stars was used as cover art for the 1962 anthology Best Fantasy Stories edited by Brian Aldiss , and for a 1971 Italian edition of occult guidebook The Morning of the Magicians . It also formed the frontispiece for a 1996 textbook on crystallography .
As well as being exhibited in the Escher Museum , copies of Stars are in the permanent collections of the Rijksmuseum , National Gallery of Art , Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum and the National Gallery of Canada .
= Apocrypha ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Apocrypha " is the sixteenth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 16 , 1996 . It was directed by Kim Manners , and written by Frank Spotnitz and series creator Chris Carter . " Apocrypha " included appearances by John Neville , Don S. Williams and Brendan Beiser . The episode helped to explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Apocrypha " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 8 , being watched by 16 @.@ 71 million people in its initial broadcast .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder returns from Hong Kong , having found rogue agent Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) while investigating a mysterious mind @-@ altering black oil . Meanwhile , Scully pursues the man who she believes killed her sister . " Apocrypha " is the second part of a two @-@ part episode , continuing the plot from the previous episode , " Piper Maru " .
" Apocrypha " was the first mythology @-@ centered episode to be directed by Manners , and made use of a mixture of physical and digital effects to create the episode 's antagonistic black oil . The episode 's sets were also augmented with digital effects , amplifying what could be constructed within the given budget .
= = Plot = =
On August 19 , 1953 , a burned crewman talks to three government agents about his experience on the submarine Zeus Faber , completing the story told in the previous episode . He explains that he and other crew members were locked in with their captain , who was infected by the black oil . After being knocked out from behind , the black oil leaves the captain 's body and exits via a grate into the sea . It is revealed that Bill Mulder and the Smoking Man are two of the agents who are interviewing the crewman .
In the present , Fox Mulder and Alex Krycek return to the United States , but are run off the road by another vehicle . The assailants attempt to apprehend Krycek , but are severely injured when he emits a flashing light . The Smoking Man sees their bodies and orders their destruction . Mulder , who was knocked unconscious in the crash , awakens in the hospital . Dana Scully tells Mulder about Walter Skinner 's condition , and says that an analysis of saliva has identified his shooter as the same person who killed her sister Melissa .
The Syndicate meets to discuss the events surrounding the Piper Maru and realize someone is leaking information . Meanwhile , Skinner tells Scully that he recognizes his shooter as the man who was with Krycek when the digital tape was stolen from him . Mulder believes that the oil found on the diving suit and Gauthier is a medium used by an alien to transfer from body to body , and that Krycek is currently occupied by it . Mulder and the Lone Gunmen use Krycek 's key to recover the tape from a locker at an ice rink , but Mulder finds the case empty . Krycek returns the tape to the Smoking Man in exchange for the location of the recovered UFO .
As Luis Cardinal is identified as Skinner 's shooter , the Syndicate admonishes the Smoking Man for moving the UFO to a new location . By rubbing a pencil over the envelope containing the tape case , Mulder finds a phone number which connects him to the Syndicate 's office . Mulder speaks to the Well @-@ Manicured Man , who agrees to meet with him . The Well @-@ Manicured Man tells Mulder that a UFO was sunk during World War II and that a cover story of a sunken atomic bomb was used to cover up its attempted recovery . He reveals that anyone can be gotten to , causing Mulder to ask Scully to check on Skinner .
Scully accompanies Skinner as he is being transported in an ambulance . When Cardinal attempts to break in , she tracks him down and arrests him . Cardinal tells her that Krycek is headed to an abandoned missile silo in Black Crow , North Dakota . There , the agents are captured by the Smoking Man 's men and are escorted away . Deep inside , Krycek sits atop the UFO and coughs out the black oil , which seeps into the ship . Skinner recovers and returns to work . Mulder sees Scully at Melissa 's grave , explaining that Cardinal was found dead in his cell . Meanwhile , Krycek is trapped within the silo , banging on the door in an attempt to be let out .
= = Production = =
Conception of the episode was based around a visual image series creator Chris Carter had wanted to include in a script " since the beginning of the show " . The image was of a black @-@ and @-@ white flashback taking place in a submarine .
The episode 's title is a reference to Biblical apocrypha , which series creator Chris Carter felt was appropriate to the episode 's thematic concerns — hidden documents and truths not brought to light . Director Kim Manners had directed a number of stand alone " monster of the week " episodes , but this was his first mythology @-@ centered episode . Manners explained that " there is some individual creative contribution from the directors " in stand @-@ alone episodes , but that with mythology episodes " what you need to as a director is to be sure that the performances are there ... and that the yarn is presented in its cleanest and most interesting fashion " .
Nicholas Lea was fitted with a mask with tubes for the scene where the alien black oil leaves his body . Lea said filming the scene was horrible , and the scene ended up having to be filmed again a few days later . The similar scene from the start of the episode with the submarine captain was accomplished with a dummy head . The depiction of the oil in this scene was originally filmed using a magnetic fluid pulled along with magnets , although the end result of this was deemed not be " menacing " enough , and looked " a little bit comic " . To fix this , the sound stage used to represent the submarine 's interior was rebuilt so it could be rocked back and forth , with the movement being used to guide the flow of a different liquid . This effect was then enhanced digitally in post @-@ production . The black oil effect over people 's eyes was accomplished by inserting the footage digitally in post production .
The missile silo used for the episode 's climactic scene was incomplete when the scene was filmed , as the crew did not have enough time or money left to complete the set . The crew built the incomplete silo on a sound stage around a completed spacecraft prop , and were able to digitally extend the set with computer generated interiors to give the impression of a much larger silo . Exterior shots of the silo building were also enhanced digitally , with various buildings and machinery created with computer generated imagery and composited into the exterior shots .
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= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Apocrypha " premiered on the Fox network on February 16 , 1996 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on December 4 , 1996 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 8 with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 16 @.@ 71 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing , making it the most viewed episode of the third season .
In an overview of the third season in Entertainment Weekly , " Apocrypha " was rated an A. The review noted that the episode offered " some interesting progressions in the grand theme " of the series , although it was also " worth it just for the awesome missile site finale " alone . Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen also rated the episode an A. Handlen felt the episode was impressive in its general impression , but that the details were not necessarily important ; he also added that the cyclical nature of the plot of most mythology episodes was not something he felt negatively about , noting that although the series ' protagonists are often defeated , they " can 't be corrupted or dissuaded or undone " . Co @-@ writer Frank Spotnitz said of the episode " I actually think you didn 't learn a lot more about the conspiracy in these two episodes , but emotionally , I think they were really good episodes ... It is really easy to go through a lot of these action things with people dying and never addressing them . So I thought it was very interesting to do so " .
= Alien Soldier =
Alien Soldier is a 1995 side @-@ scrolling run and gun video game developed by Treasure for the Mega Drive . Retail copies were released in Japan and PAL territories while in North America it was only available exclusively via the Sega Channel cable service . The story follows a powerful being named Epsilon @-@ Eagle , who after being nearly killed becomes determined to avenge his near death and save his planet . The character has a variety of weapons and moves that the player must master to complete the game . Many gameplay ideas are borrowed from Treasure 's earlier Mega Drive release , Gunstar Heroes . However , Alien Soldier puts an emphasis on challenging boss fights with short and easy levels serving as downtime in @-@ between .
Development lasted two years and was led by Hideyuki Suganami , who originally wanted to make the entire game himself but ultimately received support . He had ambitious plans for Alien Soldier but in order to meet his deadline , the game was released at roughly half @-@ completion . Alien Soldier was released towards the end of the Mega Drive 's lifecycle and was explicitly targeted for " hardcore " Mega Drive gamers . Critics have praised the game for its graphics , soundtrack , and overall intensity , recommending it for fans of Gunstar Heroes and the run and gun genre . Some negative critique was directed towards the hard difficulty , steep learning curve , and unorthodox gameplay . It was ported to the PlayStation 2 in Japan , and also re @-@ released worldwide on the Wii Virtual Console and Steam .
= = Gameplay = =
Alien Soldier is a side @-@ scrolling run and gun video game in which the player controls the main character , Epsilon @-@ Eagle , through 25 stages and 31 bosses . The gameplay has been compared heavily to Gunstar Heroes ; however , putting a much larger emphasis on boss fights , and lacking any 2 @-@ player option . The stages are notably short , populated with weak enemies to serve as downtime between the more difficult boss battles . There are two difficulties in the game , " supereasy " and " superhard " . Enemies on the hard setting are only slightly more difficult ; however , there are no passwords or unlimited continues as in the easy mode .
Epsilon @-@ Eagle can run , double jump , hover in the air , and use six different types of weapons . Only four can be equipped at any given time , but the player may choose which weapons they would like to equip before the game starts . Each gun has its own ammunition bar which can be replenished ; if it 's depleted the player will be left with a little firepower . The player can also perform a dash across the screen , which when at full health , will become a deadly move called " Phoenix Force " that will damage any enemies in its path . There is also a counter move , that if timed properly , will change enemy bullets into health . Epsilon @-@ Eagle can attack in either fixed @-@ fire or free @-@ moving styles . The first makes him immovable while firing a weapon , instead allowing for quick aiming , while the second allows walking and shooting simultaneously with the sacrifice of directional accuracy .
= = Synopsis = =
The premise of Alien Soldier is provided with a long text scroll at the start of the game . After the game has begun , it is not referred to again . In the year 2015 , the " A @-@ Humans " of " A @-@ Earth " have created genetically engineered A @-@ Humans capable of super intelligence and strength , as well as parasitic co @-@ existence with machinery and animals , particularly humans . A terrorist organization known as " Scarlet " rose up within this race and sought to dominate the rest of the A @-@ Humans and A @-@ Earth by locking the planet down and keeping anyone else out . During the height of Scarlet 's power , an assassination attempt on the group 's leader , Epsilon @-@ Eagle , was carried out by a special forces group . Scarlet fought back with their powers , and the battle somehow breached the space @-@ time continuum . Epsilon was gravely injured and cast somewhere into the continuum .
Seemingly gone forever , another Scarlet member known as Xi @-@ Tiger took control of the organization . Under his rule , Scarlet became too brutal even for themselves , and they called for Epsilon to reclaim his position . More or less isolated from the rest of the group , Xi sought to find and assassinate Epsilon himself . He planned an attack on an A @-@ Human research laboratory , where children with special abilities had been kidnapped and experimented on . Upon arriving , Xi @-@ Tiger sensed the presence of Epsilon in one of the boys . However , he was unsure because he couldn 't pinpoint the evil from Epsilon , who had entered the boy 's body and was now living as a parasite . Xi @-@ Tiger took a young girl hostage and threatened to kill her unless Epsilon revealed himself . The boy flew into a rage and morphed his body into Epsilon himself . Xi seemed to sense this strange power , and in fear , killed the girl and fled . Epsilon had completely split his dual personality apart ; with both " good " and " evil " Epsilons now chasing after Xi @-@ Tiger .
= = Development and release = =
Development of Alien Soldier lasted two years and was led by Hideyuki Suganami , who from the start wanted to make the entire game himself . Despite 32 @-@ bit fifth generation hardware already on the market , he chose to program the game for the 16 @-@ bit Mega Drive , claiming that he may have been too captivated by the idea of making an " action shooting " game . Treasure explicitly targeted the game for " hardcore " Mega Drive players and designed its difficulty and end @-@ game scoring methods with this in mind .
Suganami was deeply invested in Alien Soldier and devoted a lot of personal time to developing it . He originally had ambitious plans for a large backstory , but in order to make their deadline of January 3 , 1995 , the majority of it was cut from the game . As the deadline approached , he came to realize he would not be able to complete Alien Soldier himself , and so additional staff were added to provide him support . He worked overtime during the New Years holidays in order to complete the game . The market for the Mega Drive was quickly shrinking , and the game had to be released in a half @-@ finished state . After its release , Suganami wished he continued working on it , believing he could have improved on the story and graphics .
Alien Soldier was released in 1995 on a physical cartridge format in Australia , Europe and Japan . In North America , the game was delivered exclusively through the Sega Channel cable service . The game 's first re @-@ release was in Japan on the PlayStation 2 as part of the Sega Ages 2500 : Gunstar Heroes Treasure Box compilation . Alien Soldier was released again worldwide in fall 2007 on the Wii via the Virtual Console download service , and again for Microsoft Windows on Steam on January 6 , 2011 .
= = Reception = =
For its original Mega Drive release , Famitsu provided Alien Soldier with a score of 24 out of 40 . Frank Provo of GameSpot reviewed the Wii Virtual Console release in 2007 , citing the excellent graphics , sound , and general intensity of the game . He noted initial difficulty adjusting to the controls and game design . However , once accustomed , he said , " you start totally feeling what it must be like to be an army of one trading firepower with some of the universe 's largest , most elaborate creatures . That 's a great feeling . " Lucas M. Thomas of IGN noted the game 's many similarities to Gunstar Heroes and recommended Alien Soldier to those who enjoyed it . " Alien Soldier is a long @-@ lost piece of Treasure 's action gaming legacy , " said Thomas . " It 's got the fast @-@ firing , high @-@ energy , overly @-@ explosive intensity that fans of the company have come to expect . " Darren Calvert of Nintendo Life described the graphics and animation as some of the best on the Mega Drive . He found the game difficult , but still enjoyable for fans of the run and gun genre . Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer described the game as " manically @-@ paced " and " bizarrely creative " while also providing a disclaimer that it 's " really hectic and difficult if you 're not into this sort of thing . "
= = External Links = =
Official website ( Japanese )
Alien Soldier at MobyGames
= Murder of Leigh Leigh =
Leigh Leigh , born Leigh Rennea Mears , was a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl from Fern Bay , on the east coast of Australia , who was murdered on November 3 , 1989 . While attending a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy 's birthday party at Stockton Beach , Leigh was assaulted by a group of boys after she returned distressed from a sexual encounter on the beach that a reviewing judge later called non @-@ consensual . After being kicked and spat on by the group , Leigh left the party . Her naked body was found in the sand dunes nearby the following morning , with severe genital damage and a crushed skull .
Matthew Grant Webster , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old who acted as a bouncer at the event , pleaded guilty to her murder and was sentenced to 20 years in prison with a 14 @-@ year non @-@ parole period . He was released on parole in June 2004 , after serving 14 ½ years . Guy Charles Wilson , the other bouncer and only other person aged over 18 at the party , pleaded guilty to assault ; a third male ( aged 15 ) pleaded guilty to having sex with a minor . The investigation of Leigh 's murder proved controversial , however , as several people who admitted to various crimes , including assaulting Leigh , were never charged ; nor was anyone ever charged with her sexual assault . Webster 's confession did not match the forensic evidence . The murder investigation was reviewed by the New South Wales Crime Commission in 1996 , and by the Police Integrity Commission in 1998 , with the latter recommending the dismissal of the detective in charge of the investigation .
Leigh 's murder received considerable attention in the media . Initially focusing on her sexual assault and murder , media attention later concentrated more on the lack of parental supervision and the drugs and alcohol at the party , and on Leigh 's sexuality . The media coverage of the murder has been cited as an example of blaming the victim . Leigh 's murder inspired a theatrical play entitled A Property of the Clan , which was later revised and renamed Blackrock , as well as a feature film of the same name .
= = Background = =
Leigh Leigh , born Leigh Rennea Mears on 24 July 1975 , was the daughter of Robyn Lynne Maunsell and Robert William Mears . Leigh 's grandmother said that Leigh lived with her between the ages of about four and seven , though she did not disclose reasons for this living arrangement . Leigh 's parents divorced when she was about seven years old . She moved back to live with her mother after her sister Jessie was born in 1983 ; her surname was subsequently changed to Leigh as this was the surname of her sister 's father . At the time of her death she lived with her sister , mother and stepfather Brad Shearman on Fullerton Road , Fern Bay , having moved there nine months earlier from a housing commission flat near the Stockton ferry terminal . Leigh was a Year Eight student at Newcastle High School who enjoyed school , according to her grandmother . She had attended three primary schools successively : St Patrick 's in Swansea , Hamilton North Public School , and St Peter 's in Stockton . Leigh spent most of her weekends and school holidays with her grandmother at her house in Kilaben Bay . Her cousin and best friend Tracey stated she and Leigh enjoyed going to the cinema together , as well as roller @-@ skating and " just hanging about " . According to her aunt , Leigh had wanted to be a veterinarian . Both Leigh 's mother and her grandmother described her as a " typical teenager " .
= = Night of the murder = =
Newcastle High School student Jason Robertson 's 16th birthday party was held on 3 November 1989 at the North Stockton Surf Club , a formerly abandoned building which the Stockton Lions Club had taken over four years prior , leasing it for various functions . Police estimated that about 60 people had attended the party , though figures as high as 100 were reported in the media . Most of the attendees were Year Ten students from Newcastle High School , though two 10 @-@ year @-@ olds were seen at the party at one point . Many were drinking alcohol and smoking marijuana , and some were having sex .
Fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Leigh had a written invitation to attend the party and permission from her mother to stay there until 11 pm ; Leigh 's mother had been assured that responsible adults would be present at the party . Matthew Webster and Guy Wilson , who acted as bouncers , were the only people aged over 18 at the party . Leigh was said to be very excited , as it was the first teenage party she had attended . According to police witness reports , Leigh was one of several under @-@ age girls who were invited to the party for the purpose of getting them intoxicated and having sex with them . According to a police report , Webster approached another person at the party and said , " Hey dude , we 're going to get Leigh pissed and all go through her . " Leigh was also one of several under @-@ age people for whom an adult purchased alcohol before the party ; she and her friend were given a bottle of Jim Beam whiskey , which they then mixed with Coca @-@ Cola . She was reported to have gotten heavily intoxicated very quickly . A 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy , who for legal reasons could not be named and was referred to in official documentation as ' NC1 ' , is quoted to have said , " I 'm going to go and fuck [ Leigh ] . " Shortly afterwards Leigh went to the beach with NC1 ; witnesses stated Leigh was so intoxicated that he " had to almost carry her . "
When Leigh returned from the beach , she was bleeding between her legs , distressed , crying and seeking assistance . Some people at the party reported trying to console Leigh and find out what had happened to her ; Leigh " asserted she had been raped " , replying " [ NC1 ] fucked me " and " I hate him " . After witnessing Leigh 's complaints , Webster is quoted as saying to a group of boys " she 's a bit of a slut and why don 't all of us have a go " . Nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Guy Wilson then approached Leigh , placed his arm around her and asked her for sex . Wilson pushed Leigh to the ground when she refused , and was joined by Webster and around ten other boys who surrounded Leigh . They yelled abuse , kicked her , poured beer on her and spat both beer and saliva on her . Several people witnessed the assault , yet nobody came to help her or attempted to contact the police , her parents or other adults . The assaults continued for approximately five minutes ; Leigh stood up when they stopped and staggered away before picking up an empty beer bottle and throwing it at the group of boys , missing them . Guy Wilson threw a beer bottle back at her as she left , which either hit her in the leg or missed , according to different witness accounts . The group of boys followed her inside the crowded clubhouse where she sought refuge , and similar assaults continued . Leigh was seen leaving the club and walking towards the beach at about 10 : 30 pm . Leigh 's stepfather arrived at the party to pick her up at 10 : 50 pm . He and several of the party @-@ goers searched for Leigh , but she could not be found . After repeated search attempts , Leigh 's mother and stepfather decided to wait for her to return home , assuming she had gone to a friend 's house for the night . Leigh 's stepfather recommenced the search for Leigh the following morning , aided by several youths from the party . Her body was found in the sand dunes about 90 metres ( 300 ft ) north of the surf club . Leigh 's invitation to attend the party was still in her pocket .
Leigh was found naked except for her socks and shoes , with her knickers and shorts around her right ankle . She was on her back with her legs apart . Her bra , which had its securing hook bent , was found nearby , as was her shirt and jumper , which were intertwined , inside out and stained with liquor . Saltbushes nearby had been flattened . According to the police forensics report , a blood @-@ stained rock weighing 5 @.@ 6 kg ( 12 lb ) was found next to her , and blood stains were found up to 2 @.@ 8 metres ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) from her body .
= = = Postmortem = = =
The postmortem report stated Leigh 's cause of death to be a fractured skull and injury to the brain . Leigh had been struck with great force several times , including at least three times in the head . The postmortem also found that Leigh had asphyxial haemorrhages , and multiple injuries to the jaw , ribs , liver and right kidney . Leigh had neck fingertip pressure injuries , indicating she had been choked before she died , though this was not the cause of death . Leigh 's blood alcohol reading was 0 @.@ 128 , a level which , according to the University of Notre Dame , would have caused " significant impairment of motor coordination and loss of good judgment . " There was no doubt that Leigh was violently sexually assaulted before she was murdered . Leigh had deep bruising to the left wall of her vagina , extensive bruising to her hymen and two tears , one 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) long , to her vulva . An analysis of the postmortem by Johan Duflou stated that an inflexible object , possibly a beer bottle , was likely to have caused most of her genital injuries . No semen was found in her body .
= = Investigation = =
Twenty detectives , led by Detective Sergeant Lance Chaffey , were assigned to the case though the squad was reduced to fewer than ten members several weeks later . Crime reporter Mark Riley wrote that police were going through the " exhaustive process " of cross @-@ checking the stories of several dozen teenagers ; by 5 November police had interviewed around 40 teenagers , stating they expected to interview around 20 more . The three suspects who emerged early in the investigation were Matthew Webster , Guy Wilson and NC1 . In interviews on 5 November , NC1 admitted to having sex with Leigh , but said it was consensual . Wilson initially denied any wrongdoing , though in a later interview he admitted to pushing Leigh , pouring beer over her , spitting on her and throwing an empty beer bottle at her . Webster admitted to pouring beer on Leigh , but denied sexually assaulting or killing her . He originally told police he went to a pub after the party , but in an interview eight days later changed his story to state that he had gone for a walk . Webster also stated that two 14 @-@ year @-@ old girls had approached him and NC1 at the party , asking for some " hash " , and that the two of them had obtained a small bag of resin and exchanged it with the girls for $ 20 . Blood samples were taken from two suspects ; The Newcastle Herald reported this as probably the first use of DNA tests in a Hunter Valley murder investigation . Clothing samples were also taken from several suspects .
In her book Who Killed Leigh Leigh ? , Kerry Carrington , a criminologist and prominent researcher of the murder , described the investigation as being " fuelled by mutual suspicion and by rumour and counter @-@ rumour . " People who attended the party complained of living in fear of being the next rumoured killer ; Matthew Webster , Jason Robertson and two other boys appeared on the front page of The Newcastle Herald on 8 November with such complaints . For a time the most popular rumour was that Leigh had been murdered by her stepfather , and that he had been having sex with her for months . In November 1990 Detective Chaffey told journalist Mark Riley that police had heard this rumour so many times that they considered Shearman to be a suspect . Riley 's article stated that the community of Stockton harboured suspicions about Shearman right until Webster was charged with murder . On 16 November Webster pleaded guilty to assaulting Leigh and to supplying cannabis resin to a minor . He was released on bail , with his sentencing scheduled for 21 February 1990 . On 19 January Wilson pleaded guilty to assaulting Leigh ; he was released on bail pending sentencing . On 28 January , upon being taunted by four boys regarding the murder , Webster assaulted one of them . On 31 January , Brad Shearman approached Guy Wilson in public , and punched him in the head three times after Wilson allegedly told him he would get Leigh 's younger sister next . Shearman was charged and pleaded guilty to assault .
While he was still on bail on 16 February 1990 , during his third interview with police , Webster admitted to killing Leigh . In the interview transcript , Webster initially denied killing Leigh , then " without being asked a further question " he stated , " Well , I did it . But I just can 't believe ... it happened . It 's just unbelievable . " Webster went on to state that he saw Leigh while he was looking for his stash of beers . According to Webster , they walked to the saltbushes together , where he pulled off her clothes and stuck a finger in her vagina . Webster stated he lost his temper when Leigh rebuffed him , choking her for a while before killing her with a rock , specifically saying he killed Leigh because he " thought she would squeal on [ him ] for trying to rape her . " After spending the weekend in a police cell , Webster appeared in court on 19 February where he was refused bail . On 21 March , while in custody , Webster was convicted and fined $ 250 for offensive behaviour in the 28 January assault . On 17 July Shearman was given a 12 @-@ month good behaviour bond for the 31 January assault ; the judge did not record a conviction , taking into consideration that he had been provoked into attacking Wilson .
= = Convictions = =
NC1 was the first to be sentenced , on 28 February 1990 , after pleading guilty to having sex with someone under the age of consent . He was given six months ' custody in a detention centre , the maximum possible sentence for a youth charged with that offence . Kerry Carrington and Andrew Johnson , writing in The Australian Feminist Law Journal , said it was likely that prosecutors did not charge NC1 with rape , as a conviction on such a charge would have been unlikely due to a lack of evidence ; Leigh 's complaints about the incident as reported by witnesses were hearsay and therefore inadmissible in court . On 11 May the sentence was reduced on appeal to 100 hours ' community service . In reducing his sentence the judge stated the evidence obliged him to find that the sex was consensual , and that it was better for NC1 to do something positive for the community rather than possibly being led further astray in custody . A number of sources state the judge reached the conclusion that the sex had been consensual because of the inadequate way the evidence was presented to the court .
On 19 March 1990 Wilson was sentenced to six months ' imprisonment for assaulting Leigh .
Charges were initially laid against Webster for sexual assault , though by the time the case went to trial they had been dropped without public explanation . Hillary Byrne @-@ Armstrong , writing in The Australian Feminist Law Journal , stated it was likely that Webster was offered a plea bargain that would drop the lesser charges in exchange for his guilty plea for murder . Webster pleaded guilty to Leigh 's murder on 24 October 1990 . The guilty plea meant that no witnesses were called for the trial ; Detective Chaffey instead read a list of facts to the court . Justice James Roland Wood sentenced Webster to a minimum of 14 years in prison , with an additional six years during which he would be eligible for parole , saying that a life sentence was inappropriate in view of Webster 's potential to be rehabilitated . Wood found that Webster 's motivation for killing Leigh was his fear she would report his sexual assault . Five Stockton citizens volunteered to give character evidence at his trial , describing the 120 kg ( 265 lb ) teenager as a quiet " gentle giant " from a good family . Others expressed amazement at this description of Webster , who was also known as " fat Matt , the thug of Stockton " . Webster served his sentence at Parklea Correctional Centre .
While acknowledging that plea bargains such as the one Webster was probably offered are common and help avoid expensive and time @-@ consuming trials , Byrne @-@ Armstrong stated that accepting Webster 's confession helped create a legal fiction that he unquestionably acted alone in both sexually assaulting and murdering Leigh . The actual level of sexual violence that Leigh sustained was accordingly , she said , " all but erased " from the sentencing , and it appeared Justice Wood had only been given the limited information from the post @-@ mortem report that would have corroborated Webster 's confession .
Webster was the first person in New South Wales to be sentenced under the " truth in sentencing " legislation , which meant he could not be released under any circumstances before the end of his 14 @-@ year non @-@ parole period ; under the previous legislation a person of Webster 's age would probably have been released after only nine years . Webster appealed the length of his prison term to the New South Wales Court of Criminal Appeal , where Justices Gleeson , Lee and Allen dismissed his appeal in July 1992 . In their view the crime was " so gross that nothing less of a very severe sentence would accord with the general moral sense of the community . "
Webster 's first application for parole in February 2004 was denied as he had not yet undertaken work release . After completing a few months of this program , Webster was released on parole on 10 June 2004 after serving 14 ½ years . The conditions of his parole specified that he would only be allowed to visit Newcastle or Stockton with permission from his probation and parole officer . Webster 's parole was discussed in the Parliament of New South Wales , with Minister John Hatzistergos responding to queries and concluding that the option to supervise Webster 's re @-@ integration into society was better than the alternative of releasing him without supervision at the end of his sentence . Following his release , Leigh 's family stated they harboured " no ill thoughts " towards Webster and wished him well in the " re @-@ establishment of his life " . Webster 's parole was revoked in November 2004 after he was arrested for assault ; he pleaded not guilty , citing self @-@ defence . He was released from prison in May 2005 after the charges were dropped due to insufficient evidence .
= = Media coverage = =
Leigh 's death received widespread and ongoing coverage in both the Sydney and Newcastle media , possibly due to a fascination with her reduplicated name . Between 1989 and 1994 , The Newcastle Herald ran at least 39 stories on Leigh , 23 of them featured on the front page . At least ten articles on the case were published in The Sydney Morning Herald during the same period . Both the extended media coverage and the theatrical plays and film the murder inspired have led to it being termed a " celebrity crime " , and to Leigh being referred to as a " celebrity victim " . In 1996 Psychologist Roger Peters attributed the media fascination to the sense of community in Stockton , and due to the crimes being committed by people not considered to be typical criminals , stating " I think one of the main things is that people can identify with people involved . Had it of been a criminal from outside who stalked her and killed I think it would be long forgotten . "
Various sources considered the media coverage prior to Webster 's arrest to be focused on finding something to blame other than her murderer . After Webster 's arrest the media continued to search for any outside agency that might have been responsible for the event . From the beginning , media reports highlighted the lack of parental supervision at the party , and in sentencing Webster , Justice Wood made comments criticising the lack of parental supervision . Researchers Jonathan Morrow and Mehera San Roque in the Sydney Law Review wrote that Wood 's comments " might as well have been quoted from the very newspapers that were covering the crime " ; his comments , in turn , were heavily reported in the media . Webster 's sentencing also received considerable media coverage , possibly due to his youth and the length of his sentence , as well as curiosity about the newly established " truth @-@ in @-@ sentencing " principles . His appeal regarding the length of his sentence received similar coverage .
According to observations by Kerry Carrington and Andrew Johnson , media references to Leigh being sexually assaulted " almost completely disappeared " in less than a year , as did the references to her being assaulted by the group of boys . They stated that the fact that NC1 was not charged with raping Leigh had created the legal fiction that his sex with her was consensual . The " unsustainable assumption " that Leigh consented to sex was the turning point in her being blamed for her own assault and murder on the grounds that , because she was supposedly sexually promiscuous , Leigh had somehow " asked for [ the attack ] " . In addition to sexual promiscuity and the lack of parental supervision , Carrington states that media attention also shifted to the presence of drugs and alcohol at the party ; Morrow and San Roque credit media attention to these factors as taking attention away from the abuse that Leigh suffered before she died . The epithet slut in a pretrial psychological report also became a topic of focus for the media :
Webster attacked Leigh , not so much because she would not let him have sex with her but because she became the living proof that even a slut , a property of the clan , thought he was not good enough to have sex with .
Carrington accused the media of completely missing the point that the report was not stating the views of the psychiatrist , rather it was the psychiatrist 's interpretation of Webster 's feelings . She also considered Mark Riley 's extended coverage of the case , which she described at one point as " journalistic voyeurism " , to be the most profound case of shifting the blame from the assailants to Leigh herself . One of Riley 's articles in particular was considered by her to have suggested that Leigh 's discussions with her mother about sex and Leigh 's looks and physical development had contributed to her murder . Morrow and San Roque also criticised Riley 's article , stating it " disturbingly ... married parental blame with the well @-@ documented notion that the rape victim herself is presumably to blame for her attack . " Several writers , including Eva Cox and Adele Horin , rejected the concept that Leigh was in any way responsible for her sexual assault and murder . The media coverage of the murder has been considered by multiple sources to be part of a wider culture of victim blaming .
= = Criticism of police = =
Police were criticised over their handling of the investigation , including their failure to identify perpetrators in a timely manner . It took police over three months to press charges against Webster even though they had established within ten days that he had lied about his whereabouts , had publicly stated his intention to rape Leigh , and had the opportunity to commit the crime .
Criticism was also raised regarding the relatively few convictions . Despite several people 's admissions to police that they physically attacked Leigh at the party , only Wilson was charged with assault , and the adult who admitted to supplying her with alcohol prior to the party was never charged . NC1 admitted to having sex with another under @-@ age girl at the party , though he was not charged with that offence . With the exception of the charges against Webster that were dropped without explanation , nobody was ever charged with raping or sexually assaulting Leigh in spite of the presence of graphic forensic evidence of genital injuries . During a report on Radio National , Leigh 's mother said that when she asked Detective Chaffey why others were not being charged , he asked her if she knew " how much it costs to run an investigation " .
= = = Forensic testing = = =
Police took blood and clothing samples from suspects , including the shirt Wilson was wearing on the night of the murder , which he admitted had a bloodstain on it , but it is not known whether any DNA tests were carried out . Kerry Carrington speculated that the reports of evidence being sent for testing may have been a fabrication to obtain a confession . Leigh 's grandmother told Carrington that she called Scotland Yard to enquire about the results , as a detective on the case had informed Leigh 's family that this was where the suspects ' clothing had been sent . Scotland Yard informed her that they had not received anything from Australia for forensic testing in the relevant timespan .
The only record of forensic testing that has been uncovered is an acknowledgement by a forensic biologist of four items being received for testing on 6 November 1989 : three items of Leigh 's clothing , and the blood @-@ stained rock found near her body . The acknowledgement , however , indicates that other items were not sent for testing . Results from the supposed tests were never made available , nor was information on why the other items were not sent . According to Carrington , four years after the investigation a detective involved in the case told her that none of the samples taken from suspects were tested . Samples taken from Webster were not used in his prosecution . Professor Harry Boettcher , a forensic scientist , said that if police did not actually test the samples it would be " professional negligence – indefensible " . In 2009 a solicitor who acted on behalf of Leigh 's family stated that given the advances in DNA testing technology , it was time to re @-@ examine the evidence .
= = = Possibility of accomplices = = =
Several factors have led to speculation that Webster was not alone when he killed Leigh . According to the transcript of Webster 's confession , he was never asked if he acted alone . Carrington accused police of accepting Webster 's confession at face value , ignoring both forensic and witness evidence . Her investigations highlighted several discrepancies in Webster 's confession , and in the forensic evidence . For example , Webster stated in his confession that he had choked Leigh with his left hand as he knelt beside her although , according to the autopsy report , the bruises on Leigh 's neck were consistent with being choked with a right hand . Carrington also questioned Webster 's statement that he walked along lit streets to the other side of the Stockton peninsula to wash his bloodstained hands , when he could have washed his hands in total darkness at the beach less than 100 metres ( 330 ft ) away . She also queried his claim that he had blood on his hands but none on his clothes , despite Leigh having been struck so hard blood was splattered 2 @.@ 8 metres one way from her body and 1 @.@ 3 metres the other way . Webster stated that he walked to the beach with Leigh , though according to police reports four witnesses said she walked to the beach alone ; two witnesses stated they saw Webster and Wilson leave the surf club together . Neither NC1 nor Wilson had a reliable alibi for their whereabouts at the time of the murder ; Wilson told police he was alone on the beach when Leigh walked past him as she left the club , minutes before she was murdered . Webster 's statement that he only penetrated Leigh with his finger has been considered by various sources to be inconsistent with the autopsy findings of genital trauma , and the trauma is also inconsistent with NC1 's account that his sex with her was consensual . In reviewing the autopsy , Boettcher said that the numerous blows which killed Leigh came from multiple directions , and were probably inflicted with different items , indicating the possibility of more than one perpetrator .
Carrington and Johnson speculated that Leigh was assaulted by the group of boys after returning from the beach , as punishment for complaining about being raped , and was murdered by Webster and two others because they were afraid she would tell other people . They refused to specifically name the two other suspects for fear of legal repercussions , though clarified that one had sexually assaulted Leigh earlier in the night , and the other likely sexually assaulted her with a beer bottle before she died , as punishment for publicly refusing to have sex with him . Webster talked to the media about the murder for the first time in 1997 , and insisted that he acted alone in killing Leigh .
= = Aftermath = =
After being told that nobody was going to be charged with Leigh 's sexual assault , in 1990 Leigh 's mother began a campaign for the case to be officially re @-@ investigated . In August 1994 , Kerry Carrington sent a 17 @,@ 000 @-@ word document and 300 pages of evidence to the Royal Commission into the New South Wales Police Service , asking for the case to be investigated . The commission was headed by Judge James Roland Wood , though a representative for the commission stated that Wood 's involvement in Webster 's trial would not affect the outcome of any investigation . In December 1994 , a representative for the commission said that after thorough consideration , they would not be investigating the matter .
In May 1993 a victim 's compensation case had awarded Leigh 's mother and sister a combined total of $ 29 @,@ 214 . An appeal , aided by Carrington 's research , was lodged against the original victim 's compensation payout . In May 1995 , in a landmark legal decision , Judge Joseph Moore approved the appeal , awarding Leigh 's mother and sister an additional $ 134 @,@ 048 . Moore said the evidence indicated that Leigh rejected NC1 's sexual advances , and that " his intercourse with her was without her consent . " He also acknowledged that whoever sexually assaulted Leigh had never been brought to justice , and the lack of convictions for assault , specifically naming Jason Robertson and three other boys as those who assaulted her in addition to Webster and Wilson . Leigh 's mother abandoned her efforts to have the case re @-@ opened in 1997 , citing " exhaustion and survival " .
= = = NSW Crime Commission = = =
In October 1996 , Police Minister Paul Whelan made an announcement in the Parliament of New South Wales , stating that the murder would be reviewed by the New South Wales Crime Commission . Acknowledging that nobody had ever been charged with Leigh 's sexual assault , Whelan stated the upcoming review was " our one opportunity to right the terrible wrongs that occurred on the night that Leigh died . "
In March 1998 the Crime Commission released its findings , stating that the crimes that resulted in convictions occurred substantially in the way described to the courts , that no further charges would be laid as Webster had acted alone in both the murder and the assault that immediately preceded it , and that police had not acted inappropriately in their decision not to charge other persons . It did , however , criticise some police procedures and practices . The review did not comment on the discrepancies between Webster 's confession and the forensic evidence , and it did not clarify whether forensic evidence was ever sent for testing . A representative for the Commission refused to comment on whether Wilson 's blood @-@ stained shirt was ever tested . One expert opinion obtained by the Commission wrote that it was " likely [ Webster ] engaged in sexual behaviour which demeaned Leigh and to which he will never admit because he is ashamed and embarrassed
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ago ) and andesite from the late Cretaceous . The andesite and monzonite are cut by dikes of dacite and rhyolite .
= = History = =
= = = First peoples = = =
Archeologists think it likely that the first people to live in Montana crossed from Asia to North America over the Bering Land Bridge that existed during the last major Ice Age about 12 @,@ 000 years ago . Because the middle of the continent was covered with sheets of ice , people who migrated south did so on trails along the edges of glaciers melted by seasonal warming . One such trail , called the Great North Trail , is thought to have followed the Rocky Mountain Front into Montana , passing close to Helena , 24 miles ( 39 km ) north of Basin , and continuing into the east @-@ central part of the state . Evidence of these early Paleo @-@ Indians or Clovis people has been found at three sites , one of them the McHaffie site near Clancy about 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of Basin . The age of the Clancy artifacts is estimated to be 10 @,@ 000 years . The Clovis people are thought to have disappeared in about 4 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 BCE when the Montana climate became more dry and would not support the animal populations the Clovis needed to survive .
About 2 @,@ 000 years ago , a new prehistoric people known as the Late Hunters appeared in Montana , thriving on a bison ( buffalo ) population living in open grassy areas on the plains and in river valleys . The earliest tribes are thought to have been the Kootenai , who stayed west of the Continental Divide , and the Flathead ( Salish ) , and Pend d 'Oreilles , who ventured east of the mountains into and east of the Three Forks country , 46 miles ( 74 km ) southeast of Basin . In the 17th century , the Crow entered Montana from the east and the Shoshone from the south . Pressed by other tribes retreating west from white European settlers , the Blackfeet moved into Montana around 1730 . Acquiring horses and firearms , and numbering about 15 @,@ 000 , they formed alliances with other incoming tribes , the Assiniboine and the Gros Ventres , and by the mid @-@ 18th century dominated the state . When the white explorers Lewis and Clark traveled up the Missouri River to Three Forks , they found only Blackfeet and Blackfeet allies . Heavily dependent on bison , the nomadic life of the Blackfeet " came to an abrupt end in the early 1880s when the buffalo became almost extinct . "
During the 1870s , a few years after the first white miners began looking for gold near Basin , the last large @-@ scale battles between the U.S. government and the Indians took place in Montana . The Marias Massacre ( also known as the Baker Massacre ) , occurred in 1870 about 150 miles ( 241 km ) northeast of Basin . Others , the Battle of the Little Bighorn and the Battle of the Rosebud , were fought in 1876 about 250 miles ( 402 km ) from Basin in the southeastern part of the state . By then , most first peoples had been moved to reservations , which were far from Basin .
= = = Camp = = =
The town of Basin began as a 19th century mining camp near the confluence of Basin Creek with the Boulder River . Gold deposits at the mouth of Cataract Creek , about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) downstream of Basin were reported as early as 1862 . Prospectors staked claims and built cabins , and within a few years placer mining extended the full lengths of Cataract and Basin Creeks . When a settlement was established in Basin , the buildings at the mouth of Cataract Creek were gradually moved to Basin , and the Cataract camp was abandoned .
Searches for the lode veins on both creeks succeeded by the 1870s and eventually led to significant lode mining at the Eva May , Uncle Sam , Grey Eagle , Hattie Ferguson , and Comet mines in the Cataract Creek district and the Bullion , Hope , and Katy mines in the Basin Creek district . By 1880 , the settlement at Basin became the local source of supplies for mines and miners .
= = = Boom and bust = = =
Two mines , the Katy and the Hope , owned serially by several different companies between the mid @-@ 1890s and the mid @-@ 1920s , contributed to Basin 's prosperity . In 1894 , the Basin and Bay State Mining Company , organized by two brothers named Glass , began expanded operations at these mines . However , flooding and fires caused both mines to close by 1896 ; the Glass brothers lost control of the property , and the mines went idle . Despite the ups and downs of the local mines and despite several disastrous fires in town , Basin prospered . In 1905 , the Basin Reduction Company led by F. Augustus Heinze , who owned mines in Butte , took over the properties left by the Glass brothers and improved them . By then , Basin had a population of 1 @,@ 500 , four rooming houses , a drug store , three hotels , a bath house , three grocery stores , a bank , a newspaper , and 12 saloons .
An unpublished manuscript on file with the Montana State Historical Society describes life in Basin between 1906 and 1910 in great detail . Two railroads , the Northern Pacific on the north side of the Boulder River , and the Great Northern on the south side , served the city ; both had depots and warehouses in Basin and carried passengers as well as freight . The Glass brothers ' smelter had been set up on the north side to process concentrated ore delivered by rail from out of town or from the mills on the south side . Infrastructure included a weight scale for ore cars and an overhead tram to carry ore across the river from the reduction mill to the smelter . Although the smelter was a " massive unit " equipped with furnaces , conveyors , and machinery ready for operation , it " never turned a wheel " .
While the smelter sat idle , mining activity continued on the south side of the river in the Hope @-@ Katy mine complex , at the Hope Mill , which crushed and separated ore , and at the Basin Reduction Works . Flumes carried water from upstream on Cataract Creek and Basin Creek to a storage reservoir in town and supplied water to the mills as well as the town 's fire hydrants . A separate flume carried water to the mills from upstream on the Boulder River . At the Basin Reduction Works , Corliss steam engines , driven by the coal @-@ fired boilers , provided power to run the mine hoists and the mill machinery , and an electric generator powered by a water wheel made electricity for factory lights and the arc lights at Basin 's street intersections . Surplus tailings were discharged into the river and into a dam built for the purpose downstream of Basin .
In addition to homes , Basin structures between 1906 and 1910 included a dance pavilion , a grandstand , a baseball diamond , and a playground near the confluence of Basin Creek with the river . A footbridge connected the playground with a picnic area on the south side of the river . Meeting places included churches , a union hall , and a two @-@ story building shared by the Fraternal Order of Eagles , the Independent Order of Odd Fellows , the Masons , and Eastern Star . Among the town 's businesses were a hardware store , a bakery , livery stables , several " units of harlotry " , a blacksmith shop , a brewery specializing in Basin Beer , a sawmill , and a dairy barn from which " milk was delivered in five @-@ pound buckets " , sometimes with covers .
In 1909 , after Heinze abandoned his properties in Basin , the Butte and Superior Mining Company used buildings and machinery at the site of the Basin Reduction Works to treat zinc ore by a new process called froth flotation . Sued for patent infringement , the company shut down its Basin plant in 1912 . Max Atwater , a mining engineer who had worked for Butte and Superior , obtained a license for the process and ran a smaller zinc @-@ extraction plant in Basin from 1914 through 1918 . His wife , Mary Meigs Atwater , described Basin as " a mining camp , subject to recurring periods of boom and bust ... A tiny telephone office and a drugstore died with the end of our era of boom ... Just above the town were the headframe of our mine , and the old mill , and the never @-@ quite @-@ finished skeleton of a projected smelter . "
The most extensive and successful mining of the Hope @-@ Katy vein began in 1919 , when the Jib Consolidated Mining Company began work on the property . When this company acquired the mines , they comprised 3 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 067 m ) of workings . Over the next five years , Jib expanded these to more than 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 572 m ) , and in 1924 the company became the largest gold producer in Montana . In that year , the combined Jib mines produced about 33 @,@ 000 ounces ( 940 @,@ 000 g ) of gold , 182 @,@ 000 ounces ( 5 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 g ) of silver , 282 @,@ 000 pounds ( 128 @,@ 000 kg ) of copper , and 199 @,@ 000 pounds ( 90 @,@ 000 kg ) of lead . In 1925 , however , the Jib properties passed from the mining company to trustees for creditors , and production declined . This was the last of Basin 's mining booms . Since then , small @-@ scale mining , reworking of old mine dumps , and placer mining has continued in the region .
= = = Since 1960 = = =
For about 50 years , the Merry Widow Health Mine in Basin and similar mines nearby have attracted people seeking relief from health problems such as arthritis through limited exposure to radioactive mine water and radon . The practice is controversial because of the " well @-@ documented ill effects of high @-@ dose radiation on the body . "
In 1975 , the Basin community formed water and sewer districts and , using federal grants to cover about 60 percent of the costs , built a water delivery , sewage , and waste @-@ handling system . By 1990 , Interstate 15 had replaced the entire length of U.S. Route 91 in the state . The centerline of the Interstate followed the track of the former Great Northern Railway through town .
In 1999 , the Environmental Protection Agency added the Basin mining area to the Superfund National Priorities List because of mining @-@ waste problems in and near town . The mining area comprised the watersheds of Basin and Cataract Creek and part of the Boulder River . Contaminants included arsenic , copper , cadmium , lead and other metals . Cleanup of the mining wastes at the Buckeye @-@ Enterprise , Crystal and Bullion mines in the Basin Creek and Cataract watersheds was completed in 2002 , and the removal of mine waste from Basin was completed in 2004 .
= = = Individual mines = = =
Almost opposite the Hope @-@ Katy complex on the south side of the Boulder River in Basin was the Katy Extension Mine on the north side . It produced ore from part of the Hope @-@ Katy lode that had been displaced about 800 feet ( 240 m ) to the north by faulting . Other mines within 2 miles ( 3 km ) of Basin included the Lotta , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of town along the route of Interstate 15 ; the Basin Bell ( Latsch ) , about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of town along Basin Creek ; the Boulder , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) northeast of Basin on the south slope of Pole Mountain ; the Mantle and South Mantle , about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of town along Cataract Creek ; and the Obelisk , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of town near the road that later became Interstate 15 .
= = Climate = =
July and August are typically the warmest months in Boulder about 9 miles ( 14 km ) east of Basin , while December and January are the coldest . May and June are the wettest months , when a total of about 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of precipitation falls . Weather observations were recorded in Basin from June 1949 to November 1970 , but only contained precipitation and snowfall data .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 255 people , 113 households , and 69 families residing in the CDP . The population density was 19 @.@ 9 people per square mile ( 7 @.@ 7 / km ² ) . There were 146 housing units at an average density of 11 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 4 @.@ 4 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the CDP was 95 % White , 2 % Native American , < 1 % Asian , and 3 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2 % of the population .
There were 113 households out of which 29 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 51 % were married couples living together , 5 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 39 % were non @-@ families . 33 % of all households were made up of individuals and 6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 26 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 93 .
In the CDP the population was spread out with 27 % under the age of 18 , 5 % from 18 to 24 , 29 % from 25 to 44 , 31 % from 45 to 64 , and 8 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 38 years . For every 100 females there were 94 @.@ 7 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 92 @.@ 8 males .
The median income for a household in the CDP was $ 22 @,@ 500 , and the median income for a family was $ 30 @,@ 000 . Males had a median income of $ 26 @,@ 250 versus $ 15 @,@ 714 for females . The per capita income for the CDP was $ 11 @,@ 878 . About 23 % of families and 33 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 56 % of those under the age of 18 and 17 % of those 65 or over .
= = Arts and culture = =
In 1993 , a group of professional artists established the Montana Artists Refuge in Basin . The nonprofit organization offered artist residencies in two historic buildings , a former bank and meeting hall and a former dry goods store converted to apartment and studio space . The organization sponsored annual art events including the American Indian Artists Symposium and the Basin City Jazz Art Experience , held in the Basin Community Hall . All types of artists , including potters , painters , musicians , dancers , singers , weavers , and writers , had residencies in Basin . The refuge closed in October 2011 .
= = Education , business , and government = =
A public elementary school , Basin Grade School , serves 15 to 20 students , pre @-@ kindergarten through sixth grade . Older students attend school in Boulder .
The town 's small business district includes a bar , two restaurants , a traveler 's inn , a wellness center , small specialty shops , and a pottery gallery . A low @-@ power radio station , KBAS @-@ LP , 98 @.@ 3 FM , owned by Jefferson County Disaster and Emergency Services , broadcasts from Basin .
County , state , and federal agencies provide most of the government services available in Basin . Local residents serve as elected trustees of the Basin Fire District and its volunteer fire department . Elected trustees also oversee the Basin Water and Sewer District . The Jefferson County sheriff 's department provides law enforcement , and other county departments offer trash removal and recycling , emergency management services , and road maintenance . The county health department has a clinic in Boulder , 9 miles ( 14 km ) east of Basin , and the county courthouse , district court , and the nearest branch of the county library are also in Boulder . The United States Postal Service has a post office in Basin .
= St. Elmo ( 1910 Thanhouser film ) =
St. Elmo is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The scenario was adapted by Lloyd Lonergan from Augusta Jane Evans 's 1866 novel of the same name . Frank H. Crane and Anna Rosemond play the leading roles in the simplified plot that was reliant on inter @-@ titles to tell the story . The film follows St. Elmo who is engaged to his cousin Agnes , being betrayed by his friend Dick Hammond who has an affair with Agnes . St. Elmo challenges and kills Hammond in a duel . A young girl , Edna witnesses the duel and leads Agnes and the sheriff off the trail . St. Elmo disappears and returns five years later to woo Edna . She rejects then accepts his affections only to stop him from committing suicide . The production was met with mixed reviews by critics , but was successful . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The plot was adapted from Augusta Jane Evans 's 1867 novel St. Elmo . The actual production was greatly shortened for the purposes of conveying the plot of the film . The synopsis in The Moving Picture World states : " St. Elmo , a wealthy young man , is betrothed to his cousin Agnes . Dick Hammond , St. Elmo 's chum , is studying for the ministry . As soon as he is ordained he is to take charge of a church built for him by St. Elmo . Hammond , however , takes St. Elmo 's friendship lightly and makes love to Agnes in secret . The affair is discovered by St. Elmo , who , in a rage at Hammond 's perfidy , challenges him to a duel . The false friend loses his life in the ensuing combat . Edna , the granddaughter of the village blacksmith , strays upon the scene of the duel , an uninvited witness . St. Elmo is forced to flee the country . He is pursued by Agnes and the sheriff . Edna tells her first lie when she deceives St. Elmo 's pursuers as to his direction and leads them completely off the trail . St. Elmo makes good his escape . On the day that Edna witnesses the duel her grandfather dies , leaving her alone in the world . She is adopted by St. Elmo 's mother . Five years later the fugitive returns . Edna recognizes him as the victor of the dual but he does not remember having met her . He discovers that he loves the girl . Edna rejects his suit , declaring that she never would marry a man who had taken a human life . In desperation , St. Elmo attempts suicide , choosing as a spot the grave of Dick Hammond , but is swerved from his purpose by Edna , who relents and promises him her love and sympathy . St. Elmo decides that life is worth living if but for her sake . "
= = Cast = =
Frank H. Crane as St. Elmo
Anna Rosemond as Agnes
Gertrude Thanhouser
Carey L. Hastings
= = Production = =
Written in 1866 , Augusta Jane Evans domestic novel St. Elmo became one of the best @-@ selling novels of the 19th century . Its popularity would spur the creation of popular consumer products , parodies and even the names of several towns . Evans was concerned about how the novel 's themes would be portrayed on the stage and did not approve the first script for a St. Elmo play until 1909 . It is also unknown if Evans was aware of any intention to adapt the novel for the screen . Lloyd Lonergan adapted the play for the Thanhouser Company . The Book News Monthly said that Lonergan received a share of interest in the company for his good work in producing the scenario . Lonergan already had a single share of 100 total shares of the company from the initial $ 10 @,@ 000 in capital in 1909 .
The director of has both been credited to Barry O 'Neil and / or Lloyd B. Carleton by film historian Q. David Bowers . It is not known for certain who directed or if both them played a directorial a role in the production . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time , moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . The confusion between the directing credits stems from the industry practice of not crediting the film directors , even in studio news releases . There is also dispute over the cameraman credit for the film . Bower credits Blair Smith as the cameraman , but the American Film Institute adds that Carl Louis Gregory also could have been the cameraman . Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . Bowers believes that numerous releases were produced with Gregory operating the camera , but the role was uncredited in the 1910 era . Anna Rosemond was one of two leading ladies for the first year of the company . Rosemond joined in the autumn of 1909 and in their first year of productions . Frank H. Crane was involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company from 1909 . Crane 's was the first leading man of the company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser .
Bowers notes that St. Elmo was filmed in a mansion built in 1759 , but the name and location of the structure is unknown . The actual date of the filming is unknown . During the weeks leading up to the release , a spy for Thomas Edison 's production company recorded details surrounding Thanhouser 's production , including the filming of Thanhouser 's first release , The Actor 's Children . The spy , W. E. Lowenkamp , had a New York State Detective license . Lowenkamp 's reports suggest the possibility of filming in a house on March 10 , 1910 and the intention to film the following morning , but it is unknown if this was related to St. Elmo 's filming . Lowenkamp would speak to Edwin Thanhouser 's sister in law , Carey L. Hastings , who took him as a real estate salesman was in film . Bower 's reprints the report , " The sister @-@ in @-@ law said the house they were using to take pictures would just suit Mr. Thanhouser , so I called a real estate office and gave them the tip so they will try and sell the house to Mr. Thanhouser and cover me . " The film also included Gertrude Thanhouser , the wife of Edwin Thanhouser . According to family tradition , she only appeared in this one film .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 860 ft , was released on March 22 , 1910 by the Thanhouser Company . The film was shown in Tennessee , Ohio , Washington , and Pennsylvania . An advertisement in Indiana lists " St. Elmo " in apparent reference to a " great Thanhouser film " . Edwin Thanhouser later stated that there were ten copies of the film at first and the films were primarily distributed to the exchanges that had purchased the first work , The Actor 's Children . The desire for St. Elmo resulted in the production of fifteen more copies to meet the demand .
Reviews for the film were mixed . The New York Dramatic Mirror provided a positive review which praised the ability of the writer to adapt the work to film , but this was diminished slightly because of the films dependence on title @-@ cards . The review also stated that the acting was excellent , but not expressive enough and concluded that the film was " a notable one among the Independent releases " . The Moving Picture World provided another positive review , praising the adaptation that simplified the plot and found no fault with the production . The Morning Telegraph found no fault with the story , but found fault with the excessive use of inter @-@ titles . The reviewer also noted that the only strong scene in the film is the duel scene , but Edna 's wanderings made her appear to be insane . The edition of April 16 , 1910 of The Moving Picture World provided three testimonials that the film was of excellent quality and one attributed a doubling of patrons because of the film . The film is presumed lost .
= WASP @-@ 43 =
WASP @-@ 43 is a K @-@ type star in the Sextans constellation . It is about half the size of the Sun , and has approximately half the mass . WASP @-@ 43 has one known planet in orbit , a Hot Jupiter called WASP @-@ 43b . At the time of publishing of WASP @-@ 43b 's discovery on April 15 , 2011 , the planet was the most closely orbiting Hot Jupiter discovered . The small orbit of WASP @-@ 43b is thought to be caused by WASP @-@ 43 's unusually low mass . WASP @-@ 43 was first observed between January and May 2009 by the SuperWASP project , and was found to be cooler and slightly richer in metals than the Sun . WASP @-@ 43 has also been found to be an active star that rotates at a high velocity .
= = Observational history = =
WASP @-@ 43 was first observed by the WASP @-@ South part of the planet @-@ searching SuperWASP project between January and May 2009 . It was determined from the collected data that WASP @-@ 43 could potentially host a planet that transited , or crossed in front of , its host star as seen from Earth . Later observations by both the WASP @-@ South and SuperWASP @-@ North sections of SuperWASP between January and May 2010 yielded a total of 13 @,@ 768 data points .
Scientists interpreted that a 0 @.@ 81 @-@ day orbit of a possible planet from the data , and followed up with observations using the CORALIE spectrograph on the Leonhard Euler Telescope at Chile 's La Silla Observatory . CORALIE provided radial velocity measurements that indicated that WASP @-@ 43 was being transited by a planet that was 1 @.@ 8 times Jupiter 's mass , now dubbed WASP @-@ 43b . Another follow @-@ up using the TRAPPIST telescope further defined the light curve of the body transiting WASP @-@ 43 .
WASP @-@ 43b 's discovery was reported on April 15 , 2011 in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics .
= = Characteristics = =
WASP @-@ 43 is a K @-@ type star with a mass that is 0 @.@ 58 times that of the Sun , and a radius that is 0 @.@ 93 times that of the Sun . In other words , WASP @-@ 43 is far less massive than the Sun , but is approximately the same size . With an effective temperature of 4400 K , WASP @-@ 43 is cooler than the Sun . It also has slightly lower quantities of iron than the Sun , with a measured metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = -0.05 ( 89 % of that measured in the Sun ) . However , in general , the star has a slightly larger quantity of metals than the Sun . A notable exception is lithium , which is not present in WASP @-@ 43 's spectrum . However , the star 's spectrum also indicates that WASP @-@ 43 is an active star . WASP @-@ 43 has been found to rotate quickly , although the exact mechanism that causes such speed in this rotation is uncertain , it may be possible that this is caused by tidal interactions between WASP @-@ 43 and its planet .
With an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 4 , WASP @-@ 43 cannot be seen with the unaided eye . The star is located approximately 80 parsecs ( 260 light years ) away from Earth .
= = Planetary system = =
WASP @-@ 43b is a Hot Jupiter with a mass that is 1 @.@ 78 times the mass of Jupiter and a radius that is 0 @.@ 93 times Jupiter 's radius . WASP @-@ 43b orbits its host star every 0 @.@ 813475 days ( 19 @.@ 5234 hours ) at a distance of 0 @.@ 0142 AU , the closest orbit yet found at the time of WASP @-@ 43b 's discovery . WASP @-@ 43 's unusually low mass accounts for WASP @-@ 43b 's small orbit . Because planets with orbits around stars like WASP @-@ 43 are not usually observed , models either suggest that planets like WASP @-@ 43b are either uncommon or have short lifetimes caused by a decay in their orbits . WASP @-@ 43b has a density of 2 @.@ 20 g / cm3
= Washington Irving =
Washington Irving ( April 3 , 1783 – November 28 , 1859 ) was an American short story writer , essayist , biographer , historian , and diplomat of the early 19th century . He is best known for his short stories " Rip Van Winkle " ( 1819 ) and " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " ( 1820 ) , both of which appear in his book The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon , Gent . His historical works include biographies of George Washington , Oliver Goldsmith and Muhammad , and several histories of 15th @-@ century Spain dealing with subjects such as Christopher Columbus , the Moors and the Alhambra . Irving served as the U.S. ambassador to Spain from 1842 to 1846 .
He made his literary debut in 1802 with a series of observational letters to the Morning Chronicle , written under the pseudonym Jonathan Oldstyle . After moving to England for the family business in 1815 , he achieved international fame with the publication of The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon , Gent. in 1819 – 20 . He continued to publish regularly — and almost always successfully — throughout his life , and just eight months before his death ( at age 76 , in Tarrytown , New York ) , completed a five @-@ volume biography of George Washington .
Irving , along with James Fenimore Cooper , was among the first American writers to earn acclaim in Europe , and Irving encouraged American authors such as Nathaniel Hawthorne , Herman Melville , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , and Edgar Allan Poe . Irving was also admired by some European writers , including Walter Scott , Lord Byron , Thomas Campbell , Francis Jeffrey , and Charles Dickens . As America 's first genuine internationally best @-@ selling author , Irving advocated for writing as a legitimate profession , and argued for stronger laws to protect American writers from copyright infringement .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Washington Irving 's parents were William Irving , Sr. , originally of Quholm , Shapinsay , Orkney , and Sarah ( née Sanders ) , Scottish @-@ English immigrants . They married in 1761 while William was serving as a petty officer in the British Navy . They had eleven children , eight of whom survived to adulthood . Their first two sons , each named William , died in infancy , as did their fourth child , John . Their surviving children were : William , Jr . ( 1766 ) , Ann ( 1770 ) , Peter ( 1772 ) , Catherine ( 1774 ) , Ebenezer ( 1776 ) , John Treat ( 1778 ) , Sarah ( 1780 ) and Washington .
The Irving family settled in Manhattan , New York City , and was part of the city 's small , vibrant merchant class when Washington Irving was born on April 3 , 1783 , the same week city residents learned of the British ceasefire that ended the American Revolution ; Irving 's mother named him after the hero of the revolution , George Washington . At age six , with the help of a nanny , Irving met his namesake , who was then living in New York after his inauguration as president in 1789 . The president blessed young Irving , an encounter Irving later commemorated in a small watercolor painting , which still hangs in his home today . The Irvings lived at 131 William Street at the time of Washington Irving 's birth . The family later moved across the street to 128 William St. Several of Washington Irving 's older brothers became active New York merchants , and they encouraged their younger brother 's literary aspirations , often supporting him financially as he pursued his writing career .
An uninterested student , Irving preferred adventure stories and drama and , by age fourteen , was regularly sneaking out of class in the evenings to attend the theater . The 1798 outbreak of yellow fever in Manhattan prompted his family to send him to healthier climes upriver , and Irving was dispatched to stay with his friend James Kirke Paulding in Tarrytown , New York . It was in Tarrytown that Irving became familiar with the nearby town of Sleepy Hollow , with its quaint Dutch customs and local ghost stories . Irving made several other trips up the Hudson as a teenager , including an extended visit to Johnstown , New York , where he passed through the Catskill mountain region , the setting for " Rip Van Winkle " . " [ O ] f all the scenery of the Hudson " , Irving wrote later , " the Kaatskill Mountains had the most witching effect on my boyish imagination " .
The 19 @-@ year @-@ old Irving began writing letters to the New York Morning Chronicle in 1802 , submitting commentaries on the city 's social and theater scene under the name of Jonathan Oldstyle . The name , which purposely evoked the writer 's Federalist leanings , was the first of many pseudonyms Irving would employ throughout his career . The letters brought Irving some early fame and moderate notoriety . Aaron Burr , a co @-@ publisher of the Chronicle , was impressed enough to send clippings of the Oldstyle pieces to his daughter , Theodosia , while writer Charles Brockden Brown made a trip to New York to recruit Oldstyle for a literary magazine he was editing in Philadelphia .
Concerned for his health , Irving 's brothers financed an extended tour of Europe from 1804 to 1806 . Irving bypassed most of the sites and locations considered essential for the development of an upwardly mobile young man , to the dismay of his brother William . William wrote that , though he was pleased his brother 's health was improving , he did not like the choice to " gallop through Italy ... leaving Florence on your left and Venice on your right " . Instead , Irving honed the social and conversational skills that would later make him one of the world 's most in @-@ demand guests . " I endeavor to take things as they come with cheerfulness " , Irving wrote , " and when I cannot get a dinner to suit my taste , I endeavor to get a taste to suit my dinner " . While visiting Rome in 1805 , Irving struck up a friendship with the American painter Washington Allston , and nearly allowed himself to be persuaded into following Allston into a career as a painter . " My lot in life , however " , Irving said later , " was differently cast " .
= = = First major writings = = =
Irving returned from Europe to study law with his legal mentor , Judge Josiah Ogden Hoffman , in New York City . By his own admission , he was not a good student , and barely passed the bar in 1806 . Irving began actively socializing with a group of literate young men he dubbed " The Lads of Kilkenny " . Collaborating with his brother William and fellow Lad James Kirke Paulding , Irving created the literary magazine Salmagundi in January 1807 . Writing under various pseudonyms , such as William Wizard and Launcelot Langstaff , Irving lampooned New York culture and politics in a manner similar to today 's Mad magazine . Salmagundi was a moderate success , spreading Irving 's name and reputation beyond New York . In its seventeenth issue , dated November 11 , 1807 , Irving affixed the nickname " Gotham " — an Anglo @-@ Saxon word meaning " Goat 's Town " — to New York City .
In late 1809 , while mourning the death of his seventeen @-@ year @-@ old fiancée Matilda Hoffman , Irving completed work on his first major book , A History of New @-@ York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty , by Diedrich Knickerbocker ( 1809 ) , a satire on self @-@ important local history and contemporary politics . Prior to its publication , Irving started a hoax akin to today 's viral marketing campaigns ; he placed a series of missing person adverts in New York newspapers seeking information on Diedrich Knickerbocker , a crusty Dutch historian who had allegedly gone missing from his hotel in New York City . As part of the ruse , Irving placed a notice — allegedly from the hotel 's proprietor — informing readers that if Mr. Knickerbocker failed to return to the hotel to pay his bill , he would publish a manuscript Knickerbocker had left behind .
Unsuspecting readers followed the story of Knickerbocker and his manuscript with interest , and some New York city officials were concerned enough about the missing historian that they considered offering a reward for his safe return . Riding the wave of public interest he had created with his hoax , Irving — adopting the pseudonym of his Dutch historian — published A History of New York on December 6 , 1809 , to immediate critical and popular success . " It took with the public " , Irving remarked , " and gave me celebrity , as an original work was something remarkable and uncommon in America " . Today , the surname of Diedrich Knickerbocker , the fictional narrator of this and other Irving works , has become a nickname for Manhattan residents in general .
After the success of A History of New York , Irving searched for a job and eventually became an editor of Analectic Magazine , where he wrote biographies of naval heroes like James Lawrence and Oliver Perry . He was also among the first magazine editors to reprint Francis Scott Key 's poem " Defense of Fort McHenry " , which would later be immortalized as " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " , the national anthem of the United States .
Like many merchants and New Yorkers , Irving originally opposed the War of 1812 , but the British attack on Washington , D.C. in 1814 convinced him to enlist . He served on the staff of Daniel Tompkins , governor of New York and commander of the New York State Militia . Apart from a reconnaissance mission in the Great Lakes region , he saw no real action . The war was disastrous for many American merchants , including Irving 's family , and in mid @-@ 1815 he left for England to attempt to salvage the family trading company . He remained in Europe for the next seventeen years . Irving was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815 .
= = = Life in Europe = = =
= = = = The Sketch Book = = = =
Irving spent the next two years trying to bail out the family firm financially but eventually had to declare bankruptcy . With no job prospects , Irving continued writing throughout 1817 and 1818 . In the summer of 1817 , he visited Walter Scott , beginning a lifelong personal and professional friendship . Irving continued writing : he composed the short story " Rip Van Winkle " overnight while staying with his sister Sarah and her husband , Henry van Wart in Birmingham , England , a place that also inspired other works . In October 1818 , Irving 's brother William secured for Irving a post as chief clerk to the United States Navy , and urged him to return home . Irving turned the offer down , opting to stay in England to pursue a writing career .
In the spring of 1819 , Irving sent to his brother Ebenezer in New York a set of short prose pieces that he asked be published as The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon , Gent . The first installment , containing " Rip Van Winkle " , was an enormous success , and the rest of the work would be equally successful
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many Tony Award nominations and won the 2009 Tony Award for Best Costume Design . It received five Laurence Olivier Award nominations including Best New Musical .
= = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = =
Shrek has three sequels : Shrek 2 ( 2004 ) Shrek the Third ( 2007 ) , and Shrek Forever After ( 2010 ) . Although Shrek 2 received similar acclaim from critics , and the last two movies did not receive as much critical acclaim . They were , however , still box office hits . There were also two holiday specials entitled Shrek the Halls and Scared Shrekless , a spin @-@ off Puss in Boots ( a prequel to the Shrek series , exploring Puss 's origin story and his life before meeting Shrek and Donkey ) , and several shorts . A fifth feature film was also planned for release , but was later cancelled in 2009 , after it was decided that Shrek Forever After ( originally titled Shrek Goes Fourth ) was to be the last film in the series .
= Mattias Öhlund =
Kenneth Mattias Öhlund ( born September 9 , 1976 ) is a Swedish former professional ice hockey defenceman who last played for the Tampa Bay Lightning of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Prior to joining the Lightning , he played eleven seasons with the Vancouver Canucks . Öhlund played two seasons in the Swedish Allsvenskan , the second highest tier of hockey in Sweden , with Piteå HC before being selected by the Canucks thirteenth overall in the 1994 NHL Entry Draft ; he then joined Luleå HF of the Elitserien , the highest league in Sweden , winning the Le Mat Trophy as league champions in 1996 . He began his NHL career with Vancouver in 1997 – 98 , the start of an eleven @-@ year tenure with the club . A serious eye injury before his third NHL season was the first of many injuries Öhlund has sustained over his career , and he has only played a full season twice in eleven years . A four @-@ time winner of the Babe Pratt Trophy as the team 's best defenceman , Öhlund is the Canucks ' all @-@ time leading goal and point @-@ scorer among defencemen .
Internationally , Öhlund has represented Sweden in numerous tournaments , beginning with three World Junior Championships that included Best Defenceman honours as part of a silver medal effort in 1996 . He has since competed in three World Championships , earning gold in 1998 , and three Winter Olympics , earning gold in 2006 .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Sweden = = =
Öhlund began his playing career with Piteå HC in his hometown , playing two seasons with the team . As a large , mobile defenceman , he was heavily scouted by scouts from several NHL teams during his final season with Piteå . He was the Vancouver Canucks ' first pick , thirteenth overall , in the 1994 NHL Entry Draft . Rather than join the Canucks , Öhlund stayed in Sweden as a result of a dispute over his contract with the team . He joined a new team , Luleå HF of the top Swedish league , the Elitserien . In his first season in the premier league in Sweden , Öhlund scored 16 points in 34 games . The following season Öhlund had 14 points in 38 games as Luleå won the Le Mat Trophy as champions of the Elitserien , their first league championship . Appearing in 47 games with Luleå during the 1996 – 97 season , Öhlund scored seven goals and had an additional nine assists .
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
Four years after being drafted by the Canucks , Öhlund was set to be eligible to re @-@ enter the NHL Entry Draft when he signed a contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs on August 1 , 1997 . Worth US $ 10 million over five years , including a signing bonus of $ 7 @.@ 5 million , it was considerably more than the maximum rookie contract of $ 850 @,@ 000 per year the Canucks , as the team that drafted Öhlund , were allowed to offer . Under league rules , the Canucks were given one week to either match the contract or trade Öhlund 's NHL rights to the Maple Leafs . Rather than lose him , the Canucks agreed to the contract on August 7 .
As part of a promotion for the 1998 Winter Olympics , the first to allow NHL participation in the ice hockey tournament , the Canucks opened the 1997 – 98 NHL season with a pair of games against the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in Tokyo . Öhlund thus played his first NHL game in Japan on October 3 , 1997 . He scored his first goal against Felix Potvin of the Toronto Maple Leafs on October 9 , as well as earning his first assist in that game . Playing 77 games as a rookie , he tied Jyrki Lumme for the team lead in scoring among defencemen with seven goals and 30 points . In recognition of his play during the season , he was awarded the Babe Pratt Trophy , given to the Canucks ' best defenceman . In addition , Öhlund was nominated for the Calder Memorial Trophy as the best rookie in the league , finishing second in voting to Sergei Samsonov of the Boston Bruins with 11 first @-@ place ballots to Samsonov 's 43 . His 30 points , the fifth best total among first year players and highest by a rookie defenceman , helped him earn a position on the NHL All @-@ Rookie Team .
In his second season in the NHL , Öhlund was selected to the annual NHL All @-@ Star Game as a replacement for an injured player . Playing for the World team , composed of NHLers from outside North America , Öhlund scored one goal and had an assist as the North American team won , 8 – 6 . With nine goals and 35 points in 74 games , Öhlund led the Canucks ' defencemen in scoring and placed fifth overall on the team .
Prior to the start of the 1999 – 2000 NHL season , in a pre @-@ season game against the Ottawa Senators on September 21 , 1999 , a puck deflected off Öhlund 's stick and struck him in the right eye . The injury forced Öhlund to miss the first 38 games of the season . He underwent surgery to correct his vision and returned to the Canucks the same season and scored 20 points in 42 games , again winning the Babe Pratt Trophy as the Canucks ' best defenceman . The following year , he missed an additional 17 games after undergoing surgery once more to relieve building internal pressure on his eye . Playing in his first game back in the lineup on November 28 , 2000 , Öhlund scored the game @-@ winning goal for the Canucks in a 4 – 1 win over the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim . Öhlund played the final 65 games of the season , scoring eight goals and 28 points . He also made his NHL playoff debut , recording four points in four games .
The 2001 – 02 season saw Öhlund play 81 games and record a career @-@ high 36 points , with an additional two points in six playoff games . A knee injury during the 2002 – 03 season led Öhlund to miss several games ; while he only scored 2 goals in the 59 games he played in , Öhlund set a career @-@ high in assists with 27 . That was followed by appearing in a career @-@ high 13 playoff games , where he had three goals and four assists for seven points . In 2003 – 04 , Öhlund tallied a career @-@ high 14 goals and played in all 82 games with Vancouver for the first time in his career . For his efforts , Öhlund was named the winner of the Babe Pratt Trophy ..
The 2004 – 05 season was cancelled due to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout . Like many other NHL players , Öhlund played in Europe , joining his former team , Luleå HF , on December 21 . However eight days later , after playing two games with the team and scoring one goal , Öhlund left the team . As well as briefly playing in Sweden , Öhlund took part in a charity hockey match set up by Canucks teammate Brad May and held in Vancouver on December 12 , 2004 . Including several NHL players , the game raised nearly $ 1 million for charity . The NHL resumed play for the 2005 – 06 season ; Öhlund recorded 33 points in 78 games , including leading Canucks defencemen with 13 goals , winning the Babe Pratt Trophy for the fourth time in his career .
Early in the 2007 – 08 season , Öhlund received a four @-@ game suspension , the first of his career , for an incident near the end of a November 16 , 2007 , game against the Minnesota Wild . In the third period , Wild forward Mikko Koivu hit Öhlund in the head with his elbow , and Öhlund retaliated by slashing Koivu in the leg with his stick , breaking Koivu 's fibula . After returning from the suspension , Öhlund became the Canucks ' all @-@ time leader in goals among defencemen , scoring the game @-@ tying goal against the Edmonton Oilers on December 15 , 2007 , to pass former teammate Jyrki Lumme with 84 goals . After bone chips were detected in his knee in early March 2008 , Öhlund underwent knee surgery on March 13 and missed the remainder of the season . The leading scorer amongst Canuck defenceman at the time of the surgery , Öhlund finished second amongst defenceman with 24 points in 53 games .
With the departure of Markus Näslund in the 2008 off @-@ season , Öhlund became the longest serving player on the Canucks ' roster . Before the beginning of the 2008 – 09 season , Öhlund was named , along with Ryan Kesler and Willie Mitchell as alternate captains to goaltender Roberto Luongo , who replaced Näslund as captain . Due to the limitations of having a goalie as captain , Öhlund was designated the captain 's traditional duty of taking ceremonial faceoffs . Beginning the season 22 points behind Jyrki Lumme and Dennis Kearns for the franchise 's all @-@ time point @-@ scoring record for a defenceman , Öhlund surpassed the mark on March 15 , 2009 , with an assist in a 4 – 2 win against the Colorado Avalanche for his 322nd point as a Canuck . He played all 82 games for the second time in his career , and finished tied for third on the team for points by a defenceman with 25 .
Over 11 seasons with the Canucks , Ohlund registered team records of 93 goals and 325 points as a defenceman . His 232 assists ranked fourth among all @-@ time Canucks defencemen , while his 770 games played was second among defencemen and fifth overall . In his latter years with the Canucks , Ohlund served as a mentor while being paired with fellow defenceman and Swedish native Alexander Edler , who was beginning his NHL career .
= = = Tampa Bay Lightning = = =
Becoming an unrestricted free agent in the off @-@ season , Öhlund signed a seven @-@ year , $ 26 @.@ 25 @-@ million contract with the Tampa Bay Lightning on July 1 , 2009 . Brought in as a mentor to fellow Swedish defenceman Victor Hedman , whom the Lightning drafted second overall in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft , Öhlund was named an alternate captain of the Lightning . His first game with the Lightning was on October 3 , 2009 , against the Atlanta Thrashers ; Öhlund had one assist in the game . The following month , he suffered an ankle injury after catching his skate into ice during a game against the Los Angeles Kings on November 14 , 2009 . He returned after missing 7 games . He re @-@ injured the ankle in March 2011 after colliding with Christian Hanson during a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs , causing him to miss an additional 8 games . Öhlund finished his first season with the Lightning with no goals and 13 assists in 67 games . Offensively , it marked the lowest point total of his career and the first time he did not score a goal during the regular season during his NHL career up to that point . Despite his reduced offensive statistics , he remained a key defenceman on the Lightning roster , leading the team with 22 minutes and 47 seconds of average ice time per game and 116 blocked shots .
In the off @-@ season , Öhlund underwent arthroscopic surgery on his right knee . Though he aggravated the knee at the beginning of the Lightning 's training camp in September 2010 , he continued to play in pre @-@ season games . Due to inflammation and fluid build @-@ up in the knee , however , he was sidelined for the first 8 games of the 2010 – 11 season . Later in the season , he began suffering from a deep bone bruise on his left knee that he continued to play in spite of . In late @-@ February and early @-@ March 2011 , he was subsequently sidelined two games with a lower @-@ body injury . Öhlund failed to score a goal for the second consecutive regular season in 2010 – 11 , recording 5 assists in 72 games , a career @-@ low . His ice time reduced significantly as he ranked sixth among team defencemen with an average of 18 minutes and 43 seconds per game . After finishing 12th overall in the Eastern Conference the previous season , the Lightning qualified for the 2011 playoffs as the fifth seed . In Game 2 of the opening round against the Pittsburgh Penguins , Öhlund registered his first goal as a Lightning , scoring into an empty net in a 5 – 1 win . He added two assists over the course of a career @-@ high 18 post @-@ season games as Tampa Bay was eliminated by the eventual Stanley Cup champion Boston Bruins in Game 7 of the Eastern Conference Finals . In an interview the following year , Ohlund recalled the 2010 – 11 season as " the most fun [ he ] had playing hockey , ever . "
Prior to the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Ohlund began experiencing inflammation in his right knee . The Lightning placed Ohlund on injured reserve on October 4 , 2011 ; a week later , he underwent arthroscopic surgery on both knees . After there was optimism he was close to returning to the lineup in December , he suffered a setback with his left knee and underwent further surgery in February 2012 . During his recovery , he told reporters with Swedish newspaper Expressen that he was unsure he could continue playing .
His contract with the Lightning expired July 1 , 2016 . He was until that date listed on the team roster but was on injured reserve since 2011 , with hockey experts citing him alongside Chris Pronger and Marc Savard as players who have not officially retired while letting their contracts continue , but who will not play in the NHL again .
" For a long period of time I 've been trying to get better and better , but clearly the longer you don 't play , the likelihood of playing again gets smaller and smaller each day , especially at my age , " Ohlund told the Tampa Tribune in April 2013 . " I don 't know long term what my situation will be , but I 'm sure it will be figured out shortly . "
Ohlund is set to be a part of the Canucks ' Ring of Honour on 16 December , 2016 .
= = International play = =
Early in his career , Öhlund was selected to play in three World Junior Championships for Sweden . Beginning in 1994 , he contributed two assists in seven games as part of a silver medal effort . As the medals were determined by a round @-@ robin format , Sweden fell one point short of Canada , losing 6 – 4 to them in their final and deciding game . After a bronze medal in 1995 , Öhlund returned for a third straight World Junior tournament in 1996 to record five assists and was named the tournament 's Best Defenceman . He was additionally named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team as he captured his second World Junior silver medal .
He made his debut for the Swedish senior national team in 1997 at the World Championships , his first of three appearances in the tournament . Öhlund scored two goals and added an assist in 11 games as Sweden captured a silver medal . He returned the following year in 1998 to match his previous statistical output while earning his first gold medal with Sweden . In his third World Championship appearance , the 2001 World Championships , Öhlund tallied five points to help Sweden to a bronze medal .
The 1998 Winter Olympics was the first of three consecutive Olympic games Öhlund appeared in . He played in all four games for Sweden and registered one assist as Sweden finished in a tie for fifth place , out of medal contention . Four years later , Öhlund was selected for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City . However , in pre @-@ Olympic drug testing by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) , Öhlund tested positive for the banned substance acetazolamide . The substance was inadvertently ingested after Öhlund took Diamox , a drug he had used previously while undergoing eye surgery . As the ingestion was unintentional , he was cleared to play . After a dominant round @-@ robin , Sweden was eliminated by Belarus in the quarter @-@ final game — considered one of the biggest upsets in international hockey history and the darkest moment in Swedish hockey history . Öhlund finished the tournament with two points in four games .
In the following Olympics , Öhlund helped Sweden to the 2006 gold medal in Turin . After earning two assists in six games , Öhlund was forced out of the tournament after getting hit into the boards and fracturing his ribs during a game against Switzerland . Unable to play in the final against Finland , he nevertheless received a gold medal from the IOC . Canucks teammates , Daniel and Henrik Sedin , who also played on the championship team , offered to give Öhlund one of their gold medals if the IOC would not give him one , while his replacement on the team , Niklas Kronwall , made the same offer .
Additionally , Öhlund competed in the 2004 World Cup of Hockey , which preceded the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout . In four games , he recorded one goal and one assist .
= = Personal life = =
Growing up in Piteå , Öhlund idolized fellow Swedish defenceman Börje Salming , who played 17 seasons in the NHL . He is married to wife Linda and has a daughter , Hannah , and a son , Viktor . They reside in Tampa during the hockey season , and return to Öhlund 's hometown of Piteå , Sweden , in the summer .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
All stats taken from NHL.com
= = Awards = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = Vancouver Canucks team awards = = =
= = Records = =
Vancouver Canucks ' franchise goals leader among defencemen - 93
Vancouver Canucks ' franchise points leader among defencemen - 325
= Mamadou N 'Diaye ( basketball , born 1993 ) =
Mamadou N 'Diaye ( born September 14 , 1993 ) is a Senegalese basketball player who played for the UC Irvine Anteaters men 's basketball team and remained in the NBA draft following his junior season , ending his college eligibility . He was one of the tallest basketball players in the NCAA Division I level , standing 7 ft 6 in ( 2 @.@ 29 m ) . N 'Diaye attended Brethren Christian Junior / Senior High School in Huntington Beach , California , where he was labeled one of the tallest high school players in the United States .
N 'Diaye , a center , was named Big West Conference Defensive Player of the Year after the 2013 – 14 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season and earned all @-@ conference honorable mention accolades as well . He most recently completed his sophomore year at University of California , Irvine and his second season with the Anteaters in 2014 – 15 . He is considered a talented shot @-@ blocker , having accumulated 131 blocks in his first 49 collegiate games .
He now plays for the Golden State Warriors Development League Team .
= = Early life = =
N 'Diaye was born in Dakar , Senegal to Seynabou and Mbad N 'Diaye . He has an older brother , named Adam . He grew up playing soccer and did not seriously begin playing basketball at a young age . In 2010 , Amadou Koundoul , who was the assistant coach for the UC Irvine Anteaters men 's basketball team at the time , saw N 'Diaye participate in a pick @-@ up game in a gymnasium at Dakar . He asked him to travel to the United States , and N 'Diaye accepted the offer . He arrived in the US without knowing how to speak English . In the new country , he initially had trouble with speaking English and often needed things to be translated to French .
After experiencing headaches upon his arrival to America , N 'Diaye saw a doctor and it was discovered that he was suffering from a golf ball @-@ sized tumor in his pituitary gland , which had caused his excessive growth and was threatening his vision . Afterwards , he recalled the moment , " For me , it wasn ’ t a big deal because I didn ’ t know what a tumor was . Once I found out , it was tough to hear I had one . " The condition was treated in the Hoag Memorial Hospital following several charitable donations from around the area . A married couple who lived in Huntington Beach , California , a city close to N 'Diaye 's future school , offered to become his guardians to ease his commute for medical treatment .
= = High school career = =
Prior to participating in sports , N 'Diaye attended Stoneridge Prep in Simi Valley , California , who steered him through his early years in the United States . The school had a history of producing high @-@ caliber international basketball players , including Enes Kanter and Nikola Vučević . However , N 'Diaye was not allowed to play the sport during his first year in the high school because of California Interscholastic Federation rules . As a sophomore , he was officially granted the permission to transfer to another high school .
N 'Diaye attended Brethren Christian School in Huntington Beach , California . He played under head coach Jon Bahnsen . According to Bahnsen upon arriving at the school , N 'Diaye " could barely get up and down the court more than a few times " due to his poor fitness after rehabilitation . In his high school years , N 'Diaye , who stood 7 ft 5 in ( 2 @.@ 26 m ) at the time , was considered one of the tallest to play at that level . He was also approached by the Guinness World Records to determine the authenticity of the claims . Bahnsen said , " Our school wouldn 't cooperate with them , but Guinness probably wanted to see if he was the world 's tallest high school basketball player . "
As a junior at Brethren Christian , N 'Diaye finished the season averaging 24 points and 14 rebounds . CBS News wrote that he was " impossible to defend " because of his height . At the conclusion of his final , senior season with Brethren Christian , N 'Diaye averaged about 27 points , 14 rebounds , and 4 @.@ 5 blocks . He partook his highest scoring game in January 2013 against Oxford Academy , with 45 points and 15 rebounds coming off an illness that kept him out of the initial games . After the year , N 'Diaye earned All @-@ State honors and was named CIF @-@ 5AA Player of the Year . He also earned the 2013 John R. Wooden High School Player of the Year award for CIF Division V. In the same season , N 'Diaye garnered National Christian Schools Athletic Association Player of the Year and Far West Super @-@ Region team accolades . Also , he was named Academy League Most Valuable Player .
According to the ESPN Recruiting Nation , N 'Diaye was the 6th most promising high school player in his state . ESPN analysts commented on N 'Diaye 's basketball talent by saying , " Ndiaye is a legit 7 @-@ foot @-@ 5 prospect with extraordinary length and huge hands . " He officially committed to play with the UC Irvine Anteaters men 's basketball team , following matriculation at the University of California , Irvine , on November 14 , 2012 . He also considered Oregon , Georgetown , and Pepperdine . N 'Diaye said that he selected UC Irvine because he " felt very comfortable at the university and with the coaching staff . "
= = Collegiate career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
Upon joining the UC Irvine basketball program , N 'Diaye was instantly recognized as the tallest player in the NCAA Division I. Russell Turner , the head basketball coach , said , " I 'm excited to add a player of Mamadou 's quality and character to our program . "
On November 2 , 2013 , N 'Diaye represented UC Irvine for the first time in an exhibition game vs. Chapman . He finished with 9 points , a team @-@ high 7 rebounds and 5 blocks.Turner said after the game , " I was pleased with Mamadou 's play . He is a dominating factor at times and he will be a factor that other teams will have to deal with . " N 'Diaye made his collegiate debut on November 8 , 2013 against Fresno State with 5 points , 4 rebounds , and 1 block as the starting center . He also shot 1 @-@ of @-@ 1 from the field and 3 @-@ of @-@ 10 from the free throw line . However , the team lost the game because of a buzzer beater from the opposing side .
When the Anteaters defeated the Washington Huskies men 's basketball team on November 14 , 2013 , N 'Diaye recorded a season @-@ high 18 points . He also added 8 rebounds and 9 blocks . The game was also his first experience in the 2K Sports Classic . His blocked shots total broke the school 's single @-@ game record under the category . He recorded his first career double @-@ double with Irvine on December 28 , 2013 against Arizona State , with 12 points , 4 blocks , and a career @-@ high 12 rebounds . In January at rival Long Beach State , N 'Diaye 's size was said to be so intimidating , coach Dan Monson of the 49ners told reporters that his presence was felt in a way where even when he was sitting on the bench , his players were still afraid to attack the paint . In early February , N 'Diaye broke the school 's single @-@ game block record for the second time in the season , totaling with 11 blocked shots and 10 rebounds against Long Beach State . N 'Diaye also broke the conference 's all @-@ time record . It would be his first career game in which he recorded a double @-@ double without scoring over ten points .
N 'Diaye finished the 2013 – 14 season with averages of 7 @.@ 8 points , 6 @.@ 2 rebounds , 0 @.@ 2 assists , 3 @.@ 1 blocks , and 1 @.@ 7 turnovers per game . Following the year , he was labeled a future top prospect by Kevin Pelton of ESPN.com , strongly due to his performance against Washington , in which he broke the school record for blocks for a single game . UC Irvine lost 58 @-@ 64 in the first round of the 2014 National Invitation Tournament against SMU . They fell to Cal Poly in the 2014 Big West Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament shortly before .
= = = Sophomore and junior = = =
N 'Diaye debuted as a sophomore on November 14 , 2014 , recording 9 points , 2 rebounds , and 1 block against Chapman University . He scored a career @-@ high 21 points on November 29 , vs Loyola Marymount . This was the first time he notched over 20 points in his college career as well . This would be his season @-@ high scoring total . N 'Diaye was sidelined for two months in his second year due to a foot injury . After his team qualified for the 2015 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , he drew attention on Twitter . Louisville Cardinals men 's basketball head coach Rick Pitino , who coached against UC Irvine 's Russell Turner in the first round , said , " I thought he was eight feet tall . " The Anteaters ' season ended when they lost 55 @-@ 57 to Louisville , in spite of the 12 points , 5 rebounds , and 1 block N 'Diaye recorded . He finished the season averaging 10 @.@ 5 points , 5 @.@ 1 rebounds , and 1 @.@ 7 blocks .
In mid @-@ April 2015 , N 'Diaye made it official that he would forgo the 2015 NBA draft and return to UC Irvine for his junior year . The school later released a statement , in which his coach said , " This is great news for Mamadou and for our program . He is staying here because he is happy , he 's committed to his education and he is thriving . I feel really good about those things . " Following his second season with the Anteaters , websites such as CBSSports.com considered him a player that would need to play in the NBA Development League before joining a National Basketball Association roster .
During his junior season , N 'Diaye led the Anteaters to a program best 28 wins falling in the CIT Championship to Colombia . He played in 37 of 38 games on the season starting 36 averaging 12 @.@ 1 ppg , 7 @.@ 2 rpg , 2 @.@ 4 bpg and shooting 63 @.@ 1 % FG and 67 @.@ 3 % FT and 23 @.@ 2 mpg . He also broke the UCI school record for blocks with 218 which was previously broken by former teammate Will Davis II the previous season with 208 .
By his junior year , N 'Diaye was no longer the tallest NCAA player . He faced fellow Sengalese 7 ft 6 in ( 2 @.@ 29 m ) player Tacko Fall in the tallest tip @-@ off and match @-@ up in US college basketball history in a game against the UCF Knights . At the end of his junior season , N 'Diaye managed to improve a good portion of his statistics from his first two years beforehand .
On April 7 , 2016 , N 'Diaye declared for the 2016 NBA draft but did not rule out returning to UC Irvine . Per new NCAA rules , players can declare for the draft and attend pre @-@ draft workouts and opt out of the draft by May 25 as long as they do not hire an agent . On May 23 , two days before the deadline , it was announced that N 'Diaye would officially stick his name into the draft after all . During the school 's official interview regarding his departure , N 'Diaye indicated that we would continue his 2nd dream to pursue the completion of his degree at UC Irvine even as he moves on for his 1st dream to play professionally .
On May 2 , 2016 , N 'Diaye was named to the Senegal national basketball team preliminary squad for Basketball at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Men 's qualification .
= = = College statistics = = =
Source :
= = Professional career = =
N 'Diaye went undrafted in 2016 NBA Draft . Several days after the draft day , N 'Diaye was listed in Golden State Warriors ' roster for 2016 NBA Summer League .
= = Player profile = =
Standing seven feet , six inches tall and weighing 300 pounds , N 'Diaye 's wingspan ( fingertip @-@ to @-@ fingertip reach ) was measured as 8 ft 1 in ( 2 @.@ 46 m ) at the 2012 edition of the Amar 'e Stoudemire Skills Academy . When he entered college , his wingspan had increased to over 8 ft 3 in ( 2 @.@ 51 m ) . He is solely used as a center due to his height , length , and size . N 'Diaye 's skill set was often considered " raw " in high school , and received comments from Brethren Christian head coach , Jon Bahnsen , who said , " Right now his game is basically catch , turn , drop @-@ step , dunk . " He is also capable of touching the standard basketball rim without jumping .
During the 2016 tournament season , a writer for SB Nation wrote that " When Columbia guards find themselves one @-@ on @-@ one with just his frame between them and the rim , they reverse direction and scurry away , like terrified Tokyoites who just heard Godzilla stomping around . One fan screams ' You 're not that tall ! ' at him , which is a lie . Another yells ' You 're only the 36th tallest in the world ! , ' which upon further research , turns out to be true . "
In the past , N 'Diaye has been compared with players such as Yao Ming and Rudy Gobert , who respectively stand 7 ' 6 " and 7 ' 1 " ( 2 @.@ 29 m and 2 @.@ 16 m ) and feature a similar wingspan .
He now plays for the Golden State Warriors Development League Team as 3rd string center .
= Fire ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Fire " is the twelfth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 17 , 1993 . It was written by series creator Chris Carter , directed by Larry Shaw and featured guest appearances by Mark Sheppard and Amanda Pays . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Fire " earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 8 , being watched by 6 @.@ 4 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received mostly positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully are visited by a Metropolitan Police detective who studied at Oxford University with Mulder ; and who enlists their aid with a case involving a serial killer capable of pyrokinesis .
Due to its nature , the episode featured many dangerous stunts utilizing fire . In the scene where Mulder and L 'Ively confront each other at either end of a corridor in the Marsden family home , and L 'Ively sets fire to the entire hallway , Mark Sheppard , who played L 'Ively , ducked out of the shot in order to protect himself from the intense heat . The only injury involved in the production was when David Duchovny burned his hand , leaving a small permanent scar . The character of Phoebe Green was considered as a recurring role , but this episode ended up being her only appearance .
= = Plot = =
In Bosham , England , a wealthy elderly man says goodbye to his wife before leaving for work , but suddenly catches fire in an apparent case of spontaneous human combustion . His family and house staff - including his Irish gardener , Cecil L 'Ively , watch as he burns to death on his front lawn .
Later , in Washington , Fox Mulder and Dana Scully are met by Phoebe Green , an investigator from London 's Metropolitan Police and Mulder 's former lover from Oxford University . Green explains that a serial arsonist is targeting the British aristocracy , burning his victims alive while leaving no trace of evidence . The only links between the crimes are the suspect 's love letters to the victims ' wives . His latest target is Sir Malcolm Marsden , who is visiting Cape Cod for protection after escaping an attack by the killer . Mulder and Scully visit a pyrotechnics expert who says that only rocket fuel can burn hot enough to destroy evidence of its origins .
Mulder tells Scully that Green is using the case to play a mind game , exploiting his debilitating fear of fire . Meanwhile , L 'Ively — having killed a caretaker and assumed his identity — greets the Marsden family as they arrive at their Cape Cod vacation home , faking an American accent . Unbeknownst to the Marsdens , " Bob the Caretaker " is painting a layer of rocket fuel onto the exterior of the house . L 'Ively befriends the Marsdens ' sick family driver , offering to go into town to get him some cough syrup . While there , he uses his pyrokinetic abilities to burn down a local bar without any apparent motive .
At the hospital , Mulder and Green interview a witness to the bar fire , who tells them of the assailant 's apparent ability to will fire into existence . The Marsdens ' driver becomes even sicker due to the poisoned cough syrup provided by L 'Ively . Because of his illness , L 'Ively is recruited to drive the family into Boston that night to attend a party at a luxury hotel . Mulder flies up to Boston to watch over the party with Green , hoping to set a trap for the suspect ; Scully continues working on compiling a criminal profile of the killer .
Mulder and Green dance during the party and afterwards kiss ; Scully arrives at the hotel and sees them . She also spots L 'Ively in the lobby , watching her . A fire alarm goes off after a blaze starts in the Marsdens ' room , where the children are located . Mulder attempts to rescue them , but is overcome both by his phobia and the intense smoke ; they are instead saved by L 'Ively . When Mulder awakens , Scully questions " Bob " , but is told by Green that he is a long @-@ time employee whose background checks out . Green tells Mulder that she will be accompanying the Marsdens when they return to England the next day .
Scully discusses her research with Mulder , suspecting that L 'Ively is the arsonist ; this is confirmed by a police sketch taken from the witness ' description . Upon reaching the Marsdens ' house , Mulder and Scully find the driver 's charred body in the bathroom before the second floor bursts into flames . Mulder faces his phobia and is able to save the Marsden children . Scully holds L 'Ively at gunpoint , but is forced to hold her fire when L 'Ively informs her of the rocket fuel he has painted on the house . However , Green throws a can of rocket fuel in his face , causing him to lose control and set himself alight outside .
With the case solved , Green returns to England with the Marsden family . L 'Ively is held in a medical facility as he awaits trial , healing at an alarming rate . The episode 's final scene shows him asking a nurse for a cigarette .
= = Production = =
The show 's hairstylist in the first season was Malcolm Marsden , whose name is given to the threatened lord in this episode . In the scene where Mulder and L 'ively confront each other at either end of a corridor in the Marsden family home , and L 'ively sets fire to the entire hallway , Mark Sheppard , who played L 'ively , ducked out of the shot in order to protect himself from the intense heat . The only injury involved in the production was when David Duchovny burned his hand , leaving a small permanent scar . The exterior shots of the hotel were filmed on location at the Venable Plaza Hotel in Vancouver which had , coincidentally , been rebuilt after burning to the ground . The interior shots used for the fire @-@ based stunts were shot on a sound stage built to resemble the hotel 's interior , while some stock footage was used for establishing shots . The exterior shots of the mansion at the beginning of the episode were filmed at a Vancouver mansion that had previously been used in the episode " The Jersey Devil " .
The character of Phoebe Green was considered as a recurring role , but this episode ended up being her only appearance . Chris Carter explained the character 's origins , saying " I thought it was interesting to show a little bit of Mulder 's history by bringing an old girlfriend back . I 've always wanted to do a Scotland Yard detective who was a woman . I also thought it was an interesting chance to use Amanda Pays and make a villainess of her " . Executive producer Robert Goodwin felt that the episode " was a hard one . Any kind of a fire stunt is a major undertaking , because it involves so many overlapping things . It was a major feat , a real logical and creative feat , because you wanted it to look good " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Fire " premiered on the Fox network on December 17 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on December 8 , 1994 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 8 , with a 12 share — meaning that roughly 6 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 12 percent of households watching TV , were tuned in to the episode . " Fire " was viewed by 6 @.@ 4 million households .
Series creator Chris Carter called " Fire " a " very popular episode , and I 'm just somewhat happy with the way it turned out . Having written it and imagined it in certain ways , I think it could have been a lot better . Although I thought it was generally well directed , the show felt very ' wide ' to me — very loose and lacking some things . A retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly rated the episode a B , praising Mark Sheppard 's " sizzling performance " , though finding that the " annoying " character of Phoebe Green was a detriment to the episode , who kept " any real sparks from flying " . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , rated the episode a C , finding it " contrived and unnecessary " , and feeling that the relationship between Mulder and Phoebe Green was not believable . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , felt that " Fire " was " a great episode " , believing that it worked well for " highlighting the sexual tension between our two leads " .
= Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang ( Torchwood ) =
" Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang " is the first episode of the second series of British science fiction television series Torchwood , which was broadcast by BBC Two on 16 January 2008 .
The episode features a guest appearance from James Marsters as Captain John Hart , Captain Jack 's former colleague and lover , who comes to the Torchwood team as part of a plan to steal a diamond from a woman who was murdered .
Chris Chibnall wrote the episode with the knowledge that Marsters wished to appear in the series , and has written the part of John Hart " absolutely " for him . The episode was filmed in Cardiff in July 2007 . " Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang " was seen by four million viewers upon its original broadcast , with an Appreciation Index of 84 , and was met with generally positive reviews in both the United Kingdom and United States .
= = Synopsis = =
Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) returns to his team in spectacular fashion , walking into the middle of a hostage situation involving his team and an alien Blowfish , shooting the intoxicated Blowfish in the head . At the Hub , his team question why he left them , and he simply responds that he had found his Doctor and that he belongs at Torchwood . The team is then alerted to a death near a multi @-@ storey car park , where the team detect energy from the Rift on the corpse . Jack , to even his surprise , gets a hologram message on his vortex manipulator from a person he recognises , and leaves the team to talk to him .
The person is Captain John Hart ( James Marsters ) , a fellow Time Agent and former lover of Jack . He is responsible for the death , and a public disturbance at a nightclub . After a passionate kiss and brief fight at the nightclub , John tells Jack that the Time Agency was disbanded and he has since undergone several rehabilitation programmes , before the team catch up with Jack and are introduced to John . John accompanies the team back to the Hub , where he tells the team of three cylindrical devices scattered throughout Cardiff , which he explains are radioactive cluster bombs , and he requires help to defuse them . Thus , they split into three pairs : Jack and administrator Ianto Jones ( Gareth David @-@ Lloyd ) search an office block ( during which Jack successfully asks Ianto out on a date ) , doctor Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) and technical expert Toshiko Sato ( Naoko Mori ) search a warehouse , and police liaison Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) and John search the nearby docks .
It is clear that John has an ulterior motive ; first , he paralyses Gwen and locks her in a crate telling her that if she is not found in two hours , her main organs will stop working and she would die . He then finds Owen and Tosh , shooting the former in the hip . After letting Ianto go , he finally confronts Jack , who realises that the bombs are an elementary 51st century confidence trick . Jack throws the device over the building , and John pushes him off the roof in retaliation .
John returns to Torchwood , where he takes a pyramid @-@ shaped object from the Blowfish in the morgue . Gwen ( who was saved by the rest of the team ) and the others arrive , including Jack , who survived due to his immortality . They hold John at gunpoint , where he admits that the " bombs " will simply triangulate the location of a diamond he stole off a former lover . However , by using the devices and the pyramid , he discovers there is no diamond ; John 's former lover anticipated dying , and thus set a trap to kill her murderer . The device turns out to be a bomb which attaches itself to John and begins a ten @-@ minute countdown .
Unwilling to be murdered , John handcuffs himself to Gwen and swallows the key . Gwen formulates a plan to use the Rift at the car park to contain the explosion , but at the penalty of her own life . Jack and Owen catch John and the rest of the team at the car park where John arrived and inject him with the team 's DNA , thus confusing the device into detaching from John . Jack throws the bomb into the rift where it detonates . John then agrees to free Gwen and leave , but before leaving , tells Jack that he " found Gray " , visibly disturbing Jack , who just asks his team to get back to work .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and filming = = =
The development of the episode commenced when executive producer Russell T Davies received an email from his agent , telling him James Marsters was interested in appearing on the series . Chris Chibnall wrote the episode " absolutely " for Marsters , and wanted Hart to become a conflict for Jack Harkness . Marsters believed that Hart was somewhat of a doppelganger to Harkness . After scripting was complete , Marsters did not need to discuss with the directors because he felt the script was self @-@ explanatory .
Originally , Captain John was going to come through the Rift on a " pandimensional surfboard " similar to the one found in the Doctor Who episode " Boom Town " , Chibnall changed it because the production team decided that " it would look cooler if John just calmly walked out of the Rift , as if it was the sort of thing he might do every day " .
The episode was filmed in Cardiff in July 2007 . The first meeting between Jack and John at the nightclub was written to be akin to a Spaghetti Western . Instead of fighting , it was decided that they would kiss first , so that the audience " don 't see it coming " . The following fight scene was intended to be " sexy , rather than brutal " , similar to the naked wrestling scene in the film Women in Love . While the scene only lasted one minute on screen , much more was filmed , so much that it took a whole day to shoot . 80 % of the acting in the scene was done by Marsters and Barrowman themselves , instead of stuntmen . The style of fighting was similar to what Marsters was used to , and was , according to stunt co @-@ ordinator Tom Lucy , a cross between Western , martial arts , and Bourne .
The building used to film searching for one of the canisters was a British Gas building in Cardiff . The scene with Jack falling off the building was performed by Curtis Rivers , John Barrowman 's stunt double . Though Rivers made the stunt to make Jack " look good " , Barrowman had to lie on a box over green screen . Marsters and Barrowman were used for filming close to the roof 's edge .
= = = Visual effects and animatronics = = =
While the most noticeable visual effect was John 's entrance through the Rift , The Mill also made inconspicuous visual effects , such as extending the number of crates at the docks . The visual effect used for the Rift was redesigned for the second series , due to a decision among the visual effects team at The Mill that separate manifestations of the Rift appear different — in this case , orange and gold was used to make the Rift appear " warmer and more magical " . The Mill also made three different types of holograms . The projection from Jack 's wriststrap device was coloured blue to match earlier appearances , John 's wriststrap projected a flashier , full colour image due to specifications in the script , and the golden hue in the projection of John 's ex @-@ lover was based on the prop .
The blowfish in the opening scene was intended by executive producer Russell T Davies to be " like Finding Nemo , but evil " and the producer of the episode , Richard Stokes , wanted the designs to be as flamboyant as " the lionfish in The Spy Who Loved Me " . The first designs of the costume were visibly different from the final design ; the first designs were more fish @-@ like than humanoid . After a humanoid design was approved by the production team , Millennium FX , who previously created the prosthetics for Doctor Who and the first series of Torchwood , immediately sculpted the costume to Paul Kasey 's dimensions . Two versions of the mask were created ; one was animatronic , which included mechanical fins , and one was used for the stunt where the blowfish was shot in the head .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings and later broadcast = = =
The episode was watched by 4 @.@ 22 million viewers and its Appreciation Index figure was 84 . After its original broadcast , an edited version was shown the following week on BBC Two . The episode was also aired ten days later on BBC America .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Metro picked " Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang " as their pick of the day on 16 January 2008 , complimenting the " fast @-@ paced plot " in contrast to the " puerile humour " and " [ meandering ] between soft porn and Scooby @-@ Doo " of the first series . In the same newspaper , on the following day , Keith Watson commented that the episode " was like watching Carry On Up the Asteroids " , but nevertheless stated that " as dramatic cocktails go , [ its mix of gadgets , sci @-@ fi gobbledegook and louche libidos ] was out of this world " , and gave the episode four stars out of five . The Times commented that the episode was " good , salacious , knockabout fun " , the best thing about Torchwood that " everyday Cardiff hums alongside psychotic blowfish and time loops " , and asked " when extraterrestrial push comes to intergalactic shove , how could anyone object to a series that begins with a blowfish driving a sports car ? " . The Guardian stated that parts were " very , very , funny " and the episode was largely " a hoot " . However , The Daily Telegraph felt that the series fared better on BBC Three , but on BBC Two it was " both far too pleased with itself and surprisingly amateurish " .
The episode also received positive reviews in the United States . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times summarised it as " gay and playful sci @-@ fi fun " and compared it with Buffy the Vampire Slayer 's " good and efficient wit " , and theorised that its rising quality made it " not hard to imagine it could be must @-@ watch TV by season four " , the Orlando Sentinel stated it was " a bracing mix of campy comedy , chilling twists and sexual surprises " and commented that it " enlivens Saturdays " , and the Sci Fi Channel , who syndicate Doctor Who , called the script " excellent " , commented that " Marsters and Barrowman 's chemistry is just terrific " , and lamented that the show only airs thirteen episodes per series , as opposed to the American standard of 24 .
= Robert Winchelsey =
Robert Winchelsey ( or Winchelsea ; c . 1245 – 1313 ) was an English Christian theologian and Archbishop of Canterbury . He studied at the universities of Paris and Oxford , and later taught at both . Influenced by Thomas Aquinas , he was a scholastic theologian . Winchelsey held various benefices in England , and was the Chancellor of Oxford University before being elected to Canterbury in early 1293 . Although he initially had the support of Edward I , Winchelsey later became a forceful opponent of the king . The archbishop was encouraged by the papacy to resist Edward 's attempts to tax the clergy . Winchelsey was also an opponent of the king 's treasurer Walter Langton as well as other clergy . On one occasion he rebuked an abbot so sternly that the abbot suffered a fatal heart attack .
Following the election of a former royal clerk as Pope Clement V in 1305 , the king was able to secure the archbishop 's exile that same year . Upon the succession of Edward 's son , Edward II , Winchelsey was allowed to return to England after the new king petitioned the pope to allow his return . Winchelsey soon joined the king 's enemies , however , and was the only bishop to object to the return of the king 's favourite , Piers Gaveston . Winchelsey died in 1313 . Although miracles were alleged to have happened at his tomb , an attempt to have him declared a saint was unsuccessful .
= = Early life = =
Winchelsey studied and taught at the universities of Paris and Oxford , and became the Rector of Paris , and Chancellor of Oxford . While in Paris , he read , and possibly met , Thomas Aquinas , and his own theology was thereafter purely scholastic . In 1283 , he was appointed canon of St. Paul 's in London , but it is unclear exactly when he returned to England . He held the prebend of Oxgate in the diocese of London , and was made Archdeacon of Essex , also in the London diocese , in about 1288 .
= = Archbishop = =
= = = Election = = =
John Peckham , Archbishop of Canterbury , died in December 1292 , and on 13 February 1293 Winchelsey was elected as his successor . Unusually , neither the pope nor the king had a hand in his election . On 1 April Winchelsey left England for Rome to get papal confirmation . He was not consecrated immediately because of a papal vacancy ; Celestine V eventually performed the ceremony at Aquila on 12 September 1294 .
= = = Disputes with Edward I = = =
Winchelsey was a fearless opponent of Edward I. When he swore his oath of fealty to Edward , he offended the king by adding a declaration that he was only swearing fealty for the temporalities , not the spiritualities . All through his term as archbishop he refused to allow Edward to tax the clergy beyond certain levels , and withstood severe pressure to change his mind . In August 1295 , he offered the king a tenth of all ecclesiastical revenues , less than Edward had hoped to collect from the clergy . Winchelsey did concede though that if the war with France , which was what the money was requested to fund , continued into the following year , then the clergy would be amenable to making further contributions .
Following the issue of the papal bull Clericis laicos in 1296 , forbidding the payment of taxes to a secular power , Winchelsey urged his clergy in 1297 to refuse payments to Edward . However , the clergy of the province of York paid a tax of a fifth of their revenues . Edward then declared clerics who refused to pay outlaws , and ordered their property to be seized . He conceded that the clergy could return to his protection if they paid a fine of a fifth of their revenues , exactly what the northern clergy had offered in the way of taxation . The royal clerks and many other clergy paid the fines , and in March , the southern clergy met again , and after a long debate , Winchelsey instructed each clerk to decide for himself whether or not to pay the fine . It appears that most chose to pay , but the archbishop still refused to make any contribution , and so Edward seized his lands . They were returned to him in July 1297 , when the king and prelate were reconciled at Westminster . Winchelsey then tried to mediate between Edward and the earls , who also objected to Edward 's tax demands .
Winchelsey further irritated Edward with his opposition to the Bishop of Lichfield , Walter Langton , who was the king 's treasurer . The king was not the only one to be upset by the archbishop ; the abbot of Oseney , in 1297 , was so affected by a rebuke from him that he suffered a fatal heart attack . In 1299 , Winchelsey and the king briefly reconciled , and the archbishop presided at the king 's second marriage , to Margaret of France , at Canterbury . Winchelsey vigorously asserted his authority over his suffragan , or subordinant bishops , quarrelled with Pope Boniface VIII over a Sussex living , and was excommunicated by one of the pope 's clerks in 1301 . He was absolved in 1302 .
= = = Exile and return = = =
Winchelsey and the barons joined in demanding reforms from the king at the parliament of Lincoln in 1301 , but Winchelsey 's support of Boniface VIII 's claim to be the protector of Scotland , broke the alliance . One of the reasons which led the archbishop to ally with the barons was his hostility to Edward 's adviser , Walter Langton , Bishop of Lichfield . The king took no action against Winchelsey until the Gascon and former royal clerk Bertrand de Got was named Pope Clement V in 1305 . Edward then sent two envoys – Langton and Henry Lacy – to the pope , to press his claim that Winchelsey was plotting against him . Clement suspended the archbishop on 12 February 1306 . Winchelsey left England and went to the papal court at Bordeaux , where he stayed until Edward 's death in July 1307 . Only Antony Bek , Bishop of Durham supported the archbishop .
After the death of Edward I , the new king , Edward II , asked that Winchelsey be restored , which the pope agreed to on 22 January 1308 . Soon after his return to England in early 1308 the archbishop joined the king 's enemies . The archbishop , along with the Earl of Warwick , were the only people to object to the return of the new king 's favourite Piers Gaveston to England in 1309 . Winchelsey aided the barons in their prosecution of Edward II by sentencing their enemies to excommunication . He was appointed an Ordainer in 1310 , and died at Otford on 11 May 1313 .
= = Legacy = =
Winchelsey was a preacher of some note , and when preaching at St. Paul 's he attracted large crowds to his sermons and lectures . Winchelsey 's theological writings date primarily from his time at St. Paul 's , where he delivered a number of quodibeta . The quaestiones disputatae from those sessions survive , and illustrate his highly orthodox trinitarian views and his scholastic method . Miracles were said to have been worked at his tomb in Canterbury cathedral , but efforts to have him declared a saint were unsuccessful .
= Sideling Hill Tunnel =
Sideling Hill Tunnel is one of three original Pennsylvania Turnpike tunnels abandoned ( this one in 1968 ) after two massive realignment projects . The others are nearby Rays Hill Tunnel , and farther west , the Laurel Hill Tunnel . It was less expensive to realign the Turnpike than to bore a second tube for four lane traffic . Sideling Hill Tunnel is 6 @,@ 782 feet ( 2 @,@ 067 m ) long . It was the longest of the original tunnels on the Pennsylvania Turnpike . The Ray 's Hill Tunnel and Sideling Hill Tunnel are now part of the Pike2Bike Trail . Together , the two tunnels as well as the roadway are commonly known as the Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike .
From the Turnpike 's opening in 1940 until the realignment projects , the tunnels were bottlenecks ; opposing traffic in the same tubes reduced speeds . Four other tunnels on the Turnpike – Allegheny Mountain , Tuscarora Mountain , Kittatinny Mountain , and Blue Mountain – each had a second tube bored , the least expensive option . All of the original tunnels except for the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel were part of " Vanderbilt 's Folly " , the never @-@ completed South Pennsylvania Railroad .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
The Sideling Hill Tunnel 's original plans date back to the year 1881 , when surveying for the South Pennsylvania Railroad began . Construction began that year , with the plans for nine brand @-@ new tunnels , most of which were drilled by 1885 . The Sideling Hill Tunnel was built before December 1884 by John O 'Brien , an engineer from Rhinebeck , New York . On July 6 , 1885 , a blast occurred at the end of the Sideling Hill Tunnel . The blast , which was caused by dynamite , claimed the lives of three people , including O 'Brien . Several other people were injured in the blast . Just sixteen days later , another blast occurred in the tunnel , taking the lives of a Hungarian worker , along with two African @-@ Americans , two Italians , and one Irishman . The bodies were so cut by the rocks during the blast , that the people were almost unidentifiable . Unfortunately William H. Vanderbilt , who had started the plans for the railroad , noticed that expenses began to inflate , and he began to look for a second way to work things out . The construction was abandoned and never finished . In 1938 , the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission took over the entire grade of the abandoned railway .
The Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission started construction on a new toll highway from Carlisle , Pennsylvania to Irwin , Pennsylvania in 1938 . When the Pennsylvania Turnpike opened on October 25 , 1940 , the Sideling Hill Tunnel was one of the seven original tunnels along the highway , six of which were built from the old railroad tunnels from the 1880s . The Allegheny Mountain Tunnel was constructed from scratch rather than from the tunnels because of structural concerns .
Beginning in 1951 , the eastbound traffic at the Laurel Hill Tunnel would back up during the summer weekends . By 1958 , the Laurel Hill experienced congestion anytime from June to November . Because of the long bottlenecks , the Commission started looking into ways to remove the congestion . There were studies that began in the mid @-@ 1950s to decide on what to do with the tunnels . The studies looked into the major tunnels , the Laurel Hill and Allegheny Mountain , and the possibility of adding a second tube , or " twinning " , to them .
= = = Tunnel bypass actions = = =
Studies were completed for the remaining five mainline tunnels to determine the cost benefit of twinning of the tunnels , or complete bypass . After the studies completed , the decision was made to go ahead with a US $ 100 million construction project to work with the tunnels . Construction began on September 6 , 1962 , with the first subproject being a bypass of the Laurel Hill Tunnel . On October 30 , 1964 , just two years after construction began , the Laurel Hill Bypass was completed and opened . The Laurel Hill Tunnel was permanently closed on that day . However , this was not the last bypass to occur for tunnels along the turnpike . Two years after the closing of the Laurel Hill , the Allegheny Mountain became the first tunnel to be twinned , and opened on August 25 , 1966 . With the twinning of the Blue Mountain , Kittatinny Mountain and Tuscarora Mountain tunnels under construction , the Commission turned its focus to the remaining two mainline tunnels , the Rays Hill Tunnel ( the shortest tunnel ) and the Sideling Hill Tunnel ( the longest tunnel ) .
An engineering report dating back to 1961 suggested that building a bypass around the last two mainline tunnels was the best way to solve the congestion . The Commission awarded three contracts to construct the bypass from July 1966 to March 1967 . The contracts cost $ 17 @.@ 2 million for roadway and another $ 2 @.@
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characters and how to play . The rules presentation was created to help explain the game to new players . The videotape can be forwarded to the start of the instructions . During the rules presentation a game is played by actors who are dressed as three Harbingers – Baron Samedi , Anne de Chantraine and Elizabeth Bathory – and three Soul Rangers . The demonstration game is used throughout the rules presentation to help explain how to play the game .
= = Development = =
With the feedback received from players after the release of Nightmare , Brett Clements and Phillip Tanner started work on the major update to the series . They struck a deal with J. W. Spear & Sons , to use publishing experience and market research with Nightmare to help create the new game . The deal allowed J. W. Spear & Sons to have input into how the game was developed , which was not the case with Nightmare . Village Roadshow was also involved with the game 's development and with its release in the United States . The development ended six years after it started , with about six million dollars invested in the development of the game .
= = Reception = =
The Harbingers sold above the industry 's sales predictions in Australia and became one of the top ten best selling games in the United States and the United Kingdom , within months of its release . On the game 's release , Mattel launched a marketing campaign with a spot on MTV , cross @-@ promotions with soft drinks and a website for the game .
= = Expansions = =
= = = Booster tapes = = =
Two booster tapes were released following the success of The Harbingers . The tapes provide a challenging experience to The Harbingers for experienced players . The booster tapes run for forty @-@ five minutes instead of the sixty minutes of the original , and come with a new rule to limit the number of Keystones added to each province based on the number of players . Other than this limit the normal rules apply .
= = = The Soul Rangers = = =
A year later , an add @-@ on called The Soul Rangers was released . The add @-@ on allows players to play only as The Soul Rangers and is hosted by a Soul Ranger calling himself Dr. Mastiff . The add @-@ on was released because the creators found out that players enjoy causing damage as The Soul Rangers .
= Andreas Thorkildsen =
Andreas Thorkildsen ( born 1 April 1982 ) is a former Norwegian javelin thrower , born in Kristiansand . He is the first male javelin thrower in history to be European champion , World champion and Olympic champion . He was Olympic champion in 2004 and 2008 , European champion in 2006 and 2010 , World Champion in 2009 as well as a three @-@ time silver medalist at the World championships in 2005 , 2007 and in 2011 . He set a world junior record in 2001 . He has a personal best of 91 @.@ 59 m set in 2006 .
= = Personal life = =
Thorkildsen 's father Tomm Thorkildsen is a former javelin thrower , achieving a personal best throw of 71 @.@ 64 metres in 1974 . His mother Bente ( née Amundsen ) became national champion in the 100 metres hurdles in 1972 , representing Hamar IL . He has one older brother . He took his secondary education at Kristiansand Cathedral School .
= = = Relationship with Christina Vukicevic = = =
Thorkildsen 's relationship with the Norwegian hurdler Christina Vukicevic generated some unwanted publicity on his part . When Thorkildsen and Vukicevic won the King 's Cup for men and women respectively at the 2006 Norwegian championships , Thorkildsen left the stadium to avoid photographers , whom he had shown the finger the previous day . Thorkildsen has performed as a fashion model for former footballer Martin Dahlin , fronting his 2007 winter and autumn collections .
In March 2011 Christina Vukicevic and Thorkildsen announced in Norwegian media that they no longer were a couple .
= = Career = =
Thorkildsen took up javelin throwing at the age of 11 , and was coached by his father Tomm until 1999 . He established numerous national boys ' records as a teenager . In 1996 he set a national record for the 14 years ' class ( 53 @.@ 82 m ) , in 1998 for the 16 years ' class ( 61 @.@ 57 m ) , in 1999 for the 17 years ' class ( 72 @.@ 11 m ) , and in 2000 a record for the 18 years ' class ( 77 @.@ 48 m ) . In 1999 he finished seventh at the European Junior Championships .
In 2000 Thorkildsen took his first medal at the Norwegian championships , finishing in silver medal position behind Ronny Nilsen . His form earned Thorkildsen his first call @-@ up to the Norwegian European Cup team . In October he participated at the World Junior Championships and received a silver medal behind winner Gerhardus Pienaar from South Africa .
= = = 2001 – 2003 = = =
In 2001 Thorkildsen moved to Oslo and started competing for the club SK Vidar under coach Åsmund Martinsen , a former javelin thrower who won the bronze medal at the 1994 Norwegian Championships , and had a career best throw of 68 @.@ 12 metres . The cooperation proved fruitful as Thorkildsen soon broke the 80 metre barrier , throwing 83 @.@ 87 metres on Fana stadion in June . This was a world junior record till 2011 . Participating in his second European Junior Championships , he won a silver medal behind Aleksandr Ivanov . Both competed at the World Championships in Edmonton , but while Ivanov managed to reach the final , Thorkildsen finished last in the entire competition with only 68 @.@ 41 metres . When asked to comment on his own throwing he described it as " completely awful " .
On the national level Thorkildsen became Norwegian champion for the first time . In August he competed in a discus throw meet at Sognsvann , establishing a personal best of 83 @.@ 02 metres . He has not competed on national level in other athletic events .
In 2002 , he recorded a season best of 83 @.@ 43 metres in June before witnessing his form gradually declining over the next months . At his first European Championships , which were held in August in Munich , he again failed to progress from the qualifying round . With a best throw of 78 @.@ 36 metres he finished fifteenth overall , 68 centimetres behind Ari Pakarinen who secured the last spot in the final . Although Thorkildsen only managed to take silver at the Norwegian championships behind Pål Arne Fagernes , his result of 83 @.@ 43 metres was enough to front the national top list in javelin throw for the first time .
Next year he finished eleventh at the 2003 World Championships in Paris , his first major international final . His performance and throw of 77 @.@ 75 metres was slightly disappointing as he had thrown 79 @.@ 44 metres in the qualifying round , having travelled to Paris with a personal best of 85 @.@ 72 metres , established in June in Ventspils . On the lighter side he took his second national title , consolidating his spot as Norway 's leading javelin thrower .
= = = 2004 = = =
In 2004 Thorkildsen faced competition from Ronny Nilsen , who threw 84 @.@ 73 metres in May . Although Thorkildsen did not retake the national number one spot right away , he did display increasing form in the preparations for the Olympic Games . He qualified for the Olympics with an 84 @.@ 12 m throw at the Bergen Bislett Games , an event which was won by Breaux Greer with a North American record and world leading throw of 87 @.@ 39 metres . On 27 July Thorkildsen took his first victory in an IAAF Grand Prix meet , beating Breaux Greer by a comfortable margin at the DN Galan meet in Stockholm . Three days later he improved his season best to 84 @.@ 45 metres at the London Grand Prix at Crystal Palace .
Even though several throwers , including Nilsen , still towered above Thorkildsen on the world list , the Olympic javelin contest was regarded as widely open – " one of the most open finals in Olympic history " , according to the IAAF Olympic coverage . Thorkildsen threw 81 @.@ 74 m in the qualification round , barely earning a mention in the event report as he safely passed the automatic qualifier mark of 81 metres to go through to the final . Breaux Greer won the qualification with 87 @.@ 25 m , but left the stadium in a limping state . In the javelin final held two days later , Thorkildsen opened with an 84 @.@ 82 m release which saw him ranked third at the end of the first round . Vadims Vasiļevskis of Latvia had thrown a personal best of 84 @.@ 95 m to earn a surprising lead ahead of reigning World champion Sergey Makarov . In the second round Thorkildsen threw a personal best of 86 @.@ 50 metres . As neither Aleksandr Ivanov , Greer nor anyone else managed to beat this , Thorkildsen won a surprising Olympic gold medal with Vasiļevskis and Makarov staying in place to take the silver and bronze medals respectively . Commenting on his win , Thorkildsen described the feeling as " completely insane " . A second place behind Breaux Greer at the World Athletics Final in Monte Carlo rounded off the season .
= = = 2005 = = =
The most important event of 2005 was the World Championships . The preparations for this event looked promising for Thorkildsen as he improved his personal best to 86 @.@ 82 metres in Kuortane in June , beating the Norwegian record of Pål Arne Fagernes . Tero Pitkämäki from Finland , who achieved a world leading result of 91 @.@ 53 metres in the same competition , seemed a likely contender for the world champion title . In July , When Thorkildsen further improved his national record to 87 @.@ 66 metres at the Bislett Games , reigning world champion Sergey Makarov had already thrown 90 @.@ 33 metres two weeks earlier at the Russian Championships in Tula . Going into the World Championships , Pitkämäki was still in first place on the world top list ahead of Makarov and Thorkildsen , who in turn was ahead of Breaux Greer by one centimetre .
In the qualification round at the World Championships , held in windy conditions on the Helsinki Olympic Stadium , only Pitkämäki , Makarov and Thorkildsen managed to beat the automatic qualification mark of 81 metres . Rain supplemented the wind the following day , constituting difficult weather conditions for the javelin final . Thorkildsen , in the lead after three rounds with 86 @.@ 18 metres , eventually finished in silver medal position behind Andrus Värnik of Estonia as the latter threw 87 @.@ 17 metres in the fourth round .
Pitkämäki , who finished a disappointing fourth at the World Championships , bounced back to win the World Athletics Final ahead of Thorkildsen , despite the latter improving his national record to 89 @.@ 60 metres . 89 @.@ 60 metres was enough to finish third on the world top list that season , behind Pitkämäki and Makarov .
= = = 2006 – 2008 = = =
In 2006 Thorkildsen returned to his original club Kristiansands IF , having represented SK Vidar in competitions the five previous seasons . In May he broke the 90 metre barrier for the first time , with 90 @.@ 13 metres from the Doha Super Grand Prix . At the Bislett Games he yet again improved his record to 91 @.@ 59 metres , reaching his goal of 300 feet . As no one managed to top his 91 @.@ 59 metre result , he entered the 2006 European Championships as a favorite , together with Tero Pitkämäki who had won the IAAF Golden League meet in Paris . Thorkildsen won the event with 88 @.@ 78 metres , having led the competition since the second round . Thorkildsen finished the season by winning his first World Athletics Final as well as the 2006 IAAF World Cup . With 91 @.@ 59 metres he finished on top of the world list for the first time .
Thorkildsen 's main goals for the 2007 season were the Bislett Games and the 2007 World Championships in Osaka , as well as winning the Golden League jackpot . In addition he aims to beat the old record of Terje Pedersen , who threw 91 @.@ 72 metres with the old javelin implement , by throwing in the range of 93 to 94 metres . The season started in a mediocre manner as he threw 81 @.@ 10 metres in Dakar and 86 @.@ 39 m in Doha . He recovered his form at the world championships , but once again could only achieve a silver medal , this time losing to Pitkämäki finally fulfilling his potential with a throw of 90 @.@ 33 ( though he 'd already been assured the medal by this point ) .
In 2008 Thorkildsen won the Golden League event at Bislett in Oslo , his main goal besides the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . He won a gold medal in the Olympics where he set a new Olympic record with 90 @.@ 57 metres . Thorkildsen dominated the competition , leading it from his first throw and making the two longest throws in the competition without using his last attempt . All of his 5 throws would have given a medal . Thorkildsen also won the javelin competition of the 2008 IAAF Golden League in Zürich on 29 August .
= = = 2009 – 2010 = = =
He became the first male javelin thrower in history to hold all three titles of European champion , World champion and Olympic champion , winning IAAF World Championship in Berlin with 89.59m. Thorkildsen also has the season 's leading throw , with 91.28m. achieved in Zürich on 28 August .
He opened his 2010 season with a large throw of 90 @.@ 37 m at the Florö Track & Field Festival in May and went on to score a victory over Pitkamaki in their first match up in the 2010 IAAF Diamond League at the Bislett Games , finishing with a best throw of 86 @.@ 00 m . On 31 July he defended his European title with a throw of 88 @.@ 37 , finishing ahead of second @-@ placed Matthias de Zordo .
= = Awards = =
At the end of 2004 Thorkildsen was selected Norwegian Sportsperson of the Year by Norwegian sports journalists .
In 2008 he was awarded the European Athlete of the Year Trophy by the European Athletic Association , announced on 2 October 2008 , and to be presented at the European Athletics Awards Dinner in Amsterdam on 18 October . The Association cited Thorkildsen 's success at the Beijing Olympics and his breaching of the 90 @-@ metre barrier as part of their reasoning for the award .
= = Seasonal bests by year = =
1998 - 61 @.@ 57
1999 - 72 @.@ 11
2000 - 77 @.@ 48
2001 - 83 @.@ 87
2002 - 83 @.@ 43
2003 - 85 @.@ 72
2004 - 86 @.@ 50
2005 - 89 @.@ 60
2006 - 91 @.@ 59
2007 - 89 @.@ 51
2008 - 90 @.@ 57
2009 - 91 @.@ 28
2010 - 90 @.@ 37
2011 - 90 @.@ 61
2012 - 84 @.@ 72
2013 - 84 @.@ 64
2014 - 80 @.@ 52
= Real ( Ivy Queen album ) =
Real is the fourth studio album by Puerto Rican reggaetón recording artist Ivy Queen , released on November 21 , 2004 , by Universal Music Latino . Initially to be Queen 's debut full @-@ length English @-@ language studio album , it featured collaborations with hip hop and fellow reggaetón artists Hector El Father , Fat Joe , Getto & Gastam , La India , Gran Omar and Mickey Perfecto . The album was primarily produced by Rafi Mercenario , and included guest production by American producer Swizz Beatz , Puerto Rican producers Ecko , Noriega , Monserrate and DJ Nelson . The executive producers were Goguito " Willy " Guadalupe , Gran Omar and Queen .
Real is Queen 's only record with a Parental Advisory label . The album departs from the lyrical content characterizing Queen 's musical style , detailing hood life in Puerto Rico and love . It alternates musically between reggaetón and hip hop , experimenting with electronica , funk , dancehall , pop , R & B , and acoustic ballads . The wide range of styles and musical exploration earned Real mainly positive reviews from critics . Many praised Queen 's raspy vocals and production quality , whilst others criticized the lack of instrumentation .
Spawning three singles ( " Chika Ideal " , " Rociarlos " and " Dile " ) , Real peaked at number twenty @-@ five on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , number four on the Billboard Top Reggae Albums chart and number six on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart . " Chika Ideal " and " Rociarlos " failed to attain chart success , although the former reached the top ten of Terra Networks ' music @-@ video countdown . " Dile " peaked at number eight on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart , earning Queen three Billboard Latin Music Award nominations ( including one for Tropical Airplay Track of the Year , Female ) . Several other tracks , including " Tócame " and " Baila Así " , received airplay on Anglophone and Hispanophone radio stations in the United States .
Real is regarded as a factor in 2004 's reggaetón exposure to mainstream English @-@ speaking markets , along with Queen 's previous album ( her 2003 studio recording , Diva ) and albums by Daddy Yankee and Tego Calderón . It became one of the best @-@ selling albums of 2005 ( along with her fifth studio album , Flashback ) , with sales of both going " through the roof " . Queen then embarked on concert tours of Latin America and the United States ; she also promoted the album with a network television @-@ news segment detailing her career and struggle for respect in reggaetón , performing " Chika Ideal " on Don Francisco Presenta . The album was re @-@ released on September 25 , 2007 by Machete Music , but failed to impact the charts .
= = Background = =
After the failure of Ivy Queen 's first two studio albums , En Mi Imperio ( 1997 ) and The Original Rude Girl ( 1998 ) , Sony Music Latin released Queen from her musical contract and she took a hiatus from her musical career in 1999 . The 1999 hip @-@ hop single " In The Zone " , a duet with Haitian singer Wyclef Jean , was moderately successful in the United States . However , the album " fizzled " . Over the next few years , Queen appeared on reggaetón compilation albums , spawning hits ( including " Quiero Bailar " ) and collaborations with artists on Tommy Boy and Columbia Records . In 2003 , Queen released her third studio recording , Diva , which was highly anticipated and acclaimed . It was a factor in reggaetón 's mainstream exposure in 2004 ( with Daddy Yankee 's Barrio Fino and Tego Calderon 's El Enemy de los Guasíbiri ) , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . In early 2004 , after a string of compilation appearances , Queen appeared on the compilation album 12 Discípulos by Eddie Dee with " Los 12 Discípulos " , " Quítate Tu Pa ' Ponerme " and " Que Es La Que Hay " . " Los 12 Discípulos " managed to reach number eight of the Billboard Tropical Songs chart , becoming a top ten hit . It received a nomination for " Tropical Airplay Track of the Year , New Artist " at the 2005 Billboard Latin Music Award . The song featured eleven other reggaeton musicians , who were among the most requested in the genre at the time . These included Dee along with Queen , Daddy Yankee , Tego Calderón , Voltio , Vico C , Zion , Lennox , Nicky Jam , Johnny Prez , Gallego , and Wiso G. The song brought all twelve artist together as one to show that " unity is needed for the genre reggaetón to evolve and survive " .
That year , Queen released a platinum edition of the album which included new songs , such as " Papi Te Quiero " and " Tu No Puedes " , and began recording her next album . Queen 's fourth studio album was planned to be her debut full @-@ length English @-@ language album after she received record @-@ contract offers from a number of labels , including Sony . She said it was a good opportunity to reach the competitive Anglo hip hop music market after her success in Latin American countries . Queen received an offer to record an English @-@ language album after Sony notified her that her Sony albums from six years earlier were being played in cities such as London because of Diva 's success . Despite her concerns about her English pronunciation , she continued with the project . Queen recorded songs with some of hip hop 's most popular MCs , including American rapper Fat Joe ( who appeared on her debut English album ) . His song later became " Quítate Two " , and was included on Real ; American hip @-@ hop producer Swizz Beatz produced " Soldados " , showcasing her crossover appeal .
= = Recording and production = =
After the success of Diva : Platinum Edition , Ivy Queen began recording her fourth studio album in March 2004 ; it wrapped up in September at Marroneo Studios in Bayamón , Puerto Rico . The album was mastered and arranged by Esteban Piñero ; Dennis Nieves did the mixing and served as engineer .
Production was divided among several hip @-@ hop and reggaetón producers . Swizz Beatz produced " Soldados " ; longtime collaborator DJ Nelson reappeared with " Dile " ( the lead single ) and " Acércate " . Grammy @-@ Award winning Latin music producers Echo and Diesel , Hyde , Gran Omar , Noriega , Monserrate , Dennis Nieves , DJ Blass and DJ David Montañez also aided in production and Rafi Mercenario produced seven of the album 's nineteen tracks . Queen and Omar were executive producers .
Collaborations include " Matando " , " Rociarlos " ( also featuring Hector El Father ) and " Baila Así " with Queen 's then @-@ husband , Gran Omar ; a hip @-@ hop track , " Quítate Two " , with Fat Joe ; " Acércate " with Mikey Perfecto , " Tócame " with salsa singer La India and " Vas A Morir " with Puerto Rican duo Getto & Gastam . " Soldados " and " Dee Jay " were co @-@ written with Kasseem Dean and Omar Navarro , respectively . " People thought we were going to make a salsa track " , Queen said about the collaboration with La India , noting that the song was a dancehall track ( not salsa or reggaetón ) . She added that India was " original " and she worked well with people who are genuine , explaining the other collaborations . According to Navarro and Queen in an 2004 interview on mun2 The Roof , the album was expected to feature a duet with Puerto Rican singer Don Omar . Spin saw Queen 's collaboration with Fat Joe as a trend in reggaetón to have American rappers " team up with its stars " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to Rolling Stone , the album contains " raspy braggadocio and sexy rhymes " which complement Queen 's raspy vocals . It alternates between reggaetón and hip hop as Queen experiments with Caribbean music , R & B , pop , electronica , funk , dancehall and acoustic ballads : " I really think this album is for people to really just sit down and listen to it " . She explained that " there are times that the songs will make you want to dance " , but their lyrics are more meaningful . Although Queen said the album has its share of " battles against men " , she wants it to demonstrate that she is a well – rounded artist . Describing the songs , she said " [ they ] are always going to be real because they are feelings that people have ... The hits that I have now , the girls love them because they are real . If I am feeling hurt and need to curse to express that , then I will . I am going to be real all the way because that 's what made Ivy Queen " .
The introduction to the album features Queen lyrically blessing and thanking her audience for the support . " Chika Ideal " ( " Ideal Girl " ) assures the protagonist 's lover that she wants to be with him and fulfill his dreams . " Soldados " ( " Soldiers " ) , a hip @-@ hop track influenced by electronic music , was produced by Swizz Beatz . " Matando " ( " Killing " ) , a duet with Gran Omar , explores dancing in a club . The song , in a minor key , features the synthetic instrumentation of techno music . " Dale Volumen " ( " Add Volume " ) , in a minor key , is characterized by simple harmonic progressions , synthesizers and stick @-@ drum percussion and influenced by reggae and Afro @-@ Latin music . It features a techno @-@ influenced beat . " Dile " ( " Tell Her " ) features lilting rhythms from Colombia ( including cumbia ) , combining Latin vallenato with reggaetón . Queen noted that she sang the song without rapping to prove she is a complete musician and not just a rapper . " Mi Barrio " ( " My Hood " ) criticizes " the problems present in Añasco , Puerto Rico " . Queen compared the song to " Corazones " by Daddy Yankee from his album , Barrio Fino . " Dee Jay " is a reggaetón number which " recognizes the DJs " of reggaetón . In it , Queen mentions DJ Nelson , Noriega , DJ Adam , DJ Negro , DJ Baby , Rafi Mercenario , Luny Tunes , Monserrate & DJ Urba and others . " Quítate Two " ( " Remove Yourself " ) , with Fat Joe , combines hip @-@ hop and funk music . The acoustic guitar ballad " Ángel Caído " ( " Fallen Angel " ) and its acoustic version are the fourteenth and nineteenth tracks on the album , respectively . " Tócame " " ( " Touch Me " ) , a dancehall track , features La India . In a minor key , " Rebulera " , another minor @-@ key song , has Queen asserting that she is " queen " in the genre of reggaetón . The track features synthesizers and strings , and is influenced by reggae and Afro @-@ Latin music . " Baila Así " ( " Dance Like That " ) , produced by Gran Omar , has a Punjabi – influenced hip @-@ hop beat .
= = Release and promotion = =
Real was released on November 16 , 2004 , after originally being scheduled for release in September and on November 26 . The album was also released in a censored version . It was later re @-@ issued on September 25 , 2007 by Machete Music , after having been announced in July 2007 as a fourth @-@ quarter release . This was a result of Ivy Queen 's success with her seventh studio album , Sentimiento , which sold 9 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and was certified platinum within two months of release . Ivy Queen appeared on Don Francisco Presenta , where she performed " Chika Ideal " ( the first single from Real ) to promote the album . " Rociarlos " was released as the second single , and " Dile " was released as the third ( and final ) single later in 2004 after the album 's release . Music videos for both singles were also released , along with music videos for " Dale Volumen " and " Matando " . Queen performed on the Reggaeton Tour 2004 , also featuring Aldo Ranks and La Factoria , in a number of South American countries ( including Ecuador ) ; she sang " Papi Te Quiero " and " Tu No Puedes " , promoting Diva and Real .
This was her first tour in South America , following shows in Atlanta and New York City ( where she was " designated as the Puerto Rico Youth God Mother of the National Puerto Rican Day Parade " in June 2004 ) . At the end of June 2004 Queen appeared on a network @-@ television @-@ news segment , detailing her career and struggle for respect in reggaetón , during recording sessions for the album . In February 2005 Queen appeared at the Festival of Puerto Rican Stars — an historic achievement for reggaetón , since no other performer from the genre was invited . In June 2005 Queen appeared on the Invasion Del Reggaetón Tour with Daddy Yankee , which grossed $ 817 @,@ 220 for the week of June 18 . She also attended ( and performed at ) the Billboard Bash the night before the 2005 Billboard Latin Music Awards .
Unlike Queen 's previous albums , the artwork for Real features provocative photography ; her middle and thighs are emphasized to create a sexy image . Queen said her breasts were enlarged from a B to a C cup , adding that the packaging described the style of music on the album . The album cover also features Queen 's signature long nails , which she sports in a variety of colors . Incorporating graffiti , the album has " street cred " in the U.S.-centered hip @-@ hop world . The change in image for Queen is attributed to Universal Latino 's feeling that Real had crossover potential for U.S. mainstream audiences . The album 's title suggests this ; it means " real " in English and Spanish and " royal " in Spanish , hinting at Queen 's status as the Queen of Reggaetón . It is also Queen 's response to Puerto Rican criticism for looking like a tomboy , wearing baggy pants and large shirts ( which she addresses in her autobiography , Detrás Del Glamour [ Behind the Glamour ] ) . She accepted responsibility for her change in image , attributing it to a " new growth in person " and admitting that the makeover stemmed from a " crisis " and " female vanity " . To change her figure , Queen used a Colombian plastic surgeon .
= = Reception = =
The album was moderately commercially successful . On the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , Real debuted at number twenty @-@ nine and peaked at number twenty @-@ five , one position higher than Diva 's peak at twenty @-@ four . It ended its chart run at number sixty @-@ nine on February 26 , 2005 . On the Reggae Albums chart the album debuted at number four , sharing its peak with Diva and spending seventeen consecutive weeks on the chart . On the Billboard Tropical Albums chart , the album debuted ( and peaked ) at number six , not matching Diva 's peak position at the top . It fell off the chart after being number eighteen for the week of April 9 , 2005 . At the time Diva was still on the countdown at number twenty , to be displaced two weeks later by Marc Anthony 's 2004 Valio La Pena . Sales were boosted by " distribution by Universal Music & Video Distribution , coupled with strong airplay at English- and Spanish @-@ language stations " . Queen did not enter the Billboard 200 until 2007 , when her sixth studio album ( Sentimiento ) reached number 105 on the chart . " Dile " was the only commercially successful of the three singles , reaching number eight on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . After the reggaetón " explosion " on the west coast of the United States , Real helped Ivy Queen enter " Bay Area mainstream hip hop dials " with " Dile " , " Tócame " and " Baila Así " " staples " on Hispanic radio stations . " Dile " received a Billboard Latin Music Award nomination for Tropical Airplay Track of the Year , Female at the 2005 Billboard Latin Music Awards , where Queen was also nominated for Reggaeton Album of the Year and Tropical Airplay Track of the Year , New Artist . Echo and Diesel received a Latin Grammy Award for their production work on Real . At Telemundo 's El Premio De La Gente Latin Music Awards of 2005 , the album was nominated for Urban or Duranguense Album of the Year — Male or Female , where Queen was also nominated for Urban or Duranguense Artist of the Year — Male or Female .
Rolling Stone gave Real three out of five stars , complimenting the " combo of raspy braggadocio and sexy rhymes " and noting the " pop @-@ savvy " nature of the LP . According to Patricia Meschino of Miami New Times , the album features a " wide range of styles , including the lilting Haitian compas rhythms of ' Dile ' ( ' Tell Her ' ) , the bhangra – flavored ' Baila Asi ' ( ' Dance Like This ' ) , the acoustic guitar ballad ' Ángel Caído ' ( ' Fallen Angel ' ) and ' Tocame ' ( ' Caress Me ' ) , all of which are adapted to Ivy Queen 's ' confident , raspy vocals ' " . The latter track was labeled " spicy " . Meschino also noted the exploration of hip @-@ hop and dancehall rhythms set to " rough and rugged fast @-@ paced raps " . She ended her review by saying that it was " the audacious musical explorations that make Real a surprisingly nuanced and ultimately satisfying release " . Music journalist Rafer Guzman of Newsday complimented the " electro @-@ crunch of ' Soldados ' " and " snaky funk of ' Quítate Tu ' " . Leila Cobo of Billboard said the album was " highly anticipated " after the release of Diva : Platinum Edition several months earlier , with over 100 @,@ 000 copies sold . The album was considered a factor in reggaetón 's mainstream exposure to American and global audiences . Agustin Gurza of the Los Angeles Times criticized the album , saying " [ it ] lacks real instruments " and was bawdy and indecent . An editor for Bulb Magazine selected the album as one of reggaetón 's most classic albums in 2007 . The music magazine XLR8R put the album at number two on its " Five Important Reggaetón Albums " list behind Don Omar 's The Last Don ( 2003 ) and before Tego Calderon 's El Abayarde ( 2003 ) , Nicky Jam 's Vida Escante ( 2002 ) and Zion & Lennox 's Motivando a la Yal ( 2004 ) . While reviewing the reggaetón compilation album Jamz TV Hits , Vol . 3 , an editor for Allmusic listed " Chika Ideal " as an " Allmusic Pick " . The song was selected as a hit from " The Golden Era of Reggaetón " ( 2003 – 2007 ) by Jesus Trivino of Latina magazine . Terra Networks called the music video for " Chika Ideal " one of the hottest of the summer , saying the song showed " why she is the queen of reggaetón " . The video reached the Top 10 for four consecutive weeks on Terra Networks ' Top Music Video countdown .
= = Track listing = =
Standard edition
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from liner notes :
= = = Track credits = = =
= = = Guest credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Russian battleship Poltava ( 1911 ) =
Poltava was the second of the Gangut @-@ class battleships of the Imperial Russian Navy built before World War I. The Ganguts were the first class of Russian dreadnoughts . She was named after the Russian victory over Charles XII of Sweden in the Battle of Poltava in 1709 . She was completed during the winter of 1914 – 15 , but was not ready for combat until mid @-@ 1915 . Her role was to defend the mouth of the Gulf of Finland against the Germans , who never tried to enter , so she spent her time training and providing cover for mine laying operations . She was laid up in 1918 for lack of trained crew and suffered a devastating fire the following year that almost gutted her . Many proposals were made to reconstruct or modernize her in different ways for the next twenty years , but none were carried out . While all this was being discussed she served as source of spare parts for her sister ships and was used as a barracks ship . She was finally struck from the Navy List in 1940 and scrapping began at a very leisurely rate . She was intentionally grounded in late 1941 to prevent her from being sunk in some inconvenient location by the Germans . She was refloated in 1944 and scrapped beginning in 1949 .
= = Design = =
Poltava was 180 meters ( 590 ft ) long at the waterline and 181 @.@ 2 meters ( 594 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 26 @.@ 9 meters ( 88 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 99 meters ( 29 @.@ 5 ft ) , 49 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 61 ft ) more than designed . Her displacement was 24 @,@ 800 tonnes ( 24 @,@ 400 long tons ; 27 @,@ 300 short tons ) at load , over 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) more than her designed displacement of 23 @,@ 288 t ( 22 @,@ 920 long tons ; 25 @,@ 671 short tons ) .
Poltava 's machinery was built by the Franco @-@ Russian Works . Ten Parsons steam turbines drove the four propellers . The engine rooms were located between turrets three and four in three transverse compartments . The outer compartments each had a high @-@ pressure ahead and reverse turbine for each wing propeller shaft . The central engine room had two each low @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines as well as two cruising turbines driving the two centre shafts . The engines had a total designed output of 42 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 31 @,@ 319 kW ) , but they produced 52 @,@ 000 shp ( 38 @,@ 776 kW ) during Poltava 's full @-@ speed trials on 21 November 1915 and gave a top speed of 24 @.@ 1 knots ( 44 @.@ 6 km / h ; 27 @.@ 7 mph ) . Twenty @-@ five Yarrow Admiralty @-@ type small @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines at a designed working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 standard atmospheres ( 1 @,@ 770 kPa ; 257 psi ) . Each boiler was fitted with Thornycroft oil sprayers for mixed oil / coal burning . They were arranged in two groups . The forward group consisted of two boiler rooms in front of the second turret , the foremost of which had three boilers while the second one had six . The rear group was between the second and third turrets and comprised two compartments , each with eight boilers . At full load she carried 1 @,@ 847 @.@ 5 long tons ( 1 @,@ 877 @.@ 1 t ) of coal and 700 long tons ( 710 t ) of fuel oil and that provided her a range of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) .
Her main armament consisted of a dozen Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Pattern 1907 52 @-@ calibre guns mounted in four triple turrets distributed the length of the ship . The Russians did not believe that super firing turrets offered any advantage as they discounted the value of axial fire and believed that super firing turrets could not fire while over the lower turret because of muzzle blast problems . They also believed that distributing the turrets , and their associated magazines , over the length of the ship improved the survivability of the ship . Sixteen 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 119 mm ) 50 @-@ calibre Pattern 1905 guns were mounted in casemates as the secondary battery intended to defend the ship against torpedo boats . She completed with only a single 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 30 @-@ calibre Lender anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun mounted on the quarterdeck . Other anti @-@ aircraft guns were probably added during the course of World War I , but details are lacking . Conway 's says that four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) were added to the roofs of the end turrets during the war . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were mounted with three torpedoes for each tube .
= = Service = =
Poltava was built by the Admiralty Shipyard at Saint Petersburg . She was laid down on 16 June 1909 and launched on 23 July 1911 . At the end of October 1914 she was struck by her sister Gangut which jammed her kedge anchor , damaged her hull and delayed her trials to late November 1914 . She entered service on 30 December 1914 when she reached Helsinki and was assigned to the First Battleship Brigade of the Baltic Fleet . However , gunnery and torpedo trials had to be postponed until mid @-@ 1915 because of the thick winter ice . She was the only ship of the class to perform a full @-@ power speed trial , which she did in November 1915 . She played a passive part in World War I as her role was to prevent the Germans from breaking into the Gulf of Finland , something the Germans never even tried . She ran aground in June 1916 , but suffered little damage . Her crew participated in the February Revolution of 1917 . She , and most of the Baltic Fleet , evacuated Helsingfors between 12 and 17 March 1918 despite the winter ice in the Gulf of Finland . Due to a shortage of crew she was placed into long @-@ term conservation at Petrograd in October 1918 .
On 24 November 1919 a fire broke out in her forward boiler room and gutted much of her interior . She was henceforth used as a source of spare parts for her sisters . Along with the Borodino @-@ class battlecruiser Izmail she was considered for conversion to an aircraft carrier in 1924 for service in the Black Sea , but this proved to be too ambitious and expensive given the state of the Soviet economy shortly after the end of the Russian Civil War . A more modest goal was to restore her to her original configuration and the Baltic Works actually began work in 1925 , but exhausted the allotted funds on 15 February 1926 by which time she was estimated to be 46 @.@ 5 % complete . On 7 January 1926 she was given the name Frunze , after the recently deceased Bolshevik military leader Mikhail Frunze . Subsequent plans that focused on reconstructing her as a modernized equivalent to her sisters or even as a battlecruiser , with one turret deleted to save weight , were considered , but finally abandoned on 23 January 1935 when all work was stopped . Kliment Voroshilov approved one last plan to turn her into a floating battery , but the Baltic Works had no capacity to spare and this project was cancelled on 9 July 1939 . During this period she was used as a barracks hulk while she was stripped for parts , until she was formally discarded 1 December 1940 , after scrapping had already begun at a leisurely pace . After the German invasion she was towed to Kronstadt and run aground late July 1941 near the Leningrad Sea Canal . During the Siege of Leningrad her hull was used as a base for small ships . She raised on 31 May 1944 , towed to Leningrad and scrapped beginning in 1949 .
After World War II two turrets and their guns were used to rebuild Coast Defence Battery 30 ( Maksim Gor 'kii I ) in Sevastopol . It remained in service with the Soviet Navy through 1997 .
= Battle of Nalapani =
The Battle of Nalapani was the first battle of the Anglo @-@ Nepalese War of 1814 – 1816 , fought between the forces of the British East India Company and Nepal , then ruled by the House of Gorkha . The battle took place around the Nalapani fort , near Dehradun , which was placed under siege by the British between 31 October and 30 November 1814 . The fort 's garrison was commanded by Captain Balbhadra Kunwar , while Major @-@ General Rollo Gillespie , who had previously fought in the Battle of Java , was in charge of the attacking British troops . Gillespie was killed on the first day of the siege while rallying his men and despite considerable odds , both
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in terms of numbers and firepower , Balbhadra and his 600 @-@ strong garrison successfully held out against more than 3 @,@ 000 British troops for over a month .
After two costly and unsuccessful attempts to seize the fort by direct attack , the British changed their approach and sought to force the garrison to surrender by cutting off the fort 's external water supply . Having suffered three days of thirst , on the last day of the siege , Balbhadra , refusing to surrender , led the 70 surviving members of the garrison in a charge against the besieging force . Fighting their way out of the fort , the survivors escaped into the nearby hills . Considering the time , effort , and resources spent to capture the small fort , it was a pyrrhic victory for the British . A number of later engagements , including one at Jaithak , unfolded in a similar way ; but more than any other battle of the war , the fighting around Nalapani established the Gurkhas ' reputation as warriors . As a result , they were later recruited by the British to serve in their army .
= = Background = =
= = = Situation = = =
In 1814 under the new and ambitious Governor @-@ General Francis Edward Rawdon @-@ Hastings , the Earl of Moira , the long @-@ standing diplomatic disputes between British India and the Kingdom of Nepal , caused by expansionist policies of both parties , descended into open hostility . The British East India Company sought to invade Nepal not just to secure the border and to force the Nepali government to open trading routes to Tibet , but also for what Hastings saw as a geo @-@ political necessity to secure the foothold of the Company in the Indian sub @-@ continent .
The initial British campaign plan was to attack on two fronts across a frontier stretching more than 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 miles ) , from the Sutlej river in the west to the Koshi river in the east . On the eastern front , Major @-@ Generals Bennet Marley and John Sullivan Wood led their respective columns across the Tarai towards the heart of the Kathmandu Valley ; at the same time Major @-@ General Rollo Gillespie and Colonel David Ochterlony led the columns on the western front . These two western columns faced the Nepalese army under the command of Amar Singh Thapa . Around the beginning of October 1814 , the British troops began to move towards their depots and the army was soon after formed into four divisions : one at Benares , one at Meerut , one at Dinapur , and one at Ludhiana .
The division at Meerut was formed under Gillespie , and originally consisted of one British infantry regiment , the 53rd , which with artillery and a few dismounted dragoons , made up about 1 @,@ 000 Europeans . In addition to this , there were about 2 @,@ 500 native infantrymen ; this made up a total force of 3 @,@ 513 men . Once assembled , it marched directly to Dehra Dun , which was the principal town in the Dun Valley . After having captured or destroyed the forts in the valley , the plan called for Gillespie to either move eastwards to expel Amar Singh Thapa 's troops from Srinagar , or westwards to take Nahan , the largest town in the Sirmaur district , where Amar Singh 's son , Ranjore Singh Thapa , controlled the government . Once completed , Gillespie was to sweep on towards the Sutlej in order to isolate Amar Singh , and force him to negotiate .
Of the four British divisions mentioned above , Gillespie 's was the first to penetrate the enemy 's frontier . The Nepalese had anticipated that Dehra Dun would be the first place of assault , and had tasked Captain Balbhadra Kunwar with the fortification of the place . When Balbhadra Kunwar , commander of the Nepalese defence army at Dehradun , heard of the approach of the British Army and its size , he realised that it would be impossible to defend the city . He withdrew from Dehradun and moved his force of about 600 , including dependents , to a hill north @-@ east of the city . He subsequently took up a position in the small fort of Nalapani , Khalanga . His force was ethnically diverse , consisting of Magar soldiers belonging to the Purano Gorakh Battalion and soldiers that had been recruited from Garhwal and nearby areas . On 22 October , before the British declaration of war on 1 November 1814 , Gillespie seized the Keree Pass leading into the Dun Valley . He then proceeded to Dehra unchallenged .
A letter was sent by the British to Balbhadra , summoning him to surrender the fort . Upon receiving the note , Balbhadra tore it up . The letter having been delivered to him at midnight , he observed that " it was not customary to receive or answer letters at such unseasonable hours " . Nevertheless , he responded by sending his " salaam " to the English " sirdar " , assuring him that he would soon visit him in his camp .
= = = Terrain and defences = = =
The Nalapani fort was situated on a 500 – 600 @-@ foot ( 150 – 180 m ) hill that was covered in dense jungle . The approach to the fort was very steep in most directions and the top of the hill , which formed a tabletop feature , was about .75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) in length . Its highest point was to the south , where the town of Kalanga was located . The fort was constructed in an irregular shape , having been built to conform with the shape of the ground upon which it was situated , and at the time the British entered the Dun Valley , its walls had not been finished . Upon their arrival , the British found the Nepalese defenders working to improve the fort 's defences and raising the height of the walls .
By the time the first attack took place , the walls of the fort still had not been finished , although they had been raised slightly . As a result of the hasty construction work , even at the wall 's lowest part , it was high enough that the attacking force would need ladders to reach the top of the rampart . Every point where the fort was approachable , or thought weak by its defenders , was bolstered by stockades made out of stones and stakes that had been stuck into the ground . These were covered by cannons that were placed where they could be most effective , and a wicket gate that flanked a large part of the wall , was left open but cross @-@ barred , to make it difficult for attacking soldiers to enter but also to channel their advance towards a cannon that had been placed at the gate to enfilade its approach with showers of grapeshot .
= = Battle = =
= = = First British attack = = =
Following their arrival , the British reconnoitred the fort and began planning for the assault . Parties were employed in preparing fascines and gabions for the establishment for artillery batteries , while two 12 @-@ pounder guns , four 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzers , and four six @-@ pounders were carried up the hill on elephants . The British secured the table @-@ land without any Nepalese resistance and the gun batteries were ready to open fire on the fort on the morning of 31 October , at a distance of 600 yards ( 550 m ) .
The first British attack on Nalapani took place on 31 October , a day before the official declaration of war . Gillespie planned to storm the fort from four sides . The storming party was formed into four columns , support by a reserve : the first , under Colonel Carpenter , consisted of 611 men ; the second , under Captain Fast , was 363 strong ; the third , under Major Kelly , was made up of 541 men ; the fourth , under Captain Campbell , had 283 men ; while 939 men made up the reserve , under Major Ludlow . It was intended for these columns to ascend from different points , at a signal made through the guns firing in a specific manner , and thus attack the Nepalese from different sides . In doing so , the British hoped to divert the attention of the Nepalese and prevent them from concentrating their fire on any one point , allowing the attackers to gain an advantage .
However , after the attack began only two columns , those under Carpenter and Ludlow , responded to Gillespie 's signal to assault , which was given some hours earlier than was intended . Under the cover of fire , pioneers twice swarmed up to the walls , only to be cut down by the enfilade fire of Bal Bhadra 's cannons that were positioned along a large part the wall . The garrison maintained a heavy bombardment from the walls , and heavy showers of arrows and of stones rained down on the assailants . Women inside the fort also threw missiles , exposing themselves to British fire . Gillespie 's men fell back and on seeing this , he moved forward from the artillery line to personally rally his men . With three fresh companies of the 53rd Regiment , he reached a spot within 30 yards ( 27 m ) of the wicket , where , " as he was cheering the men , waving his hat in one hand , and his sword in the other , " a Nepalese marksman shot him " through the heart , and he fell dead on the spot . " The General 's death forced the British to temporarily cease their attack and withdraw . Total British casualties for the day were 32 dead and 228 wounded , some of whom subsequently died .
= = = Second British attack = = =
Not having expected such a determined resistance from the Nepalese , Colonel Sebright Mawbey , who was next in command of the British troops at Nalapani , retired to Dehra until 24 November so that heavy guns could arrive from Delhi . After the reinforcements had arrived , the fighting resumed on 25 November and for three days the fort was bombarded until , at noon on 27 November , a large section of northern wall finally gave away . The British forces , seeing their opportunity , twice tried to charge into the breach that day , but were repelled and pinned to an exposed position just outside the wall . An attempt was then made to fire one of the light guns into the breach to provide obscuration with gun smoke to cover a further attack , but that too proved unsuccessful . The day ended with the British assault force withdrawing after spending two hours pinned outside the wall , exposed to heavy fire from the garrison , and having suffered significant losses . British casualties for the day amounted to 37 dead and over 443 wounded .
= = = Nepalese withdrawal = = =
After two failed attempts to capture the fort by straight forward attacks , the British resorted to attrition tactics . On 28 November , instead of launching another infantry assault , the fort was encircled from all sides and placed under siege . This prevented Nepalese reinforcements from entering the fort . Mawbey then instructed his gunners , by now strongly reinforced , to fire into the fort . He also sent scouts to locate and cut off the fort 's external water source . The water situation was made worse for the defenders when about a hundred earthen vessels stocked with water , stored in a portico , were destroyed in the bombardment . The eastern and northern walls of the fort were razed to the ground . The continuous bombardment also caused three of the four cannons installed on the fort 's battlements to fall outside the fort , while the other fell inside . The other cannons that the Nepalese possessed were unusable , having either been disabled by misfiring during previous attacks , or because they had been buried under rubble in the British bombardment . Left without any cannons to reply , the garrison suffered heavy casualties . They continued to resist using gunfire and stones , but eventually the few people that remained in the fort became desperate and could not hold on any longer . That night , despite threats to their person and property , desertion became rampant .
By the following day , 29 November , the garrison 's water supply had been exhausted . The walls of the fort had also collapsed and the garrison was exposed , leading to further casualties amongst the Nepali troops . Seeing the disheartened state of men , the Captain and other officers asked them to sign a pledge to fight to the last . Eighty @-@ four soldiers signed . However , that night the Mleccha Kalanala Company , which had arrived as reinforcements and was stationed at a portico east of Nalapani , secretly abandoned their post , taking with them their arms and colours . Seeing this , some of the men who had signed the pledge followed . The 50 or 60 men that remained , overcome by the hopelessness of the situation , felt that instead of confronting certain death by remaining in the fort , it was better to escape to the hills and hold their position there . Perhaps unable to convince their commanders with words , the escaping men caught hold of their Captain and other officers by their arms , and dragged them away from the fort . Learning of this new movement , the British renewed their fire ; but the Nepalese managed to cut through and make a successful escape .
Thus , after days of thirst and continuous bombardment , the Nepalese were forced to evacuate the fort on 30 November . Bal Bhadra refused to surrender and with about 70 of his surviving men he was able to fight his way through the besieging force and escape into the hills . When the British troops entered the fort , it was found , as Prinsep writes , in a " shocking state , full of the remains of men and women killed by the shot shells of our batteries ; a number of wounded were likewise lying about , and the stench was intolerable . "
Upwards of 90 dead bodies were found and cremated , while the wounded were sent to British hospitals ; the rest of the fort was then razed to the ground .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Conduct during battle = = =
During the fighting , the British were impressed by the conduct of the Nepalese soldiers during the battle who , according to British accounts , exhibited fair conduct towards them . This endeared them to the British , who were willing to reciprocate by giving medical aid to wounded and captured Nepalese . The confidence the Nepalese exhibited in the British officers was significant : they not only accepted , but also solicited surgical aid , even while continuing to fight . This gave rise , on one occasion , to a scene , which was recounted by the Scottish traveller James Baillie Fraser :
While the batteries were playing , a man was perceived on the breach , advancing and waving his hand . The guns ceased firing for a while , and the man came into the batteries : he proved to be a Ghoorkha , whose lower jaw had been shattered by a cannon shot , and who came thus frankly to solicit assistance from his enemy .
It is unnecessary to add , that it was instantly afforded . He recovered ; and , when discharged from the hospital , signified his desired to return to his corps to combat us again : exhibiting thus , through the whole , a strong sense of the value of generosity and courtesy in warfare , and also of his duty to his country , – separating completely in his own mind private and national feelings from each other , – and his frank confidence in the individuals of our nation , from the duty he owed his own , to fight against us collectively .
= = = Legacy = = =
The fighting around Nalapani , more than any other battle , established the reputation of the Gurkhas as warriors , and won the admiration of the British . Gillespie had been killed and Balbhadra and his 600 men had held the might of the British and their native Indian troops for a month . Even with only 70 remaining survivors after his water source had been cut off , Balbhadra had refused to surrender , and instead had charged out and successfully fought his way through the siege . It set the tone for the rest of the campaign .
Fraser recorded the situation in the following terms :
The determined resolution of the small party which held this small post for more than a month , against so comparatively large a force , must surely wring admiration from every voice , especially when the horrors of the latter portion of this time are considered ; the dismal spectacle of their slaughtered comrades , the sufferings of their women and children thus immured with themselves , and the hopelessness of relief , which destroyed any other motive for their obstinate defence they made , than that resulting from a high sense of duty , supported by unsubdued courage . This , and a generous spirit of courtesy towards their enemy , certainly marked the character of the garrison of Kalunga , during the period of its siege .
Whatever the nature of the Ghoorkhas may have been found in other quarters , there was here no cruelty to wounded or to prisoners ; no poisoned arrows were used ; no wells or waters were poisoned ; no rancorous spirit of revenge seemed to animate them : they fought us in fair conflict , like men ; and , in intervals of actual combat , showed us a liberal courtesy worthy of a more enlightened people .
So far from insulting the bodies of the dead and wounded , they permitted them to lie untouched , till carried away ; and none were stripped , as is too universally the case .
The battle also had significant political repercussions , shaking the British Army 's confidence . The fact that the siege had taken so long exposed the British forces ' vulnerabilities and encouraged the native Indian states – in particular the old Maratha Confederacy in central India – to continue their resistance against British imperialism in the hope that they could still be defeated .
In the years following the battle , the British constructed two small obelisks that still stand in Nalapani . One was laid in honour of Gillespie , while another was dedicated with the inscription " Our brave adversary Bul Buddur and his gallant men " . In Nepal , the story of the battle at Nalapani has gained a legendary status and has become an important part of the nation 's historical narrative , while Balbhadra himself has become a national hero . The fighting spirit displayed by the Nepalese in this and other following battles of Anglo @-@ Nepalese War ultimately led to the recruitment of Gurkhas into the British Army .
= = Nalapanima = =
The battle provides the setting to a Nepali musical drama called Nalapanima written by Bal Krishna Sama and composed by Shiva Shankar . In the drama , the patriotism of a Nepalese soldier is depicted when , after being wounded , the soldier seeks help from the British camp . Later he is grateful for the humanitarian assistance provided by the British but refuses an offer to defect to their army .
= Kurt Brändle =
Kurt @-@ Werner Brändle ( 19 January 1912 – 3 November 1943 ) was a German Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II , a fighter ace credited with 180 enemy aircraft shot down in over 700 combat missions . The majority of his victories were claimed over the Eastern Front , with 25 claims over the Western Front .
Born in Ludwigsburg , Brändle , who already was a civilian motor @-@ powered aircraft and glider pilot , volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe of the Third Reich in 1935 . He was posted to Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 — 53rd Fighter Wing ) in 1939 and claimed 14 aerial victories on the Western Front . In May 1942 he was given command of II . Gruppe ( 2nd group ) of Jagdgeschwader 3 " Udet " ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) . Fighting on the Eastern Front , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 1 July 1942 after 49 aerial victories . In July and August 1942 , he claimed a further 50 aerial victories in the southern sector of the Eastern Front . After claiming his 100th aerial victory he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 27 August 1942 .
On 5 July 1943 during the Battle of Kursk , Brändle achieved his 150th aerial victory and in August 1943 was transferred to the Western Front fighting in Defense of the Reich . There Brändle was killed in action on 3 November 1943 west of Amsterdam in the Netherlands . His body was washed ashore near Zandvoort on 30 December 1943 .
= = Early life and career = =
Brändle was born on 19 January 1912 in Ludwigsburg in the Kingdom of Württemberg , a federated state of the German Empire . His father was a Meister , a master craftsman , in the field of precision mechanics . Following school , Brändle learned the trade of a surgical instrument maker and worked in his father 's firm .
Since his early youth he was very enthusiastic about flying and volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe of the Third Reich on 10 December 1935 . There he participated in a number of exercises and was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) of the Reserves on 1 December 1936 . In his civilian life , Brändle attained a pilot license and worked as a flight instructor . As an instructor , he trained roughly 150 students and logged more than 6 @,@ 000 starts and 8 @,@ 000 flight hours before he became a military aviator . In addition to his passion for motor power flight , he also was a glider pilot .
In early 1937 Brändle passed his Meister examination in aircraft construction and in the same year was trained as a fighter pilot with Jagdgeschwader 134 " Horst Wessel " ( JG 134 — 134th Fighter Wing ) , named after the martyr of the Nazi movement Horst Wessel . As of 1 February 1939 , Brändle served with Flieger @-@ Ausbildungs @-@ Regiment 22 ( 22nd Flight Training Regiment ) in Güstrow . There , he transferred from the reserve force to active service and was promoted to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) on 1 June 1939 . He was then transferred to the 4 . Staffel ( 4th Squadron ) of Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 — 53rd Fighter Wing ) .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on Friday 1 September 1939 when German forces invaded Poland . Brändle received the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 2 . Klasse ) on 20 April 1940 . He claimed his first aerial victory on 10 May 1940 during the Battle of France , shooting down an Armée de l 'Air ( French Air Force ) Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 south of Sedan . In total Brändle claimed two victories over France before he was wounded on 26 May 1940 . During takeoff on a maintenance test flight he crashed into a Dornier Do 17 injuring himself in the head . He spent the next few weeks in the military hospital at Heidelberg .
After recovering from the hospital , Brändle claimed his second victory during the Battle of Britain over the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) on 11 August 1940 . On 26 August 1940 , he was tasked with the leadership of 5 . Staffel ( 5th Squadron ) of JG 53 . Following his fourth aerial victory , he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 1 . Klasse ) on 3 September 1940 . He was officially appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 5 . Staffel on 15 September 1940 . On 11 November 1940 he claimed his 6th and 7th aerial victories and was awarded the Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots ( Frontflugspange für Jagdflieger ) in Silver on 5 May 1941 and in Gold on 7 June 1941 .
The bulk of the Geschwader 's air elements were moved via Jever , in northern Germany , to Mannheim @-@ Sandhofen on 8 June 1941 . There the aircraft were given a maintenance overhaul prior to moving east . The II . Gruppe was transferred to Neusiedel in East Prussia , present @-@ day Malomožaiskojė in Kaliningrad Oblast in Russia , between 12 – 14 June . On 22 June the Geschwader crossed into Soviet airspace in support of Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union which opened the Eastern Front . There , Brändle claimed further victories and by the end of October 1941 was credited with 28 aerial victories .
Brändle 's unit was then relocated to the Western Front again in October 1941 where it was based at Leeuwarden in the Netherlands before it was moved to the Mediterranean theater in December 1941 . Based at Comiso airfield , Brändle flew combat missions against the RAF during the Siege of Malta . There he was awarded the German Cross in Gold ( Deutsches Kreuz in Gold ) on 25 February 1942 and four days later , on 1 March , he was promoted to Hauptmann ( captain ) .
= = = Group commander = = =
On 1 May 1942 , Brändle was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of II . Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 3 " Udet " ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) , named after the World War I fighter ace Ernst Udet . Its former Gruppenkommandeur , Hauptmann Karl @-@ Heinz Krahl , had been killed in action over Malta on 14 April 1942 . At the time , the Gruppe was stationed at Plzeň for rest and refit before it was relocated to the Eastern Front on 18 May 1942 . Too late to participate in the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula , it was located on the left wing of Army Group South , assigned to an airfield at Chuguyev in the Kharkov area . Brändle scored the Gruppe 's first victory after the relocation , claiming a Polikarpov R @-@ 5 reconnaissance bomber aircraft at 3 : 49 am on 20 May 1942 . By this date , Brändle had accumulated 36 victories . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 1 July 1942 for 49 aerial victories . On this day , he claimed his 53rd aerial victory , after he shot down a Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 " Sturmovik " .
Brändle often claimed multiple victories per day , three victories on 8 July 1942 took his tally to 58 and further three claims made on 10 July took his score to 61 . On 16 July 1942 he filed four claims , numbers 64 – 67 . He became an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " for the first time on 26 July 1942 when he shot down five enemy aircraft , aerial victories 73 – 77 , and again five on 7 August 1942 , 89 in total .
In July and August 1942 , he claimed 50 aerial victories in the southern sector of the Eastern Front , among them his 100th to 102nd victory on 23 August 1942 . He was the 17th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . For this achievement he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 27 August 1942 , the 114th officer or soldier of the Wehrmacht so honored . The presentation was made by Adolf Hitler personally .
Brändle was promoted to Major on 1 March 1943 . On 29 April 1943 , he claimed his 135th to 138th aerial victories . On 5 July 1943 , the first day of the Battle of Kursk ( Unternehmen Zitadelle ) , he claimed five victories taking his total to 151 . His II . Gruppe claimed 77 aircraft shot down on 12 July which included its 2 @,@ 000 aerial victory of the war .
= = = Defense of the Reich and death = = =
In early August 1943 , Brändle 's II . Gruppe was withdrawn from the Eastern Front for service in Defense of the Reich on the Western Front . The Gruppe spent one @-@ month training in northern Germany before they arrived at the Schiphol airfield near Amsterdam in the Netherlands on 12 September .
On 3 November 1943 , Brändle shot down two P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts fighters escorting a formation of Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses on a mission targeting Wilhelmshaven . Later that day , he was killed in action west of Amsterdam in the Netherlands . Following an attack by a group of Martin B @-@ 26 Marauders on Schiphol airfield , II . Gruppe scrambled to counter the attack . It is assumed that he was shot down in his Messerschmitt Bf 109 G @-@ 6 ( Werknummer 26058 — factory number ) by Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) fighters under the command of Wing Commander Lloyd Chadburn . His body was later washed ashore near Zandvoort on 30 December 1943 and was buried at the Heroes Cemetery in Amsterdam ( field 74 , grave 405 ) one day later . His remains were moved in January 1944 before they were reinterred for a last time on 2 December 1947 , this time at the cemetery Ysselsteyn ( block CW , row 1 , grave 25 ) .
= = Awards = =
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 20 April 1940 )
1st Class ( 3 September 1940 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots
in Silver ( 5 May 1941 )
in Gold ( 7 June 1941 )
German Cross in Gold on 25 February 1942 as Oberleutnant in the 5 . / JG 53
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight 's Cross on 1 July 1942 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the II . / JG 3 " Udet "
114th Oak Leaves on 27 August 1942 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the II . / JG 3 " Udet "
= Phil Lamason =
Phillip ( Phil ) John Lamason DFC & Bar ( 15 September 1918 – 19 May 2012 ) was a pilot in the Royal New Zealand Air Force ( RNZAF ) during the Second World War , who rose to prominence as the senior officer in charge of 168 Allied airmen taken to Buchenwald concentration camp , Germany , in August 1944 . Raised in Napier , he joined the RNZAF in September 1940 , and by April 1942 was a pilot officer serving with the Royal Air Force in Europe .
On 8 June 1944 , Lamason was in command of a Lancaster heavy bomber that was shot down during a raid on railway marshalling yards near Paris . Bailing out , he was picked up by members of the French Resistance and hidden at various locations for seven weeks . While attempting to reach Spain along the Comet line , Lamason was double @-@ crossed by a traitor within the Resistance and handed over to the Gestapo . After interrogation , he was taken to Fresnes prison . Classified as a " Terrorflieger " ( terror flier ) , he was not accorded prisoner @-@ of @-@ war ( POW ) status , but instead treated as a criminal and spy . By 15 August 1944 , Lamason was senior officer of a group of 168 captured Allied airmen who were taken by train to Buchenwald concentration camp , arriving there five days later .
At Buchenwald , the airmen were fully shaved , starved , denied shoes , and for three weeks forced to sleep outside without shelter in one of the sub @-@ camps known as " Little Camp " . As senior officer , Lamason took control and instilled a level of military discipline and bearing . For several weeks Lamason negotiated with the camp authorities to have the airmen transferred to a POW camp , but his requests were denied . At great risk , Lamason secretly got word to the Luftwaffe of the Allied airmen 's captivity and , seven days before their scheduled execution , 156 of the 168 prisoners were transferred to Stalag Luft III . Most of the airmen credit their survival at Buchenwald to the leadership and determination of Lamason . After the war , he moved to Dannevirke and became a farmer until his retirement . During the 1980s and 1990s , he was a regular speaker at KLB Club and POW reunions .
= = Early career = =
Lamason was born and raised in Napier , a city in New Zealand 's North Island , on 15 September 1918 . He was educated at Napier Boys ' High School and Massey University ( Palmerston North campus ) where he was awarded a Diploma in Sheepfarming . During this period , Lamason described himself as " a bit of a ratbag " . Prior to the war , he worked for the Department of Agriculture at New Plymouth as a stock inspector . It was there Lamason took the opportunity of free flying lessons , clocking up 100 hours . He was described as a tall , good @-@ looking man with blue eyes and a broken nose .
Lamason joined the RNZAF in September 1940 . By April 1942 , he had been posted to the European theatre of operations as a pilot officer in No. 218 Squadron RAF . During a bombing raid on Pilsen , Czechoslovakia , he was in command of an aircraft that was attacked by an enemy fighter and badly damaged , but managed to return to base . As a result of his actions , he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) on 15 May 1942 . The citation read :
Pilot Officer Philip John . LAMASON , ( N.Z. 403460 ) , Royal New Zealand Air Force , No. 218 Squadron .
One night in April , 1942 , this officer was the captain of an aircraft which attacked Pilsen . During the return flight his aircraft was attacked by an enemy fighter and sustained damage ; the hydraulics were shot away and the turret rendered unserviceable , while a fire broke out in the middle of the fuselage . Displaying great presence of mind , Pilot Officer Lamason coolly directed his crew in the emergency and , while 2 of them dealt with the fire , he skilfully outmanoeuvred his attacker and finally shook him off . By his fine airmanship and great devotion to duty , Pilot Officer Lamason was undoubtedly responsible for the safe return of the aircraft and its crew . This officer has completed 21 sorties and he has at all times displayed courage and ability .
After his first tour ended flying Stirlings with 218 Squadron , Lamason then instructed other pilots at 1657 Heavy Conversion Unit . Returning to operations with No. 15 Squadron RAF , Lamason was twice Mentioned in Despatches , first on 2 June 1943 and again , having received promotion to acting squadron leader , on 14 January 1944 . He was awarded a Bar to his DFC on 27 June 1944 , for " courage and devotion to duty of a high order " and " vigorous determination " in attacks on Berlin and other heavily @-@ defended targets . Lamason was presented his award after the war by King George VI at Buckingham Palace , where he met and befriended a young Princess Elizabeth , later to be queen . A day after making an emergency landing at an American base in England , Lamason was introduced to , shook hands and spoke with Clark Gable .
Lamason was not afraid to speak his mind . On the night of 30 / 31 March 1944 , when 795 bombers were sent to attack Nuremberg , he was very critical of the route chosen , warning his station commander that heavy losses could be expected . On the moonlit night , 95 bombers were lost , its heaviest losses of the entire war during a single raid .
= = Buchenwald = =
On 8 June 1944 , Lamason was serving as a flight commander in a Lancaster LM575 LS @-@ H of No. 15 Squadron RAF , on his 45th operation , when he was shot down during a raid on railway marshalling yards at Massy @-@ Palaiseau near Paris . Lamason recalled :
On the night of the raid our bomber was spotted by a German fighter , which locked on to it . I decided to turn and fight him . Within seconds an incendiary round hit a wing and caught the fuel tank . I gave the order to bail out as the gas torched . But Robbie , our mid @-@ upper gunner , kept on firing . When he eventually did jump , we no longer had enough height . I saw his parachute open , but too late . He must have died on impact . I pushed the navigator out and managed to jump clear at the last minute .
Along with his English navigator , Flying Officer Ken Chapman , Lamason was picked up by members of the French Resistance and hidden at various locations for seven weeks . In August , while attempting to reach Spain along the Comet line , Lamason and Chapman were captured by the Gestapo in Paris after they were betrayed by the French double agent Jacques Desoubrie for 10 @,@ 000 francs each . After interrogation at the Gestapo headquarters in Paris , they were taken to Fresnes Prison . Many fliers were classified as " Terrorflieger " ( terror flier ) by the Germans , and were not given a trial . The most common act for allied airmen to be classified a terror flier was to be captured in civilian clothing and / or without their dog tags . The German Foreign Office decided that these captured enemy airmen should not be given the legal status of prisoner of war ( POWs ) but should instead be treated as criminals and spies . Consequently , Lamason was amongst a group of 168 allied airmen from Great Britain , United States , Australia , Canada , New Zealand and Jamaica who , along with over 2 @,@ 500 French prisoners , were taken by train — in overcrowded cattle boxcars — from Fresnes Prison outside Paris , to Buchenwald concentration camp . As the airmen were herded into the boxcars , Lamason protested about the poor treatment of the airmen , only to be struck in the face by a SS guard . Lamason fell to the ground and captured pilot Roy Allen watched as a SS Major pulled a Luger from his holster and thought Lamason would be shot on the spot . After five days travel , during which the airmen received very little food or water , they arrived at Buchenwald on 20 August 1944 .
Buchenwald was a labour camp of about 60 @,@ 000 inmates of mainly Russian POWs , but also common criminals , religious prisoners ( including Jews ) , and various political prisoners from Germany , France , Poland , and Czechoslovakia . It was known for its brutality and barbaric medical experiments . Upon arrival , Lamason , as ranking officer , demanded an interview with the camp commandant , Hermann Pister , which he was granted . He insisted that the airmen be treated as POWs under the Geneva Conventions and be sent to a POW camp . The commandant agreed that their arrival at Buchenwald was a " mistake " but they remained there anyway . The airmen were given the same poor treatment and beatings as the other inmates . For the first three weeks at Buchenwald , the prisoners were totally shaved , denied shoes and forced to sleep outside without shelter in one of Buchenwald 's sub @-@ camps , known as ' Little Camp ' . Little Camp was a quarantine section of Buchenwald where the prisoners received the least food and harshest treatment .
After their first meal , Lamason stepped forward and said :
Attention ! ... Gent
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t , consisting of three infantry divisions and two armored divisions ( 11th and 22nd Panzer Divisions ) . In total , it was expected that four panzer divisions , four infantry divisions and three Luftwaffe Field Divisions were to take part in Operation Winter Storm . They would be tasked with temporarily opening a passage to the 6th Army . The Luftwaffe field divisions — formed of non @-@ combat soldiers , headquarters staffs and unit @-@ less Luftwaffe and Heer personnel — were poorly trained and lacked seasoned officers and enlisted soldiers , as well as sufficient anti @-@ tank and artillery guns . Many of the personnel promised for the relief effort never arrived , partly due to the poor transportation service to the front , while some units originally chosen to be transferred under the command of Army Group Don were retained by their original commands . Other units in Army Group Don were in no shape to conduct offensive operations , due to losses sustained in the past month of combat , while many new formations which had been promised did not arrive on time .
On the other hand , the 11th Panzer Division was one of the most complete German armored divisions on the Eastern Front since it had just been transferred out of the German Army 's reserve . The 6th Panzer Division was also complete because it had been transferred to Manstein 's control from Western Europe . However , the usefulness of the 11th Panzer Division was compromised when the Soviets launched their offensive against forces in the lower Chir River area , as this tied Army Detachment Hollidt down on the defensive . Because of this , and because Manstein believed that a thrust originating from the position of Army Detachment Hollidt would be too obvious , the German field marshal decided to use the 4th Panzer Army and the XLVIII Panzer Corps as the main components of the relief operation . However , despite attempts by the Germans to build strength for the offensive , their position along the lower Chir River became tenuous ; the Soviet breakthrough was only blunted by the arrival of the 11th Panzer Division , which was able to destroy the bulk of two Soviet tank brigades . Consequently , the XLVIII Panzer Corps became embroiled in the defensive battles for the Chir River , as the Soviets pushed in an attempt to overrun the airfield at Tatsinskaya ( being used to resupply German forces in Stalingrad by air ) .
Although the LVII Panzer Corps was reluctantly released to Army Group Don , by Army Group A , the 17th Panzer Division was ordered back to its original area of concentration , and did not prepare to go back to Army Group Don until 10 days after it had been asked for . In light of the troubles in building up sufficient forces , and seeing that the Soviets were concentrating more mechanization on the Chir River , Manstein decided to launch Operation Winter Storm using the 4th Panzer Army . Manstein hoped that the 6th Army would launch an offensive of its own , from the opposite side , upon the receipt of the code signal Thunderclap . Manstein was gambling on Hitler accepting that the only plausible method to avoid the demise of the 6th Army was allowing it to break out , and assumed that General Paulus would agree to order his forces to escape the Stalingrad pocket . On 10 December , Manstein communicated to Paulus that the relief operation would commence in 24 hours .
= = = Participating Soviet forces = = =
For the purpose of Operation Uranus , Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov deployed eleven Soviet armies . In an effort to bolster the offensive capabilities of the Stalingrad Front , over 420 tanks , 111 @,@ 000 soldiers and 556 artillery guns were shipped over the Volga River in a period of three weeks . The Red Army and Red Air Force were able to amass over one million soldiers , 13 @,@ 500 artillery guns , 890 tanks and 1 @,@ 100 combat aircraft , organized into 66 rifle divisions , five tank corps , 14 tank brigades , a single mechanized brigade , a cavalry corps , and 127 artillery and mortar regiments . As the encirclement closed and the Soviets continued with secondary operations , the 51st Army was positioned on the edge of the outer encirclement with 34 @,@ 000 men and 77 tanks . South of them was the 28th Army , with 44 @,@ 000 soldiers , 40 tanks and 707 artillery guns and mortars . Concurrently , the Red Army began building its strength for Operation Saturn , in which it would aim to isolate and destroy German Army Group A in the Caucasus .
= = German offensive = =
On 12 December 1942 , Hoth 's Fourth Panzer Army 's LVII Panzer Corps began its north @-@ eastward drive toward German forces trapped in the Stalingrad pocket . The 6th and 23rd Panzer Divisions made large gains , surprising the Red Army and threatening the rear of the Soviet 51st Army . The German drive was due to be spearheaded by the 503rd heavy tank battalion ( Germany ) of Tiger I heavy tanks , but the unit did not reach the Don front until 21 December . Initial progress of the offensive was rapid . Some units were able to travel up to 50 km ( 31 mi ) in the first day . The Germans were aided by the element of surprise , as Stavka had not expected the German offensive to begin so soon , while General Vasilevsky was unable to detach the 2nd Guards Army to use it as a blocking force against Manstein 's spearheads . The initial advance had been so quick that the 6th Panzer Division was able to capture Soviet artillery equipment intact . Soviet resistance decreased noticeably after the 6th and 23rd Panzer Divisions had overrun the main body of Russian infantry . In fact , the 302nd Rifle Division of the 51st Army was overrun by the end of 12 December . Although Soviet infantry quickly reinforced villages in the path of the German drive , the Red Army 's cavalry in the area was exhausted from weeks of combat and was incapable of putting up serious resistance against the German offensive . Despite early gains , the LVII Panzer Corps was unable to achieve decisive results . There were also reports of heavy pressure building against the 23rd Panzer Division , despite headway made on the first day of the German offensive .
On 13 December , the 6th Panzer Division made contact with the Soviet 5th Tank Army , which was engaged in the reduction of German defenses around the Chir River . German forces were able to engage and defeat Soviet armor , as the former forced the crossing of the Alksay River . At this point , a major armored battle began around the village of Verkhne @-@ Kumskiy . Although they sustained heavy losses , the Soviet forces were able to push German forces back to the banks of the Alksay River by the end of the day , while failing to retake the town . However , the losses sustained by the Red Army in the vicinity of Verkhne @-@ Kumskiy allowed the 6th Panzer Division to enjoy a brief superiority in tank numbers thereafter . Fighting for Verkhne @-@ Kumskiy continued for three days , as the Red Army launched a series of counterattacks against the German bridgeheads across the Alksay River and German defenders in the town . German defenders were able to pin Soviet tanks in Verkhne @-@ Kumskiy and destroy them using well emplaced anti @-@ tank artillery guns . With heavy support from the Luftwaffe , the Germans were able to achieve a local success and began to push toward the Myshkova river . The 6th Panzer Division took heavy losses during its drive , and took a brief respite after the battle to recondition . Minor damage to surviving tanks was repaired and the majority of the tanks incapacitated during the fighting at Verkhne @-@ Kumskiy were brought back to serviceable conditions .
= = = Soviet response : 13 – 18 December = = =
The Fourth Panzer Army 's offensive forced Stavka to recalculate its intentions for Operation Saturn , and on 13 December Stalin and Stavka authorized the redeployment of the 2nd Guards Army from the Don Front to the Stalingrad Front , where it would be ready to be used against German forces on 15 December . This army had a strength of roughly 90 @,@ 000 soldiers , organized into three guards rifle corps ( the 1st , 13th and 2nd ) . Operation Saturn was redesigned into Operation Little Saturn , which limited the scope of the attack to breaking through the Italian 8th Army and then engaging Army Group Don in the rear . The offensive was also changed from a southward push to a drive in a southeastern direction , and the start date was pushed back to 16 December . In the meantime , the 4th Mechanized and 13th Tank Corps continued to counterattack against German forces in the vicinity of the Alksay River , trying to delay their advance in anticipation of the arrival of the 2nd Guards Army .
The Soviet 1st and 3rd Guard Armies , in conjunction with the Soviet 6th Army , launched Operation Little Saturn on 16 December . Despite early troubles due to stubborn resistance from Italian troops , the Red Army was able to partially overrun the Italian 8th Army by 18 December . The breakthrough -even if small and quickly contained- proved a possible threat to Army Group Don 's left flank , while the city of Rostov was threatened by the 3rd Guards Army . This , and mainly heavy losses sustained by the German armor divisions forcing their way to the Myshkova river , forced Manstein to reconsider continuing the offensive . The German field marshal decided that he could not defend his left flank while also sustaining the attempt to relieve the 6th Army . Although the 6th Panzer Division was able to cross the Myshkova River by the night of 19 December , the LVII Panzer Corps had still not made major advances against increased Soviet opposition , despite the arrival of the 17th Panzer Division ; in fact , it seemed as if the corps would have to go on the defensive . Furthermore , the Soviet raid on Tatsinskaya managed to destroy the airfield and several dozen aircraft being used by the Luftwaffe to resupply forces inside the Stalingrad pocket , forcing Manstein to order the XLVIII Panzer Corps on the defensive , instead of reserving it to bolster his forces directed toward the breakthrough to Stalingrad . To make matters worse for the Germans , on 18 December Hitler refused to allow the German 6th Army to begin a breakout operation towards the rest of Army Group Don , despite pleas from Manstein .
= = = Collapse : 19 – 23 December = = =
On 19 December , Manstein sent his chief intelligence officer — Major Eismann — into Stalingrad to give General Paulus an accurate image of the strategic situation which had befallen Army Group Don . Paulus was not impressed , although he agreed that the best option continued to be an attempted breakout as early as possible . The 6th Army 's Chief of Staff — Major General Arthur Schmidt — argued that a breakout was unfeasible and instead suggested that Army Group Don take steps to better supply entrapped Axis forces by air . Despite agreeing with Eismann earlier , Paulus then decided that a breakout was out of the question given the 6th Army 's incapability to conduct it and Hitler 's express orders against it . Although that day the LVII Panzer Corps managed to breakthrough the Alksay River and drive within 48 km ( 30 mi ) of the southern edge of the 6th Army 's front , the entrapped German forces made no attempt to link up with the relieving forces . Adam makes the point the 6th Army tanks only had fuel to go 30 km , after which they would need fuel and ammunition flown in to go any further . Thereafter , the 6th Army simply did not have the strength to attempt a breakout , operating less than 70 serviceable tanks , with limited supplies , while its infantry were in no condition to attempt an attack in the blizzard which had developed over the past few days .
Manstein ordered the 6th Panzer Division to end its offensive and redeploy to the southern Chir River , to bolster German defenses there against the continuing Soviet offensive , on 23 December . By 24 December , the Fourth Panzer Army was in full retreat , returning to its starting position . The inability to breakthrough to the 6th Army , and the latter formation 's refusal to attempt a breakout , caused Operation Winter Storm to collapse on 24 December , as Army Group Don returned to the defensive .
= = Aftermath = =
With the German relief effort defeated , Stavka was free to concentrate on the destruction of Axis forces in the Stalingrad pocket and the westward expansion of the Red Army 's Winter offensive . The Red Army was able to bring to bear almost 150 @,@ 000 personnel and 630 tanks against the retreating 4th Panzer Army and although Volsky 's 4th Mechanized Corps ( renamed 3rd Guard Mechanized Corps on 18 December 1942 ) was withdrawn to be refitted , the 51st Army , the 1st Guards Rifle and 7th Tank Corps struck at German units withdrawing between the Mushkova and Aksai Rivers . In three days , the attacking Soviet units broke through the Romanian positions guarding the LVII Panzer Corps ' flank and threatened the 4th Panzer Army from the south , forcing the Germans to continue withdrawing to the southwest . All the while , the XLVIII Panzer Corps — led mainly by the 11th Panzer Division — strove to maintain its position along the Chir River . Despite success , the XLVIII Panzer Corps was rushed to the defense of Rostov as a Soviet breakthrough seemed imminent after the partial collapse of the Italian 8th Army . As the Red Army pursued the 4th Panzer Army toward the Aksai River and broke through the German defense on the banks of the Chir River , it also began to prepare for Operation Ring — the reduction of the forces in Stalingrad .
German forces in Stalingrad soon began to run out of supplies , some soldiers were forced to live on horse meat . By the end of 1942 , the distance between the German 6th Army and forces outside of the encirclement was over 65 km ( 40 mi ) , and most of the German formations in the area were extremely weak . Hitler 's insistence in holding Stalingrad to the last risked the existence of the 6th Army . The end of the German offensive also allowed the Red Army to continue in its efforts to cut @-@ off German forces in the Caucasus , which would begin in the middle of January . On the other hand , the encirclement of the 6th Army and the operations to destroy it tied down a considerable number of Soviet troops , which affected Soviet operations on other sectors .
= George Tucker ( politician ) =
George Tucker ( August 20 , 1775 – April 10 , 1861 ) was an American attorney , politician , historian , author , and educator . His literary works include the first fiction of colonial life in Virginia and another which is among the nation 's earliest science fictions . Tucker also published the first comprehensive biography of Thomas Jefferson , as well as a history of the United States .
Tucker was the son of the first mayor of Hamilton , Bermuda . He immigrated to Virginia at age 20 , was educated at the College of William and Mary , and was admitted to the bar . His first marriage ended with the death of his childless wife Mary Farley in 1799 ; he remarried and had six children with wife Maria Carter , who died at age 38 in 1823 . His third wife , of 30 years , was Louisa Thompson who died in 1858 .
Aside from his law practice , Tucker wrote distinctive monologues for various publications . His topics ranged widely from the conceptual to the technical — from slavery , suffrage , and morality to intracoastal navigation , wages , and banking . He was elected in 1816 to the Virginia House of Delegates for one term , and served in the United States House of Representatives from 1819 to 1825 . From his youth until early middle age , Tucker 's lofty social lifestyle was often profligate , and occasionally scandalous . Nevertheless , upon completion of his congressional term , his eloquent publications led Thomas Jefferson and James Madison to extend to him an appointment to serve as Professor of Moral Philosophy at the newly founded University of Virginia ; he accepted and held that post until 1845 .
After retiring , Tucker relocated to Philadelphia and continued to research , and expound upon , a variety of subjects including monetary policy and socio @-@ economics until his death in Virginia at the age of 86 .
= = Family and early life in Bermuda = =
George Tucker was born in Bermuda at St. George 's Island on August 20 , 1775 . He was the second son of Daniel and Elizabeth Tucker , who were distant cousins . Daniel and his brothers established a mercantile partnership with a fleet of vessels shipping goods to America , Newfoundland , and the West Indies . Daniel was also a founder and Mayor of the port of Hamilton , Bermuda .
Tucker was educated in Bermuda primarily by a tutor engaged from Great Britain and also by Josiah Meigs . His assigned reading included Tom Jones , The Vicar of Wakefield , and Arabian Nights , among the mainstays of an education on the American continent . At age fifteen he helped form a literary club , the Calliopean Society ; Meigs later became a professor and reprised the name of the club at Yale . Tucker at age 16 began to read the law under a successful and prosperous lawyer , George Bascomb . At Bascomb 's death , the firm 's clients urged Tucker to assume their representation , but feeling quite unqualified , he declined , deciding to begin plans for a career in the United States .
= = Immigration to America , education and first marriage = =
Shortly after his mother 's death in 1795 , Tucker sailed for Philadelphia , intending to continue his legal education in the United States . He briefly considered London for his studies but discarded the idea , in order to optimize his chances for " political advancement " . After a free @-@ spending time with other Bermudians in the capital city , he ran out of funds , and proceeded to Williamsburg , Virginia to seek advice and borrow money from his famous cousin St. George Tucker , a maneuver he would repeat . He was admitted at the College of William & Mary , where he studied law under St. George and graduated after two years . Tucker was pleased to find the academic work undemanding , and his social life entertaining , as he gained access to the finer homes through his cousin .
Tucker traveled to New York and Philadelphia and , with letters of introduction in hand , was able to further acquaint himself with his adopted country and meet noted leaders , including George Washington and New York governors John Jay and George Clinton . Despite his enjoyment of this high society , he returned to Williamsburg and there began a courtship with Mary Byrd Farley , who was possessed of much charm and fortune , and to whom he proposed . Though he had initially preferred to delay the wedding until he had passed the bar , he gave in to his heart 's desire , borrowed the needed funds from an uncle , and they married in October of 1797 . To help Mary , who was chronically ill with consumption , Tucker arranged a trip to his old home in Bermuda . The stay there provided Mary no relief from her illness and confirmed his desire to be in Virginia . They returned to Williamsburg , setting up residence , with his intention to read for the bar exam . Except for trips to North Carolina to collect rents on his wife 's property , Tucker avoided his work , attended horse races in Fredericksburg , and frequented fashionable watering places with friends and family ; he made Thomas Jefferson 's acquaintance at this time . Mary never recovered from her infirmities , and died childless in 1799 .
Mary 's death complicated Tucker 's facile life , as her considerable estate was fraught with legal problems . It included a sugar plantation , thousands of acres of land , and a share in the Dismal Swamp Company . After a prolonged trip to the sugar plantation in Antigua , and on to Martinique and Bermuda , he returned to Williamsburg and then determined his future was in the nearby state capital of Richmond , Virginia as a practicing attorney . Tucker ultimately succeeded in salvaging only part of his late wife 's fortune .
= = Richmond society , second marriage , slavery and politics = =
Tucker arrived in Richmond with a letter of introduction from St. George to Governor James Monroe . His cousin 's letter is said to have accurately portrayed Tucker 's character and also foretold his future there : " To the best qualities of the heart he unites an excellent understanding , which has been well cultivated , and a very comprehensive knowledge of the world ; nature has blessed him with a most exuberant flow of spirits , which sometimes betray him into acts of levity ... " Tucker effectively entered the desired social circles in Richmond , bolstered by a well @-@ furnished home near the Governor 's own , and soon could count among his acquaintances not only the Governor ( whom Tucker called " that slow dull man " ) , but also George Wythe , Edmund Pendleton , George Hay and most notably Charles Carter ( 1765 – 1829 ) , who introduced him to daughter Maria Ball Carter — the granddaughter of Betty Washington Lewis . They soon fell in love , and in February 1802 he married Maria , age seventeen and pregnant .
While Tucker began writing for publication , as an attorney he was initially deficient , being disabled by his fear of speaking in the courtroom ; he later gained the requisite self @-@ confidence . Tucker became a founding member of the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society in Richmond , an effort led by John Marshall and John Floyd ; Tucker was named to the Society 's Standing Committee .
Politically , Tucker was a Jeffersonian Republican , delighted at the split in the Federalists between John Adams and Alexander Hamilton , and joined in the resentment toward Federalist attempts to " appoint a president " by party caucus . But in time he departed his near @-@ Jacobin leanings and became a pro @-@ bank Republican . He once gave a speech in support of a Federalist in a local election , and a staunch Republican , Lewis Harvey , called him a party traitor and liar . In reaction , the often hot @-@ tempered Tucker took a swing at him but missed due the intervention of a neutral party . Assuming his challenge unsuccessful , Tucker demanded satisfaction which Harvey accepted . Tucker carefully arranged the duel , stipulating an extraordinary distance in paces , so as to diminish the superior marksmanship of his opponent . Fortunately for Tucker the duel was avoided at the last moment — though not before he had completed his will and arranged his estate for his expecting wife . Their first child , Daniel George , was born November 23 , 1802 .
= = = Positions on slavery = = =
Tucker sought out the foremost authors in Richmond to advance his interest in literature and the arts , and soon published an essay entitled Letter to a Member of the General Assembly of Virginia on the Subject of the Late Conspiracy of the Slaves with a Proposal for Their Colonization ( 1801 ) , proposing a remedy to slavery . Tucker 's Letter expressed his early opposition to slavery , portraying it as unproductive and uneconomical . He wrote that no country " can attain great heights in manufactures , commerce or agriculture where one half of the community labours unwillingly , and the other half does not labour at all . " He recommended that revenues be secured ( with a tax on slaveholders ) and used to establish a colony for the slaves west of the Mississippi . He further asserted that the slave 's inferiority was a result of time and circumstance , and not natural causes .
In the 1820s however , Tucker 's views of slavery changed notably with personal experience , and profit , realized in his purchase and sale of slaves for his account and that of his father @-@ in @-@ law , Charles Carter . For years he opposed the concepts of abolition and colonization as impractical , then finally reverted to his earlier conclusion that a more beneficial , commercially oriented , society was inevitable . Though he recounted the insipid benefits of slavery , he predicted its eventual death . Indeed , he freed his own slaves in 1845 , 16 years prior to his death .
= = Scandal , rustic life and valor = =
= = = Rigged lottery = = =
Tucker 's law practice could not support the expenses essential to his extravagant social exploits , which included gambling at cards and races , and he proceeded to waste the capital from Mary Tucker 's estate . He was drawn to speculative investments and ultimately was embroiled in a financial scandal . In 1803 , he joined other prominent citizens in organizing a lottery to raise funds for the Richmond Academy . He allegedly bought several chances for himself and , as remaining chances dwindled , resold some of them for a profit ; he also was said to have positioned himself as one of four or five holders sure to be a winner . He held the winning stub when his ticket was purportedly found lodged in a joint of the drawing drum .
Tucker was asked for reimbursement , and after negotiation , paid it in part , borrowing the remainder from members of the academy board . He also acted as custodian of other funds , blended them with his own and spent it on overindulgence and land speculation . Later he was required to defend himself in these matters before the Virginia General Assembly . Though he was officially cleared of wrongdoing , the incidents tarnished his reputation and highlighted the style of his living in Richmond . Meanwhile , Maria gave birth to their eldest daughter , Eleanor Rosalie , on May 4 , 1804 .
= = = Rural settings = = =
Tucker relocated his family in 1806 , including a newborn daughter Maria , to the Carters ' home in Frederick County , Virginia , and attempted to put his financial house in order . Business required his frequent return to Richmond , and on one occasion he was arrested there for a delinquency owed to a loan company . The immediate problem was solved with the intervention of St. George . Tucker economized for two years , living a rural life with the Carters and other family and was able to purchase a home near the Dan River .
In May 1808 the family moved to " Woodbridge " in Pittsylvania County , where daughter Eliza was born in December . Maria was then faced with rearing four children in more rural , less favorable living conditions . For his part , Tucker was disappointed with an absence of the desired social life . While he thought all his neighbors " friendly and civil " , they were also " unpolished and plain " . With an increased effort in his law practice , Tucker discovered more success and acquired more clients , spread across four counties . He was also elected Commonwealth 's Attorney for Pittsylvania county . Maria gave birth to daughter Lelia in October 1810 and Harriett in May 1813 .
= = = Self @-@ proclaimed act of chivalry = = =
In 1811 , Tucker was in Richmond to attend a benefit performance , and put his life in danger during the infamous Richmond Theatre fire . The event , including a play entitled The Father , or Family Feuds and a pantomime afterwards named Raymond and Agnes , was held in December . It being Christmas time , the auditorium was packed — with 518 adults and 80 children .
In his autobiography Tucker relates that , " The play was over ... and there appearing to be much delay in bringing on the afterpiece ... I had fortunately quitted the [ play ] house while it was on fire , tho ' I did not know the fact ... but the cry of fire prevented my reaching my lodgings , and hurried me back to witness a spectacle of human woe which I have never seen equalled . I was instrumental in saving several females from the flames . " In the process , he suffered a head injury when struck by a falling timber , and was left with a permanent scar above his eye . The tragedy took the lives of 72 people , including the sitting Governor of Virginia George William Smith . Victims also included many of the upper echelons in Richmond society .
= = Elective office and early writing = =
Tucker 's maritime roots in Bermuda instilled an interest in navigation , and he began an intense campaign with the legislatures of North Carolina and Virginia to improve the waterways to Norfolk along the Roanoke , Dan , and Staunton Rivers , in order to avoid inefficient portage required to Petersburg and Richmond . This effort culminated in his own bids for election to a seat in the Virginia House of Delegates representing Pittsylvania County , which failed in 1813 and 1814 but then succeeded in 1816 . Tucker and Maria then suffered the first loss of a child , Harriett , from whooping cough at age three .
Tucker continued his work in literature along with that in the law , and in 1814 – 1815 the Philadelphia Port Folio published a series of his essays entitled Thoughts of a Hermit . Financial success was for once his as a result of these endeavors ; he also realized profits from land sales near the Dan River , and the sale of Woodbridge when the family moved again , to Lynchburg , Virginia in 1818 .
The death of daughter Harriett had been painful enough , but Maria 's depression became uncontrollable and chronic when daughter Rosalie died unexpectedly at age 14 in 1818 . Also during this period Maria 's father , Charles Carter , encountered his own financial setbacks , and prevailed upon Tucker for assistance ; Tucker , with the help of Lawrence Lewis , was able to settle the Carters at " Deerwood " , sharing part of the profits from Charles ' management there .
With financial success came more clients and opportunities to serve his community . Tucker received many cases in debt collection , and he was appointed trustee of the Lynchburg Female Academy and vestryman at St. Paul 's Episcopal Church . Tucker was also elected to serve in the United States House of Representatives from 1819 to 1825 , representing the Lynchburg area in the 16th , 17th , and 18th United States Congresses . His financial largess was short @-@ lived , as Tucker was unable to resist the allure of society and lavish living in Washington , not to mention the increased expenses of a larger immediate family .
Though Tucker and Maria were warned against her having more children in her vulnerable physical and emotional state , she again conceived , and died in pregnancy in February 1823 . In the carriage to Washington after the funeral , Tucker muffled his face with a handkerchief to hide his tears and feigned a toothache in response to inquirers . Maria 's death indeed weighed heavily upon him , as he reflected on his plausible neglect in the midst of her travails . He also was much concerned for his son Daniel 's indolence and unbalanced behavior which years later would result in the son 's hospitalization and ultimate death in 1838 in Philadelphia .
Due in part to these personal trials , he made no momentous contributions to Congress beyond his reliable positions representing Virginia 's interests , with a consistent Jeffersonian Republican voting record . He did serve as chairman of the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of War . There are notable disparities between Tucker 's more statist voting record and the nationalism predominant in his writings during this period and later . In his essay On Instructions to Representatives , he provides an explanation in political theory — an inevitable obligation to think one way and yet vote another , in compliance with constituent preferences .
= = Academics = =
Near the end of Tucker 's third congressional term in 1824 , Thomas Jefferson presented him with an offer on behalf of the fledgling University of Virginia , sanctioned by Trustees James Madison and Joseph C. Cabell , to serve as the first Professor of Moral Philosophy . The offer met the school 's desire to appoint a non @-@ Federalist to the post , and Tucker 's connections with Cabell and St. George would also have facilitated his selection . Another factor was Tucker 's recent 1822 Essays on Various Subjects of Taste , Morals , and National Policy , which included papers from the Port Folio . Madison had been provided a copy of these and recommended them to Jefferson , saying they were " among the best answers to the charges of our national ... backwardness . " Tucker 's selection may as well have been an accommodation to some of the school 's opponents , including Episcopalians , Federalists , and notable western Virginians , many of whom were friends of Tucker 's . Presumably , his prior monetary indiscretions were overlooked since no related formal charges were extant .
From Tucker 's perspective , the offer was most opportune , as he considered his congressional seat in jeopardy , as well as his pocketbook . The professorship included a steady income , extra fees from philosophy students , tenure , and rent @-@ free quarters on the University Lawn . Tucker accepted the offer , effective in 1825 , and also was chosen chairman of the faculty . As well as his primary discipline , he also assumed charge of the subjects of Political Economics and Rhetoric for the University . He was content with family life in Charlottesville , Virginia , though he " found solitude unbearable " after Maria 's death and began an earnest search for a wife , whom he found in Louisa A. Thompson , a widow from Baltimore . In their thirty years together Tucker later said he had found " the same warmth and devoted affection with which I have been previously blest " .
Tucker 's effectiveness in the lecture hall is not objectively certain , and he may well have encountered difficulty with public speaking as he had in the courtroom previously . His continued faculty chairmanship certainly testified to his relative popularity among colleagues , and he published numerous works — including one satire , a fiction , three books on economics and statistics , a Jefferson biography , as well as two pamphlets . Together with Robley Dunglison he founded and edited the Virginia Literary Museum ( 1829 – 1830 ) in which he published voluminous writings ; and he frequently sent essays to newspapers and magazines .
= = Later politics and major literary works = =
= = = Politics = = =
Some of Tucker 's writing reflected a growing political skepticism of the workings of democracy beginning with the 1796 election . By the late 1820s , he was persuaded that political leadership positions should be reserved primarily for prosperous people with a tangible , and taxable , interest in government . Andrew Jackson 's election in 1828 was for Tucker an example of the " triumph of democratic demagoguery which could bring about class warfare . " Tucker worked arduously in Virginia to oppose Jackson and was a solid supporter of Henry Clay , with his second choice being Daniel Webster .
He opposed universal suffrage , and favored limiting the franchise to half of free men , and allowing slaveholders to cast votes on behalf of three @-@ fifths of their slaves ; he also argued in favor of eliminating the secret ballot . Tucker also promoted the Second National Bank and strongly criticized Jackson for defunding it .
= = = Works of fiction = = =
Tucker 's premier literary work was The Valley of Shenandoah ( 1824 ) , the first fictional tale of life in Virginia . In relating the downfall of an aristocratic family in the Commonwealth 's valley , it drew upon his personal witness of the financial ruin of his in @-@ laws , the family of Charles Carter , and described the inability of an estate owner to manage his monetary affairs , such as he had personally experienced . Tucker further used the novel 's characters , again reflecting personal experience , to emphasize that happiness in love and life resulted from the moderation of one 's passions . The Valley stressed Tucker 's professorial objective , that history must inform the reader with " the progress of society and the arts of civilization ; with the advancement and decline of literature , laws , manners and commerce . " He also conveyed through the fiction his view that gentility was independent of wealth , that the relationship between masters and slaves was imbued with mutual trust and happiness , and that the strong currents of socio @-@ economic change were on the whole beneficent .
Using the pseudonym Joseph Atterley , in 1827 he wrote the satire A Voyage to the Moon : With Some Account of the Manners and Customs , Science and Philosophy , of the People of Morosofia , and Other Lunarians . It is one of the earliest American works of science fiction , and was relatively successful , earning Tucker $ 100 from the sale of 1000 copies . It received positive reviews from the American Quarterly Review and the Western Monthly Review . Tucker uses The Voyage to ridicule the social manners , religion and professions of some of his colleagues , and to criticize some erroneous scientific methods and results apparent to him at the time .
= = = First biography of Jefferson = = =
In 1836 , Tucker completed his manuscript of a comprehensive biography , The Life of Thomas Jefferson , Third President of the United States . He sent his composition to James Madison for his approval , as the latter had assisted in its formation . Tucker included for his sanction a proposed dedication to the recipient . Madison replied with his full approbation and signature on June 26 , 1836 , just hours before his death the following day .
This premier study of the life of Jefferson was published in two volumes the following year , and received complimentary review in the Edinburgh Review from Lord Brougham , as " a very valuable addition to the stock of our political and historical knowledge . In it , Professor Tucker does not always accord with the illustrious subject of his biography . The work , indeed , manifests a laudable desire to do justice , and to decide impartially on contested topics ; and hence , perhaps , it failed to give satisfaction to the ardent supporters , as well as to the bitter opponents , of Mr. Jefferson . "
= = Sabbatical abroad , retirement , and work of U.S. history = =
= = = Sojourn in Great Britain = = =
Tucker considered a trip abroad would enhance his insight and resume generally , and specifically prepare him for a possible , though not likely , diplomatic appointment . He expected there was much to be learned for his country 's benefit in the British factories , great estates and crowded cities . With his finances in order and a three @-@ month leave from the university , in 1839 he made a trip to Great Britain and after some time in Shakespeare country , Stratford @-@ Upon @-@ Avon , he settled in Liverpool . He did not succeed in making all the expected social connections , with the exception of the 1st Earl of Leicester and his wife , with whom he frequently discussed politics and agriculture . Though admiring the succinct debates in Parliament , he found Queen Victoria 's procession " more fit to amuse a child than one of my age " . On the whole he found conversation did not come easy with the British , and concluded " there were more churls in England than in all of Europe besides . " This journey , along with his interest in the doctrines of Thomas Robert Malthus on populace , inspired Tucker to expound upon the mixed blessings of a prospective urbanized world . Some of his hypotheses were included in The Progress of the United States in Population and Wealth ( Boston , 1843 ) . This work gained him one of his proudest honors , a membership in the Statistical Society of Paris .
His enthusiasm for teaching at the university ebbed in his final years there . He was also perturbed by an increase in religious enthusiasm on campus and a temperance movement , which he mildly protested . Tucker zealously defended higher salaries for more tenured professors , and he was enraged when the University reduced his annual salary from $ 1500 to $ 1000 . Having produced documentation proving that Jefferson had intended his salary be guaranteed for life , he convinced the university to reinstate his original salary .
= = = Resignation from faculty and relocation = = =
With the death of his last contemporary on the faculty in 1845 , Tucker resigned his professorship and moved to Philadelphia , where he enjoyed the availability of more libraries , meetings at the American Philosophical Society and a reunion with his friend Robley Dunglison . Nevertheless , there were drawbacks – for one , the lack of accommodation that slaveholding had brought him — he had emancipated all five of his slaves upon his departure from Charlottesville . He later expressed doubt about the wisdom of the latter decision when he learned that three of them had , by law , been exiled from Virginia , and shortly thereafter died . As well , the two freed slaves who accompanied him to Philadelphia immediately deserted their posts upon arrival there .
Social life in the urban setting did not initially live up to his expectations , but after a time his writing and lecturing upon a variety of subjects filled the void . He also joined The American Institute for the Advancement of Science and successfully urged its members to establish a section on Political Economics and Statistics . He as well engaged in a debate , as antagonist of Malthusian population theory with proponent Alexander Everett .
= = = History of the United States = = =
In 1856 , Tucker completed his four @-@ volume History of the United States , From Their Colonization to the End of the 26th Congress , in 1841 . Robley Dunglison commented as follows on the work : " To aid him in the execution of his work , as [ Tucker ] himself remarks , it had been his good fortune to have a personal knowledge of many , who bore a conspicuous part in the Revolution , and of nearly all those who were the principal actors in the political dramas which succeeded . The history extends to the elevation of General William Henry Harrison to the Presidency in 1841 , which is as far as Tucker thought he could prudently go . " The work includes a brief review of slavery , in which Tucker took issue with Jefferson 's decades @-@ old view in his Notes on the State of Virginia ( 1781 ) , that slavery still had a degenerative effect upon slaveholders .
= = Final years = =
Though Tucker may have displayed in his old age " a spirit of pugnacity becoming earlier years " , as one critic claimed , such a nature was not in evidence with his family . He corresponded positively and frequently with his children and vacationed with them in the summers in Virginia and New York . He appears to have been consistent in his devotion to his family , which was returned by them in kind . And his exchanges with them were replete with a concern for their financial well being . Musing his own past errors , he told them that " except for the loss of friends , a want of prudence in money matters has contributed nine tenths of the pain and vexation of [ my ] life " .
Even after the death of his wife Louisa in 1858 , Tucker 's vitality persisted and , not long before the American Civil War began , in January 1861 he journeyed south through Virginia , the Carolinas and Georgia to Alabama to visit a friend in Mobile . In reaction to Georgia 's secession from the union , speaking from his lingering southern loyalty , he commented , " it seems a poor remedy for an unpopular President " . He thought the overriding need for " a wise provident government " would bring the southern states back under a modified constitution . But after some time spent in the south , he was compelled to say the people " seemed to be crazed in the fancies of imaginary evils and their strange remedies . " Indeed , Tucker 's youthful loyalties to the agrarian south had in his own maturation given way to a belief in the necessity and value of a commercial @-@ industrial society . Nationalism had become the foundation of his politics over statism , and he could not understand why a compromise in lieu of war would not be embraced .
Tucker sustained head injuries at Mobile Bay when , awaiting his ship 's departure for return to the north , he was struck by a large bale of cotton being loaded on board . He was moved to the home of daughter Eleanor and husband George Rives in Albemarle County , Virginia , where he died on April 10 , 1861 , two days prior to the Battle of Fort Sumter and the beginning of the American Civil War . He was buried at the University of Virginia Cemetery .
= = Works ( by year ) = =
Letters on the Conspiracy of Slaves in Virginia ( Richmond , 1800 )
Letters on the Roanoke Navigation ( 1811 )
Recollections of Eleanor Rosalie Tucker ( Lynchburg , 1819 )
Essays on Subjects of Taste , Morals , and National Policy , under the pen @-@ name " A Citizen of Virginia " ( Georgetown , 1822 )
Tucker , George ( 1824 ) . The Valley of Shenandoah ; or , Memoirs of the Graysons . With an introd. by Donald R. Noble , Jr . ( 1970 Reprint of the 1824 ed . ) . Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8078 @-@ 4055 @-@ 6 . LCCN 70123106 . This was reprinted in England and translated into German .
Tucker , George ( 1827 ) . A Voyage to the Moon . New York : E. Bliss . LCCN 03002392 .
Principles of Rent , Wages , and Profits ( Philadelphia , 1837 )
Public Discourse on the Literature of the United States ( Charlottesville , 1837 )
Tucker , George ( 1837 ) . The Life of Thomas Jefferson , Third President of the United States . Philadelphia : Carey , Lea & Blanchard .
The Theory of Money and Banks Investigated ( Boston , 1839 )
Essay on Cause and Effect ( Philadelphia , 1842 )
Essay on the Association of Ideas ( 1843 )
Public Discourse on the Dangers most Threatening to the United States ( Washington , 1843 )
Progress of the United , States in Population and Wealth in Fifty Years ( New York , 1843 )
Memoir of the Life and Character of Dr. John P. Emmet ( Philadelphia , 1845 )
Correspondence with Alexander H. Everett on Political Economy ( 1845 )
Tucker , George ( 1856 ) . The History of the United States . Philadelphia : J. B. Lippincott & Co . LCCN 02002948 .
Banks or No Banks ( New York , 1857 )
Autobiography ( 1858 )
Tucker , George ( 1859 ) . Political Economy for the People . Philadelphia : C. Sherman & Son . LCCN 05021928 .
Essays , Moral and Philosophical ( 1860 )
Autobiography , Bermuda Historical Quarterly ( 1961 ) , vol . 18 , nos . 3 and 4
Tucker , George ( 1977 ) . A Century Hence : or , A Romance of 1941 ; edited with an introd. by Donald R. Noble . Charlottesville : University of Virginia Press . LCCN 76041223 .
= Hurricane Irene ( 2005 ) =
Hurricane Irene was a long @-@ lived Cape Verde @-@ type Atlantic hurricane during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . The storm formed near Cape Verde on August 4 and crossed the Atlantic , turning northward around Bermuda before being absorbed by an extratropical while situated southeast of Newfoundland . Irene persisted for 14 days as a tropical system , the longest duration of any storm of the 2005 season . It was the ninth named storm and fourth hurricane of the record @-@ breaking season .
Irene proved to be a difficult storm to forecast due to oscillations in strength . After almost dissipating on August 10 , Irene peaked as a Category 2 hurricane on August 16 before being absorbed by a larger extratropical system late on August 18 . Although there were initial fears of a landfall in the United States due to uncertainty in predicting the storm 's track , Hurricane Irene never approached land and caused no recorded damage ; however , swells up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) and strong rip currents resulted in one fatality in Long Beach , New York .
= = Meteorological history = =
A vigorous tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa on August 1 , initially weakening due to cooler sea surface temperatures . It moved westward and passed near Cape Verde , where convection started to increase . The system became more organized and developed into Tropical Depression Nine on the afternoon of August 4 , 690 miles ( 1100 km ) southwest of the Cape Verde Islands . Early on August 5 , the depression abruptly turned to the northwest into an area of higher wind shear , causing some computer models to predict that the depression would dissipate , while others predicted steady strengthening . The sudden threat to the storm 's existence prompted National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) forecaster Dr Lixion Avila to comment , " How little we know about the genesis of tropical cyclones . " Despite the unfavorable conditions in its vicinity and its poor organization , Tropical Depression Nine continued to strengthen , becoming Tropical Storm Irene on August 7 .
Because Irene was in an environment laden with dry air and high shear , it soon weakened to a tropical depression , on August 8 . On the morning of August 10 , as it was passing north of the Lesser Antilles , Irene nearly dissipated into a remnant low , but forecasters predicted with " very low confidence " that the storm would survive . Contrary to these expectations , warmer waters and less wind shear allowed Irene to become gradually more organized while south of Bermuda , and it became a tropical storm once again early on August 11 .
Due to uncertainties about how the region 's subtropical ridge would interact with Irene , the models continued to give unclear signals of the storm 's future . Some of the models predicted that Irene would make landfall in North Carolina , while others continued to anticipate that Irene would dissipate . The uncertainty ended when a weakness in the subtropical ridge allowed Irene to turn sharply northward , which caused the storm to pass midway between the Outer Banks of North Carolina and Bermuda on August 15 . Soon after , upper @-@ level shear weakened greatly , and Irene rapidly intensified , first to a hurricane , then to its peak strength as a 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) Category 2 hurricane on the afternoon of August 16 , while located 350 miles ( 560 km ) northeast of Bermuda ; at the same time it also attained minimum pressure of 970 mbar . Though NHC meteorologists thought it was likely that Irene would become a hurricane , they were not expecting an intensification of such a magnitude .
Irene entered a region of increased wind shear and began to weaken , and as a result it was downgraded to a tropical storm early on August 18 , when it was 520 miles ( 830 km ) south of Cape Race , Newfoundland . All convection within 230 mi ( 370 km ) of the cyclone dissipated on August 18 . Irene was subsequently absorbed by an extratropical cyclone later that day . Irene lasted for 14 days as a tropical system , the longest duration of any storm of the 2005 season .
= = Impact , records and naming = =
As Hurricane Irene stayed well away from land , no coastal warnings or watches were issued for it . Despite Irene 's long life there were no reports of tropical storm force winds affecting ships . There were no damage or fatalities as a result of Irene . However , the hurricane generated strong waves and increased the risk of rip currents along the East Coast of the United States . Many beaches in New Jersey restricted swimming activities , and lifeguards at one beach performed more than a hundred rescues over a three @-@ day period . Waves along the coastline of New York reached 4 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) . On August 14 , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy drowned after being caught in a rip current near Long Beach , New York on August 14 . His body was recovered on August 16 after washing ashore .
When Tropical Storm Irene formed on August 7 , it was the earliest date for the formation of the ninth tropical storm in an Atlantic hurricane season , beating the previous record held by a storm in the 1936 season by 13 days . This storm also marked the fifth occasion the name Irene had been used to name a tropical cyclone in the Atlantic . Due to the lack of effects on land from Hurricane Irene , the name was not retired by the World Meteorological Organization and was reused in the 2011 Atlantic season ; however , due to the extreme damage caused by the storm , it was retired in 2012 and was replaced with the name Irma .
= Demographics of New Zealand =
The demographics of New Zealand encompass the gender , ethnic , religious , geographic , and economic backgrounds of the 4 @.@ 6 million people living in New Zealand . New Zealanders , informally known as " Kiwis " , predominantly live in urban areas on the North Island . The five largest cities are Auckland ( with one @-@ third of the country 's population ) , Christchurch ( in the South Island , the largest island of the New Zealand archipelago ) , Wellington , Hamilton and Tauranga . Few New Zealanders live on New Zealand 's smaller islands . Waiheke Island ( near Auckland ) is easily the most populated smaller island with 8 @,@ 900 residents , while Great Barrier Island , the Chatham and Pitt Islands and Stewart Island each have populations below 1 @,@ 000 . New Zealand is part of a realm and most people born in the realm 's external territories of Tokelau , the Ross Dependency , the Cook Islands and Niue are entitled to New Zealand passports . In 2006 , more people who identified themselves with these islands lived in New Zealand than on the Islands themselves .
The majority of New Zealand 's population is of European descent ( 69 percent identify as " New Zealand European " ) , with the indigenous Māori being the largest minority ( 14 @.@ 6 percent ) , followed by Asians ( 9 @.@ 2 percent ) and non @-@ Māori Pacific Islanders ( 6 @.@ 9 percent ) . This is reflected in immigration , with most new migrants coming from Britain and Ireland , although the numbers from Asia are increasing . In 2001 an estimated 460 @,@ 000 New Zealanders lived abroad , mostly in Australia , representing nearly one @-@ quarter of NZ 's highly skilled workforce . The largest Māori iwi is Ngapuhi with 122 @,@ 211 people or 24 percent of the Māori population . Auckland is the most ethnically diverse region in New Zealand with 56 @.@ 5 percent identifying as Europeans , 18 @.@ 9 percent as Asian , 11 @.@ 1 percent as Māori and 14 @.@ 4 percent as other Pacific Islanders . The ethnicity of the population aged under 18 years is more diverse ( 72 percent European , 24 percent Māori , 12 percent Pacific and 10 percent Asian ) than the population aged 65 years or older ( 91 percent European , 5 percent Māori , 4 percent Asian and 2 percent Pacific ) . Recent increases in interracial marriages have resulted in more people identifying with more than one ethnic group .
Estimates based on the 2013 census in New Zealand classify 14 @.@ 90 % of the population of New Zealand as Maori , 11 @.@ 80 % of the population as Asian ( deriving from various nations in Asia ) , 7 @.@ 40 % as of Pacific Islander origin ( including from the Cook Islands , Niue , and Tokelau , all of which are dependent states of New Zealand in the Pacific ) , and 1 @.@ 20 % as individuals of Middle @-@ Eastern , Latin American , and African descent . Approximately three @-@ quarters of the population of New Zealand during the census were of European ethnicity .
English , Māori and New Zealand Sign Language are the official languages , with English predominant . New Zealand English is mostly non @-@ rhotic and sounds similar to Australian English , with a common exception being the centralisation of the short i . The Maori language ( te reo ) has undergone a process of revitalisation and is spoken by 4 @.@ 1 percent of the population . New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification . In the adult population 14 @.@ 2 percent have a bachelor 's degree or higher , 30 @.@ 4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22 @.@ 4 percent have no formal qualification . As of the 2013 census , just under half the population identify as Christians , with Hinduism , Buddhism and Islam being the most significant minority religions . New Zealand has no state religion and just over 40 % of the population do not have a religion .
Farming is a major occupation in New Zealand , although more people are employed as sales assistants . Most New Zealanders earn wage or salary income , with a median personal income in 2006 of $ 24 @,@ 400 . Unemployment stood at 6 @.@ 0 percent in May 2014 .
= = New Zealanders = =
While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander , the informal " Kiwi " is commonly used both internationally and by locals . The name derives from the kiwi , a native flightless bird , which is the national symbol of New Zealand . The Māori loanword Pākehā usually refers to New Zealanders of European descent , although some reject this appellation , and some Māori use it to refer to all non @-@ Polynesian New Zealanders . Most people born in New Zealand or one of the realm 's external territories ( Tokelau , the Ross Dependency , the Cook Islands and Niue ) before 2006 are New Zealand citizens . Further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards .
= = Population = =
In 2014 New Zealand has an estimated population of just over 4 @.@ 5 million , up from the 4 @,@ 027 @,@ 947 recorded in the 2006 census . The median child birthing age was 30 and the fertility rate is 2 @.@ 1 births per woman in 2010 . In Māori populations the median age is 26 and fertility rate 2 @.@ 8 . In 2010 the Age @-@ standardized mortality rate was 3 @.@ 8 deaths per 1000 ( down from 4 @.@ 8 in 2000 ) and the infant mortality rate for the total population was 5 @.@ 1 deaths per 1000 live births . The life expectancy of a New Zealand child born in 2008 was 82 @.@ 4 years for females , and 78 @.@ 4 years for males . Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline . In 2050 the population is forecast to reach 5 @.@ 3 million , the median age to rise from 36 years to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older rising from 18 percent to 29 percent . During early migration in 1858 , New Zealand had 131 males for every 100 females , but following changes in migration patterns and the modern longevity advantage of women , females came to outnumber males in 1971 . As of 2012 there are 0 @.@ 99 males per female , with males dominating under 15 years and females dominating in the 65 years and older
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he lingers over it , caressing it ; meanwhile the general momentum is lost . " His final year , 1970 , was dogged by heart trouble ; he suffered collapses in April , May , June and July . His last two concerts were with the Hallé at the 1970 King 's Lynn Festival . He produced " inspired " renderings of Elgar 's Symphony No. 1 and Sea Pictures . The last work he conducted in public was Beethoven 's Symphony No. 7 on the Saturday before his death . On the day he died , 29 July 1970 , he spent several hours rehearsing the New Philharmonia Orchestra for a forthcoming tour of Japan that he was scheduled to lead .
Barbirolli died at his London home of a heart attack , aged 70 . He was cremated and his ashes interred in his parents ' grave at Kensal Green Cemetery , London . Among planned engagements forestalled by his death were a production of Otello at the Royal Opera House , which would have been his first appearance there for nearly 20 years , and opera recordings for EMI , including Puccini 's Manon Lescaut and Verdi 's Falstaff .
= = Honours , awards and memorials = =
Among Barbirolli 's state awards were a British knighthood in 1949 and Companion of Honour in 1969 ; the Finnish Grand Star and Collar of Commander 1st Class of the Order of the White Rose in 1963 ; from Italy the Order of Merit in 1964 ; and from France , Officier de l 'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres , 1966 , and Officier de l 'Ordre national du Mérite , 1968 . Awards from musical institutions included the Freedom of the Worshipful Company of Musicians , 1966 ; Honorary Academician of the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia , 1960 ; Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society , 1950 ; Bruckner Medal , Bruckner Society of America , 1959 ; and the Mahler Medal , Mahler @-@ Bruckner Society of America , 1965 .
There are memorials to Barbirolli in Manchester and London . Barbirolli Square in Manchester is named in his honour and features a sculpture of him by Byron Howard ( 2000 ) . The square includes the present base of the Hallé Orchestra , the Bridgewater Hall , in which the Barbirolli Room commemorates the conductor . At his old school , St Clement Danes , now relocated in Chorleywood , the main hall is named in his honour . A commemorative blue plaque was placed on the wall of the Bloomsbury Park Hotel in Southampton Row in May 1993 to mark Barbirolli 's birthplace . The Sir John Barbirolli Memorial Foundation of the Royal Philharmonic Society was instituted after his death to assist young musicians with the purchase of instruments . In 1972 the Barbirolli Society was set up with the principal aim of promoting the continued release of Barbirolli 's recorded performances . Its honorary officers have included Evelyn Barbirolli , Daniel Barenboim and Michael Kennedy . In April 2012 , he was voted into the inaugural Gramophone " Hall of Fame " .
= = Repertoire and recordings = =
Barbirolli is remembered as an interpreter of Elgar , Vaughan Williams and Mahler , as well as Schubert , Beethoven , Sibelius , Verdi and Puccini , and as a staunch supporter of new works by British composers . Vaughan Williams dedicated his Seventh and Eighth Symphonies to Barbirolli , whose nickname , " Glorious John " , comes from the inscription Vaughan Williams wrote at the head of the score of the Eighth : " For glorious John , with love and admiration from Ralph . " Barbirolli did not disdain lighter repertoire . The music critic Richard Osborne wrote that , if all Barbirolli 's recordings were to be lost except that of Lehár 's Gold and Silver Waltz , " there would be reason enough to say , ' Now , there was a conductor ! ' "
Barbirolli 's repertoire was not as wide as that of many of his colleagues because he insisted on exhaustive preparation for any work he conducted . His colleague Sir Adrian Boult liked and admired Barbirolli but teased him for his meticulousness : " We can 't all be like you and spend months studying these things and then have days of rehearsals before we conduct them . For some of us they 're only sporting events . " Barbirolli was shocked by such levity . His approach was illustrated by the care he took with Mahler 's symphonies . His biographer Michael Kennedy commented , " it is ironical that the effort of composing the symphonies shortened Mahler 's life ; interpreting them certainly put an enormous strain on Barbirolli in his last decade . " He found that mastering a Mahler symphony took between 18 months and two years , and he would spend hours meticulously bowing all the string parts in preparation for his performances . His first performance of Mahler 's Ninth took nearly 50 hours of rehearsal .
= = = Pre @-@ war = = =
From almost the start of his career Barbirolli was a frequent recording artist . As a young cellist he made four records for Edison Bell in 1911 , with piano accompaniment by his sister Rosa , and as part of the Kutcher and the Music Society string quartets he recorded music by Mozart , Purcell , Vaughan Williams and others in 1925 and 1926 . As a conductor he began recording in 1927 for the National Gramophonic Society ( an offshoot of The Gramophone ) . Among his records from that period was the first to be made of Elgar 's Introduction and Allegro for Strings . On hearing it , the composer said , " I 'd never realised it was such a big work . " Elgar , despite an extensive discography as a conductor , never recorded the work himself , and some have speculated that " the breadth , nobility and lyrical poetry " of Barbirolli 's interpretation left the composer disinclined to compete . In 1928 Barbirolli made some recordings for the Edison Bell label . The same year , he began his long association with the His Master 's Voice ( HMV ) label . Immediately after the LSO concert at which he had stood in for Beecham , he was approached by Fred Gaisberg , the chief recording producer for HMV who signed him for his company shortly afterwards . An HMV colleague of Gaisberg described Barbirolli as " a treasure " , because he " could accompany Chaliapin without provoking an uproar , win golden opinions from Jascha Heifetz , Artur Rubinstein , Fritz Kreisler and Pablo Casals , and conduct one of the finest recorded performances of the Quintet from Meistersinger " .
Many of Barbirolli 's pre @-@ war recordings for HMV were of concertos . His reputation as an accompanist tended to obscure his talents as a symphonic conductor , and later , his detractors in New York " damned him with faint praise by exalting his powers as an accompanist and then implying that that was where it all stopped . " Barbirolli became very sensitive on this point , and for many years after the war he was reluctant to accompany anyone in the recording studio . Among his early HMV records are works , mainly concertos , by Brahms , Bruch , Chopin , Dvořák , Glazunov , Mendelssohn , Mozart , Schumann , Sibelius , Tchaikovsky and Vieuxtemps . From the 1990s onwards , archive recordings of Barbirolli 's early concerts in New York have been issued on CD . Kennedy wrote in 2004 that they " prove that the orchestra played superbly for him and that the criticism of him was largely unjustified . " Recordings from this period include symphonies by Beethoven , Mendelssohn , Mozart , Schubert , Schumann , Sibelius and Tchaikovsky , and other orchestral music by Berlioz , Debussy , Menotti , Purcell , Ravel , Respighi , and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov .
= = = 1943 and later = = =
Within six months of his return to Britain in 1943 , Barbirolli resumed his contract with HMV , conducting the Hallé in the Third Symphony of Bax and the Fifth of Vaughan Williams , followed by works by a wide range of composers from Corelli to Stravinsky . In 1955 he signed a contract with Pye Records , with whom he and the Hallé recorded a wide repertoire , and made their first stereophonic recordings . These records were distributed in the US by Vanguard Records . A company was formed , named Pye @-@ Barbirolli , of which he was a director : the arrangement was designed to ensure an equal partnership between the company and the musicians . They made many recordings , including symphonies by Beethoven , Dvořák , Elgar , Mozart , Nielsen , Sibelius , Mahler , Tchaikovsky and Vaughan Williams , as well as a few concertos , short orchestral pieces and operatic excerpts .
In 1962 , HMV persuaded Barbirolli to return . With the Hallé he recorded a Sibelius symphony cycle , Elgar 's Second Symphony , Falstaff and The Dream of Gerontius , Schubert 's Ninth Symphony , Vaughan Williams 's A London Symphony , and works by Grieg and Delius . With other orchestras , Barbirolli recorded a wide range of his repertoire , including many recordings still in the catalogues in 2012 . Of these , his Elgar recordings include the Cello Concerto with Jacqueline du Pré , Sea Pictures with Janet Baker , and orchestral music including the First Symphony , Enigma Variations and many of the shorter works . His Mahler recordings include the Fifth and Sixth Symphonies ( with the New Philharmonia ) and Ninth Symphony ( with the Berlin Philharmonic ) . With the Vienna Philharmonic , he recorded a Brahms symphony cycle , and with Daniel Barenboim , the two Brahms Piano Concertos . He made three operatic sets for HMV : Purcell 's Dido and Aeneas with Victoria de los Ángeles ( 1966 ) , Verdi 's Otello with James McCracken , Gwyneth Jones and Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau ( 1969 ) , and a set of Madama Butterfly with Renata Scotto , Carlo Bergonzi and Rome Opera forces that has remained in the catalogues since its first issue in 1967 . The impact of the last was such that the head of the Rome Opera invited him to come and conduct " any opera you care to name with as much rehearsal as you wish . " HMV planned to record Die Meistersinger with Barbirolli in Dresden in 1970 , but following the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 he refused to conduct in the Soviet bloc , and his place was taken by Herbert von Karajan .
= Article 15 of the Constitution of Singapore =
Article 15 of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore guarantees freedom of religion in Singapore . Specifically , Article 15 ( 1 ) states : " Every person has the right to profess and practise his religion and to propagate it . "
The terms profess , practise and propagate are not defined in the Constitution , but cases from Singapore and other jurisdictions may shed light on their meaning . The word profess in relation to a religion was defined in a 1964 Singapore case not involving the Constitution as meaning " to affirm , or declare one 's faith in or allegiance to " . A 2001 Malaysian decision suggested that the profession of religion does not encompass the renunciation of a religion or the profession of an irreligious viewpoint . As regards the word propagate , in 1977 the Supreme Court of India held that it confers on an individual the right to transmit or spread his or her religion by an exposition of its tenets , but not the right to convert another person who holds a pre @-@ existing religious belief to one 's own religion . These issues have not yet come before the Singapore courts for determination . On the other hand , in 1999 the Court of Appeal attempted to draw a line between religious practices and secular facts , taking the view that singing the National Anthem and saying the National Pledge were the latter . Thus , rules that compelled a teacher to engage in these activities in an educational institution could not be regarded as having infringed his right to practise his religion .
Freedom of religion under Article 15 ( 1 ) is not absolute as it is qualified by Article 15 ( 4 ) of the Constitution , which provides that the rights secured by Article 15 do not authorize any act contrary to any general law relating to public order , public health or morality . These limitations upon the freedom of religion are an important aspect of Singapore 's secularism . The Singapore courts have interpreted the term public order to be equivalent to the concepts of " public peace , welfare and good order " referred to in section 24 ( 1 ) ( a ) of the Societies Act ( Cap . 311 , 1985 Rev. Ed . ) , rather than taking the narrower view that public order means freedom from unlawful physical violence . There has also been academic criticism of the fact that the courts have not applied any form of balancing test to determine whether freedom of religion has been reasonably restricted . On the contrary , where national security is said to be involved , the courts have deferred to the Government as to the necessity for the restrictive legislation . The terms public health and morality in Article 15 ( 4 ) have yet to be judicially interpreted .
= = Text of Article 15 = =
Article 15 of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore is entitled " Freedom of religion " and reads as follows :
15 . — ( 1 ) Every person has the right to profess and practise his religion and to propagate it .
( 2 ) No person shall be compelled to pay any tax the proceeds of which are specially allocated in whole or in part for the purposes of a religion other than his own .
( 3 ) Every religious group has the right —
( a ) to manage its own religious affairs ;
( b ) to establish and maintain institutions for religious or charitable purposes ; and
( c ) to acquire and own property and hold and administer it in accordance with law .
( 4 ) This Article does not authorise any act contrary to any general law relating to public order , public health or morality .
In Nappalli Peter Williams v. Institute of Technical Education ( 1999 ) , the Court of Appeal affirmed that the Constitution generally adopts what is known as accommodative secularism by " removing restrictions to one 's choice of religious belief " .
Article 15 ( 1 ) is in pari materia with Article 11 ( 1 ) of the Constitution of Malaysia , from which it was adopted following Singapore 's independence from Malaysia in 1965 . The latter states : " Every person has the right to profess and practice his religion and , subject to clause ( 4 ) , to propagate it . " Article 15 ( 1 ) also contains similarities to Article 25 ( 1 ) of the Constitution of India : " Subject to public order , morality and health and to the other provisions of this Part , all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess , practise and propagate religion . "
= = Meaning of profess , practise and propagate = =
= = = Profess = = =
The word profess in Article 15 ( 1 ) is not defined in the Constitution , but the case Re Mohamed Said Nabi , deceased ( 1964 ) may provide guidance . The issue in the case was the meaning of the word Muslim in the Muslims Ordinance 1957 which was defined as " a person who professes the religion of Islam " . The High Court held that to come within the definition , one must be shown to be an orthodox Muslim and must have outwardly manifested and practiced Islam ; merely having been born into that religion was insufficient . More specifically , Justice F.A. Chua referred to the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary and noted that the word profess means " to affirm , or declare one 's faith in or allegiance to ( a religion , principle , God or Saint etc . ) " .
However , to determine if one has in fact " professed " a religion , a proper scrutiny of the entire circumstances is necessary . On the facts , the deceased was brought up as a Muslim , married under Muslim rites , and had held Muslim religious ceremonies in his house which he had taken part in . This was strong evidence that he professed the religion of Islam , despite the fact that he had also engaged in the heterodox practices of drinking alcohol and eating pork . The judge held that such practices did not amount to a renunciation of the religion , and added that someone who had been born into the religion must be held to be a member of that religion unless it is proved he has adopted some other religion .
The Malaysian interpretation of the term profess in Article 11 ( 1 ) of the Malaysian Constitution may be relevant as that provision is worded similarly to Article 15 ( 1 ) of the Singapore Constitution . In Daud bin Mamat v. Majlis Agama Islam ( 2001 ) , it was held that the act of exiting one 's religion does not fall under the meaning of professing and practising one 's religion . In the judge 's view , " to accept that professing no religion equated to ' a religion ' or the ' right to profess and practice it ' would stretch the definition in Article 11 too far " . On the other hand , it might be argued that the freedom to renounce one 's religion or to profess not to have a religion is a corollary of the freedom to profess a religion . This issue has not yet come before the Singapore courts for determination .
= = = Practise = = =
The Constitution is also silent on what constitutes practising a religion for the purposes of Article 15 ( 1 ) . The local courts have defined the word practise by indicating what types of acts are not considered religious practices . In Nappalli , the Court of Appeal held that singing of the National Anthem and reciting the National Pledge were not religious practices but rather expressions of national patriotism , which were secular acts . The Canadian case Donald v. The Board of Education for the City of Hamilton ( 1945 ) was distinguished ; in that case , singing the national anthem was held to constitute a religious practice because the anthem contained a prayer hymn which " unquestionably reflected some religious character " .
In Nappalli , the appellant was dismissed from an educational institution for his refusal to participate in the aforementioned acts . Central to his claim was the submission that these acts were religious practices that went against his belief as a Jehovah 's Witness and thus infringed his constitutional right to practice and profess his religion guaranteed by Article 15 . However , the Court held that since " religion " in Singapore under the Constitution is restricted to " a citizen 's faith in a personal God " and does not include " a system of belief in one 's own country " , the acts in question were not religious practices . Hence , the appellant 's rights had not been contravened . The Court took the view that " the appellant 's interpretation of the pledge and anthem ceremony as a religious ceremony was a distortion of secular fact into religious belief " . If the appellant 's interpretation was correct , this would result in Article 15 ( 1 ) losing operative effect , for " [ h ] ow can the same Constitution guarantee religious freedom if , by asking citizens to pledge their allegiance to country , it is ( as the appellant suggests ) coercing participation in a religious ceremony ? This excruciatingly absurd interpretation cannot have been what was envisaged by the authors of the Constitution . "
The courts in Malaysia have taken a similar approach in defining the meaning of religious practice under Article 11 of the Malaysian Constitution . Furthermore , they have also consulted religious texts to determine what type of acts might constitute religious practices . In Halimatussaadiah v. Public Service Commission , Malaysia ( 1992 ) , the appellant claimed she had been wrongfully dismissed from her employment due to her refusal to comply with employment conditions that prohibited any attire that covered a female public servant 's face while on duty . According to the appellant , this contravened her right to religious practice on grounds that the wearing of the purdah was part of her religious practice as a Muslim . However , the court disagreed and held that the purdah was not considered a religious practice as it was not a requirement under Islam since there was no express mention of such a requirement in the Quran .
However , in the Philippines , the courts have accorded the individual autonomy to decide what constitutes religious practice . It is up to the individual to decide what constitutes religious practice so long as such acts do not offend public interest . This was the view proffered in Ebralinag v. Superintendent of Schools of Cebu ( 1993 ) , in which the issue was whether the petitioners , who were Jehovah 's Witnesses , ought to be expelled from schools for refusing to salute the flag , sing the national anthem and recite the oath of allegiance as required by the Republic Act No. 1265 of 11 July 1955 and other legislation . Cruz J. held that the state could not interpret the Bible for the petitioners as " only they can read it as they see fit . Right or wrong , the meaning they derive from it cannot be revised or reversed except perhaps by their own acknowledged superiors . But certainly not the State . It has no competence in this matter . "
= = = Propagate = = =
Singapore courts have not yet interpreted the word propagate in Article 15 ( 1 ) of the Constitution .
Article 25 ( 1 ) of the Indian Constitution , which is in the same terms as in Article 15 ( 1 ) of the Singapore Constitution , guarantees to individuals the right to freely " profess , practise and propagate " their religions . The term propagate was considered by the Supreme Court of India in Stanislaus v. State of Madhya Pradesh ( 1977 ) . The Court adopted a dictionary definition of propagate , which was " to transmit or spread from person to person or from place to place " . Accordingly , it held that the word as used in Article 25 ( 1 ) confers on an individual the right to transmit or spread one 's religion by an exposition of its tenets . In other words , an individual has the right to spread his or her religion by explaining to others the principles and beliefs underlying that particular religion . However , in the Court 's opinion Article 25 ( 1 ) does not confer the right to convert another person who holds a pre @-@ existing religious belief to one 's own religion as this would impinge on the " freedom of conscience " provided for in the Article , which accords each individual with the freedom to hold or consider a thought , fact or viewpoint independent from those of others . In short , the constitutional right to propagate one 's own religion is protected insofar as an individual who exercises this right respects the freedom of persons following other religions . The Indian jurist Hormasji Maneckji Seervai has criticized Stanislaus and has said it should be overruled . He argued that when a person propagates his religion to another , that act does not violate the other person 's free conscience but allows that person an opportunity to freely choose a religion :
The right to propagate religion gives a meaning to freedom of choice , for choice involves not only knowledge but an act of will . A person cannot choose if he does not know what choices are open to him . To propagate religion is not to impart knowledge and to spread it more widely , but to produce intellectual and moral conviction leading to action , namely , the adoption of that religion . Successful propagation of religion would result in conversion .
= = Restrictions on the freedom of religion = =
Under Article 15 ( 4 ) of the Constitution , a person 's freedom of religion can be restricted by a general law relating to public order , public health or morality . The term general law is not defined in the Constitution , but may refer to a law that applies to all persons or places belonging to a particular class .
The restrictions on freedom of religion are an important reflection of Singapore 's secularism . Although the Constitution does not express the doctrine of secularism explicitly , the report of the 1966 Constitutional Commission described Singapore as a " democratic secular state " . Singapore 's secularism is similar to France 's secularism in that both models seek to " protect the state from religion " . However , unlike in Singapore , the principle of secularism in France is constitutionally expressed . In being secular , the Government of Singapore does not reject religion . Instead , it has been said to practise " accommodative secularism " .
The Government 's adherence to secularism has been criticized in that the unwritten principle of secularism has trumped the constitutional protection of freedom of religion . For instance , in 2002 a controversy arose upon the suspension of four Muslim girls from school when their parents insisted that they wear the tudung ( Islamic headscarf ) to national schools . Section 61 of the Education Act empowers the Minister for Education to regulate schools , including prohibiting students from wearing anything not forming part of an official school uniform . The parents of the schoolgirls took the view that the Ministry of Education 's school uniform policy was unconstitutional as it violated the girls ' freedom of religion under Article 15 ( 1 ) . While the parents eventually did not pursue legal proceedings against the Ministry , the controversy showed the Singapore Government 's steadfastness in insisting on secularism and the difficulties in reconciling secularism and freedom of religion in Singapore .
= = = Meaning of public order , public health and morality = = =
= = = = Public order = = = =
The term public order is not defined in the Constitution but has been judicially deliberated in a series of important legal cases involving the Singapore Congregation of Jehovah 's Witnesses .
In Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Public Prosecutor ( 1994 ) , the Minister of Home Affairs had deregistered the Jehovah 's Witnesses by Order No. 179 / 1972 made pursuant to section 24 ( 1 ) ( a ) of the Societies Act . This provision allows for the dissolution of registered organizations considered to be threats to public peace , welfare or good order . The Minister had also made Order No. 123 / 1972 and Order No. 405 / 1994 pursuant to section 3 ( 1 ) of the Undesirable Publications Act , prohibiting publications by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society relating to the Jehovah 's Witnesses . The appellants were convicted in a district court for possession of prohibited publications . They appealed and sought to challenge the constitutionality of the Minister 's prohibition order and the deregistration of the Jehovah 's Witnesses , arguing that their right to freedom of religion guaranteed by Article 15 ( 1 ) of the Constitution had been infringed .
Counsel for the appellants submitted that the Jehovah 's Witnesses in Singapore were a small , non @-@ violent group and that there was no evidence their activities were against public order in any manner . He relied on the Malaysian case Tan Boon Liat v. Menteri Hal Ehwal Dalam Negeri , Malaysia ( 1976 ) , which considered the meaning of public order in the context of section 4 ( 1 ) of the Emergency ( Public Order and Prevention of Crime ) Ordinance 1969 ( Malaysia ) :
The expression ' public order ' is not defined anywhere but danger to human life and safety and the disturbance of public tranquillity must necessarily fall within the purview of the expression ... [ T ] he test to be adopted in determining whether an act affects law and order or public order is this : Does it lead to disturbance of the current of life of the community so as to amount to disturbance of the public order or does it affect merely an individual leaving the tranquillity of the society undisturbed ?
Chief Justice Yong Pung How rejected this conception of public order . He noted that Singapore had a policy of compulsory military service known as National Service , and that the Minister had taken the view that the continued existence of the Singapore Congregation of Jehovah 's Witnesses , which held the belief that military service was forbidden , was contrary to public peace , welfare and good order . As such , since the Minister had formed the view that the Jehovah 's Witnesses were a threat to national security , it was not open to the court to take a different view on the matter . Yong C.J. said in his judgment : " I could not see how the concept of public order as envisaged under Art 15 ( 4 ) is dissimilar to the notion of public peace , welfare and good order within s 24 ( 1 ) ( a ) of the Societies Act . " He emphasized that the right to religious freedom was not an absolute right as it was subject to the inherent limitations set out in Article 15 ( 4 ) . The right of freedom of religion had to be reconciled with the " right of the state to employ the sovereign power to ensure peace , security and orderly living , without which the constitutional guarantee of civil liberty would be a mockery " . Accordingly , the appeal was dismissed .
In 1995 , the Minister for Information and the Arts made Order No. 405 / 1995 banning materials published by the International Bible Students Association , an organization associated with the Jehovah 's Witnesses . In Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Minister for Information and the Arts ( 1995 ) , the plaintiffs sought leave to apply for an order of certiorari to quash the order , alleging that it was ultra vires as it contravened , among other things , Article 15 ( 1 ) of the Constitution . Presiding over the case in the High Court , Justice Judith Prakash referred to Yong C.J. ' s holding in Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. P.P. ( 1994 ) concerning the meaning of public order .
In a 1995 commentary on Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. P.P. ( 1994 ) , Professor Thio Li @-@ ann noted that in other jurisdictions a lack of public order includes the notion of " endangerment to human life and safety as well as the disruption of public tranquillity " , and argued that " [ t ] o establish that public order is threatened , it appears that some degree of violence or unlawful physical violence must be shown " . Using this as a point of reference , she criticized Yong C.J. ' s equation of public order with " public peace , welfare or good order " .
= = = = Public health and morality = = = =
The Singapore courts have not yet interpreted the meaning of the terms public health and morality in Article 15 ( 4 ) .
The UK case of R. ( Ghai ) v. Newcastle City Council ( 2009 ) is therefore interesting for purposes of comparison . The claimant , an orthodox Hindu , applied to his local authority for land to be dedicated for traditional open air funeral pyres . The local authority refused the request , relying on subsidiary legislation that made it an offence to burn human remains other than in a crematorium . The claimant then applied for judicial review , submitting that the decision infringed his right to manifest his religion or belief which was protected by Article 9 ( 1 ) of the European Convention on Human Rights . The High Court found that the statutory interference with the claimant 's right was justified as it was necessary for the protection of public morals and of the rights and freedoms of others . The Court of Appeal reversed the judgment on grounds unrelated to Article 9 , holding that open air pyres were permissible on a proper construction of the legislation .
= = = Test for determining if restriction of right is appropriate = = =
= = = = Singapore = = = =
In Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. P.P. ( 1994 ) , counsel for the appellants argued that there had to be a " clear and immediate danger " to public order before the right of freedom of religion could be restricted , and in this case the restriction was unjustified since there had been no such threat at all . However , Yong C.J. said that attempt to apply the " clear and immediate danger " test was misplaced :
It cannot be said that beliefs , especially those propagated in the name of " religion " , should not be put to a stop until such a scenario exists . If not , it would in all probability be too late as the damage sought to be prevented would have transpired .
However , Yong C.J. did not articulate any alternative test for determining if a restriction upon freedom of religion is appropriate . Quoting Malaysian Chief Justice Hashim Yeop Sani 's judgment in the case Minister for Home Affairs , Malaysia v. Jamaluddin bin Othman ( 1989 ) , he agreed that " [ t ] he freedom to profess and practise one 's religion should not be turned into a licence to commit unlawful acts or acts tending to prejudice or threaten the security of the country " . Yong C.J. considered that since " the sovereignty , integrity and unity of Singapore are undoubtedly the paramount mandate of the Constitution " , religious beliefs and practices which tended to run counter to these objectives had to be restrained .
In the appeal against Prakash J. ' s judgment to the Court of Appeal , also called Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Minister for Information and the Arts ( 1996 ) , counsel for the appellants argued that the restriction placed by the Minister on the importation , sale and distribution of the Jehovah 's Witnesses publications was too wide and disproportionate . Applying an approach similar to that taken in Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. P.P. ( 1994 ) , the Court of Appeal noted that the appellants were essentially seeking to challenge the view taken by the Minister that Jehovah 's Witnesses ' refusal to carry out National Service was a threat to national security . The Court regarded this as a non @-@ justiciable issue and declined to allow the appellants to bring an application for judicial review of Order No. 405 / 1995 .
Professor Thio Li @-@ ann has argued that since Article 15 ( 1 ) is the general statement of principle that guarantees freedom of religion while Article 15 ( 4 ) is an exception to the general principle , Yong C.J. ' s assertion that " actions undertaken or flowing from [ religious ] beliefs must conform with the general law relating to public order and social protection " is incorrect . In making a case against judicial deference and for judicial balancing of interests , she says :
It is the judicial role to devise constitutional tests like a [ n ] Object of Act – Art 15 ( 4 ) nexus test or to ensure that a sufficient relationship exists between the means and end of the Act , with the end conforming to an Art 15 ( 4 ) ground . Any other interpretation runs the risk of the exception swallowing up the general , which would make a mockery of any constitutional liberty .
In Thio 's view , courts should adopt a three @-@ step proportionality approach when interpreting constitutional fundamental liberties . A judge should first " identify the interests behind two competing rights eg the value of religious liberty as a source of private and public virtue as well as being an aspect of free conscience as against the value of having public order and a stable environment . Secondly , these factors are all to be placed on the Libra @-@ like balancing scales of justice so that their merits and demerits can be assessed against each other . ... Thirdly , all things considered , the Judge is to deliver his judgment as to where the balance should lie . " In the light of this approach , Yong C.J. ' s acceptance of the Minister 's view " as conclusive , refusing to question it on the basis of not wanting to transgress the legal / merits dichotomy " resulted in a failure to balance the interest of the appellants against that of the State .
= = = = Other jurisdictions = = = =
The situation in Singapore may be contrasted with the application of a proportionality analysis in other jurisdictions vis @-@ à @-@ vis the constitutional protection of freedom of religion . Section 2 ( a ) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states that the freedom of conscience and religion is a fundamental freedom enjoyed by everybody . It is subject to section 1 : " The rights and freedoms set out in the Canadian Charter are subject only to such reasonable limits prescribed by law as can be demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society . "
In the important decision R. v. Oakes ( 1986 ) , the Supreme Court of Canada held that a two @-@ part test must be satisfied before a limitation infringing a right can be " saved " by section 1 . First , the limitation must have " an objective related to concerns which are pressing and substantial in a free and democratic society " ; and , second , it must be shown " that the means chosen are reasonable and demonstrably justified " . The second part is described as a " proportionality test " which requires the invoking party to show :
First , the measures adopted must be carefully designed to achieve the objective in question . They must not be arbitrary , unfair or based on irrational considerations . In short , they must be rationally connected to the objective . Second , the means , even if rationally connected to the objective in this first sense , should impair " as little as possible " the right or freedom in question . Third , there must be a proportionality between the effects of the measures which are responsible for limiting the Charter right or freedom , and the objective which has been identified as of " sufficient importance " .
In Multani v. Marguerite @-@ Bourgeoys ( Commission scolaire ) ( 2006 ) , the issue was whether a ban in a public school on Sikh students carrying kirpans ( ceremonial daggers ) for religious purposes was justifiable . Justice Louise Charron , who delivered the Court 's majority opinion , applied the Oakes test to section 2 ( a ) of the Charter . She held that the school could not discharge its burden of proving that prohibiting the kirpan was a reasonable limit on the student 's constitutional freedom of religion .
The UK Human Rights Act 1998 makes Article 9 ( 1 ) of the European Convention on Human Rights , which protects freedom of religion , enforceable in UK domestic law . Article 9 ( 2 ) states when the freedom of religion may be restricted : " Freedom to manifest one 's religion or beliefs shall be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of public safety , for the protection of public order , health or morals , or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others . " R. ( Begum ) v. Headteacher and Governors of Denbigh High School ( 2006 ) was a House of Lords case involving a female Muslim student who wished to wear a jilbab ( a long , coat @-@ like garment ) to comply with her understanding of the requirements of her faith , but was disallowed from doing so . Lord Bingham of Cornhill said that under Article 9 ( 2 ) , for a restriction to be justified it must be " prescribed by law and necessary in a democratic society for a permissible purpose , that is , it must be directed to a legitimate purpose and must be proportionate in scope and effect " . In the end , a majority of the Law Lords hearing the appeal ( including Lord Bingham ) held that the appellant 's rights had not been interfered with . However , the court held unanimously that even if they had been , there were justifiable grounds for such interference , one of which was the need to protect the rights of other female students at the school who would not wish to be pressured into adopting a more extreme form of Muslim dress .
In Prince v. President of the Law Society of the Cape of Good Hope ( 2002 ) , the appellant challenged , among other things , the constitutionality of the South African Drugs and Drug Trafficking Act 1992 before the Constitutional Court of South Africa . He claimed that his religion – the Rastafari movement – required him to use cannabis and argued that the Act , which prohibited the possession of this drug , infringed his right to freedom of religion protected by section 15 of Chapter 2 of the Constitution of South Africa . Similar to section 1 of the Canadian Charter , section 36 ( 1 ) of the South African Constitution provides :
The rights in the Bill of Rights may be limited only in terms of law of general application to the extent that the limitation is reasonable and justifiable in an open and democratic society based on human dignity , equality and freedom , taking into account all relevant factors , including
the nature of the right ;
the importance of the purpose of the limitation ;
and extent of the limitation ;
the relation between the limitation and its purpose ; and
less restrictive means to achieve the purpose .
Justice Sandile Ngcobo , writing for the minority , said that " [ t ] he limitation analysis ... involves the weighing up of competing values and ultimately an assessment based on proportionality " , and that in weighing competing interests and evaluating proportionality it was " necessary to examine the relation between the complete ban on the sacramental use or possession of cannabis by the Rastafari and the purpose of the limitation as well as the existence of the less restrictive means to achieve this purpose " . Ultimately , though , a majority of the Court held that although the appellant 's freedom of religion had been infringed , the infringement was justifiable in that the restriction was proportionate to the " war on drugs " policy of the State – a general exemption for religious purposes would be virtually impossible to police and would interfere materially with the government 's ability to enforce its drug control legislation , and other proposed control schemes would be administratively unworkable .
A key distinction between the bills of rights of the Commonwealth jurisdictions referred to above and the Singapore Constitution is that in the latter document , the grounds set out in Article 15 ( 4 ) for restricting freedom of religion are not expressly subject to any requirement of reasonableness or necessity in a democratic society . One may query whether this is sufficient justification for a Singapore court to decline to apply a proportionality analysis to Article 15 ( 4 ) .
= = = Burden of proof = = =
An applicant has the burden of proving that a legislative restriction on the freedom of speech has nothing to do with public order , public health or morality . There must be some substance in the applicant 's complaint – the Government does not have an immediate duty to justify making a decision that restricts the applicant 's right to freedom of speech simply because the applicant complains of an alleged infringement of Article 15 ( 1 ) .
= = = Instances of restrictions = = =
= = = = Right of propagation = = = =
Propagation of religion is not protected when it amounts to an act contrary to any general law relating to public order , public health , or morality under Article 15 ( 4 ) of the Constitution . In Public Prosecutor v. Koh Song Huat Benjamin ( 2005 ) , a District Court held that the right to propagate an opinion is not an unfettered right :
The right of one person 's freedom of expression must always be balanced by the right of another 's freedom from offence , and tempered by wider public interest considerations . It is only appropriate social behaviour , independent of any legal duty , of every Singapore citizen and resident to respect the other races in view of our multi @-@ racial society . Each individual living here irrespective of his racial origin owes it to himself and to the country to see that nothing is said or done which might incite the people and plunge the country into racial strife and violence . These are basic ground rules .
In Public Prosecutor v. Ong Kian Cheong ( 2009 ) , the District Court said that the above statement , which referred to opinions on race , applied with equal force to insensitive and denigrating opinions about religious beliefs . The case involved two accused persons who were convicted under the Sedition Act and the Undesirable Publications Act for distributing religious literature that was considered seditious and objectionable to Muslims . Section 3 ( 1 ) ( e ) of the Sedition Act defines a seditious tendency as including a tendency to " promote feelings of ill @-@ will and hostility between different races or classes of the population of Singapore " . In the course of spreading their own faith , the accused persons had offended public order by distributing religious materials that were objectionable to Muslims , and the Court regarded this to be beyond the bounds of the constitutional right to propagate religion . The Court was of the view that although a person is free to choose his or her own religion and to practise it , religious fervour to spread faith must be constrained by considerations of sensitivity , tolerance and mutual respect for the faith and religious beliefs of another . Individuals cannot claim to be ignorant of the sensitivity of race and religion in Singapore 's multi @-@ racial and multi @-@ religious society .
Larissis v. Greece ( 1999 ) points to other grounds on which the right to propagate one 's religion might reasonably be restricted in Singapore . In that case , the European Court of Human Rights accepted that the right to try to persuade another of one 's own religious beliefs is included in the " right to manifest [ one 's ] religion or belief " provided for by Article 9 ( 1 ) of the European Convention on Human Rights . However , this right is not void of limitations . Article 9 ( 2 ) of the Convention prescribes limitations to the freedom to manifest one 's religion " in the interests of public safety , for the protection of public order , health or morals , or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others " . The Court clarified that Article 9 ( 1 ) does not protect improper proselytism , such as when one offers material or social advantages to entice another to adopt certain religious beliefs , or when one applies improper pressure with a view to gaining new members for a religious group . On the facts of the case , the Court found that Article 9 had not been infringed by the prosecution of three air force officers for proselytizing to their subordinates , since the hierarchical nature of military life meant it was difficult for a subordinate to rebuff the approaches of persons of superior rank . Thus , a conversation which might be regarded as a harmless exchange of ideas in a civilian context could be seen in a military setting as harassment or the imposition of undue pressure in abuse of power .
= = Other constitutional provisions = =
In addition to Article 15 , there are other provisions in the Constitution that protect religious freedom . Article 12 ( 2 ) prohibits discrimination against Singapore citizens on the ground of , among others , religion in any law ; in the appointment to any office or employment under a public authority ; or in the administration of any law relating to the acquisition , holding or disposition of property , or the establishing or carrying on of any trade , business , profession , vocation or employment .
Related to this is Article 16 , subsection ( 1 ) of which prohibits discrimination against citizens of Singapore on the ground only of , among others , religion in the administration of public educational institutions ( and , in particular , as regards the admission of students or the payment of fees ) , and in providing financial aid from public funds for the maintenance or education of students in any educational institution . The Constitution declares that religious groups have the right to establish and maintain institutions for the education of children and to provide them religious instruction in those institutions , but provides that people cannot be discriminated against on the ground only of religion in laws relating to such institutions or the administration of such laws . Furthermore , no person may be compelled to receive instruction in or take part in any ceremony or act of worship of a religion apart from his or her own .
The Government has a constitutional responsibility " constantly to care for the interests of the racial and religious minorities in Singapore " . In particular , the Government must exercise its functions in such a way as to recognize the special position of the Malays , the indigenous people of Singapore . Accordingly , it has the responsibility to " protect , safeguard , support , foster and promote their political , educational , religious , economic , social and cultural interests and the Malay language . " The Constitution also requires the Legislature to enact legislation to regulate Muslim religious affairs and to establish a council to advise the President concerning matters relating to Islam . The legislation in question is the Administration of Muslim Law Act .
= = = Cases = = =
Re Mohamed Said Nabi , deceased [ 1965 ] M.L.J. [ Malayan Law Journal ] 121 , High Court ( Singapore ) .
Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Public Prosecutor [ 1994 ] ICHRL 26 , [ 1994 ] SGHC 207 , [ 1994 ] 3 S.L.R. ( R. ) [ Singapore Law Reports ( Reissue ) ] 209 , archived from the original on 26 October 2012 , High Court ( Singapore ) .
Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Minister for Information and the Arts [ 1995 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) 627 , H.C. ( Singapore ) .
Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Minister for Information and the Arts [ 1996 ] 1 S.L.R. ( R. ) 294 , Court of Appeal ( Singapore ) .
Nappalli Peter Williams v. Institute of Technical Education [ 1999 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) 529 , C.A. ( Singapore ) .
Prince v. President of the Law Society of the Cape of Good Hope [ 2002 ] ZACC 1 , 2002 ( 2 ) S.A. 794 , Constitutional Court ( South Africa ) .
Public Prosecutor v. Ong Kian Cheong [ 2009 ] SGDC 163 , District Court ( Singapore ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( 1999 Reprint ) .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 1995 ) , " The Secular Trumps the Sacred : Constitutional Issues Arising from Colin Chan v Public Prosecutor " , Singapore Law Review 16 : 26 – 103 , archived from the original on 21 October 2012 .
= = = Articles = = =
Jayasuriya , Kanishka ( 2001 ) , " The Exception Becomes the Norm : Law and Regimes of Exception in East Asia " , Asia @-@ Pacific Law and Policy Journal 2 ( 1 ) : 108 – 124 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 11 November 2010 .
Tan , Eugene K [ heng ] B [ oon ] ( 2009 ) , " From Clampdown to Limited Empowerment : Hard and Soft Law in the Calibration and Regulation of Religious Conduct in Singapore " , Law and Policy 31 ( 3 ) : 351 – 379 , doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1467 @-@ 9930.2009.00294.x , SSRN 1418729 .
Tan , Eugene K [ heng ] B [ oon ] ( 2007 ) , " Norming ' Moderation ' in an ' Iconic Target ' : Public Policy and the Regulation of Religious Anxieties in Singapore " , Terrorism and Political Violence 19 ( 4 ) : 443 – 462 , doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 09546550701590610 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( December 2009 ) , " Between Eden and Armageddon : Navigating ' Religion ' and ' Politics ' in Singapore " , Singapore Journal of Legal Studies : 365 – 405 , SSRN 1543624 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2004 ) , " Constitutional ' Soft ' Law and the Management of Religious Liberty and Order : The 2003 Declaration on Religious Harmony " , Singapore Journal of Legal Studies : 414 – 443 , SSRN 953599 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2006 ) , " Control , Co @-@ optation and Co @-@ operation : Managing Religious Harmony in Singapore 's Multi @-@ Ethnic , Quasi @-@ Secular State " , Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly 33 ( 2 & 3 ) : 197 – 253 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 30 October 2011 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2009 ) , " The Cooperation of Religion and State in Singapore : A Compassionate Partnership in Service of Welfare " , Review of Faith and International Affairs 7 ( 3 ) : 33 – 45 , doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 15570274 @.@ 2009 @.@ 9523404 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2009 ) , " Courting Religion : The Judge between Caesar and God in Asian Courts " , Singapore Journal of Legal Studies : 52 – 79 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 11 November 2010 .
= = = Books = = =
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ( 2011 ) , " Fundamental Liberties III : Freedom of Expression • Association • Assembly • Religion " , An Introduction to Singapore 's Constitution ( rev. ed . ) , Singapore : Talisman Publishing , pp. 186 – 203 at 197 – 203 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 08 @-@ 6456 @-@ 9 .
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ; Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2010 ) , " Freedom of Religion " , Constitutional Law in Malaysia and Singapore ( 3rd ed . ) , Singapore : LexisNexis , pp. 1197 – 1344 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 236 @-@ 795 @-@ 2 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2012 ) , " Freedom of Religion " , A Treatise on Singapore Constitutional Law , Singapore : Academy Publishing , pp. 869 – 923 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 07 @-@ 1515 @-@ 1 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2008 ) , " Religion in the Public Sphere of Singapore : Wall of Division or Public Square ? " , in Turner , Bryan S. , ed . , Religious Pluralism and Civil Society : A Comparative Analysis , Oxford : Bardwell Press , pp. 73 – 104 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 905622 @-@ 11 @-@ 5 .
= ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World =
" ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " is a song by Super Furry Animals and was the second single taken from the band 's fifth album , Rings Around the World . The track reached number 28 on the UK Singles Chart on release in October 2001 . Singer Gruff Rhys has described the song as being about " rings of communication around the world . All the rings of pollution " .
Critical reaction to the track was generally positive with many reviewers comparing the song to the work of other groups such as Status Quo , ELO and The Beach Boys . A promotional music video was produced to accompany " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " ' s release as a single . Directed by Pedro Romhanyi the video features images of fictional television stations including " SFA TV " , which shows the band playing along with the track . An alternative video , directed by Sean Hillen , was included on the DVD version of Rings Around the World on its release in July 2001 . This video features the lyrics to the track scrolling slowly from the bottom of the screen upwards in front of an image of a globe . The DVD version of Rings Around the World also includes a Llwybr Llaethog remix of " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " .
= = Themes and recording = =
According to lead vocalist Gruff Rhys , " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " is about " all the rings of communication around the world . All the rings of pollution , and all the radioactivity that goes around . If you could visualize all the things we don 't see , Earth could look like some kind of fucked @-@ up Saturn . And that 's the idea I have in my head – surrounded by communication lines and traffic and debris thrown out of spaceships . " Rhys has claimed that the theory was initially his girlfriend 's father 's . The track was recorded in 2000 at Monnow Valley Studio , Rockfield , Monmouthshire and was produced by the Super Furry Animals and Chris Shaw .
= = Musical structure = =
" ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " is 3 minutes 29 seconds long and is in the key of B major . The track begins with feedback which plays while drums and a guitar , playing a riff based around a B chord , fade in . The first verse begins on 25 seconds with Gruff Rhys singing the lines " You expose the film in me , we 're drawing rings around the world " backed by harmony vocals on the title phrase . A short bridge plays , during which the guitar chords change from B , E and F ♯ to just E , F ♯ , E , F ♯ . Another verse , bridge and verse play before the last bridge which begins at 1 minute 23 seconds . The outro starts at 1 minute 32 seconds with Rhys singing " Ring ring , ring ring , rings around the world " over the chords B , D and F ♯ backed by harmony vocals . A guitar counter @-@ melody begins at 2 minutes 2 seconds and excerpts from phone calls the band made to random people around the world , including calls to the United States embassies in Madagascar and Moscow , a record shop in Osaka and a record company in Australia , play as the track fades out .
= = = Alternative version = = =
A Llwybr Llaethog remix of " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " is included on the DVD version of Rings Around The World . The track is 3 minutes 33 seconds in length and begins with a reed organ playing a riff in the key of B major . The remix largely follows the arrangement of the original but , for the majority of its duration , dispenses with the instrumental backing , featuring just Gruff Rhys 's main vocals , the band 's backing vocals and excerpts from the random phonecalls the group made alongside occasional organ and cymbals . Towards the end of the track the original version 's guitar , drums and bass appear briefly before the song ends with the same reed organ riff that appeared at the start .
= = Critical response = =
Critical reaction to " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " was generally positive with many journalists comparing the song to the work of other groups . Writing for the NME , Ted Kessler described the track as " Status Quo for Generation X @-@ ers with a Manhattan Portage full of millennial tension " and went on to ask " who said there was anything wrong with that ? " in his review of the song on its release as a single , despite his earlier review of Rings Around the World claiming that the album would benefit from the removal of the " Status Quo @-@ ish title track " . Q described the track as " excellent " while PopMatters claimed the song " sounds so much like ELO that it blows away everything on last year 's ELO reunion album " and the Dallas Observer stated that " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " is a " Beach Boys / Beatles / ELO homage as fine as the ' 70s heyday of Roy Wood 's Wizzard or very early Cheap Trick " .Pitchfork Media stated that the song " takes the upbeat Britpop of their debut album and layers on spectral details " while Uncut described the track as " tooled up rock ' n ' roll modelled on " Surfin ' USA " . The Guardian claimed the song 's lyrics tackle environmental issues with a " sharp wit " while Drowned in Sound saw them as evidence that chief songwriter Gruff Rhys was " taking his lyrics a little bit more seriously " . The song was placed at number 21 in the 2001 Festive Fifty on John Peel 's BBC Radio 1 show . " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " appeared on the soundtrack to the 2001 film Me Without You .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music videos = =
= = = Sean Hillen video = = =
A Sean Hillen @-@ directed music video was included on the DVD version of Rings Around the World released July 2001 . The video starts with a static shot of the 1994 collage The Great Pyramids of Carlingford Lough , Irelantis by Hillen , which shows a man in a red jumper sat in a wooded area overlooking a river and three pyramids ( this image was used for the front cover of all three formats of the single ) . The camera moves up to reveal a rotating globe in a stary sky . As " ( Drawing ) Rings Around the World " begins to play , the text " In the beginning ... No ! Long before that ... " scrolls slowly from the bottom of the screen upwards . The song 's lyrics are displayed in the same manner throughout the remainder of the video as several objects circle the globe including a flying saucer , metal cube and fireworks . Occasionally the camera switches to a close up view of the globe showing models of huge missile firing electricity pylons . As the song comes to an end the text " Every building has been built " appears in the middle of the screen and the camera pans down to show a black @-@ and @-
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was made possible by building the dam entirely out of concrete .
= = Construction = =
Based on the plans prepared for the concrete arch dam and the two power stations , construction was started in May 1912 . Construction of the lower power house on the shore at the confluence of Salmon Creek with Gastineau Channel was initiated first ; a transmission line was erected from here to the mines in March 1913 and the construction of the dam was started in April 1913 . Construction facilities for the dam were established upstream where aggregates ( fine and coarse ) were produced by crushing rocks at the crushing plant . The aggregates were mixed in designed proportions with cement and with a small admixture of lime to manufacture concrete for placing on the dam . The first batch of concrete was placed on the dam on July 14 , 1913 . The dam was completed , over a 13 months period , on August 13 , 1914 . A concrete quantity of 54 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 41 @,@ 000 m3 ) was placed on the dam . Concrete was placed at the rate of 400 cubic yards ( 310 m3 ) per day .
Between 1912 and 1914 , two power stations were built to utilize the water stored in the reservoir created by the dam . The first power station , the upper powerhouse titled ‘ Powerhouse 2 ’ , was located 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) below the dam and had an installation of two units of 1 @.@ 5 MW capacity each operating under a hydraulic head of 600 feet ( 180 m ) . The tail waters from this power station was conveyed through a 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) long power channel to the second power station titled ‘ Powerhouse 1 ’ located on the shore of the Gastineau Channel . The power house at this location also had two units of 1 @.@ 5 MW capacity each operating under a head of 500 feet ( 150 m ) . Thus , the total generation from the two power stations was 6 @,@ 000 kW ( 8 @,@ 000 hp ) . In 1916 , the average load on the two power stations was 5 @,@ 187 horsepower ( 3 @,@ 868 kW ) . Near Powerhouse 1 on the shore , office buildings , machine shops , saw mills , canteen and housing facilities for staff were also built .
= = Rehabilitation = =
Since its completion , the dam and its two power stations have gone through many rehabilitation measures . Power House 2 was damaged in a fire in 1923 . It was rehabilitated in 1935 . It was finally abandoned in 1998 .
With aging , the dam also needed to be rehabilitated and work was carried out in 1967 . Deteriorated concrete was removed , the dam body was regrouted and the upstream face of the dam was provided with a layer of high strength concrete in the top 45 feet ( 14 m ) .
The lower power house also underwent major rehabilitation measures . It was shut down in December 1974 due to the high cost of operation and maintenance . In 1984 a new power plant was built adjoining the old powerhouse , with installation of 6 @.@ 7 MW capacity .
= = Benefits = =
Even though the project was initially built for hydroelectric power generation to meet the mining requirements , it has over the years evolved into a multipurpose reservoir with benefits of power generation , drinking water and fisheries .
= = = Hydroelectricity = = =
The rehabilitated dam and the new power house facility at the lower house site are now fully functional . The generating capacity of the power station is 29 @.@ 5 GWh annually , which accounts for nearly 10 % of Juneau 's power demand . Alaska Electric Light and Power operates and maintains the system .
= = = Drinking water supply = = =
Salmon Creek reservoir is a secondary source of drinking water which is provided in conjunction with Alaska Electric Light and Power Company ( AEL & P ) . Water is drawn from near the Salmon Creek power generation plant , which is located near sea level . Tail waters from the power station are then pumped to a water treatment plant for chlorination , and pH and alkalinity adjustment with soda ash before the water is supplied to the distribution system . This system was commissioned by the City Borough of Juneau ( CBJ ) in 1984 , after the lower Salmon Creek Powerhouse was re @-@ commissioned with new generating units . The reservoir is also used as chlorine contact tanks , where chlorine is added for purification and given time to react with any pathogens , before it is supplied to the city . However , this source is subject to seasonal high turbidity and also interruptions due to the annual maintenance of the generator units . This system is able to supply 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 3 @,@ 800 m3 ) of water , which covers about one third area of Juneau . The water resources are generally pollution @-@ free and quality is monitored and tested every month to check for drinking @-@ water standards set by the EPA and Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation ( ADEC ) .
= = = Fisheries = = =
In 1880 , the Salmon Creek was named by Richard Harris and Joe Juneau ( during their first visit to the area for gold prospecting ) . The local people called it Tilhini meaning " dog salmon " a native name used by Tingit Alaskan Indian ; this name is also shown in some early topographic maps . In 1917 , fish propagation was established in Salmon Creek Reservoir by introducing 50 @,@ 000 fry lings ( small and young recently hatched fish ) in the reservoir with assistance from Alaska Fish and Game Club , which maintained a hatchery at Juneau . This helped in propagating fish reserves of Salmon in the reservoir . It is reported that by the time the lake was opened for fishing , the fish measured 6 inches ( 150 mm ) and could be caught with a fly of 6 – 8 inches ( 150 – 200 mm ) . Salmon Creek Reservoir is now open for bait fishing all the year round . Salmon fish varieties are many . Some fish species identified are : Dolly Varden , Brook Trout , Freshwater Trout , Salmon family , Chum Salmon and Coho Salmon .
= Telengard =
Telengard is a 1982 role @-@ playing dungeon crawler video game developed by Daniel Lawrence and published by Avalon Hill . The player explores a dungeon , fights monsters with magic , and avoids traps in real time without any set mission other than surviving . Lawrence first wrote the game as DND , a 1976 version of Dungeons & Dragons for the DECsystem @-@ 10 mainframe computer . He continued to develop DND at Purdue University as a hobby , rewrote the game for the Commodore PET 2001 after 1978 , and ported it to Apple II + , TRS @-@ 80 , and Atari 800 platforms before Avalon Hill found the game at a convention and licensed it for distribution . Its Commodore 64 release was the most popular . Reviewers noted Telengard 's similarity to Dungeons and Dragons . RPG historian Shannon Appelcline noted the game as one of the first professionally produced computer role @-@ playing games , and Gamasutra 's Barton considered Telengard consequential in what he deemed " The Silver Age " of computer role @-@ playing games preceding the golden age of the late 1980s . Some of the game 's dungeon features , such as altars , fountains , teleportation cubes , and thrones , were adopted by later games such as Tunnels of Doom .
= = Gameplay = =
In Telengard , the player travels alone through a dungeon fraught with monsters , traps , and treasures in a manner similar to the original Dungeons & Dragons . The game has 50 levels with two million rooms , 20 monster types , and 36 spells . It has no missions or quests , and its only goal is to survive and improve the player character . The game is set in real time and cannot be paused , so the player must visit an " inn " to save their game progress . In the early releases ( e.g. , Apple II ) , the game world has no sound and is represented by ASCII characters , such as slashes for stairs and dollar signs for treasure . Unless the player enters a special cheat , they cannot resume progress upon dying .
The single @-@ player adventure begins by personalizing a player character . Each character has randomly generated values for their statistical character attributes : charisma , constitution , dexterity , intelligence , strength , and wisdom . While the algorithm stays the same , the player can randomize repeatedly for new character attribute distributions until satisfied . The player begins with a sword , armor , shield , and no money , and can only see his immediate surroundings , rather than the whole level . Monsters spawn randomly , and players have three options in battle : fight , use magic , or evade . Magic includes combative missiles , fireballs , lightning bolts , and turning the undead , as well as health regeneration and trap navigation . The effects of the game 's most complex spells are not outlined in the instruction manual and must be learned by trial and error . Like the game , the battle events are carried out in real time instead of in turns . Enemies increase in difficulty as the player progresses through the dungeon . They include both living and undead monsters such as elves , dragons , mummies , and wraiths . Defeating enemies awards experience points , which accrete to raise the player 's experience level and increase player stats . The player is rewarded with treasures that include magical weapons , armor items , and potions . Players can code their own features into the game .
= = Development = =
While a computer science student at Purdue University , Daniel Lawrence wrote several hobbyist computer games for the university 's PDP @-@ 11 RSTS / E mainframe computer , and one grew into Telengard . In his 1976 and 1977 college summers at home , he worked at BOCES in Spencerport , New York , where he wrote a dungeon crawl game called DND ( not to be confused with dnd ) in the BASIC programming language for the DECsystem @-@ 10 's TOPS @-@ 10 operating system . He had been influenced by the pen and paper Dungeons & Dragons . At college , he ported the game to Purdue 's PDP @-@ 11 RSTS / E. The game 's mechanics grew from conversations at the Purdue engineering building . Part of its " real @-@ time " nature descended from the need to not have players occupy the few shared computer terminals for long .
In 1978 , Lawrence purchased the Commodore PET 2001 and no longer needed the university 's computer . He rewrote DND as Telengard within eight kilobytes of memory . Due to a lack of space , he designed the dungeon to be procedurally generated based on the player @-@ character 's position so the maps would not have to be stored in memory . Lack of memory was Lawrence 's primary design obstacle . Nevertheless , the final version almost completely used 32 kilobytes of memory . It was easily ported to the Apple II + and TRS @-@ 80 platforms due to their similar usage of the 8K BASIC programming language . The later Atari 800 port required a more complicated handling of string variables . The three ports were finished before Avalon Hill saw the game at a gaming convention and licensed it in 1982 as one of its first computer games . The IBM PC port required a rewrite into the C programming language ; the source code for this version was later lost . The Heath / Zenith CP / M version requires MBASIC . The game 's most popular port was for the Commodore 64 .
Matt Barton of Gamasutra reported that Lawrence 's DND ( and consequently , his Telengard ) was directly inspired by Whisenhunt and Wood 's dnd for PLATO , with its randomized dungeons and minimalist graphics , though Lawrence recalled in an interview that he had not seen or known of their game . Computer Gaming World 's " resident adventure game expert " wrote that Telengard was based on the earlier , public domain software Castle Telengard .
As the game 's BASIC source code was available , ports and remaster exist therefore by the fan community .
= = Reception and legacy = =
RPG historian Shannon Appelcline identifies Telengard as one of the first professionally produced computer role @-@ playing games . Gamasutra 's Barton described the game as a " pure dungeon crawler " for its lack of diversions , and noted its expansive dungeons as a " key selling point " . AllGame 's Earl Green remarked that the game 's mechanics were very similar in practice to Dungeons & Dragons , and Computer Gaming World 's Dick McGrath also thought the game " borrowed heavily " from the original such that he expected its creators to be thanked in the end credits , and Scorpia cited four specific similarities with Dungeons & Dragons .
Green described the game as both " exceedingly simple ... yet very addictive " and rated it four of five stars . McGrath wrote that he wanted to have more control over his money , and added that a store for purchasing upgrades would have been useful . He thought that games such as Dunjonquest and Maces and Magic handled this aspect better . McGrath suggested that the player draw their own map in the absence of an overview mapping system . He felt that his appreciation for the game grew with time and that it had the necessary hook to make him continually return and play again . Tony Roberts of Compute ! considered the Commodore 64 version of the game best for its enhanced graphics . Scorpia in 1993 stated that while Telengard was " interesting for its time , the game would be pretty dated today " compared to the Gold Box games ; " back then , however , it was hot stuff , and a fun way of passing the time " .
Barton of Gamasutra placed Telengard alongside Wizardry and the early Ultima series in what he deemed " The Silver Age " of computer role @-@ playing games that preceded the golden age of the late 1980s . Yet in 1992 , Computer Gaming World 's Gerald Graef wrote that Telengard and Temple of Apshai were " quickly overshadowed " by the Wizardry and Ultima series . Some of the game 's dungeon features , such as altars , fountains , teleportation cubes , and thrones , were adopted by later games such as Tunnels of Doom . The 1982 Sword of Fargoal similarly shared features . Barton wrote in 2007 that Telengard " still enjoys considerable appreciation today " and questioned whether the Diablo series was " but an updated Telengard " .
= Tang dynasty =
The Tang dynasty ( Chinese : 唐朝 ) was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . It is generally regarded as a high point in Chinese civilization , and a golden age of cosmopolitan culture . Its territory , acquired through the military campaigns of its early rulers , rivaled that of the Han dynasty , and the Tang capital at Chang 'an ( present @-@ day Xi 'an ) was the most populous city in the world .
The dynasty was founded by the Lǐ family ( 李 ) , who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire . The dynasty was briefly interrupted when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne , proclaiming the Second Zhou dynasty ( 690 – 705 ) and becoming the only Chinese empress regnant . In two censuses of the 7th and 8th centuries , the Tang records estimated the population by number of registered households at about 50 million people . Yet , even when the central government was breaking down and unable to compile an accurate census of the population in the 9th century , it is estimated that the population had grown by then to about 80 million people . With its large population base , the dynasty was able to raise professional and conscripted armies of hundreds of thousands of troops to contend with nomadic powers in dominating Inner Asia and the lucrative trade routes along the Silk Road . Various kingdoms and states paid tribute to the Tang court , while the Tang also conquered or subdued several regions which it indirectly controlled through a protectorate system . Besides political hegemony , the Tang also exerted a powerful cultural influence over neighboring states such as those in Korea , Japan , and Vietnam .
The Tang dynasty was largely a period of progress and stability in the first half of the dynasty 's rule , until the An Lushan Rebellion and the decline of central authority in the later half of the dynasty . Like the previous Sui dynasty , the Tang dynasty maintained a civil service system by recruiting scholar @-@ officials through standardized examinations and recommendations to office . This civil order was undermined by the rise of regional military governors known as jiedushi during the 9th century . Chinese culture flourished and further matured during the Tang era ; it is considered the greatest age for Chinese poetry . Two of China 's most famous poets , Li Bai and Du Fu , belonged to this age , as did many famous painters such as Han Gan , Zhang Xuan , and Zhou Fang . There was a rich variety of historical literature compiled by scholars , as well as encyclopedias and geographical works . The adoption of the title Tängri Qaghan by the Tang Emperor Taizong in addition to his title as emperor was eastern Asia 's first " simultaneous kingship " .
There were many notable innovations during the Tang , including the development of woodblock printing . Buddhism became a major influence in Chinese culture , with native Chinese sects gaining prominence . However , Buddhism would later be persecuted by the state , subsequently declining in influence . Although the dynasty and central government were in decline by the 9th century , art and culture continued to flourish . The weakened central government largely withdrew from managing the economy , though the country 's mercantile affairs stayed intact and commercial trade continued to thrive regardless , at least until agrarian rebellions in the latter half of the 9th century brought the dynasty to its knees , resulting in damaging atrocities such as the Guangzhou Massacre .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
The Li family belonged to the northwest military aristocracy prevalent during the Sui dynasty and claimed to be paternally descended from the Daoist founder Laozi ( whose personal name was Li Dan or Li Er ) , the Han dynasty General Li Guang , and Western Liang ruler Li Gao . This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage ( 隴西李氏 ) which includes Li Bai . The Tang Emperors had Xianbei maternal ancestry , from Emperor Gaozu of Tang 's Xianbei mother Duchess Dugu .
Li Yuan was Duke of Tang and governor of Taiyuan during the Sui dynasty 's collapse , which was caused in part by the Sui failure to conquer the northern part of the Korean peninsula during the Goguryeo – Sui War . He had prestige and military experience , and was a first cousin of Emperor Yang of Sui ( their mothers were sisters ) . Li Yuan rose in rebellion in 617 , along with his son and his equally militant daughter Princess Pingyang ( d . 623 ) , who raised and commanded her own troops . In winter 617 , Li Yuan occupied Chang 'an , relegated Emperor Yang to the position of Taishang Huang or retired emperor , and acted as regent to the puppet child @-@ emperor , Emperor Gong of Sui . On the news of Emperor Yang 's murder by General Yuwen Huaji on June 18 , 618 , Li Yuan declared himself the emperor of a new dynasty , the Tang .
Li Yuan , known as Emperor Gaozu of Tang , ruled until 626 , when he was forcefully deposed by his son Li Shimin , the Prince of Qin . Li Shimin had commanded troops since the age of 18 , had prowess with bow and arrow , sword and lance and was known for his effective cavalry charges . Fighting a numerically superior army , he defeated Dou Jiande ( 573 – 621 ) at Luoyang in the Battle of Hulao on May 28 , 621 . In a violent elimination of royal family due to fear of assassination , Li Shimin ambushed and killed two of his brothers , Li Yuanji ( b . 603 ) and Crown prince Li Jiancheng ( b . 589 ) , in the Xuanwu Gate Incident on July 2 , 626 . Shortly thereafter , his father abdicated in his favor and Li Shimin ascended the throne . He is conventionally known by his temple name Taizong .
Although killing two brothers and deposing his father contradicted the Confucian value of filial piety , Taizong showed himself to be a capable leader who listened to the advice of the wisest members of his council . In 628 , Emperor Taizong held a Buddhist memorial service for the casualties of war , and in 629 he had Buddhist monasteries erected at the sites of major battles so that monks could pray for the fallen on both sides of the fight . This was during the campaign against Eastern Tujue , a Göktürk khanate that was destroyed after the capture of its ruler , Illig Qaghan , by the famed Tang military officer Li Jing ( 571 – 649 ) , who later became a Chancellor of the Tang dynasty . With this victory , the Turks accepted Taizong as their khagan , a title rendered as Tian Kehan in addition to his rule as Emperor of China under the traditional title " Son of Heaven " .
= = = Wu Zetian 's usurpation = = =
Although she entered Emperor Gaozong 's court as the lowly consort Wu Zhao , Wu Zetian rose to the highest seat of power in 690 , establishing the short @-@ lived Wu Zhou . Empress Wu 's rise to power was achieved through cruel and calculating tactics : a popular conspiracy theory stated that she killed her own baby girl and blamed it on Gaozong 's empress so that the empress would be demoted . Emperor Gaozong suffered a stroke in 655 , and Wu began to make many of his court decisions for him , discussing affairs of state with his councilors , who took orders from her while she sat behind a screen . When Empress Wu 's eldest son , the crown prince , began to assert his authority and advocate policies opposed by Empress Wu , he suddenly died in 675 . Many suspected he was poisoned by Empress Wu . Although the next heir apparent kept a lower profile , in 680 he was accused by Wu of plotting a rebellion and was banished . ( He was later obliged to commit suicide . )
In 683 , Emperor Gaozong died . He was succeeded by Emperor Zhongzong , his eldest surviving son by Wu . Zhongzong tried to appoint his wife 's father as chancellor : after only six weeks on the throne , he was deposed by Empress Wu in favor of his younger brother , 12 @-@ year @-@ old Emperor Ruizong . This provoked a group of Tang princes to rebel in 684 ; Wu 's armies suppressed them within two months . She proclaimed the Tianshou era of Wu Zhou on October 16 , 690 , and three days later demoted Emperor Ruizong to crown prince . He was also forced to give up his father 's surname Li in favor of the empress 's Wu . She then ruled as China 's only empress . A palace coup on February 20 , 705 , forced her to yield her position on February 22 . The next day , her son Zhongzong was restored to power ; the Tang was formally restored on March 3 . She died soon after . To legitimize her rule , she circulated a document known as the Great Cloud Sutra , which predicted that a reincarnation of the Maitreya Buddha would be a female monarch who would dispel illness , worry , and disaster from the world . She even introduced numerous revised written characters to the written language , which reverted to the originals after her death . Arguably the most important part of her legacy was diminishing the power of the northwest aristocracy , allowing people from other clans and regions of China to become more represented in Chinese politics and government .
= = = Emperor Xuanzong 's reign = = =
There were many prominent women at court during and after Wu 's reign , including Shangguan Wan 'er ( 664 – 710 ) , a poetess , writer , and trusted official in charge of Wu 's private office . In 706 the wife of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang , Empress Wei ( d . 710 ) , persuaded her husband to staff government offices with his sister and her daughters , and in 709 requested that he grant women the right to bequeath hereditary privileges to their sons ( which before was a male right only ) . Empress Wei eventually poisoned Zhongzong , whereupon she placed his fifteen @-@ year @-@ old son upon the throne in 710 . Two weeks later , Li Longji ( the later Emperor Xuanzong ) entered the palace with a few followers and slew Empress Wei and her faction . He then installed his father Emperor Ruizong ( r . 710 – 712 ) on the throne . Just as Emperor Zhongzong was dominated by Empress Wei , so too was Ruizong dominated by Princess Taiping . This was finally ended when Princess Taiping 's coup failed in 712 ( she later hanged herself in 713 ) and Emperor Ruizong abdicated to Emperor Xuanzong .
During the 44 @-@ year reign of Emperor Xuanzong , the Tang dynasty reached its height , a golden age with low economic inflation and a toned down lifestyle for the imperial court . Seen as a progressive and benevolent ruler , Xuanzong even abolished the death penalty in the year 747 ; all executions had to be approved beforehand by the emperor himself ( these were relatively few , considering that there were only 24 executions in the year 730 ) . Xuanzong bowed to the consensus of his ministers on policy decisions and made efforts to staff government ministries fairly with different political factions . His staunch Confucian chancellor Zhang Jiuling ( 673 – 740 ) worked to reduce deflation and increase the money supply by upholding the use of private coinage , while his aristocratic and technocratic successor Li Linfu ( d . 753 ) favored government monopoly over the issuance of coinage . After 737 most of Xuanzong 's confidence rested in his long @-@ standing chancellor Li Linfu , who championed a more aggressive foreign policy employing non @-@ Chinese generals . This policy ultimately created the conditions for a massive rebellion against Xuanzong .
= = = An Lushan Rebellion and catastrophe = = =
The Tang Empire was at its height of power up until the middle of the 8th century , when the An Lushan Rebellion ( December 16 , 755 – February 17 , 763 ) destroyed the prosperity of the empire . An Lushan was a half @-@ Sogdian , half @-@ Turk Tang commander since 744 , had experience fighting the Khitans of Manchuria with a victory in 744 , yet most of his campaigns against the Khitans were unsuccessful . He was given great responsibility in Hebei , which allowed him to rebel with an army of more than one hundred thousand troops . After capturing Luoyang , he named himself emperor of a new , but short @-@ lived , Yan state . Despite early victories scored by Tang General Guo Ziyi ( 697 – 781 ) , the newly recruited troops of the army at the capital were no match for An Lushan 's die @-@ hard frontier veterans , so the court fled Chang 'an . While the heir apparent raised troops in Shanxi and Xuanzong fled to Sichuan province , they called upon the help of the Uyghur Turks in 756 . The Uyghur khan Moyanchur was greatly excited at this prospect , and married his own daughter to the Chinese diplomatic envoy once he arrived , receiving in turn a Chinese princess as his bride . The Uyghurs helped recapture the Tang capital from the rebels , but they refused to leave until the Tang paid them an enormous sum of tribute in silk . Even Abbasid Arabs assisted the Tang in putting down An Lushan 's rebellion . The Tibetans took hold of the opportunity and raided many areas under Chinese control , and even after the Tibetan Empire had fallen apart in 842 ( and the Uyghurs soon after ) the Tang were in no position to reconquer Central Asia after 763 . So significant was this loss that half a century later jinshi examination candidates were required to write an essay on the causes of the Tang 's decline . Although An Lushan was killed by one of his eunuchs in 757 , this time of troubles and widespread insurrection continued until rebel Shi Siming was killed by his own son in 763 .
One of the legacies that the Tang government left since 710 was the gradual rise of regional military governors , the jiedushi , who slowly came to challenge the power of the central government . After the An Lushan Rebellion , the autonomous power and authority accumulated by the jiedushi in Hebei went beyond the central government 's control . After a series of rebellions between 781 and 784 in today 's Hebei , Shandong , Hubei and Henan provinces , the government had to officially acknowledge the jiedushi 's hereditary ruling without accreditation . The Tang government relied on these governors and their armies for protection and to suppress locals that would take up arms against the government . In return , the central government would acknowledge the rights of these governors to maintain their army , collect taxes and even to pass on their title to heirs . As time passed , these military governors slowly phased out the prominence of civil officials drafted by exams , and became more autonomous from central authority . The rule of these powerful military governors lasted until 960 , when a new civil order under the Song dynasty was established . Also , the abandonment of the equal @-@ field system meant that people could buy and sell land freely . Many poor fell into debt because of this , forced to sell their land to the wealthy , which led to the exponential growth of large estates . With the breakdown of the land allocation system after 755 , the central Chinese state barely interfered in agricultural management and acted merely as tax collector for roughly a millennium , save a few instances such as the Song 's failed land nationalization during the 13th @-@ century war with the Mongols .
With the central government collapsing in authority over the various regions of the empire , it was recorded in 845 that bandits and river pirates in parties of 100 or more began plundering settlements along the Yangtze River with little resistance . In 858 , enormous floods along the Grand Canal inundated vast tracts of land and terrain of the North China Plain , which drowned tens of thousands of people in the process . The Chinese belief in the Mandate of Heaven granted to the ailing Tang was also challenged when natural calamities occurred , forcing many to believe the Heavens were displeased and that the Tang had lost their right to rule . Then in 873 a disastrous harvest shook the foundations of the empire ; in some areas only half of all agricultural produce was gathered , and tens of thousands faced famine and starvation . In the earlier period of the Tang , the central government was able to meet crises in the harvest , as it was recorded from 714 – 719 that the Tang government responded effectively to natural disasters by extending the price @-@ regulation granary system throughout the country . The central government was able then to build a large surplus stock of foods to ward off the rising danger of famine and increased agricultural productivity through land reclamation . In the 9th century , however , the Tang government was nearly helpless in dealing with any calamity .
= = = Rebuilding and recovery = = =
Although these natural calamities and rebellions stained the reputation and hampered the effectiveness of the central government , the early 9th century is nonetheless viewed as a period of recovery for the Tang dynasty . The government 's withdrawal from its role in managing the economy had the unintended effect of stimulating trade , as more markets with less bureaucratic restrictions were opened up . By 780 , the old grain tax and labor service of the 7th century was replaced by a semiannual tax paid in cash , signifying the shift to a money economy boosted by the merchant class . Cities in the Jiangnan region to the south , such as Yangzhou , Suzhou , and Hangzhou prospered the most economically during the late Tang period . The government monopoly on the production of salt , weakened after the An Shi Rebellion , was placed under the Salt Commission , which became one of the most powerful state agencies , run by capable ministers chosen as specialists . The commission began the practice of selling merchants the rights to buy monopoly salt , which they would then transport and sell in local markets . In 799 salt accounted for over half of the government 's revenues . S. A. M. Adshead writes that this salt tax represents " the first time that an indirect tax , rather than tribute , levies on land or people , or profit from state enterprises such as mines , had been the primary resource of a major state . " Even after the power of the central government was in decline after the mid 8th century , it was still able to function and give out imperial orders on a massive scale . The Tangshu ( Old Book of Tang ) compiled in the year 945 recorded that in 828 the Tang government issued a decree that standardized irrigational square @-@ pallet chain pumps in the country :
In the second year of the Taihe reign period [ 828 ] , in the second month ... a standard model of the chain pump was issued from the palace , and the people of Jingzhao Fu ( d footnote : the capital ) were ordered by the emperor to make a considerable number of machines , for distribution to the people along the Zheng Bai Canal , for irrigation purposes . |
The last great ambitious ruler of the Tang dynasty was Emperor Xianzong ( r . 805 – 820 ) , his reign period aided by the fiscal reforms of the 780s , including the government monopoly on the salt industry . He also had an effective well trained imperial army stationed at the capital led by his court eunuchs ; this was the Army of Divine Strategy , numbering 240 @,@ 000 in strength as recorded in 798 . Between the years 806 and 819 , Emperor Xianzong conducted seven major military campaigns to quell the rebellious provinces that had claimed autonomy from central authority , managing to subdue all but two of them . Under his reign there was a brief end to the hereditary jiedushi , as Xianzong appointed his own military officers and staffed the regional bureaucracies once again with civil officials . However , Xianzong 's successors proved less capable and more interested in the leisure of hunting , feasting , and playing outdoor sports , allowing eunuchs to amass more power as drafted scholar @-@ officials caused strife in the bureaucracy with factional parties . The eunuchs ' power became unchallenged after Emperor Wenzong 's ( r . 826 – 840 ) failed plot to have them overthrown ; instead the allies of Emperor Wenzong were publicly executed in the West Market of Chang 'an , by the eunuchs ' command .
= = = End of the dynasty = = =
In addition to natural calamities and jiedushi amassing autonomous control , the Huang Chao Rebellion ( 874 – 884 ) resulted in the sacking of both Chang 'an and Luoyang , and took an entire decade to suppress . Although the rebellion was defeated by the Tang , it never recovered from that crucial blow , weakening it for the future military powers to take over . There were also large groups of bandits , in the size of small armies , that ravaged the countryside in the last years of the Tang , who smuggled illicit salt , ambushed merchants and convoys , and even besieged several walled cities .
Zhu Wen , originally a salt smuggler who had served under the rebel Huang , surrendered to Tang forces . By helping to defeat Huang , he was granted a series of rapid military promotions . In 907 the Tang dynasty was ended when Zhu Wen , now a military governor , deposed the last emperor of Tang , Emperor Ai of Tang , and took the throne for himself ( known posthumously as Emperor Taizu of Later Liang ) . He established the Later Liang , which inaugurated the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . A year later the deposed Emperor Ai was poisoned by Zhu Wen , and died .
= = Administration and politics = =
= = = Initial reforms = = =
Taizong set out to solve internal problems within the government which had constantly plagued past dynasties . Building upon the Sui legal code , he issued a new legal code that subsequent Chinese dynasties would model theirs upon , as well as neighboring polities in Vietnam , Korea , and Japan . The earliest law code to survive was the one established in the year 653 , which was divided into 500 articles specifying different crimes and penalties ranging from ten blows with a light stick , one hundred blows with a heavy rod , exile , penal servitude , or execution .
The legal code clearly distinguished different levels of severity in meted punishments when different members of the social and political hierarchy committed the same crime . For example , the severity of punishment was different when a servant or nephew killed a master or an uncle than when a master or uncle killed a servant or nephew .
The Tang Code was largely retained by later codes such as the early Ming dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) code of 1397 , yet there were several revisions in later times , such as improved property rights for women during the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) .
The Tang had three departments ( Chinese : 省 ; pinyin : shěng ) , which were obliged to draft , review , and implement policies respectively . There were also six ministries ( Chinese : 部 ; pinyin : bù ) under the administrations that implemented policy , each of which was assigned different tasks . These Three Departments and Six Ministries included the personnel administration , finance , rites , military , justice , and public works — an administrative model which would last until the fall of the Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1912 ) .
Although the founders of the Tang related to the glory of the earlier Han dynasty ( 3rd century BC – 3rd century AD ) , the basis for much of their administrative organization was very similar to the previous Northern and Southern dynasties . The Northern Zhou ( 6th century ) fubing system of divisional militia was continued by the Tang , along with farmer @-@ soldiers serving in rotation from the capital or frontier in order to receive appropriated farmland . The equal @-@ field system of the Northern Wei ( 4th – 6th centuries ) was also kept , although there were a few modifications .
Although the central and local governments kept an enormous number of records about land property in order to assess taxes , it became common practice in the Tang for literate and affluent people to create their own private documents and signed contracts . These had their own signature and that of a witness and scribe in order to prove in court ( if necessary ) that their claim to property was legitimate . The prototype of this actually existed since the ancient Han dynasty , while contractual language became even more common and embedded into Chinese literary culture in later dynasties .
The center of the political power of the Tang was the capital city of Chang 'an ( modern Xi 'an ) , where the emperor maintained his large palace quarters and entertained political emissaries with music , sports , acrobatic stunts , poetry , paintings , and dramatic theater performances . The capital was also filled with incredible amounts of riches and resources to spare . When the Chinese prefectural government officials traveled to the capital in the year 643 to give the annual report of the affairs in their districts , Emperor Taizong discovered that many had no proper quarters to rest in and were renting rooms with merchants . Therefore , Emperor Taizong ordered the government agencies in charge of municipal construction to build every visiting official his own private mansion in the capital .
= = = Imperial examinations = = =
Following the Sui dynasty 's example , the Tang abandoned the nine @-@ rank system in favor of a service system . Students of Confucian studies were potential candidates for the imperial examinations , the graduates of which could be appointed as state bureaucrats in the local , provincial , and central government . There were two types of exams that were given , mingjing ( ' illuminating the classics examination ' ) and jinshi ( ' presented scholar examination ' ) . The mingjing was based upon the Confucian classics and tested the student 's knowledge of a broad variety of texts . The jinshi tested a student 's literary abilities in writing essay @-@ style responses to questions on matters of governance and politics , as well as their skills in composing poetry . Candidates were also judged on their skills of deportment , appearance , speech , and level of skill in calligraphy , all of which were subjective criteria that allowed the already wealthy members of society to be chosen over ones of more modest means who were unable to be educated in rhetoric or fanciful writing skills . There was a disproportionate number of civil officials coming from aristocratic as opposed to non @-@ aristocratic families . The exams were open to all male subjects whose fathers were not of the artisan or merchant classes , although having wealth or noble status was not a prerequisite in receiving a recommendation . In order to promote widespread Confucian education , the Tang government established state @-@ run schools and issued standard versions of the Five Classics with selected commentaries .
This competitive procedure was designed to draw the best talent into government . But perhaps an even greater consideration for the Tang rulers , aware that imperial dependence on powerful aristocratic families and warlords would have destabilizing consequences , was to create a body of career officials having no autonomous territorial or functional power base . The Tang law code ensured equal division of inherited property amongst legitimate heirs , allowing a bit of social mobility and preventing the families of powerful court officials from becoming landed nobility through primogeniture . As it turned out , these scholar @-@ officials acquired status in their local communities and in family ties , while they also shared values that connected them to the imperial court . From Tang times until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1912 , scholar @-@ officials functioned often as intermediaries between the grassroots level and the government . Yet the potential of a widespread examination system was not fully realized until the Song dynasty , when the merit @-@ driven scholar official largely shed his aristocratic habits and defined his social status through the examination system . As historian Patricia Ebrey states of the Song period scholar @-@ officials :
The examination system , used only on a small scale in Sui and Tang times , played a central role in the fashioning of this new elite . The early Song emperors , concerned above all to avoid domination of the government by military men , greatly expanded the civil service examination system and the government school system .
Nevertheless , the Sui and Tang dynasties institutionalized and set the foundations for the civil service system and the new elite class of exam @-@ drafted scholar @-@ officials .
= = = Religion and politics = = =
From the outset , religion played a role in Tang politics . In his bid for power , Li Yuan had attracted a following by claiming descent from the Daoist sage Laozi ( fl . 6th century BC ) . People bidding for office would have monks from Buddhist temples pray for them in public in return for cash donations or gifts if the person was selected . Before the persecution of Buddhism in the 9th century , Buddhism and Daoism were accepted side by side , and Emperor Xuanzong ( r . 712 – 56 ) invited monks and clerics of both religions to his court . At the same time Xuanzong exalted the ancient Laozi by granting him grand titles , wrote commentary on the Daoist Laozi , set up a school to prepare candidates for examinations on Daoist scriptures , and called upon the Indian monk Vajrabodhi ( 671 – 741 ) to perform Tantric rites to avert a drought in the year 726 . In 742 Emperor Xuanzong personally held the incense burner during a ceremony led by Amoghavajra ( 705 – 74 , patriarch of the Shingon school ) reciting " mystical incantations to secure the victory of Tang forces . "
While religion played a role in politics , politics also played a role in religion . In the year 714 , Emperor Xuanzong forbade shops and vendors in the city of Chang 'an to sell copied Buddhist sutras , instead giving the Buddhist clergy of the monasteries the sole right to distribute sutras to the laity . In the previous year of 713 , Emperor Xuanzong had liquidated the highly lucrative Inexhaustible Treasury , which was run by a prominent Buddhist monastery in Chang 'an . This monastery collected vast amounts of money , silk , and treasures through multitudes of anonymous people 's repentances , leaving the donations on the monastery 's premise . Although the monastery was generous in donations , Emperor Xuanzong issued a decree abolishing their treasury on grounds that their banking practices were fraudulent , collected their riches , and distributed the wealth to various other Buddhist monasteries and Daoist abbeys , and to repair statues , halls , and bridges in the city .
= = = Taxes and the census = = =
The Tang dynasty government attempted to create an accurate census of the size of their empire 's population , mostly for effective taxation and matters of military conscription for each region . The early Tang government established both the grain tax and cloth tax at a relatively low rate for each household under the empire . This was meant to encourage households to enroll for taxation and not avoid the authorities , thus providing the government with the most accurate estimate possible . In the census of 609 , the population was tallied by efforts of the government at a size of 9 million households , or about 50 million people . The Tang census of 742 again approximated the size of China 's population at about 50 million people . Patricia Ebrey writes that even if a rather significant number of people had avoided the registration process of the tax census , the population size during the Tang had not grown significantly since the earlier Han dynasty ( the census of the year 2 recording a population of roughly 58 million people in China ) . S.A.M. Adshead disagrees , estimating that there were about 75 million people by 750 .
In the Tang census of the year 754 , there were 1 @,@ 859 cities , 321 prefectures , and 1 @,@ 538 counties throughout the empire . Although there were many large and prominent cities during the Tang , the rural and agrarian areas comprised the majority of China 's population at some 80 to 90 % . There was also a dramatic migratory shift of the population from northern to southern China , as the North held 75 % of the overall population at the dynasty 's inception , but by its end was reduced to 50 % .
Chinese population size would not dramatically increase until the Song dynasty period , when the population doubled to 100 million people because of extensive rice cultivation in central and southern China , coupled with rural farmers holding more abundant yields of food that they could easily provide to the growing market .
= = Military and foreign policy = =
= = = Protectorates and tributaries = = =
The 7th and first half of the 8th century are generally considered to be the era in which the Tang reached the zenith of its power . In this period , Tang control extended further west than any previous dynasty , stretching from north Vietnam in the south , to a point north of Kashmir bordering Persia in the west , to northern Korea in the north @-@ east .
Some of the kingdoms paying tribute to the Tang dynasty included Kashmir , Nepal , Khotan , Kucha , Kashgar , Korea , Champa , and kingdoms located in Amu Darya and Syr Darya valley . Turkic nomads addressed the Emperor of Tang China as Tian Kehan . After the widespread Göktürk revolt of Shabolüe Khan ( d . 658 ) was put down at Issyk Kul in 657 by Su Dingfang ( 591 – 667 ) , Emperor Gaozong established several protectorates governed by a Protectorate General or Grand Protectorate General , which extended the Chinese sphere of influence as far as Herat in Western Afghanistan . Protectorate Generals were given a great deal of autonomy to handle local crises without waiting for central admission . After Xuanzong 's reign , military governors ( jiedushi ) were given enormous power , including the ability to maintain their own armies , collect taxes , and pass their titles on hereditarily . This is commonly recognized as the beginning of the fall of Tang 's central government .
= = = Soldiers and conscription = = =
By the year 737 , Emperor Xuanzong discarded the policy of conscripting soldiers that were replaced every three years , replacing them with long @-@ service soldiers who were more battle @-@ hardened and efficient . It was more economically feasible as well , since training new recruits and sending them out to the frontier every three years drained the treasury . By the late 7th century , the fubing troops began abandoning military service and the homes provided to them in the equal @-@ field system . The supposed standard of 100 mu of land allotted to each family was in fact decreasing in size in places where population expanded and the wealthy bought up most of the land . Hard @-@ pressed peasants and vagrants were then induced into military service with benefits of exemption from both taxation and corvée labor service , as well as provisions for farmland and dwellings for dependents who accompanied soldiers on the frontier . By the year 742 the total number of enlisted troops in the Tang armies had risen to about 500 @,@ 000 men .
= = = Turkic and Western regions = = =
The Sui and Tang carried out very successful military campaigns against the steppe nomads . Chinese foreign policy to the north and west now had to deal with Turkic nomads , who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia . To handle and avoid any threats posed by the Turks , the Sui government repaired fortifications and received their trade and tribute missions . They sent four royal princesses to form marriage alliances with Turkic clan leaders , in 597 , 599 , 614 , and 617 . The Sui stirred trouble and conflict amongst ethnic groups against the Turks . As early as the Sui dynasty , the Turks had become a major militarized force employed by the Chinese . When the Khitans began raiding northeast China in 605 , a Chinese general led 20 @,@ 000 Turks against them , distributing Khitan livestock and women to the Turks as a reward . On two occasions between 635 and 636 , Tang royal princesses were married to Turk mercenaries or generals in Chinese service . Throughout the Tang dynasty until the end of 755 , there were approximately ten Turkic generals serving under the Tang . While most of the Tang army was made of fubing Chinese conscripts , the majority of the troops led by Turkic generals were of non @-@ Chinese origin , campaigning largely in the western frontier where the presence of fubing troops was low . Some " Turkic " troops were nomadisized Han Chinese , a desinicized people .
Civil war in China was almost totally diminished by 626 , along with the defeat in 628 of the Ordos Chinese warlord Liang Shidu ; after these internal conflicts , the Tang began an offensive against the Turks . In the year 630 , Tang armies captured areas of the Ordos Desert , modern @-@ day Inner Mongolia province , and southern Mongolia from the Turks . After this military victory , Emperor Taizong won the title of Great Khan amongst the various Turks in the region who pledged their allegiance to him and the Chinese empire ( with several thousand Turks traveling into China to live at Chang 'an ) . On June 11 , 631 , Emperor Taizong also sent envoys to the Xueyantuo bearing gold and silk in order to persuade the release of enslaved Chinese prisoners who were captured during the transition from Sui to Tang from the northern frontier ; this embassy succeeded in freeing 80 @,@ 000 Chinese men and women who were then returned to China .
While the Turks were settled in the Ordos region ( former territory of the Xiongnu ) , the Tang government took on the military policy of dominating the central steppe . Like the earlier Han dynasty , the Tang dynasty ( along with Turkic allies ) conquered and subdued Central Asia during the 640s and 650s . During Emperor Taizong 's reign alone , large campaigns were launched against not only the Göktürks , but also separate campaigns against the Tuyuhun , the Xiyu states , and the Xueyantuo . Under Emperor Gaozong , a campaign led by the general Su Dingfang was launched against the Western Turks ruled by Ashina Helu .
The Tang Empire competed with the Tibetan Empire for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia , which was at times settled with marriage alliances such as the marrying of Princess Wencheng ( d . 680 ) to Songtsän Gampo ( d . 649 ) . A Tibetan tradition mentions that Chinese troops captured Lhasa after Songtsän Gampo 's death , but no such invasion is mentioned in either Chinese annals or the Tibetan manuscripts of Dunhuang .
There was a long string of conflicts with Tibet over territories in the Tarim Basin between 670 – 692 , and in 763 the Tibetans even captured the capital of China , Chang 'an , for fifteen days during the An Shi Rebellion . In fact , it was during this rebellion that the Tang withdrew its western garrisons stationed in what is now Gansu and Qinghai , which the Tibetans then occupied along with the territory of what is now Xinjiang . Hostilities between the Tang and Tibet continued until they signed a formal peace treaty in 821 . The terms of this treaty , including the fixed borders between the two countries , are recorded in a bilingual inscription on a stone pillar outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa .
During the Islamic conquest of Persia ( 633 – 656 ) , the son of the last ruler of the Sassanid Empire , Prince Pirooz , fled to Tang China . According to the Old Book of Tang , Pirooz was made the head of a Governorate of Persia in what is now Zaranj , Afghanistan . During this conquest of Persia , the Islamic Caliph Uthman Ibn Affan ( r . 644 – 656 ) sent an embassy to the Tang court at Chang 'an . By the 740s , the Arabs of Khurasan had established a presence in the Ferghana basin and in Sogdiana . At the Battle of Talas in 751 , Qarluq mercenaries under the Chinese defected , helping the Arab armies of the Islamic Caliphate to defeat the Tang force under commander Gao Xianzhi . Although the battle itself was not of the greatest significance militarily , this was a pivotal moment in history ; it marks the spread of Chinese papermaking into regions west of China as captured Chinese soldiers revealed secrets of Chinese papermaking to the Arabs . These techniques ultimately reached Europe by the 12th century through Arab @-@ controlled Spain . Although they had fought at Talas , on June 11 , 758 , an Abbasid embassy arrived at Chang 'an simultaneously with the Uyghur Turks bearing gifts for the Tang Emperor . From even further west , a tribute embassy came to the court of Taizong in 643 from the Patriarch of Antioch . In 788 – 9 the Chinese concluded a military alliance with the Uighur Turks who twice defeated the Tibetans , in 789 near the town of Kuch 'eng in Jungharia , and in 791 near Ning @-@ hsia on the Yellow River .
= = = Korea and Japan = = =
In the east , the Chinese military campaigns were less successful than elsewhere . Like the emperors of the Sui dynasty before him , Taizong established a military campaign in 644 against the kingdom of Goguryeo in the Goguryeo @-@ Tang War ; however , this led to its withdrawal in the first campaign because they failed to overcome the successful defense led by General Yeon Gaesomun . Allying with the Korean S
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's name was not on the short list ; the candidates were Frick , Farley , Hannegan , Vinson , Lausche , and Patterson . None of the candidates received the required two @-@ thirds majority , and after lobbying by MacPhail and New York Giants owner Horace Stoneham , the owners took an informal vote to see if anyone had the potential to be elected . Chandler 's name appeared in the top three on each of the sixteen ballots . Encouraged , the owners then held another formal vote . After two ballots , Chandler received the necessary majority ; a third vote was taken to make the choice unanimous .
Chandler remained in the Senate for several months after his election as commissioner because he wanted to cast his vote on the Bretton Woods Monetary Agreement and the Charter of the United Nations . He received only his Senate salary until his resignation on November 1 , 1945 , despite claims to the contrary by the press . Nevertheless , his delay in assuming the commissioner 's job upset many team owners , as did his late arrival to Game 3 of the 1945 World Series , which rendered him unavailable to rule on whether the weather was clement enough to begin the game . Many owners believed Chandler had been attending a political meeting ; the actual cause of his delay was his attendance at a Detroit Athletic Club luncheon , where he was representing Major League Baseball .
Chandler 's election was also met with disdain from much of the press in the Eastern United States , where most of baseball 's teams resided at that time . His southern drawl and willingness to sing " My Old Kentucky Home " with very little encouragement led some sportswriters to opine that he was too undignified for the office . Others resented his folksy , political style , calling him " a preening politician " , " the Kentucky windbag " , and " a hand @-@ shaking baby @-@ kissing practitioner of the arts " . Chandler further alienated the press by moving the commissioner 's office to Cincinnati from Chicago in 1946 .
In early 1946 , Jorge Pasquel and his four brothers , owners of the Mexican baseball league , siphoned campaign funds from the upcoming Mexican presidential election and used them to offer large salaries and signing bonuses to American baseball players . In some cases , the offers were triple the salaries being paid in the Major Leagues . Chandler deterred players from considering Mexican League offers by imposing a five @-@ year ban from Major League Baseball to anyone who played in the Mexican League and did not return by April 1 , 1946 . In all , eighteen players played for the Mexican league despite the ban , including Mickey Owen , Max Lanier , and Sal Maglie . Vern Stephens initially agreed to play in Mexico as well , but returned before Chandler 's April 1 deadline . Ted Williams , Stan Musial , and Phil Rizzuto were also offered lucrative contracts and incentives , but all eventually declined to play in Mexico .
Shortly after the Mexican league incident , Robert Murphy , a former negotiator for the National Labor Relations Board , attempted to organize the Pittsburgh Pirates into a guild for purposes of collective bargaining . Murphy decried the reserve clause in player contracts that gave team owners unlimited control over the player 's services , and demanded more rights for players , including the right of contract and the right of salary arbitration . Chandler worked with Pirates officials to avoid a threatened strike by the players . Part of Chandler 's intervention included organizing a team of replacement players as a contingency plan ; the team would have included Honus Wagner , who was 72 years old at the time .
The defections to the Mexican league and the threat of a strike by the Pirates prompted owners to form an advisory committee , chaired by Larry MacPhail , to suggest needed changes that would calm the discontent among the players . On August 27 , 1946 , the committee presented a draft a document outlining the changes . Language in the original draft admitted that baseball was operating as a monopoly and that racial bias was the sole reason for segregation in baseball . Baseball 's attorneys stripped this controversial language from the version eventually adopted by the owners .
= = = Breaking baseball 's color line = = =
Days prior to Chandler 's assumption of the commissionership , Brooklyn Dodgers general manager Branch Rickey had announced the signing of Jackie Robinson to a minor league contract with the Montreal Royals , making him the first African @-@ American to play for a Major League Baseball affiliate . The following year , Rickey transferred Robinson 's contract from Montreal to Brooklyn , effectively breaking baseball 's color line . In a speech at Wilberforce University in February 1948 , Rickey recounted a secret meeting allegedly held by baseball officials at the Blackstone Hotel in Chicago on August 28 , 1946 . At the meeting , Rickey claimed that Ford Frick disseminated a report which stated that " However well @-@ intentioned , the use of Negro players would hazard all physical properties of baseball . " According to Rickey , the other fifteen team owners voted to endorse the report ; he was the lone dissent . Rickey claimed Frick meticulously collected all copies of the report at the end of the meeting to prevent them from being disseminated . Baseball historian Bill Marshall later wrote that the document and subsequent vote to which Rickey was referring was the advisory committee 's initial draft of recommended reforms . Marshall further records that Rickey identified the meeting and the report shortly after his speech at Wilberforce and retracted his claim of 15 @-@ to @-@ 1 opposition to Robinson 's entry into Major League Baseball .
Chandler , who was also allegedly at the meeting , made no public mention of it until a 1972 interview . In the interview , Chandler then corroborated the essentials of Rickey 's story , although he placed the meeting at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in January 1947 . He also recounted that later in 1947 , Rickey came to his home in Kentucky to discuss the matter further . According to Chandler , Rickey professed that he would not move forward with Robinson 's transfer unless he had Chandler 's full support , which Chandler subsequently pledged . Aside from Chandler 's anecdote , which he frequently repeated after the 1972 interview , there is no evidence that his meeting with Rickey ever took place . Nevertheless , future baseball commissioner Bowie Kuhn and Washington Post sportswriter Bob Addie maintained that Robinson would not have played had it not been for Chandler 's intervention .
That Chandler supported Robinson and the integration of baseball is evidenced by his actions during the 1947 season . First and foremost , as commissioner , Chandler had the power to void Robinson 's contract , but he chose to approve it . Further , following extreme , race @-@ based jeering at Robinson by the Philadelphia Phillies and their manager , Ben Chapman , Chandler threatened both the team and Chapman personally with disciplinary action for any future incidents of race @-@ based taunting . Later that season , he decisively supported Ford Frick 's decision to indefinitely suspend any members of the St. Louis Cardinals who followed through on a threat to strike in protest of integration .
= = = Other matters of Chandler 's term = = =
During the 1946 postseason , rumors began to swirl that Yankees owner Larry MacPhail was lobbying Brooklyn Dodgers manager Leo Durocher to leave the Dodgers and manage the Yankees . The move angered Dodgers owner Branch Rickey , who encouraged Chandler to begin an investigation into the gambling habits of Durocher and his associate , actor George Raft . In the offseason , Chandler and Durocher had a meeting wherein Chandler counseled Durocher to abandon his gambling . Branch Rickey charged Chandler with maintaining a double standard , however , when the commissioner took no action after seeing MacPhail with two known gamblers at a Yankees – Dodgers preseason exhibition in Havana , Cuba . MacPhail then signed two Dodgers assistant coaches — Chuck Dressen and John Corriden — as aides to Yankee manager Bucky Harris while they were still employed by the Dodgers . Chandler suspended Dressen for 30 days and levied $ 2 @,@ 000 fines against MacPhail and the Yankees .
The Yankees – Dodgers feud continued in the New York newspapers throughout the offseason . Charges were levelled by both sides , including accusations that Durocher was a philanderer because of his alleged involvement with married actress Laraine Day , which ultimately resulted in Day 's divorce . When Durocher subsequently married Day , a local Catholic priest declared that attending Dodgers games was a venial sin . Prompted in part by this declaration , Chandler suspended Durocher from baseball for a year just days before Opening Day , citing " conduct detrimental to baseball " .
Also in 1947 , Chandler sold the rights to broadcast the World Series on the radio for $ 475 @,@ 000 ; he used the money from the contract to establish a pension fund for baseball players . In 1949 , Chandler negotiated a seven @-@ year contract with Gillette and the Mutual Broadcasting System to broadcast the Series . Proceeds from the $ 4 @,@ 370 @,@ 000 deal went directly into the pension fund . The same two companies negotiated a six @-@ year , $ 6 million contract to broadcast the Series on television in 1950 . Again , Chandler directed the proceeds into the pension fund .
In 1949 , Danny Gardella , who had left the New York Giants for the Mexican League in 1946 , filed suit against Major League Baseball , claiming Chandler 's ban on players who went to the Mexican League had denied him a means of pursuing his livelihood . Gardella demanded $ 100 @,@ 000 in damages from the suspension , and claimed that the award should be tripled because baseball was subject to federal antitrust laws . Similar suits were filed by Max Lanier and Fred Martin , both of whom also played in Mexico . On June 2 , 1949 , a federal court refused to reinstate the three players pending their trials , but urged that the antitrust issues be adjudicated as soon as possible . Attempting to alleviate the legal pressure on Major League Baseball , Chandler lifted the bans on players who had gone to Mexico , reinstating them almost two years early . Lanier and Martin dropped their suits , but Gardella pursued his . After Gardella 's lawyer publicly questioned Chandler in court about baseball 's antitrust exemption for a day and a half in September 1949 , baseball executives , including Chandler , agreed to settle Gardella 's case for $ 60 @,@ 000 .
Chandler 's contract as baseball commissioner was not due to expire until April 1952 , but he asked for the owners to extend it in December 1949 . The owners voted against offering the extension at that time , but promised to consider the request again in December 1950 . The vote in 1950 was nine votes for Chandler and seven against , leaving him three votes short of the necessary three @-@ fourths majority . Chandler asked that the extension be considered again at the owners ' meeting on March 12 , 1951 , but the vote was again 9 – 7 . Upset that his contract was not extended , Chandler resigned effective July 15 , 1951 .
In an interview with The Sporting News in August 1951 , Chandler cited his decision to void a trade between the New York Yankees and Chicago White Sox for outfielder Dick Wakefield as a major factor in his inability to secure a new contract . The Yankees traded Wakefield to the White Sox for cash , but Wakefield refused to report to the White Sox after a salary dispute , leading to a disagreement between the teams over who was responsible for his salary . Chandler voided the trade , making Wakefield 's contract the Yankees ' responsibility and angering their owner , Del Webb . It was not until the 1970s that Chandler began to cite his involvement in the integration of baseball as a reason for his contract not being renewed . Historian John Paul Hill considers this unlikely , however , because two of Chandler 's strongest allies , Connie Mack and Walter Briggs , Sr. , were ardently opposed to integration while William DeWitt , the second owner in the American League to integrate , voted against him . Hill points to the Dick Wakefield dispute , as well as Chandler 's investigations of Del Webb and Cardinals owner Fred Saigh involving their rumored connections to gambling interests , as more compelling reasons for Chandler 's dismissal .
Following his tenure as baseball commissioner , Chandler returned to his law practice . He also engaged in farming and published The Woodford Sun newspaper . The Kentucky Press Association and the Kentucky Broadcasting Association both named him Man of the Year . He continued his involvement in sports , presiding over the International Baseball Conference from 1952 to 1955 .
= = Second term as governor = =
Chandler remained involved in politics throughout his tenure as baseball commissioner . In 1948 , he became the leader of the Dixiecrat movement in Kentucky . He hosted Dixiecrat presidential candidate Strom Thurmond at his home when he visited the state , but did not officially endorse Thurmond 's campaign . By the time he had permanently returned to the state in mid @-@ 1951 , it was too late to influence the gubernatorial contest . He spent the next four years rebuilding his political base in preparation for another run at the office .
= = = 1955 gubernatorial campaign = = =
Twenty years after first holding the governorship , Chandler again entered the gubernatorial race in 1955 using the slogan " Be like your Pappy and vote for Happy " . His opponents in the Democratic Party , led by senator and former governor Earle C. Clements and sitting governor Lawrence Wetherby , had difficulty finding a candidate to oppose him . The most likely choice , Lieutenant Governor Emerson " Doc " Beauchamp , was handicapped by his connections to political bosses in Logan County . Clements virtually hand @-@ picked a relatively unknown candidate in Kentucky Court of Appeals Judge Bert T. Combs . Because Combs — whom Chandler nicknamed " The Little Judge " — had no record for Chandler to campaign against , Chandler portrayed him as a pawn of Clements and Wetherby — who he derisively referred to as " Clementine " and " Wetherbine " .
The inexperienced Combs did little to help his campaign . His first campaign speech , which he dryly read verbatim from his notes , included the candid admission that it might be necessary to re @-@ institute the state sales tax to balance the budget . Following the speech , a disappointed observer remarked that " Combs opened and closed [ his campaign ] on the same night . " The speech also gave Chandler his main issue for the campaign . He charged that Combs would raise taxes while promising that he would lower them as he had in his first term .
Chandler 's strategy in the campaign was to launch an attack upon the Wetherby administration and , before the Clements @-@ Wetherby @-@ Combs faction could react to it , to launch a new one . He claimed Wetherby had used the state 's money frivolously by installing air conditioning in the state capitol and installing a $ 20 @,@ 000 rug in his office . ( An invoice showing that carpeting for the entire first floor of the capitol had cost one @-@ tenth that amount did not stop Chandler from repeating the claim , which he said " didn 't hurt anybody , and people liked to hear it " . ) After a Wetherby administration official approved the purchase of African mahogany paneling for the governor 's office , Chandler charged that Wetherby had gone " clear to Africa " to find paneling for his office and promised that , if elected , he would use good , honest Kentucky wood for decoration . He also denounced the construction of a turnpike connecting Elizabethtown and Louisville , the state fairgrounds , and Freedom Hall as unnecessary .
Chandler won the Democratic primary by 18 @,@ 000 votes over Combs . In the general election , he defeated Republican Edwin R. Denney by a vote of 451 @,@ 647 to 322 @,@ 671 , the largest margin of victory for a gubernatorial candidate to that point in the state 's history .
= = = Governorship = = =
Soon after Chandler took office , it became clear that he could not fund the social programs initiated by Clements and Wetherby , plus Chandler 's own proposed programs , with the revenue presently being brought into the state treasury . He cut the popular Youth Authority , initiated by Wetherby to unify the state 's children 's welfare programs , but the savings were not enough to balance the budget . In order to deliver on his campaign promises , Chandler ignored the budget during the regular legislative session in 1956 , then called a special session during which he presented his budget proposal . The proposal called for spending in excess of $ 46 million more than officials estimated would be brought into the state 's coffers over the two @-@ year budget . Chandler convinced legislators to pass the budget , promising to propose a tax plan to pay for the expenditures in a subsequent special session . The promised package added 150 @,@ 000 citizens to the state 's tax rolls , put a surtax on income taxes , and cut tax credits . It created a new 5 percent production tax on whisky , and added taxes to deeds and life insurance premiums . It increased the state gasoline tax for trucks by two cents per gallon and raised corporate taxes by half a percent . In addition , it transferred the assessment and collection of taxes on certain intangibles from local to state government . The plan also called for a $ 100 million bond issue , allowing the allocation of generous budgets for state universities and colleges and improvements to the state highway system .
Although Democrats held a majority in both houses of the General Assembly , they were divided by factionalism , which made it difficult for Chandler to find sufficient support for his programs . Some of the factionalism came from Clements and Combs supporters who were not willing to cooperate with Chandler , their chief political enemy . Still other resistance to Chandler came from a group of more liberal lawmakers like John B. Breckinridge who simply had philosophical differences with the governor . Near the end of the 1958 legislative session , this group demanded a special session to deal with the need for more money for schools and welfare programs , but Chandler refused to call the session when the liberals would not agree to pass only the measures he put before them . Because of the factionalism , Chandler had to ally with Republican legislators throughout his term in order to pass many of his proposals , including his tax plan . Frequently , this meant promising to build or repair roads in Republican districts in return for their support of his programs .
During his campaign , Chandler had promised that he would fund a medical school at the University of Kentucky , despite the fact that the University of Louisville already had a medical school and a poll of state physicians showed overwhelming opposition to the plan because of this . Nevertheless , Chandler delivered on his promise , allocating $ 5 million to the establishment of what became known as the Albert B. Chandler Medical Center . Chandler said the establishment of the school was his proudest achievement as governor .
Just as he had as baseball commissioner , Chandler faced the issue of racial integration during his second term as governor . Among his first actions upon his election was to issue an executive order ensuring that blacks and whites would have equal access to the state park system . He publicly acknowledged the U.S. Supreme Court 's 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education as the law of the land and promised to enforce it . The Kentucky Court of Appeals struck down Kentucky 's Day Law — the law proscribing integration — the following year . Some areas of the state resisted the change . Notably , in 1956 , when nine black students in Sturgis , Kentucky attempted to enter previously all @-@ white Sturgis High School , they were blocked by 500 opponents of integration . On September 4 , 1956 , Chandler called out the National Guard — including a force of over 900 guardsmen and several M47 Patton tanks — to disperse the crowd . The confrontation lasted a total of 18 days before the protesters peacefully dispersed . Shortly thereafter , Chandler took similar actions in response to a protest in the town of Clay , which was also resolved without violence . Of his actions , Chandler remarked " We regret it is necessary to use this means of guaranteeing equal rights to our citizens , but that we must do . "
Still convinced he was destined to become president , Chandler attended the 1956 Democratic National Convention with hopes of securing the party 's presidential nomination . Despite being told by his advisors that the convention would nominate Adlai Stevenson , Chandler continued to seek the nomination , but received only 36 1 / 2 votes . Following Stevenson 's nomination , Chandler returned to Kentucky bitterly disappointed . Due to the death of Senator Alben Barkley and the expiration of Senator Clements ' term , Kentucky would also elect two senators in November 1956 . Clements was seeking re @-@ election , and the state Democratic committee chose Wetherby as the nominee for Barkley 's seat . Chandler refused to use his office to support Stevenson , Clements , or Wetherby , and Republicans Dwight D. Eisenhower , John Sherman Cooper , and Thruston Ballard Morton won the presidential and senatorial races in the state .
In the 1959 gubernatorial primary , Chandler threw his support to Lieutenant Governor Harry Lee Waterfield . The anti @-@ Chandler forces eventually put forth Bert Combs as their nominee again . Having learned from his previous campaign , Combs now attacked Chandler for allegedly requiring state employees to donate 2 % of their salaries to his campaign . According to Combs , Chandler had deposited the money in a Cuban bank , but the money was lost when Fidel Castro overthrew the government in the Cuban Revolution . Ultimately , Combs prevailed in the primary by a vote of 292 @,@ 462 to 259 @,@ 461 . Republicans nominated John M. Robsion , Jr. to oppose Combs , and when Democratic President Harry S. Truman came to Paducah to campaign for Combs , Chandler refused to welcome him to the state , a customary duty of the sitting governor . Instead , in a letter to Truman , Chandler launched a blistering attack on his party 's nominees , calling Combs a liar and alleging that his running mate , Wilson W. Wyatt , who had previously served in Truman 's administration , had actually tried to undermine Truman by helping found Americans for Democratic Action . Combs ultimately won the general election by a wide margin .
= = Later life and death = =
In 1957 , Chandler was one of ten inaugural members of the Kentucky Sports Hall of Fame . A vestryman at St. John 's Church in Versailles , he was awarded the Bishop 's Medal of the Episcopal Church in 1959 . That same year , he received the Cross of Military Service from the United Daughters of the Confederacy . He served as a trustee of the Ty Cobb Foundation and Transylvania University . At the 1960 Democratic National Convention , he again sought the party 's presidential nomination , opining that the front @-@ runner , John F. Kennedy , was " a nice young fellow ... ( but ) too young for the nomination . " Chandler proposed that he be the presidential nominee with Kennedy as the nominee for vice @-@ president , but the convention chose Kennedy for president instead .
On January 3 , 1962 , Chandler opened a campaign headquarters in Frankfort , announcing his bid for an unprecedented third term as governor with the slogan " ABC [ Albert Benjamin Chandler ] in ' 63 " . His opponent in the primary was Edward T. " Ned " Breathitt , Jr . , the choice of outgoing Governor Bert Combs . Chandler reverted to his familiar campaign themes , charging the Combs administration with wasting state funds in the construction of a floral clock at the state capitol and denouncing Combs for re @-@ instituting the state sales tax . However , he found it very difficult to adapt to campaigning via television , an increasingly important medium , and his attacks mostly fell flat .
Breathitt enraged Chandler by charging that , when Chandler was a senator , he had voted in favor of declaring World War II , but soon after resigned his commission as a reserve army captain . According to Chandler 's version of events , after he voted in favor of the war declaration , he called Secretary of War Henry Stimson and asked to be put on active duty . Chandler said Stimson told him he would rather have a senator than a captain , after which Chandler resigned his commission . Chandler 's explanation did not stop Breathitt from repeating the charge often on the campaign trail .
Chandler lost to Breathitt in the primary by more than 60 @,@ 000 votes , although his running mate , Harry Lee Waterfield , won the nomination for lieutenant governor . Journalist John Ed Pearce opined that the loss marked the demise of the Chandler wing of the Democratic Party in Kentucky , although Chandler himself remained somewhat influential .
In 1965 , Chandler was named to the University of Kentucky Hall of Distinguished Alumni and became commissioner of the Continental Football League ( CFL ) . Chandler resigned from his CFL position in 1966 after league trustees supported a proposal to allow players from the major professional American football leagues , which he had been told would not happen . He served as Democratic National Committeeman from Kentucky . Becoming somewhat of a perennial candidate , he unsuccessfully ran for governor in 1967 and 1971 . After his loss in the 1967 Democratic primary , he endorsed Republican Louie B. Nunn . After his election , Nunn appointed Chandler to the first of his three terms on the University of Kentucky 's board of trustees .
In 1968 , Chandler was given serious consideration as the vice @-@ presidential running mate of Alabama 's former Governor George Wallace in the latter 's American Independent Party bid for the U.S. presidency . Wallace instead turned to Air Force General Curtis LeMay . The ticket lost to Richard M. Nixon and Spiro T. Agnew . Chandler said that he and Wallace were unable to come to an agreement regarding their positions on racial matters .
In 1971 , Chandler again entered the gubernatorial race , this time as an independent , but he garnered only 39 @,@ 493 votes , compared to 470 @,@ 720 for eventual Democratic victor Wendell H. Ford , and 412 @,@ 653 for Republican challenger Tom Emberton . Ford 's successor , Julian Carroll , again appointed Chandler to the University of Kentucky 's board of trustees .
The Major League Baseball Veterans Committee chose Chandler for induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1982 . In 1987 , filmmaker Robby Henson profiled Chandler in a 30 @-@ minute documentary entitled Roads Home : The Life and Times of A.B. ' Happy ' Chandler .
Chandler endorsed dark horse candidate Wallace G. Wilkinson in the 1987 Democratic primary , and his endorsement was considered crucial to Wilkinson 's victory in the race . After Wilkinson 's election as governor , he restored Chandler 's voting rights on the University of Kentucky 's board of trustees . ( In 1981 , then @-@ governor John Y. Brown , Jr. had designated Chandler an " honorary " , non @-@ voting member of the board . ) While discussing the University of Kentucky 's decision to dispose of its investments in South Africa at a meeting of the university 's board of trustees on April 5 , 1988 , Chandler remarked " You know Zimbabwe 's all nigger now . There aren 't any whites . " The comment immediately drew calls for Chandler 's resignation from the University Senate Council and the Student Government Association , and approximately 50 students marched on university president David Roselle 's office demanding that Chandler apologize or resign . Commenting on the controversy the next day , Chandler said " I was raised in a small town in Western Kentucky . There were 400 whites and 400 blacks , and we called them niggers and they didn 't mind . And I reverted temporarily , at least , to that expression , and of course , I wish I hadn 't . " That apology did not satisfy many , and 200 protesters marched on the state capitol , demanding that Governor Wilkinson remove Chandler from the board . Wilkinson refused to remove Chandler and urged the crowd to forgive him .
Chandler published his autobiography , Heroes , Plain Folks , and Skunks , in 1989 . In an interview with The Kentucky Kernel , the University of Kentucky 's student newspaper , Chandler was asked about his controversial comments the previous year , which were addressed in the book . Chandler reportedly told the paper " I said most of the Zimbabweans were niggers and they are niggers . " The comment sparked fresh protests and calls for Chandler 's resignation . In response to the controversy , Chandler 's personal assistant said " He used the word again in explaining that it was not intended by him to be a racial slur " , and called the Kernel 's story " a complete and total distortion . "
Chandler died in Versailles on June 15 , 1991 and was buried in the churchyard of Pisgah Presbyterian Church near Versailles . Prior to his death , he had been the oldest living member of the Baseball Hall of Fame and was the longest @-@ living former Kentucky governor .
= John Baird ( Canadian politician ) =
John Russell Baird , PC ( born May 26 , 1969 ) is a Canadian former politician . Baird served from 2011 to 2015 as Canada 's Minister of Foreign Affairs in the cabinet of Prime Minister Stephen Harper . He had been a member of the federal cabinet , in various positions , since 2006 . Previously he was a provincial cabinet minister in Ontario during the governments of Premiers Mike Harris and Ernie Eves . Baird resigned from cabinet on February 3 , 2015 , and as a Member of Parliament on March 16 , 2015 .
= = Overview = =
Before his spell as Minister of Foreign Affairs Baird held the posts of Minister of Transport , Infrastructure and Communities , Minister of the Environment and President of the Treasury Board . Prior to entering federal politics he was a provincial politician serving in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1995 to 2005 and a cabinet minister in the Progressive Conservative governments of Mike Harris and Ernie Eves , serving as the Minister for Children , Community and Social Services , Energy and Francophone Affairs in addition to being the Government 's Chief Whip .
A long @-@ time resident of the former city of Nepean , where he attended Bell High School , and a graduate of Kingston 's Queen 's University , he was until recently the member of the House of Commons of Canada for the riding of Ottawa West — Nepean . Baird was elected there as a candidate for the Conservative Party of Canada in the 2006 federal election , when his party defeated Paul Martin 's Liberal Party and established a minority government . Baird was sworn in as Leader of the Government in the House of Commons , replacing Jay Hill , on August 6 , 2010 . Prior to this , Baird served as Transport Minister starting October 30 , 2008 , Environment Minister starting January 2007 , and President of the Treasury Board during the Conservatives ' first year in power .
Baird served in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1995 to 2005 for the riding of Nepean — Carleton ( part of Nepean until 1999 ) , and was a cabinet minister in the Progressive Conservative governments of Mike Harris and Ernie Eves . He served as the Minister for Children , Community and Social Services , Energy and Francophone Affairs in addition to being the Government 's Chief Whip . After the Conservatives ' defeat by Dalton McGuinty 's Ontario Liberal Party , he was the party 's critic for key portfolios including finance , culture and health . Baird had been a member of the Conservatives since 1985 , when he was the youngest delegate at that time and was also a political aide for the federal Progressive Conservative Party of Canada in the late 1980s .
Directly upon his entry into politics , Baird became well known for being vocal on many subjects in the provincial and federal levels of government . During his tenure in the Harris Cabinet he adopted several cost @-@ saving measures , including reductions in discretionary government spending and an attempt to sell Hydro One , the government @-@ owned utility firm . As the federal President of the Treasury Board in the Harper Cabinet , he adopted the Federal Accountability Act , which was put in place after the Gomery Commission which investigated the federal sponsorship scandal in the late 1990s and early 2000s . As Environment Minister , Baird signalled the Canadian government 's opposition to the Kyoto Protocol whose targets have been functionally ignored since its symbolic ratification by the Chretien government .
= = Early life and career = =
Baird was born in Nepean , Ontario , the son of Marianne ( née Collins ) and Gerald Baird . He became involved in politics when he backed a candidate for the local federal PC nomination in 1984 . The next year , at age sixteen , Baird was the youngest delegate to attend the party 's January 1985 provincial leadership convention , as a supporter of Ontario Attorney @-@ General Roy McMurtry .
He was later president of the youth wing of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario , and aligned himself with Dennis Timbrell during the latter 's abortive campaign for the PC leadership in 1989 – 90 . He backed Mike Harris when Timbrell withdrew from the contest . Baird has also indicated that he was charged with trespassing during the 1988 federal election , after he tried to question Ontario Premier David Peterson about free trade with the United States during a Liberal Party campaign stop in a Kingston shopping mall . He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Political Studies from Queen 's University in 1992 .
Baird worked on the political staff of Perrin Beatty when Beatty was federal Minister of National Defence in the early 1990s , and followed Beatty through subsequent cabinet shifts , culminating in his becoming Secretary of State for External Affairs in the short @-@ lived 1993 government of Kim Campbell . After the defeat of the federal Progressive Conservatives in the 1993 federal election , Baird worked as a lobbyist in Ottawa .
Baird says he has been a vegetarian since 1997 . However , he admits to eating fish , and he reportedly ate seal meat on a trip to the Arctic in 2009 .
He had a pet grey tabby cat named Thatcher ; when the cat died on November 10 , 2009 , a message sent by Baird using his Blackberry which said " Thatcher has died " resulted in a false rumour to the effect that Margaret Thatcher had died . In June 2008 , he was selected by the Ottawa Business Journal as a recipient of the " Forty Under 40 " award .
= = Provincial politics = =
= = = Government backbencher = = =
While Baird had been associated with red tories such as Timbrell and Beatty , he became associated with the conservative ideology of the Mike Harris @-@ led Ontario PC party upon entering provincial politics . He was first elected to the Ontario legislature in 1995 , defeating Liberal incumbent Hans Daigeler in the Ottawa @-@ area riding of Nepean . The youngest member of the legislature , Baird was appointed parliamentary assistant to the Minister of Labour on July 13 , 1995 .
He became parliamentary assistant to the Chair of the Management Board of Cabinet in April 1997 , and was promoted to parliamentary assistant to the Minister of Finance in November of the same year . As a backbencher , Baird proposed a bill naming Highway 416 as the " Veterans ' Memorial Highway " and successfully steered its passage through the legislature . He was easily re @-@ elected in 1999 , defeating longtime Ottawa councillor Gord Hunter by a margin of almost 15 @,@ 000 votes .
= = = Community and Social Services minister = = =
Baird joined Premier Harris 's cabinet on June 17 , 1999 as Minister of Community and Social Services , where he became responsible for implementing and expanding Ontario 's workfare program . As one of Harris 's few bilingual ministers , he was also named as Minister responsible for Francophone Affairs .
= = = = 1999 = = = =
Baird 's first press conference as a cabinet minister was held in July 1999 , and was intended to highlight the Harris government 's record in reducing the provincial welfare rolls . Baird told reporters that 15 @,@ 000 people had left the system since the introduction of workfare , and used this figure to argue that the government 's policy was a success . At the time , he lacked information on the number of workfare recipients who actually found jobs , and he also did not account for 40 % of the welfare recipients who had been cut from the list . A number of media reports subsequently criticized both the principle and the implementation of workfare in Ontario .
A September 1999 report from Baird 's ministry showed that 10 @,@ 600 workfare placements had been created in the first six months of 1999 , a figure which the Toronto Star observed was significantly lower than that which had been predicted by the government . Baird indicated that he would continue with the workfare program , and that the proportion of welfare recipients on workfare would be increased from 15 % to 30 % .
Baird was criticized in late 1999 for refusing to cancel a five @-@ year contract that had been signed between his department and the Bermuda @-@ based private firm Andersen Consulting ( later Accenture ) , worth up to $ 180 million . The contract , signed when Janet Ecker was Community and Social Services minister , entrusted Andersen with providing technological upgrades to the province 's welfare management system . The arrangement was criticized by Auditor General Erik Peters , who observed that there was nothing in the contract to prevent Andersen from increasing its hourly rates . A published report in early 2000 indicated that Andersen was charging an average of $ 257 per hour for work that had previously been done by ministry staff at $ 51 per hour . Another report indicated that the firm had charged a total of $ 55 million to find roughly $ 66 million worth of savings . In response to opposition questions , Baird said that he would not terminate the contract but would endeavour to negotiate a lower rate . Baird opposed the Harris government 's plan to amalgamate the city of Ottawa with neighboring municipalities , which was approved by the legislature in 1999 .
= = = = 2000 = = = =
In January 2000 , Baird unveiled a series of initiatives designed to reduce fraud and misuse in the welfare system . This was highlighted by the establishment of a welfare fraud hotline and a complementary conditionality three months later , in which anyone convicted of welfare fraud would run the risk of being given a lifetime ban from the program . The investigations Baird initiated during the fiscal year of 2000 uncovered $ 58 @.@ 2 million in social assistance that people were not entitled to receive , and $ 16 @.@ 6 million in avoided future costs , but critics of this approach , including opposition members , poverty advocates , and scholars , suggested that the Harris government was overstating the extent of fraud in order to undermine public confidence in welfare programs . In mid @-@ year , Baird announced that workfare placements had reached departmental quotas for most of the province .
Baird revealed a $ 50 million program in May 2000 to help people with developmental disabilities become integrated into their communities . He later affirmed that the province was considering closing its remaining three institutions for the mentally handicapped as part of a larger strategy focusing on home care . Baird expressed concern about the physical condition of these institutions , saying that their residents " deserve better " . Later that same year , he stated that his department would spend $ 26 million on shelters and other funding for the homeless .
Baird supported mandatory drug @-@ testing for welfare recipients and argued that those who refused such tests should be at risk of have their assistance cut off . He introduced a policy initiative to this effect at a press conference in late 2000 , in which he dramatically cast a box of syringes onto the floor and said that his department planned to " stop people from shooting their welfare cheque up their arm , and to help them shoot up the ladder of success " . Baird acknowledged that his department did not have reliable figures on the number of welfare recipients abusing drugs , although he cited estimates of between 4 % and 10 % . The proposal was criticized by several people , including Ontario Human Rights Commissioner Keith Norton , a former Progressive Conservative cabinet minister , who expressed concern that it could violate Ontario 's human rights code , but officials including Baird justified the measures as , " necessary in order to push people still receiving assistance toward independence . "
Shortly after Baird 's announcement , a government website operated by the Ministry of Community and Social Services launched an attack against Liberal Party leader Dalton McGuinty for opposing the drug testing plan . The site claimed that McGuinty was " opposed to helping welfare recipients who are addicted to drugs " . Baird denied that the message was partisan and initially refused to apologize . The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario subsequently ruled that the site content was inappropriate and it was removed by the government , with an apology .
= = = = 2001 – 02 = = = =
In early 2001 , Baird announced that his government 's proposed drug @-@ testing plan would be extended to identify welfare recipients addicted to prescription drugs and alcohol . He later announced that provincial welfare applicants would be required to pass a literacy test . The Harris government 's welfare policies were put under scrutiny in August 2001 after a pregnant woman in Sudbury , Kimberly Rogers , died while serving a house arrest for welfare fraud . The woman had been confined to her apartment for three months and reports indicated that her pregnancy was " exacerbated by sweltering conditions in her apartment " . Responding to criticism , Baird said that he could not comment on the specifics of the case until a coroner 's inquest was completed . He defended his government 's general policy on welfare issues . A subsequent inquest did not assign blame to the government for the woman 's death , but recommended that lifetime bans for fraud be eliminated , and that adequate food , housing and medication be provided to anyone under house arrest .
Baird was given additional responsibilities as Minister responsible for Children on February 8 , 2001 . His department increased funding for child services early in the year , amid a significant increase in provincial demand . In November 2001 , the provincial media obtained a confidential government report recommending 40 – 45 % cuts in provincial child @-@ care programs . Baird initially declined to comment on the document 's contents , but rejected its proposals in early 2002 .
Baird was the first cabinet minister to support Jim Flaherty 's campaign to succeed Mike Harris as Progressive Conservative Party leader in the party 's 2002 leadership election . The election was won by Flaherty 's rival Ernie Eves , and early media reports suggested that Baird might be dropped from the new premier 's cabinet in April 2002 . He was not , but was demoted to the position of Chief Government Whip while remaining associate minister for Francophone Affairs . His replacement in Social Services was Brenda Elliott , who was from the more centrist wing of the Progressive Conservative Party .
= = = Energy Minister and Government House Leader = = =
Baird was returned to a more prominent cabinet position in August 2002 after Eves separated the ministries of Environment and Energy and appointed Baird to head the latter department . Baird was given additional responsibilities as Government House Leader in June 2003 after Chris Stockwell was forced to resign following allegations that he had used government funds for a family vacation .
As Energy Minister , Baird was entrusted with implementing the government 's plan to sell off part of Ontario 's Hydro One . A few months later , he became unexpectedly involved in two major and interrelated policy reversals . The Energy ministry came under intense media scrutiny in late 2002 after hydro rates increased significantly in many parts of the province . Critics argued that the Progressive Conservative government 's price deregulation policy ( implemented before Baird became Energy Minister ) was responsible . Baird suggested that the rate increases resulted from an unusually hot summer . Rates remained high through the autumn , and the Eves government was forced to re @-@ regulate the market in November by introducing a price cap . The government continued to support deregulation in principle , but maintained the cap for the remainder of its term in office . The second and more fundamental reversal occurred in late January 2003 , when Premier Eves announced that Hydro One would remain under public control .
Baird was regarded as less combative as Energy Minister than he had been in Community and Social Services . The energy policies of the Eves government were controversial , but opposition criticism was often directed at the premier rather than at Baird . Eves took a prominent interest in the Energy portfolio , and sometimes relegated Baird to a secondary role in policy announcements . In November 2002 , however , he was followed around the province by " Hydrozilla " , a man in a giant lizard suit sent by the Ontario New Democratic Party as a stunt to show that deregulating electricity rates would create an ' economic monster ' for consumers . In early March 2003 , Baird announced that the government might be forced to implement rolling blackouts as a response to energy shortages . He encouraged conservation in late summer 2003 , following a province @-@ wide blackout caused by a generator failure in the United States .
= = = Opposition member = = =
The Ontario Liberal Party won a majority government in the 2003 election , although Baird was comfortably re @-@ elected in his own seat . Between 2003 and 2005 he served as Official Opposition critic for Finance , Culture , Francophone Affairs , Intergovernmental Affairs and Health . He opposed the imposition of a health premium by Dalton McGuinty 's government in 2004 , charging that the Liberals broke an election pledge not the raise taxes . Baird and New Democrat Peter Kormos were vocal critics of Speaker Alvin Curling for allegedly favouring his Liberal colleagues , saying that he sanctioned Conservative and NDP members for behaviour he would allow from Liberals . At one stage , Baird described Curling 's job performance as an " absolute disgrace " .
Baird co @-@ chaired Jim Flaherty 's second campaign to lead the Progressive Conservative party in 2004 . Flaherty was again unsuccessful , losing on the second ballot to the more centrist John Tory . Baird and Flaherty left provincial politics in 2005 to campaign for the federal House of Commons . Although Baird was generally on the right wing of the provincial Progressive Conservative Party , he expressed liberal views on some social issues . He supported same @-@ sex marriage during the 2003 provincial election , and in 2005 helped the McGuinty government achieve quick passage of a provincial bill granting legal recognition to same @-@ sex couples .
= = Federal politics = =
Baird supported a Canadian Alliance candidate in the 2000 federal election , and later endorsed Stephen Harper 's bid to lead the newly formed Conservative Party of Canada in its 2004 leadership election . He was appointed as the Conservative Party 's Ontario co @-@ chair for the 2004 federal election . There were rumours that Baird would leave provincial politics to contest the 2004 election , but this did not happen . In 2005 he resigned his provincial seat to campaign federally for the Conservative Party .
Baird won a contested nomination battle for Ottawa West — Nepean Conservative nomination on May 5 , 2005 , defeating challengers Ed Mahfouz , Margret Kopala and Ade Olumide . John Pacheco , a leader in the social conservative movement against same @-@ sex marriage , had sought the nomination but was disqualified due to past comments he had made alleging that homosexual practices posed a health risk . Pacheco later campaigned in the election as an " Independent conservative " , with the specific intent of being a spoiler against Baird . He argued that if his campaign caused Baird to lose , the Conservatives would " get the message that social conservatives are serious about their politics . " Baird chose to ignore Pacheco entirely in at least one all @-@ candidates debate .
Baird was elected , defeating Liberal candidate Lee Farnworth by about 5 @,@ 000 votes . The Ottawa Citizen endorsed Baird in this campaign , and argued that his political judgment had improved considerably since his tenure as a Harris cabinet minister . In December 2006 Baird was one of thirteen Conservative MPs who voted against reopening the national debate on same @-@ sex marriage .
Baird has played an aggressive role in Question Period since his appointment to cabinet , leading MP Garth Turner to describe him as Stephen Harper 's " Commons pit bull " .
= = = President of the Treasury Board = = =
Baird was appointed President of the Treasury Board on February 6 , 2006 . Following his appointment , he said that one of his priorities would be to prevent government jobs from being relocated from Ottawa to other regions for political purposes . Baird also indicated that his government was not planning to introduce job cuts or initiate a radical reduction in the size of government . In June 2006 he announced the creation of a three @-@ member panel to advise the federal government on grant and contribution programs and accountability issues . One of the members was Frances Lankin , a former Ontario New Democratic Party cabinet minister .
= = = = Accountability Act = = = =
Baird introduced the Conservative government 's first piece of legislation in April 2006 . The Accountability Act promised significant reform to the structure of Canadian politics and government . Prime Minister Harper said that it would " put an end to the influence of money " in the Canadian government . The Accountability Act restricted the ability of former politicians and bureaucrats to become lobbyists , provided protection to whistle @-@ blowers in the civil service and gave the Auditor General of Canada new powers of oversight . It limited individual donations to political parties and candidates to $ 1 @,@ 100 per year ( down from $ 5 @,@ 200 ) , created nine new or revised positions to oversee the activities of public officials and placed crown corporations such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation under access @-@ to @-@ information legislation .
Opposition MPs complained that several recommendations for access @-@ to @-@ information reform were left out of the bill , and were instead sent to committee for further review . New Democratic Party MP Pat Martin suggested that this deferral could delay meaningful reform for the foreseeable future . Martin later made a deal with Baird to give the bill an easy passage through committee , in return for the Conservatives accepting some NDP amendments .
Information Commissioner John Reid has criticized the new proposed powers for his department under the legislation , arguing that they will create unnecessary bureaucracy . Shortly after the Accountability Act was introduced to parliament , Reid issued an emergency report saying that the legislation would " increase the government 's ability to cover up wrongdoing , shield itself from embarrassment and control the flow of information to Canadians " . He added that no government had ever put forward " a more retrograde and dangerous " set of proposals for dealing with access to information laws . Baird described Reid 's criticisms as " excessive " , stating that most of the commissioner 's specific concerns were minor in nature . Representatives of Canada 's business community also expressed concern about changes to disclosure laws , arguing that their commercial secrets could be exposed to competitors .
The bill passed the House of Commons on division in June 2006 . The Canadian Senate approved it in December 2006 , with several amendments , and sent it back to the Commons for further consideration . The amended act was approved by the Commons without debate on December 8 , and was signed into law four days later .
Shortly after the bill first passed the Commons , Baird acknowledged that the Conservatives might have unintentionally broken political financing laws by failing to report convention fees collected in 2005 . He told a Senate committee that $ 1 @.@ 7 million was left unreported and that he did not realize it was an issue at the time . The matter is under review by the Chief Electoral Officer . The Conservatives quietly tabled an amendment to the Accountability Act in November 2006 , stipulating that convention fees will not be counted as political contributions .
= = = = Program cuts = = = =
In May 2006 , Baird was asked to find $ 1 billion in cuts for 2006 and 2007 . On September 25 , on the same day that the government announced a $ 13 @.@ 2 billion surplus , Baird announced cuts to sixty @-@ six federal programs , including Status of Women , medicinal marijuana research , Canadian museums , adult literacy , youth employment and social development and the British Columbia pine beetle program . One of the most controversial cuts was to the federal Court Challenges Program , which provided funding for Canadians to pursue rights cases in the Canadian court system . Baird argued that government funding would be redirected in a way that " reflects the priorities of working families " and that he " just [ didn 't ] think it made sense for the government to subsidize lawyers to challenge the government 's own laws in court . " In justifying cuts to adult literacy programs , Baird referenced his government 's support for youth literacy and said , " We 've got to fix the ground level problem and not be trying to do repair work after the fact . "
= = = = 2006 Ottawa municipal election = = = =
In early October 2006 , Baird 's department reviewed a promised $ 200 million grant to the City of Ottawa 's light @-@ rail expansion project for the O @-@ Train . Baird indicated that the government would keep the funding at least until the November election , but added that the Council elected in November would have the final say on the issue . He also leaked details of the city 's contact with the German firm Siemens . As a result , the rail program became a focal issue in the 2006 Ottawa mayoral election and Baird 's opponents accused him of trying to influence the outcome . Baird and Ottawa Mayor Bob Chiarelli accused one another of lying about details of the project , and Liberal MP Navdeep Bains asked the Federal Ethics Commissioner to investigate Baird 's decision to release details of the private contract . Chiarelli was defeated in the election and the light @-@ rail expansion was stopped by the new council .
An Ottawa Citizen report in January 2007 revealed that federal officials had not posed any objections to the light @-@ rail project before Baird 's intervention , and suggested that his involvement was political in nature . Green Party leader Elizabeth May speculated that Ottawa may have been deprived of light @-@ rail service because of an apparent " personal vendetta " from Baird against Chiarelli . Baird denied this charge , saying that his intervention was not political .
Opponents of the light @-@ rail project have argued that it was undertaken without sufficient consultation with the public . In February 2008 , it was reported that the House of Commons committee on government operations would be looking into his involvement over the case . MP and committee member Mark Holland voiced a concern that Baird leaked information on the contract . Baird replied that he made the right decision and dismissed the investigation saying " there is no evidence of anything " . Speaking to reporters he added following the announcement of the investigation : " If you want to avert a billion @-@ dollar boondoggle , you have to make some difficult decisions " .
= = = = Other responsibilities = = = =
Baird held ministerial responsibilities for the Toronto Harbourfront Centre and the Toronto Waterfront Revitalization Corporation . He developed a working relationship with Toronto Mayor David Miller soon after his appointment , and was present for the announcement of a comprehensive new waterfront strategy in June 2006 . Ontario cabinet minister David Caplan described Baird as a champion of waterfront renewal and Miller described him as an ally of the city . Baird spent Christmas 2006 meeting with Canadian soldiers in Afghanistan .
= = = Environment Minister 2007 – 08 = = =
On January 4 , 2007 , Baird was appointed as Environment Minister in a cabinet shuffle , replacing Rona Ambrose . In making the appointment , Prime Minister Stephen Harper acknowledged that his government needed to do more to make the environment a priority . Some commentators remarked favourably on Baird 's appointment , describing him as a strong communicator and negotiator . Columnist Andrew Coyne , however , described Baird as " the man sent to kill the issue , " suggesting that Baird 's appointment was meant to neutralize the environment as an election issue rather than to initiate any meaningful reforms . Baird is a vocal opponent of the Kyoto Protocol , which he argues will bring about an " economic collapse " . Later in 2007 , he added that any new environmental agreements must include reduction targets for major greenhouse emitters such as China , India and the United States who have not signed the Protocol or does not have any mandatory reductions set by the Protocol . Baird met with renowned Canadian environmentalist David Suzuki following his appointment . At the time Suzuki said he was encouraged by Baird 's approach , but remained skeptical of the Harper government 's environmental plans . However , when Baird unveiled the Conservative government 's plan in April 2007 , Suzuki confronted him , calling the plan " a disappointment " .
= = = = Approach to the Kyoto Protocol = = = =
In February 2007 , the Liberal opposition brought forward a non @-@ binding motion for Canada to renew its commitment to the Kyoto Protocol . All Conservative MPs who were present in the House , including Baird , voted against the motion , which passed with the support of the three opposition parties . The following month , opposition members on a special Commons committee used their majority to bring forward sweeping changes to the government 's Clean Air Act . Among other things , the revised act called for participation in international carbon markets and the fulfillment of Kyoto targets .
Baird indicated that the opposition 's changes would not be included in federal targets or regulations .
In April 2007 , Baird produced a federal study supported by five independent economists to support his approach to the Kyoto Protocol . Among the five economists was Toronto @-@ Dominion Bank chief economist Don Drummond , who also wrote a private letter to Baird arguing that the " economic cost [ of implementing Kyoto ] would be at least as deep as the recession in the early 1980s . " Opposition parliamentarians dismissed the report as a scare tactic , while Liberal Environment critic David McGuinty argued that the study was misleading , saying that it did not properly examine international emission trading and ignored jobs to be created through the " green economy " . The report claimed that Canada 's ability to invest in developing nations to meet emissions targets through CDM by misquoting the amount of credit to be $ 85 million instead of the real approximation of $ 3 billion . Soon afterward , a United Nations report also contradicted the study mentioning that " steep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions can be accomplished at a cost of only 0 @.@ 12 per cent of the world 's annual economic output " but Baird responded that Canada 's gas emission levels would peak in 2012 , three years before the UN 's set target of 2015 .
= = = = Environmental strategy = = = =
Baird was the Harper government 's representative at the release of a major United Nations report on climate change in Paris in February 2007 . He described the report as a " turning point in the battle against climate change , " while indicating his surprise that human activity was found to be a major cause of the phenomenon .
Baird released his government 's targets for greenhouse gas emissions in late April 2007 . The plan calls for Canada to begin cutting its existing rate of greenhouse gas emissions by 2010 and for cuts to reach 20 % by 2020 . Under this plan , Canada will reach its Kyoto targets between 2020 and 2025 , taking an additional eight to thirteen years longer than Kyoto . The government plan uses production intensity targets instead of hard caps . Baird said that the " plan strikes a balance between the perfection some environmentalists may be seeking and the status quo that some in industry seek to protect . " In December 2007 , Baird revealed in a plan that over 700 big @-@ polluter companies , including oil and gas , pulp and paper , electricity and iron and steel companies , must cut greenhouse emissions by six percent between 2008 and 2010 . The companies would also have to produce an annual report every May 31 that would include data regarding the level of greenhouses emissions produced each year . Baird 's proposal has been met with approval from Canada 's oilpatch executives , who described them as the toughest emission regulations in the world , and who feared that more stringent standards would stifle oil sands exploration . Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty had been considerably less critical than his brother , federal Liberal Member of Parliament David McGuinty , having written to Prime Minister Harper on the environmental policy . The Premier had stressed the importance of a policy that considered the North American market as a whole , due to the automotive industry 's importance to his province . McGuinty said the Conservatives ' environmental plan could have gone further but described the auto emissions part of the plan as " very sensible " .
Members of opposition parties have criticized the government 's abandonment of the Kyoto goals , while David Suzuki described the proposal as a " sham " with " weak targets " . Former US vice president Al Gore said Baird 's plan was a " complete and total fraud " that was " designed to mislead the Canadian people " . Baird responded by defending his plan and by criticizing Gore 's environmental record , noting that no similarly stringent measures were passed during Gore 's tenure in office and that the Kyoto Treaty was never submitted to the US Senate for ratification . Liberal Party MP Pablo Rodriguez introduced to the House of Commons a private bill that would have forced Canada to comply with the Kyoto Treaty in response to the government 's plan . While the bill passed , Baird mentioned that , even though that the government wouldn 't dismiss the idea , there were no new environmental measures planned . All three opposition parties demanded that the environment become one of the main points of the government 's Throne Speech in the 2007 fall session .
= = = = Environmental record = = = =
Shortly after his appointment , Baird , Stephen Harper and Natural Resources Minister Gary Lunn announced $ 1 @.@ 5 billion for clean @-@ energy initiatives over the next decade . Baird and Lunn also announced a $ 230 million program for clean energy technology . Lunn said that " there were literally hundreds of programs but there was no focus " when the Conservatives took office . Critics argued that the new Conservative measures were similar to measures introduced by the Liberals in their 2005 budget . Former Liberal leader Stéphane Dion has argued that the Conservative Party 's strategy is too strongly focused on nuclear energy .
On February 12 , 2007 , Baird appeared at a press conference with Stephen Harper and Quebec Premier Jean Charest to announce a $ 1 @.@ 5 billion environmental fund for the provinces . Journalist Frances Russell criticized that as a reduction from the $ 3 billion promised by the previous Liberal government .
Canada is a signatory to the Kyoto protocol which legally requires signatory countries to set up compatible carbon trading markets . In direct defiance
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of this international legal obligation , in March 2007 , Baird indicated that he wanted Canadian companies to be banned , or at least severely restricted , from participating in the international carbon market . Several European countries had already set up a trading system to allow companies that reduce their emission levels below government targets to sell " credits " on an international market . Many industry leaders argued that Canada should adopt a similar policy . Then @-@ opposition leader Stéphane Dion argued that participation will allow Canadian firms to make " megatonnes of money " . Baird however described some carbon markets as " shaky , " and argued that trade should be restricted to within Canada , or perhaps within North America . In April he indicated that Canadian businesses would soon gain the right to earn credits by investing in overseas environmental projects .
Baird defended another Conservative government decision to cut funds for climate science research , arguing that further studies are largely superfluous in light of recent United Nations reports . Gordon McBean of the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences has disagreed , claiming that further research is the best way to adapt to a changing climate .
Baird said in a House of Commons Committee that his government would not consider the implementation of a carbon tax . He told that the government 's approach " will be to provide regulation for industry to ensure we reduce both greenhouse gas emissions and reduce air pollutants "
= = = = Bali = = = =
While participating at the United Nations Summit On Climate Changes in Bali , Indonesia , Baird announced a $ 86 million funding to help Canadian communities notably coping with the loss of forests due to pine beetles in the west and of infrastructures in the north due to softer soil . The four @-@ year plan included $ 56 million on several projects and $ 29 million for research .
Baird was criticized by some parties and observers for obstructing progress on what was to become ' the Bali Action Plan ' . Baird showed up for the Bali Conference at which it was intended he explain Canada 's position at a meeting with non @-@ governmental activists , but instead quickly left , with one of the activists alleging that Baird left because he " probably did not want to confront young activists critical of Canada 's stand . "
= = = Draft Baird Movement = = =
In late November and early December 2008 , a website went online allegedly representing a movement to draft Baird for leader of the Conservative Party , in the face of Stephen Harper facing possible defeat by an opposition coalition .
The draft group allegedly comprised over 100 party members from across the country — including two MPs and one Senator ( who , reportedly , had requested anonymity ) . In its only contact with the media , the campaign claimed it had nearly 3 @,@ 000 visitors and 237 new supporters in less than ten hours .
Baird has since indicated not only that he is loyal to Harper , but that he is uninterested in ever becoming party leader . In 2011 he told a newspaper , " Some people may have when growing up , always harboured leadership ambitions . I 've never harboured leadership ambitions . It is the honest @-@ to @-@ God truth . "
= = = Minister of Transport ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = =
Baird served as Minister of Transport between October 30 , 2008 and August 6 , 2010 .
= = = ' Interim ' Environment Minister 2010 – 2011 = = =
= = = = Cancun climate ' fossil awards ' = = = =
After resuming his environment portfolio from November 2010 until January 2011 , Baird was the Harper government 's main representative to the United Nations climate conference in Cancun in December 2010 . On the first day , Canada “ won ” three Fossil of the Day awards , awards which , after a vote by more than 400 leading international organizations , go to countries that do the most to disrupt or undermine UN climate talks . " Canada under Baird was accused of " working against progressive legislation to address climate change " , cited for " cancelling support for clean energy and for failing to have any plan to meet its very weak target for reducing [ Canada ] ' s greenhouse gas emissions . "
= = = Foreign Affairs Minister 2011 – 2015 = = =
Activists on board a Canadian boat taking supplies to Gaza ( which had been blockaded by the Israeli government to ensure that weapons and other contraband did not enter Gaza ) in November 2011 urged Baird to resign as foreign minister for " failing to do his job " . They said they had been roughed up and Tasered by Israeli forces and that " If minister Baird wants to put the interests of a far @-@ right Israeli government before Canadians , he should apply for the job of Israel 's ambassador " . Baird affirmed Canada 's support for Likud 's opposition to Palestinian statehood while visiting Israel in February 2012 . On September 7 , 2012 he announced the sudden closure of Canada 's embassy in Tehran and the expulsion of all Iranian diplomats from Canada . Baird made the announcement at an Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation meeting in Russia . He said Canada 's decision was not linked to growing speculation of an imminent attack by Israel on Iran 's nuclear facilities . Baird said " Canada views the government of Iran as the most significant threat to global peace and security in the world today . " Canada 's actions were immediately praised by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu who described them as " bold leadership . "
Baird signed an agreement between the Governments of the United Arab Emirates and Canada for cooperation in the field of peaceful uses of nuclear energy .
Baird 's criticism of the stance of several African countries on same @-@ sex rights and of the Russian Federation for its ban on " homosexual propaganda " and other moves to suppress LGBT rights have been condemned by the social conservative lobby group REAL Women of Canada which issued a statement accusing him of " abuse of office " claiming that " Mr. Baird 's actions are destructive to the conservative base in Canada and causing collateral damage to his party . " A spokesman for Baird 's office replied stating " The promotion and protection of human rights is an integral part of Canada ’ s foreign policy . "
Baird refused to sign the world Arms Trade Treaty , with the Canadian government reportedly ordering its diplomats to play a “ low @-@ key , minimal role ” during negotiations and protect the rights of Canadian gun owners .
= = = Resignation and departing public office = = =
Following his resignation as Minister of Foreign Affairs , Baird remained a backbench MP for several weeks . On February 19 , 2015 he represented the government at the re @-@ opening of Canada House , the home of the Canadian High Commission to the United Kingdom . Baird 's resignation from parliament took effect on March 16 , 2015 .
= = Private sector = =
Since leaving politics , Baird has accepted several private sector appointments . In June 2015 he was hired as a strategic adviser to Hatch Ltd , an international engineering and consulting firm for companies in the resource industry . In October 2015 , he joined political risk consulting firm Eurasia Group as a senior adviser , where he offers strategic insight to companies on how global politics affects business . He has also been hired as an adviser to Barrick Gold and Bennett Jones , and accepted an appointment to the board of directors of Canadian Pacific Railway .
= = Electoral record = =
Source : Elections Canada
All electoral information taken from Elections Canada and Elections Ontario . Italicized expenditures refer to submitted totals , and are presented when the final reviewed totals are not available .
The 1999 and 2003 expenditure entries are taken from official candidate reports as listed by Elections Ontario . The figures cited are the Total Candidate 's Campaign Expenses Subject to Limitation , and include transfers from constituency associations .
= = Return to private sector = =
On March 27 , 2015 , Barrick Gold Corp. announced Mr. Baird 's appointment to its international advisory board , along with former U.S. Speaker of the House of Representatives , Newt Gingrich . No compensation details were disclosed in the filings .
= Tom & Gerri =
" Tom & Gerri " is the third episode of British dark comedy anthology series Inside No. 9 . It premiered on BBC2 on 19 February 2014 . The episode was based on a play that Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith had written while living together prior to the development of their series The League of Gentlemen . While the play had originally been around two hours in length , the episode was only half an hour . " Tom & Gerri " follows a difficult period in the life of Tom ( Shearsmith ) , a primary school teacher and aspiring writer , and his partner Gerri ( Gemma Arterton ) , a struggling actress , after Tom invites the homeless Migg ( Pemberton ) into his home . Conleth Hill stars as Stevie , a man worried about the mental health of his friend Tom . The entire episode takes place inside Tom 's flat .
Reviewers generally agreed that " Tom & Gerri " was significantly darker but less funny than previous episodes of Inside No. 9 . Nonetheless , the response to the episode as a whole was very positive . Critics disagreed about the presentation of Tom 's mental illness in the episode , with one journalist suggesting that the episode 's ending " set back public awareness of mental health at least half an hour " , but another saying that the story presented " a fine – if cartoonish – take on mental illness " .
= = Production = =
Writers Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , who had previously worked together on The League of Gentlemen and Psychoville , took inspiration for Inside No. 9 from " David and Maureen " , episode 4 of the first series of Psychoville . This episode , in turn , was inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Rope . " David and Maureen " took place entirely in a single room , and was filmed in only two shots . At the same time , the concept of Inside No. 9 was a " reaction " to Psychoville , with Shearsmith saying that " We 'd been so involved with labyrinthine over @-@ arcing , we thought it would be nice to do six different stories with a complete new house of people each week . That 's appealing , because as a viewer you might not like this story , but you 've got a different one next week . " As an anthology series with horror themes , Inside No. 9 also pays homage to Tales of the Unexpected , The Twilight Zone and Alfred Hitchcock Presents .
The " loose story " of " Tom and Gerri " was written originally as a two @-@ hour play while Shearsmith and Pemberton were on the dole and sharing a flat , prior to the production of League of Gentlemen . The story was inspired by their experiences in this environment . The character of Tom has his " life energy " drained in the same way that , the writers suggest , is experienced by jobhunters . The " sinister " atmosphere of the episode is meant to evoke the feeling that a person has when they " can 't quite manage to leave the flat " and they " can 't be bothered to tidy up " . " Tom & Gerri " ended up " quite different " from the play , which featured a character much like Pauline from The League of Gentlemen . Pemberton described the feel of the episode as Pinteresque , comparing it to Harold Pinter 's A Slight Ache . This sentiment was echoed by critic Gareth Lightfoot , writing in Teesside 's Evening Gazzette .
As the format of Inside No. 9 requires new characters each week , the writers were able to attract actors who may have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . In addition to the writers , " Tom & Gerri " starred Gemma Arterton and Conleth Hill . The flat in which the episode was filmed , with its boardgames and " misery " , was , for Shearsmith , similar to the flat once shared by the writers . The episode was filmed in winter , and Pemberton described a " grim " atmosphere during filming . He also said that he hated the wig and beard he wore to play Migg , which irritated his skin . David Chater , writing in The Times , said that the hair meant Migg " has an eerie resemblance to the Cowardly Lion from the Wizard of Oz - only not nearly as benign " .
Considering the title of " Tom & Gerri " , critic Bruce Dessau suggested that it was likely not a reference to the Tom and Jerry of 1970s sitcom The Good Life , as the life of Tom and Gerri is " anything but good " . Instead , he suggested , the reference was more likely to cartoon characters Tom and Jerry , saying that there " is definitely a hint of cat and mouse " in the plot . Metro critics Larushka Ivan @-@ Zadeh and Carol Carter concurred , saying that the plot consisted of " a game of cat and mouse " .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with Tom ( Shearsmith ) , a primary school teacher , apathetically marking work while chatting to Gerri ( Arterton ) , who is going to audition for a part in a play . Tom complains about a tramp begging outside their house . Later in the evening , Tom is home alone and Migg ( Pemberton ) , the tramp , comes to his door , to return Tom 's wallet . Tom rewards him with £ 40 . Migg comes back later with a bottle of whiskey for Tom . Reluctantly , Tom invites Migg inside for a drink . Migg says he knows Charles Bukowski , a writer Tom idolises , and Tom warms to Migg as they drink .
Tom awakes the next morning on his sofa . Gerri is alarmed to see him there , as he should be at work , and then gets angry that Migg was invited in . Migg emerges from the bathroom as Gerri leaves the house , and encourages Tom to call in sick . It is revealed that Tom had promised Migg some of his clothes , and Migg makes breakfast . Later , Migg and Tom play Risk and drink wine . Tom is concerned that Gerri has not called . When Tom heads out to buy cigarettes and wine , Migg hides Tom 's mobile and deletes an answerphone message left by Tom 's colleague Stevie ( Hill ) .
A week later , Tom lies in bed , smoking and writing . Gerri enters the room , and it is revealed that Tom has left his job . She has been rehearsing in Portsmouth and says she left him dozens of messages , but Tom thinks he lost his phone . The pair fight over Migg , who is still living with Tom . Later still , the flat is a mess , and Tom is unkempt and drinking heavily . He has no messages on his phone and no post . He sits down to play Scrabble with Migg , and it is revealed that it is Tom 's birthday . The two argue about washing up , and Migg says that Tom has " no right " to judge him . Tom storms out of the room , and Migg flicks through birthday cards he has hidden from Tom , saying " Thank you , Grandma ! " and taking the £ 10 that Tom 's grandmother sent . The house and Tom have deteriorated further when Stevie comes to visit . He has brought Tom vouchers for The Body Shop . Stevie invites Tom out for dinner , but he declines . Stevie leaves , and Tom settles down with Migg on the sofa .
Tom 's electricity is cut off , and he weeps . A shaven Migg , wearing clean clothes , enters the house . He has started a job , working with children , and gives Tom £ 40 because Tom has " done so much " for Migg . Migg wants to take over the tenancy on the flat until Tom 's benefits come in . He walks into the bathroom to get into the bath as Gerri walks in and comforts Tom , who asks her not to leave . Gerri tells Tom that he has invented Migg to cope with what has been happening . She says Tom is depressed and has had a nervous breakdown . The pair head into the bathroom , but there is no Migg . Gerri tells Tom to " get this Migg out of [ his ] head once and for all " . She leaves , and Migg emerges from a hiding place ; he asks if everything is alright .
Things apparently get better : the flat is tidy , Tom is smartly dressed and clean @-@ shaven . Gerri is happily chatting to him . Tom answers the door to Stevie , who asks Tom to come back to work . He is alarmed to see Tom call Gerri ; Stevie says that Gerri was killed in a car accident , and that Tom went back to work too soon . Stevie heads to the bathroom to get Tom 's medication , but freezes when he sees the corpse of Migg in the bath . Tom tells him not to worry , and that Migg is not real . He invites Stevie to stay for coffee , saying Gerri is just boiling the kettle .
= = Reception = =
Reviewers generally agreed that the episode was darker than previous episodes , but not as funny . However , Will Dean , writing in The Independent , said that his observation that the episode " wasn 't really in the slightest bit funny " was " no complaint " . The critical response to " Tom & Gerri " was overwhelmingly positive ; Dean was " moved by its sad brilliance " , while Gerald Gilbert , also writing in The Independent , called it " another finely worked playlet " . Bruce Dessau said viewers would be " totally immersed from start to finish " .
Critics disagreed on how " Tom & Gerri " compared to previous episodes of Inside No. 9 . Writing in The Guardian , Mark Jones said that " Tom & Gerri " was the " highlight of the series so far , with Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton on top form " . Pat Stacey , of the Evening Herald , agreed , though considered the previous episodes weak . By contrast , an anonymous reviewer in the Liverpool Echo thought " Sardines " was stronger , but said " Tom & Gerri " was " definitely the creepiest " of the first three , and Chater also disagreed with Jones and Stacey ; while he praised the episode as " a sinister tale about the fragile nature of sanity performed by actors who are frighteningly good " , he felt that it was not as strong as earlier installments . Like Chater , Dessau stressed the quality of the acting , praising the performances of both Shearsmith and Pemberton , especially the latter .
There was further disagreement on the episode 's approach to mental illness . Andrew Billen , writing in The Times , said he initially thought Mind may be able to use " Tom & Gerri " as a teaching aid , but he said that the ending " set back public awareness of mental health at least half an hour " . By contrast , Dean considered the character of Tom to be " a fine – if cartoonish – take on mental illness " .
Billen called the episode " distressing comedy to watch " , but said that " the acting , the scripting , the satisfactions of one @-@ act resolution and the laughter it generated " were redeeming qualities , and gave the episode four out of a possible five stars . Dessau felt that parts of the script were predicable , but some twists " catch you completely unaware " , while the ending " may haunt [ viewers ] for days " . Jack Seale , of the Radio Times , suggested that viewers will believe that they have guessed the plot by the half @-@ way point in the episode . However , he said that the writers " give their story of how we 're all one slip away from the gutter a chilling sense of rising dread " which counteracts this . " Nobody " , he said , " plays wicked games with the audience more skilfully . " Larushka Ivan @-@ Zadeh and Carol Carter , writing in Metro , suggested that viewers would want to rewatch the episode in an attempt to pick up clues to the plot twists that they originally missed .
= Dilek Peninsula @-@ Büyük Menderes Delta National Park =
Dilek Peninsula @-@ Büyük Menderes Delta National Park ( Turkish : Dilek Yarımadası @-@ Büyük Menderes Deltası Millî Parkı ) , established on May 19 , 1966 , is a national park in western Turkey . It contains within its borders the entirety of the Dilek Peninsula as well as the large delta of the Büyük Menderes River . It is located in the Kuşadası district of Aydın Province , and as such it is also within the bounds of Turkey 's Aegean Region . Directly west of the national park is the small coastal town of Güzelçamlı , where several shuttle buses and ferries operate to and from the district 's center of Kuşadası , approximately 30 km ( 19 mi ) from the park .
The park is among the most biologically diverse of Turkey 's national parks . It is the native and migratory habitat of hundreds of species of birds , mammals , plants , and marine life , some of which are entirely endemic to the park and cannot be observed anywhere else in the world . For these reasons , it is protected by numerous wildlife and wetland conventions , and is of great national and international importance in these areas .
It is separated from the Greek island of Samos ( Greek : Σάμoς ) by a very narrow strait , known as the Mycale Strait ( Greek : Στενό της Μυκάλης ) . The strait is named after Mount Mycale , the highest and most prominent mountain of the peninsula , and is one of the narrowest straits in the Aegean Sea .
= = History = =
For most of the area 's existence , the lands from the Dilek Peninsula southwards to the end of the Büyük Menderes River 's large delta were uninhabited by people or very sparsely settled , and were otherwise untouched by human influence . As a result of this isolation , the area was considerably populated with numerous species of plants and wildlife , most of which still remain within the park today . Eventually , under Ancient Greek and especially Ionian influence , several settlements near Mount Mycale and the Büyük Menderes Delta were built , such as Priene and Miletus . Nearby , Panionium was erected as the meeting place of the Ionian League . During modern times , and despite a significant increase in population and density in areas near the port town of Kuşadası , it was not until May 19 , 1966 that the Turkish Ministry of Forest and Water Management declared Dilek Peninsula a government @-@ protected national park . Several decades later , in 1994 , the Büyük Menderes river delta adjacent to the peninsula in the south was also promoted to national park status .
= = = Events = = =
In early 2005 , a severely wounded Mediterranean monk seal ( Monachus monachus ) was found within the Büyük Menderes Delta . It was treated immediately , but due to complications died shortly afterwards . The Mediterranean monk seal is critically endangered , with only about 600 remaining in the world , and over 100 of which are within the maritime borders of Turkey .
Controversy surrounded the park in April 2010 after the chairman of the Aydın Beekeepers Association , Kadir Kılıç , claimed that beekeepers would be dispatched at the national park , which had been banned since its establishment in 1966 . Debate continued for a short period of time , but the dispute was soon settled , as a representative of the Governor 's Office of Aydın publicly asserted the provincial government 's position on the matter . They denied the claims and confirmed that beekeepers would not be introduced to the park . Beekeepers are currently not allowed as a means of conserving the abundant flora of the park , many of which rely on bees for pollination .
= = Geography = =
The national park is 27 @,@ 598 ha ( 68 @,@ 200 acres ) in total land area , with the peninsula itself having an area of about 110 km2 ( 42 sq mi ) , with a width of around 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from north to south and a length of 20 km ( 20 @,@ 000 m ) east to west . It is located approximately 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from Davutlar , about 26 km ( 16 mi ) from the district 's seat of Kuşadası ( estimates range from 23 @-@ 30 kilometres ) , and is directly adjacent to the town of Güzelçamlı . Other nearby cities in Aydın Province have access roads to the park , including Aydın , Söke and , to a lesser extent , Didim .
The Mycale Strait separates the peninsula from the nearby island of Samos . Named after Mount Mycale , the strait is only about 1 @.@ 6 km ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) long at its narrowest point , making it one of the smallest straits within the region of the Aegean Sea .
= = = Popular features = = =
The mountainous terrain of the peninsula and its numerous caverns , canyons , and valleys result in the area being of high interest to both visitors and researchers . There are several coves along the shore that have been named in order to identify them easily . Upon entering the park from the east , the first and easternmost beach available to the public is known as İçmeler Cove ( Turkish : İçmeler Koyu ) . This cove 's waters are shallower than any other in the park , and its beaches are sandy , unlike some of the coves farther out . Therefore , it appears to be more popular amongst tourists than most of the remaining beaches and parts of Kuşadası that are visible along the horizon from it . Aydınlık Cove is situated about 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) further to the west , and has pebbly shores and deeper waters . It marks the transition point where the waters of the peninsula 's beaches become more challenging . As a result , these beaches tend to attract more experienced swimmers and locals rather than tourists . After passing the jandarma ( public safety patrol ) checkpoint , a turn onto a road leads to a nearby canyon , immediately to the left . From this point on , there are several trails through the forests of the peninsula . One of them leads to the village of Doğanbey , and if followed further , leads to the nearby ancient Hellenistic port city of Karine . However , this path 's final 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) are limited in access , and a permit or an accompanying tour guide is required to proceed . The third cove along the peninsula , Kavaklı Burun Cove , and the final , westernmost cove accessible to the public , Karasu Cove , both provide close views of the island of Samos , and are significantly less visited than the former coves of the peninsula . At the very end of the peninsula appears its tallest mountain , Mycale ( Turkish : Dilek Dağı ) , which looms over Samos and the strait of its namesake .
= = = = Cave of Zeus = = = =
Immediately upon entry into the national park , a fork in the main path begins a trail running through the inner peninsula leading to a local cavern known as the Cave of Zeus ( Turkish : Zeus Mağarası ) . The entrance is dense in vegetation , covering parts of it . There is also a wishing tree to which people usually tie objects and belongings , hoping for their wishes to be granted . The Cave of Zeus is filled with clear subterranean spring water , making it another common tourist attraction near the national park . Visits to the cave typically increase as the waters of the nearby beaches become rougher , thereby making them less inviting . The cave 's name invokes the many legends that concern the cave and its origins , including one holding that Zeus bathed in the cave .
= = = = Büyük Menderes Delta = = = =
The wide mouth of the Büyük Menderes River ( English : Great Meander ) empties at the Aegean Sea , with an area of 16 @,@ 613 ha ( 41 @,@ 050 acres ) ; larger than the entire Dilek Peninsula directly to the north , at only 10 @,@ 985 ha ( 27 @,@ 140 acres ) . The Büyük Menderes Delta is one of the most diverse wetlands in Turkey in terms of both vegetation and marine life , and is protected by several wetland agreements such as the Ramsar Convention . Its biodiversity is derived in part from the fertile lands and fresh waters of the delta , attracting numerous species to the area , including several migratory birds . The nearby mountains of the peninsula cause a marked temperature difference between the northern and southern faces of the peninsula , producing a corollary variance in the types of species found in the delta region . The area features a trail for visitors and options for canoeing and picnicking .
= = = Climate = = =
Dilek Peninsula @-@ Büyük Menderes Delta National Park has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) , and as such , it is dry and mild throughout most of the year , except during the winters , when most of the yearly precipitation occurs . The average temperature year @-@ round is about 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) , ranging from average lows of 8 ° C ( 46 ° F ) in the winter to highs of around 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) in the summer . However , on the mountaintops , as altitude increases , temperatures are usually much lower , with the annual mean temperature usually being no higher than 13 ° C ( 55 ° F ) . There are additional precipitation differences depending on elevation , and also between the north and south sides of the peninsula . Such precipitation amounts range from 900 – 1 @,@ 500 mm ( 35 – 59 in ) annually . Therefore , different species of foliage and plants live at higher altitudes than those at ground level , and the same is true when comparing the southern face of the peninsula and areas of the river delta with those to the north .
= = Geology = =
The terrain of the peninsula has much to do with the geology of the Aegean Region in general . The peninsula was shaped into its current form over several geological eras with the tectonic merging of Paleozoic schist formations , Mesozoic limestone and marble deposits , and finally the accretion of large clays and other sediments during the Neogene period . This is partly because of Turkey 's unstable fault block terrain , and because of the close proximity of the Anatolian @-@ Aegean plate boundary , which generates massifs of mountains all across western Turkey . This includes the peninsula and the mountains surrounding the Büyük Menderes River , known collectively as the Menderes Massif .
The peninsula is highly mountainous , with most of its mountains having elevations close to 1 @,@ 200 m ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) above mean sea level . Its highest mountain , Mount Mycale , is approximately 1 @,@ 237 metres ( 4 @,@ 058 ft ) high .
= = Biology = =
The national park is quite diverse in its wildlife and vegetation , hosting approximately 804 distinct species of plants , 256 bird species , and an otherwise considerable variety of mammals , reptiles , and marine life . The entirety of the national park , including both Dilek Peninsula National Park and Büyük Menderes Delta National Park , is currently protected under the Ramsar Convention , the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats , the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity , and the Barcelona Convention .
= = = Flora = = =
The park has a large diversity of vegetation . Due to the temperature and climate differences between different areas and elevations of the park , not only is the typical Aegean flora present , but also many specimens normally only found in separate coastal areas of Turkey , such as in the Mediterranean , Marmara , and Black Sea regions .
Out of the 804 species of flora distributed throughout the park , six are endemic , completely exclusive to the park area , and cannot be observed anywhere else on earth , while another 30 are indigenous . The most common and widely distributed plant species throughout the national park are Mediterranean maquis shrubs such as the Phoenician juniper ( Juniperus phoenicea ) . Other common vegetative species within the area include the oleaster @-@ leafed pear ( Pyrus elaeagnifolia ) , Turkish pine ( Pinus brutia ) , and elm @-@ leaved sumach ( Rhus coriaria ) .
= = = Fauna = = =
In total , 28 species of mammals , 42 species of reptiles , and 45 fish species have been documented within the park . Several wild boars ( Sus scrofa ) are native to the park . They are often found near the beaches where they feed on scraps and trash dropped by visitors . Further within the forests of the peninsula , other mammals can be spotted , such as golden jackals ( Canis aureus ) , Eurasian lynx ( Lynx lynx ) , and even several striped hyenas ( Hyaena hyaena ) and caracals ( Caracal caracal ) , among many others usually not native to such areas .
Along the southern shores of the peninsula , and within the river delta , exist a range of bird and marine life . Many of these species are endangered , which was one of the primary factors considered when placing the delta under national protection . Some of the more common bird species observed here include pygmy cormorants ( Microcarbo pygmeus ) , little egrets ( Egretta garzetta ) , lesser kestrels ( Falco naumanni ) , Kentish plovers ( Charadrius alexandrinus ) , white @-@ tailed eagles ( Haliaeetus albicilla ) , and the Dalmatian pelicans ( Pelecanus crispus ) , for which the park is a key nesting place . Marine life consists of species typical of the Aegean Sea , as well as some species usually found elsewhere .
The biodiversity of local oceanic fauna is not well understood . Sea turtles and mammals , including monk seals , fin whales ( only 1 sighting and 5 strandings have been documented in Turkish waters ) , and dolphins are considered to reside in the park area , although regularity of occurrences are unclear .
= = Activities = =
Nature photography is a common activity in the park due to the large variety of flora and fauna , as well as landscape photography due to the mountainous terrain and views . There are several forest trails and high @-@ elevation ventures used by hikers and mountaineers respectively . There are numerous other activities available for visitors , as well as some prohibited activities . For example , although recreational fishing is allowed , there are severe consequences for anyone found hunting within the jurisdiction of the park .
= = = Tourism = = =
The park is the most visited during the spring and summer months , when it is open between 8 : 00 and 19 : 00 ( 7 : 00 pm ) local time . In autumn and winter , it closes at 17 : 00 ( 5 : 00 pm ) , two hours earlier disregarding the time difference . Admission at the entrance must be paid . Camping , lighting fires , or setting up overnight shelters are strictly forbidden within the limits of the national park in order to protect the surrounding ecosystem . The park can be reached from the city center of Kuşadası via several dolmuş ( share taxis ) that regularly shuttle the route to the closest town of Güzelçamlı . Recently , there have also been ferry boat services operating back and forth between Kuşadası and Güzelçamlı , in turn providing easier access to the park for visitors . Each year , around 700 @,@ 000 foreign and domestic tourists visit the park .
= Moonlight Madness ( video game ) =
Moonlight Madness is a video game for the ZX Spectrum home computer , published in 1986 by Bubble Bus Software . It is an arcade adventure game in which players control a boy scout . The object of the game is to unlock a safe within a mansion to obtain pills for the mansion 's owner , a mad scientist , who has collapsed . This requires the player to traverse the mansion 's rooms while avoiding hazards such as dangerous house servants and fatal falls .
The game was developed by John F. Cain , who had previously created Booty , a popular budget game . Moonlight Madness was criticized for its price on release , £ 7 @.@ 95 in the UK , as well its technical issues . The game 's graphics , gameplay and sound were negatively rated by critics , though some reviewers were more positive over these different aspects of the game .
= = Gameplay = =
Players must guide a boy scout through a 43 @-@ room mansion in order to obtain 16 keys and a combination before running out of time . These unlock a safe containing the pills needed to save the mansion owner 's life . It is necessary to jump onto platforms and evade enemies in order to progress . At the start of the game the player has three lives ; a life is lost should the boy scout fall too far or come into contact with one of the mansion 's servants or traps . Rooms contain doors that can be entered to move around the mansion , as well as push buttons and hazards . Pressing buttons can result in lifts being activated , platforms appearing or in an enemy appearing . One of the mansion 's rooms is a corridor of eight doors with a large pair of eyes above them ; this room acts as a maze . A tune is played continuously during play , but can be toggled on or off .
= = Plot = =
The player character , a boy scout , has approached a mansion looking for work during Bob a Job week . The door is answered by an old man wearing horn @-@ rimmed glasses — the owner of the mansion . The man , a mad scientist , expresses surprise that the boy has managed to get past the guards and booby traps in the mansion 's grounds . As the boy scout explains the reason for his visit , the scientist collapses , asking for his pills . At this point the game begins . The player must gather the 16 keys needed to unlock the safe and retrieve the scientist 's pills before he passes away . During play the boy scout must negotiate the mansion 's rooms , avoiding hazards and the mansion 's staff , who have been told to protect the inventions within the mansion , using lethal force if necessary . The staff are unaware of the boy scout 's purpose and will attack him should they come into contact .
= = Development and release = =
The game was created by John F. Cain , who had previously developed the successful budget game Booty for Firebird Software . By this point Cain had also developed several titles for Rabbit Software , such as Potty Painter . Moonlight Madness was published by Bubble Bus in the United Kingdom and Spain in 1986 ; the original price was £ 7 @.@ 95 in the United Kingdom . Moonlight Madness was re @-@ released on budget software labels ; Blue Ribbon Software in the United Kingdom , Zafi Chip and Z Cobra in Spain . Blue Ribbon Software was a label belonging to CDS Microsystems , both of the Spanish budget labels belonged to Zafiro Software Division . The game was published on the covertape of the February 1991 issue of Your Sinclair magazine . The covertape also featured Marsport , Ninja Hamster and Wizard 's Lair .
= = Reception = =
Moonlight Madness received negative and mediocre ratings from reviewers , who either criticized the game overall or different aspects of it . Direct comparisons with Booty feature in many reviews . The game 's price was in particular a common complaint among reviewers , who stated that it should have been a budget @-@ priced title . One reviewer stated that it would have been better received as a budget title , another stated " Like Booty , Moonlight Madness would be all right at budget price " . Your Sinclair 's reviewer began their piece by stating " Hmmm , don 't like the title Moonlight Madness much , howzabout Daylight Robbery . Catchy , ain 't it ? " Computer Gamer 's reviewer stated " Had it been released on a budget label , Moonlight Madness would have been fair value for money . As it is , it is grossly overpriced . "
Reviewers highlighted technical issues in the game . The eight door maze room was thought to be a bug , a software error , by two people at ZX Computing magazine . Because the game contains no reset feature they reloaded the game from cassette in order to continue playing . The player character 's movements were criticised for being jerky and prone to stopping at infrequent intervals . One of Crash magazine 's staff stated that the boy scout 's movement to the left was quick ; " as if there 's a force ten gale blowing to the left . " They added " When any attempt is made to move right , all the moving characters on the screen slow right down . " In @-@ game objects are removed from view when either the player character or one of the mansion staff move in front of them . When the player redefines the game 's keyboard controls , allowing them to choose which keys move the boy scout during play , the pause key and music toggle key are not included . As a result it is possible to double @-@ up movement controls with these two functions , effectively causing the game to pause and unpause or for the music to toggle constantly as the player moves in that direction .
Reviewers ' opinions on the graphics and gameplay were largely negative , while opinion 's on the title 's music varied . The background music was described as " ... the only thing that is remotely interesting about this appallingly tedious game ... " by Popular Computing Weekly 's reviewer . He followed this by stating " At first it sounds all right , if a little monotonous , then it begins to grate the nerves . After a while it begins to take on all the appeal of the Chinese water torture . " Crash magazine 's three reviewers were more positive about the music , stating " The sound is fairly well done ... " , " The title screen plays a nice tune ... " and " ... the game 's drawing point is the sound ... " The game 's graphics were described as " fairly crude " , " unattractive " and " ... none too exciting , consisting of colourful but flickery characters . " One reviewer stated " The graphics are large and colourful but there is a lot of character clash ... " Overall impressions of Moonlight Madness were negative . Crash magazine 's reviewers compared the game unfavourably to Booty . One expressed disappointment because of Bubble Bus ' history of releasing " great arcade / adventures " . Your Sinclair 's reviewer stated " Maybe Bubble Bus had a touch of Moonlight Madness when it picked this one for its new release . " The reviewer from ZX Computing stated " Keeping to the boy scout theme , be prepared before you buy this one . "
= Shape ( song ) =
" Shape " is a song by English girl group Sugababes , released as the fourth and final single from their second studio album , Angels with Dirty Faces ( 2002 ) . It was composed by Sting , Dominic Miller , and Craig Dodds , who produced the song . The midtempo pop and R & B ballad incorporates a sample of Sting 's 1993 recording " Shape of My Heart " , whose vocals are featured in the chorus . It received mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards the sample of " Shape of My Heart " .
The single attained moderate success and reached the top twenty on the charts in Ireland , the Netherlands , Norway and the United Kingdom . The song 's music video was directed by Michael Gracey and Pete Commins , and filmed in Sydney , Australia . The video was censored and later re @-@ shot due to its depiction of nudity . It features the Sugababes at a masquerade ball in a mansion . The Sugababes performed " Shape " on GMTV , at the V Festival , and on tour in support of their albums .
= = Background and composition = =
" Shape " was written by Sting , Dominic Miller and Craig Dodds , and produced by Dodds under his production name Craigie , for the Sugababes ' second studio album , Angels with Dirty Faces ( 2002 ) . It is a remake of Sting 's 1993 recording " Shape of My Heart " ; the song 's verses were changed , while the chorus that features Sting 's vocals was re @-@ recorded . According to Sugababes member Mutya Buena , " He felt he could do better with the chorus , so he came in to re @-@ record it " . The song was engineered by Jack Guy , and programmed by Dean Barratt . Additional vocal recording was completed by Ben Georgiades . " Shape " is the album 's fourth and final single , and was released in the United Kingdom on 10 March 2003 as a CD single and cassette tape . The B @-@ side is a cover version of English producer Adamski 's and English musician Seal 's 1990 single " Killer " .
" Shape " is a midtempo pop and R & B ballad with a subtle dance groove . The song was composed in the key of F minor , at a moderately slow tempo of 82 beats per minute . The Sugababes ' vocal range in the song spans from the higher note of F3 to the lower note of G4 . Its instrumentation consists of keyboards and bass guitar . The chorus of the song features Sting 's vocals . Adrian Thrills of Daily Mail described " Shape " as an " ambitious , harmonica @-@ led reworking " of " Shape of My Heart " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Shape " received generally mixed reviews from critics . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian criticised the track as a " lumbering , mirthless AOR ballad , grown @-@ up in the worst sense of the phrase " . The Birmingham Post 's Andrew Cowen panned the song as " horrible " , and regarded the sample from " Shape of My Heart " as " not big or clever " . Andy Kellman of AllMusic called " Shape " a " bum moment " on the album , and dismissed it as a " misguided re @-@ configuration " of the sample . Alex Needham of NME considered it a " massive faux pas " on the album . The Jerusalem Post writer Harry Rubenstein viewed " Shape " as " [ a ] sing- along , more than a cover , that sounds completely uninspired and out of place amongst the faster @-@ paced R & B tracks on the rest of the album " . In contrast , David Byrne of RTÉ.ie called the track a " nice touch " on the album , while Daily Record writer Julie MacCaskill complimented the sample of Sting 's " Shape of My Heart " , which she felt produced the song 's powerful hook . Alan Poole from the Coventry Evening Telegraph wrote that the Sugababes " underline their versatility " on the track . A writer from South Wales Echo felt that " Shape " was equally good as " Freak like Me " and " Round Round " , the group 's number @-@ one singles from the same album . A critic from Daily Mirror described it as a " clever " cover that depicts the Sugababes " on top form " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Shape " debuted at number eleven on the UK Singles Chart on 22 March 2003 . It became the first single from Angels with Dirty Faces to not reach the top ten . By early 2010 , it had sold 55 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . The song was more successful on the Irish Singles Chart , where it debuted and peaked at number nine , and in turn became the third single from Angels with Dirty Faces to reach the top ten . " Shape " also achieved commercial success in Continental Europe . In Belgium ,
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the song reached number two on the Ultratip chart in Wallonia , and number 49 on the Ultratop chart in Flanders . The single debuted at number 16 on the Netherlands ' Dutch Top 40 chart , and peaked at number seven three weeks later . It ended as the chart 's 76th best @-@ performing single of 2003 . The song peaked at number 16 on the Norwegian VG @-@ lista chart and spent four weeks in the top twenty . " Shape " attained top @-@ forty positions on the German and Swiss singles charts , and reached the top fifty on the Austrian chart . The single debuted and peaked at number 75 on the Australian Singles Chart , where it charted for a total of four weeks .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The accompanying music video for " Shape " was directed by Michael Gracey and Pete Commins . It was filmed during December 2002 in Sydney , Australia , and was released on 24 February 2003 . Baz Luhrmann 's Moulin Rouge team assisted in its production . Sting did not appear in the video due to a busy schedule . The Sugababes wore flesh @-@ coloured bodysuits which caused controversy as it implied nudity . The video was subsequently censored and later re @-@ shot after being deemed " too raunchy " . The video features computer @-@ generated butterflies around the group members ' bodies and was described as displaying " a wonderland " .
The video opens with a scene of the ocean at night . It then shows a mansion by the water , in which Buena is seen standing by a balcony . The following scene shows Range entering the mansion as two men open the doors for her . Buena is shown walking in the middle of a masquerade ball , in which she captures the attention of a man . The Sugababes are shown on a couch , where Buchanan holds a man 's hand ; they all then walk down the mansion 's staircase . Each group member begins to dance with a man at the ball . Buena walks towards a mirror which depicts a reflection of the Sugababes , while Buchanan drops her white mask which subsequently shatters . Towards the end of the video , they are shown leaving the ball before Buchanan jumps off the balcony and into the water . All three members are shown collectively in the water , which begins to fade out into the sky . The last scene shows the men that were in the mansion walking away .
= = = Live performances = = =
The Sugababes performed " Shape " on GMTV on 20 February 2003 which was the same day of the 2003 BRIT Awards . They performed the song on 30 March 2003 at the Royal Court Theatre in Liverpool . An acoustic version of the song was performed during their tour in support of Three ( 2003 ) , the group 's third studio album . The group sang " Shape " at the Edinburgh Corn Exchange on 18 August 2004 as part of a set list . The third line @-@ up of the Sugababes , comprising Buchanan , Range and Amelle Berrabah , played the single while on the Taller in More Ways tour as part of a medley with " Stronger " . The trio also performed these two songs as an acoustic medley at the 2006 V Festival , and at the 100 Club in London to promote the release of their greatest hits album , Overloaded : The Singles Collection .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Sting , Dominic Miller , Craig Dodds
Production – Craigie
Engineering – Jack Guy
Additional vocal recording – Ben Georgiades
Additional programming – Dean Barratt
Keyboards – Jonathan Quarmby
Vocals – Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena , Heidi Range
Bass guitar – Kevin Bacon
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Overloaded : The Singles Collection .
= = Charts = =
= Monkey Gone to Heaven =
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " is a song by the American alternative rock band Pixies and is the seventh track on their 1989 album Doolittle . The song was written and sung by frontman Black Francis and was produced by Gil Norton . Referencing environmentalism and biblical numerology , the song 's lyrics mirrored themes that were explored in Doolittle . " Monkey Gone to Heaven " was the first Pixies song to feature guest musicians : two cellists , Arthur Fiacco and Ann Rorich , and two violinists , Karen Karlsrud and Corine Metter .
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " was released as the first single from Doolittle in the United States and United Kingdom . As the band had signed to Elektra Records shortly before , the single also marked their first American and major label release . It was critically well @-@ received ; Rolling Stone 's David Fricke said " Monkey Gone to Heaven " was " a corrosive , compelling meditation on God and garbage " . In the years since its release , the song has received several accolades from music publications .
= = Lyrics and meaning = =
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " ' s main theme is environmentalism . The song mainly deals with man 's destruction of the ocean and " confusion of man 's place in the universe " . " On one hand , it 's [ the ocean ] this big organic toilet . Things get flushed and repurified or decomposed and it 's this big , dark , mysterious place " , Black later said , " It 's also a very mythological place where there are octopus 's gardens , the Bermuda Triangle , Atlantis , and mermaids . " Francis came up with the song 's hook , " this monkey 's gone to heaven " , long before the song itself was written . The line itself forms a basis for the song , which revolves around man 's relationship with the divine and environmentalism . After Francis set the developing lyrics to music , he rushed to lead guitarist Joey Santiago 's apartment to play it to him . Santiago later commented on the nascent performance : " It was early in the morning , I was still so tired . [ Francis said ] ' Hey Joe , I need to come over . I need to show you something . ' [ ... ] It was awesome , really good . He had the ' If man is five ' part there , and he was laughing . [ ... ] It was hilarious " .
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " includes references to numerology in the lyrics " If man is five / then the Devil is six / and God is seven " . Francis later expanded on the significance of the lyrics in an interview to Alternative Press , saying " It 's a reference from what I understand to be Hebrew numerology , and I don 't know a lot about it or any of it really . I just remember someone telling me of the supposed fact that in the Hebrew language , especially in the Bible , you can find lots of references to man in the 5th and Satan in the 6th and God in the 7th . [ ... ] I didn 't go to the library and figure it out " . The song 's numerology is alluded to on the single 's cover , which features figures of five , six and seven , and also a monkey with a halo .
Ben Sisario , author of Doolittle 33 ⅓ , offers a slightly different interpretation of the song : " Neptune , the god of this realm [ in reference to Francis ' ocean comment ] , the ' underwater guy who controlled the sea , ' hung out down there , the personification of man 's relationship with the earth . And what happens to Neptune ? He gets ' killed by ten million pounds of sludge from New York to New Jersey . ' Same thing with the " creature in the sky , " who gets stuck up there in a hole in the ozone layer . Man the divine manifestation effectively dies , and what remains is his degraded animal nature ; the chintzy halo stuck on the primate 's head is the symbol of that unhappy fall " .
= = Structure = =
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " is written in the key of D major , and opens with Francis ' rhythm guitar playing a short chord progression backed by the bass guitar of Kim Deal and drums of David Lovering . The guitar intensity fades as Francis begins to sing , leaving Deal 's bassline and Lovering 's steady drum @-@ beat . Between each line of the verse , Francis pauses , leaving the drums and bass playing . Joey Santiago 's lead guitar does not feature at all during the verses . By the end of the second line of each verse , the cello part joins in , following the bassline closely .
As the first verse finishes , the opening chord progression is repeated . This leads into the chorus ( where Francis and Deal repeat " This monkey 's gone to heaven " ) with the lead guitar of Santiago playing two notes repeatedly . The two violins play a melody throughout , accompanied by a piano in the background . There is then a short solo by Santiago , who repeats the melody three times , to bridge the chorus and second verse . The second verse and chorus follow the same format . At the end of the second chorus , Francis shouts " Rock me Joe ! " ; Santiago then begins a guitar solo lasting seventeen seconds , with backing violins for the second half of the solo .
After the solo , Francis sings " If man is five " several times . There is no backing , apart from the lead guitar , for several seconds , but then the song 's chord progression is heard again . This is repeated for " If the devil is six " . At the end of the second chord progression , the song 's main backing restarts again , with Francis screaming " Then God is seven " as the chorus approaches . The final repeated chorus of " This monkey 's gone to heaven " ends the song as the string section becomes more prominent .
= = Recording and production = =
The band 's parts were recorded at Downtown Recorders in Boston , Massachusetts . The string section of " Monkey Gone to Heaven " was recorded while Doolittle was being mixed at Carriage House Studios in Stamford , Connecticut . Gil Norton , the album 's producer , was inspired to add a string section to the song after seeing Deal plucking the strings of a grand piano during recording . The production team , led by Norton , asked the studio owner John Montagnese to bring in string players for one evening session . The studio was often used for recording orchestral scores for B @-@ movies such as Missing in Action and Silver Bullet . Montagnese hired four classical musicians from a local orchestra for the recording , with the session taking place on the afternoon of December 4 , 1988 .
Arthur Fiacco , a cellist , arrived at Carriage House first . He was dressed in formal black and white attire , having traveled from an afternoon concert . Fiacco was surprised to find there were no scores written for the musicians to play ; he then wrote a part based on riffs Francis had shown him . The violinists , Corinne Metter and Karen Karlsrud , also followed the directions of Francis and Norton . Another cellist , Ann Rorich , credited on the album and single , was sent home ; according to Fiacco he doubled her parts .
= = Release and music video = =
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " , the first single from Doolittle , was released to radio stations for rotation in April 1989 in the United States . The single reached number five on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart , with the help of Elektra Records ' marketing . In the United Kingdom , " Monkey Gone to Heaven " was released on April 1 , 1989 and spent three weeks in the UK chart , debuting at number 60 .
The music video , the Pixies ' first , features the band playing their instruments on a stage , with the camera alternating to focus on each band member . Filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white , " searchlights " cross the stage and several camera effects are used , such as slow @-@ motion . The camera switches to color for a few seconds several times during the video , before reverting to black @-@ and @-@ white . Halfway through the video , fog appears on @-@ stage , covering the band . The members of the string section are not seen in the video .
The song would later be re @-@ recorded by Black Francis and released on his 2004 album Frank Black Francis .
South African band Absinthe covered the song on their album A Rendezvous at Nirvana .
= = Reception = =
In general , " Monkey Gone to Heaven " received a positive critical reaction . British magazine NME , reviewing the UK 7 " single in March 1989 , said : " All the smart bastards are mixing strings with grunge guitars nowadays and the Pixies are no exception . Snarled vocals , sci @-@ fi lyrics , and the usual molten lava flow of guitars burn another crater where your ears used to be . ' Monkey Gone to Heaven ' pukes acid and poetry into America 's AOR heartland before being splattered by the faster and more direct sting of the second track ' Manta Ray ' . " Upon the release of Doolittle in April 1989 , NME 's Edwin Pouncey added : " the wonderful ' Monkey Gone to Heaven ' is laced with lush but unobtrusive strings which nibble round the edge of the song and push it into a new realm of arrangement for the band . The opportunity to give ' Monkey ' the full Philharmonic treatment , complete with heavenly harp , must have been a temptation to them . Wisely such a folly has been resisted . "
Q , in their review of Doolittle , described " Monkey Gone to Heaven " : " It 's not pretty , but its carefully structured noise and straight forward rhythmic insistence makes perfect sense : a gut feeling that is doubled when it gets within sniffing distance of a tune , as on ' Monkey Gone to Heaven ' or ' Debaser ' . " Rolling Stone 's David Fricke , reviewing Doolittle , said " Monkey Gone to Heaven " was " a corrosive , compelling meditation on God and garbage . " The critical success of " Monkey Gone to Heaven " was also reflected commercially ; the song reached number five on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart , marking the Pixies ' debut in the American charts . However , the song did not perform as well in the British charts , reaching a peak position of number 60 and falling off the charts after three weeks .
= = Track listing = =
All songs were written by Black Francis
UK 7 " single
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " – 2 : 56
" Manta Ray " – 2 : 38
UK / US 12 " / CD single
" Monkey Gone to Heaven " – 2 : 56
" Manta Ray " – 2 : 38
" Weird at My School " – 1 : 59
" Dancing the Manta Ray " – 2 : 13
= = Accolades = =
The information regarding accolades attributed to " Monkey Gone to Heaven " is adapted from Acclaimed Music .
= A.M. ( Wilco album ) =
A.M. is the debut album of Chicago @-@ based alternative rock band Wilco , released on March 28 , 1995 . The album was released only months after the breakup of Uncle Tupelo , an alternative country band that was the predecessor of Wilco . Prior to the release of the album , there was debate about whether the album would be better than the debut album of Son Volt , the new band of former Uncle Tupelo lead singer Jay Farrar .
Although A.M. was released before Son Volt 's Trace , critical reviews were modest and initial sales were low . The album was later regarded as a " failure " by band members , as Trace became a greater commercial success . It was the band 's last album to be recorded in a purely alternative country style , as following the record the band began to expand their sound across multiple genres . It is also the only Wilco album to feature Brian Henneman of The Bottle Rockets as a lead guitarist .
= = Context and recording = =
Uncle Tupelo 's last album , Anodyne , featured a new lineup for the band — a five @-@ piece outfit with drummer Ken Coomer , bassist John Stirratt , and multi @-@ instrumentalist Max Johnston . Tensions mounted between singers Jay Farrar and Jeff Tweedy , and Uncle Tupelo played its last concert on May 1 , 1994 at Mississippi Nights in St. Louis , Missouri .
Only days after the breakup , Tweedy decided to form a new group . He was able to retain the lineup of Uncle Tupelo sans Farrar , and rechristened the band Wilco . In mid @-@ May , the band began to rehearse songs in the office of band manager Tony Margherita , and hired producer Brian Paulson , who produced Anodyne . Wilco first recorded demo tracks for the album at Easley studio in Memphis , Tennessee in June . Stirratt recommended the studio based on previous experience as a member of The Hilltops , and Tweedy had heard of the studio through a Jon Spencer Blues Explosion recording . Reprise Records , a subsidiary of Warner Brothers , signed Jeff Tweedy after hearing the tapes , and recording for the album continued through August .
Jeff Tweedy was preoccupied with trying to establish Wilco as a viable band on the Reprise label and decided to add another guitarist to the band . Brian Henneman , the lead singer for The Bottle Rockets , was brought into the recording sessions as a lead guitarist . Steel guitarist Lloyd Maines and bassist Daniel Corrigan also contributed to the album . Corrigan also photographed the band for the liner booklet . Howie Weinberg mastered the album , while Barbara Longo provided graphic design . Brian Henneman had to leave the band shortly after recording the album , and was replaced by former Titanic Love Affair guitarist Jay Bennett . Tweedy also attempted to create a more collaborative environment than Uncle Tupelo , requesting songwriting contributions from other members . John Stirratt submitted three songs , hoping to become a secondary songwriter for Wilco . However , although the songs were recorded as demos , only one ( " It 's Just That Simple " ) was selected to appear on the album , and was the only Stirratt song and the only song by Wilco song not to have lyrics by Tweedy to appear on any Wilco album .
The album 's title is intended to reference Top 40 radio stations , and the tracks reflect a straightforward country @-@ rock sound . The band members felt that they needed to establish themselves outside of the Tupelo fanbase . However , Tweedy later stated that in actuality , they were " trying to tread some water with a perceived audience . " Tweedy wrote a song about the Uncle Tupelo breakup , but decided that he didn 't want any material on that subject matter to appear on the album . ( It can be argued , however , that first single " Box Full of Letters " , as well as " Too Far Apart " allude to the dissolution of Farrar and Tweedy 's friendship and working relationship . ) Critic and author Greg Kot wrote in Wilco : Learning How to Die that " Tweedy 's voice and personality are as modest as the arrangements ; there 's little sense of drama , and virtually no hint of risk . Tweedy attributes some of the straightforwardness of the album to his abuse of marijuana at the time . Shortly after the album , Tweedy stopped smoking pot , to which he credits the introspectiveness of further albums .
While Wilco was recording tracks , Jay Farrar formed a band of his own , Son Volt . Son Volt signed to Warner Bros. Records and began recording their first album ( also produced by Paulson ) , Trace , in November 1994 . The fact that both Wilco and Son Volt began working on album almost immediately after the Uncle Tupelo breakup caused debate among critics , fans , and Warner Brothers about which would be the better band . Joe McEwen , who originally signed Uncle Tupelo to a Warner subsidiary , felt that Wilco was taking a step backwards from the material on Anodyne . McEwen urged Richard Dodd , who had recently mixed Tom Petty 's Wildflowers , to remix the album . Dodd emphasized Tweedy 's vocals to increase the chances of success on radio .
Wilco began touring before the album was released . Their live debut was on November 27 , 1994 at Cicero 's Basement Bar in St. Louis , a venue where Uncle Tupelo had first received significant media attention . The band was billed for that concert as Black Shampoo , a reference to a 1970s B @-@ movie , and the show sold out . Wilco continued to tour for two hundred shows , culminating in show at the South by Southwest Music Conference in Austin , Texas in March 1995 . A.M. was released on Reprise Records on March 28 , 1995 .
= = Commercial and critical reception = =
A.M. received modest reviews from critics . Holly George @-@ Warren of Rolling Stone called the album " one hell of a country @-@ guts debut " , praising the influence of Gram Parsons and Neil Young on the music . However , the album still received a moderate three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star rating . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic enjoyed " I Must Be High " , noting that Wilco can " subvert the [ alternative country ] genre without losing its accessibility " , but felt that the following songs were disappointing . However , fellow Allmusic critic Matthew Greenwald found the album to be " brilliant and underrated . " Robert Christgau of The Village Voice gave the album a three @-@ star honorable mention , but called it " realist defiance grinding sadly down into realist bathos . " The Village Voice placed the album at position 34 on the 1995 Pazz & Jop critics poll . The band was disappointed by the critical reception , since Trace was met with better reviews . According to Henneman :
A.M. only hit number 27 on Billboard 's Heatseekers chart , whereas Trace peaked at number 116 on the Billboard 200 ; by 1997 , Trace had outsold A.M. two @-@ to @-@ one . Wilco released " Box Full of Letters " as a single , but it received little airplay . For the only time in Wilco 's career , ticket sales failed to meet expectations . As of 2003 , the album had sold about 150 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Jeff Tweedy unless otherwise noted .
" I Must Be High " – 2 : 59
" Casino Queen " – 2 : 45
" Box Full of Letters " – 3 : 05
" Shouldn 't Be Ashamed " – 3 : 28
" Pick Up the Change " – 2 : 56
" I Thought I Held You " – 3 : 49
" That 's Not the Issue " – 3 : 19
" It 's Just That Simple " ( John Stirratt ) – 3 : 45
" Should 've Been in Love " – 3 : 36
" Passenger Side " – 3 : 33
" Dash 7 " – 3 : 29
" Blue Eyed Soul " – 4 : 05
" Too Far Apart " – 3 : 44
= = Personnel = =
Jeff Tweedy – lead vocals ( 1 @-@ 7 , 9 @-@ 13 ) , rhythm guitar ( 1 , 3 , 13 ) , acoustic guitar ( 2 , 4 @-@ 7 , 9 @-@ 12 ) , bass guitar ( 8 )
John Stirratt – bass guitar ( 1 @-@ 7 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 ) , piano ( 6 ) , organ ( 13 ) , backing vocals ( 2 , 3 , 6 ) , lead vocals / acoustic guitar ( 8 )
Ken Coomer – drums ( 1 @-@ 6 , 8 @-@ 10 , 12 , 13 ) , backing vocals / cowbell ( 2 ) , a snare drum played with a brush ( 7 )
Max Johnston – dobro ( 1 , 3 , 9 , 13 ) , fiddle ( 2 , 10 ) , mandolin ( 4 , 8 , 10 , 12 ) , banjo ( 5 @-@ 7 ) , backing vocals ( 2 )
Brian Henneman – lead guitar ( 1 @-@ 9 , 12 , 13 ) , small stoned guitar ( 10 ) , backing vocals ( 2 )
Daniel Corrigan - backing vocals ( 2 )
Lloyd Maines - pedal steel guitar ( 1 , 6 , 8 , 11 , 12 )
Wilco , Brian Henneman and Daniel Corrigan - handclaps , crowd noise , glass cheers ( 2 )
= = = Production = = =
Daniel Corrigan – photography
Richard Dodd – mixing
Barbara Longo – design
Brian Paulson – producer , engineer , mixing
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Wilco – producer , engineer
Bob Andrews – Production Coordinator
= Typhoon Isa =
Typhoon Isa was the first of eleven super @-@ typhoons to occur during the 1997 Pacific typhoon season . The second tropical cyclone of the season , Isa developed from a disturbance in the monsoon trough near the Caroline Islands on April 12 . It moved erratically at first , though after attaining tropical storm status it curved westward due to the subtropical ridge to its north . Isa very gradually intensified , and on April 20 the typhoon reached peak 1 @-@ min winds of 270 km / h ( 165 mph ) , as reported by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ; Japan Meteorological Agency reported maximum 10 @-@ min winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . After turning northward , it accelerated to the northeast , and merged with a larger extratropical cyclone on April 24 .
Early in its duration , Isa caused light rainfall and moderate winds on Pohnpei . Later , a stationary rainband from the typhoon dropped heavy precipitation on Guam during its dry season . Damage in the Guam National Weather Service area of responsibility totaled $ 1 million ( 1997 USD , $ 1 @.@ 3 million 2006 USD ) , the majority of it from crop damage . No deaths were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early April , the monsoon trough established itself across Micronesia near the equator . An area of convection within the trough developed in the Caroline Islands on April 9 , and resembled the characteristics of a monsoon depression . Shortly thereafter , a large , yet weak low @-@ level circulation formed within the system . The system drifted erratically for several days as it slowly organized ; the system underwent several cycles of developing and losing convection . On April 11 , the system maintained a persistent area of well @-@ organized deep convection , and subsequent to an increase in upper @-@ level outflow , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression 02W at 1800 UTC on April 11 . Strong influence from the monsoonal westerlies left the depression drifting and slowly executing a loop to the northwest . Based on sufficient satellite classifications , JTWC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Isa early on April 12 while it was located 105 km ( 65 mi ) of Pohnpei . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) simultaneously classified the system as a tropical depression , and upgraded it to a tropical storm early on April 13 .
With the subtropical ridge to its north , Isa tracked to the north and gradually curved to the west . It slowly intensified , due to it being a large tropical cyclone , and late on April 13 JTWC upgraded the storm to typhoon status ; at the same time , JMA continued to assess Isa as a minimal tropical storm , and did not upgrade it to a typhoon until April 16 . Isa maintained a nearly due @-@ westward movement , although tropical cyclone prediction models anticipated a quick turn to the north . The JTWC recognized the northward model bias , which was described as under @-@ analyzing the strength of the subtropical ridge . By April 16 , the typhoon attained the equivalence of a Category 3 tropical cyclone on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and despite a potential threat to Guam the typhoon remained 260 km ( 160 mi ) south of the island . It gradually curved to the north , and on April 20 JTWC classified Super Typhoon Isa as reaching peak 1 @-@ min winds of 270 km / h ( 165 mph ) . At this point , Isa became an annular typhoon , with a large eye and a lack of spiralform rainbands , while moving nearly due northward , through a weakness in the subtropical ridge . Simultaneously , JMA assessed the typhoon as attaining peak 10 @-@ min winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) .
Shortly after peaking in intensity , Isa began to weaken , and by April 21 it dropped below " super typhoon " status . It accelerated to the northeast under the flow of the mid @-@ latitudes , and the typhoon weakened more rapidly ; JMA downgraded Isa to a tropical storm on April 22 , which was followed suit by the JTWC the next day as upper @-@ level wind shear increased . At 0600 UTC on April 23 , the JTWC issued the last advisory on the system , and the next day JMA classified Isa dissipated as it became absorbed by a cloud band from a large extratropical cyclone to the east of Japan .
= = Impact = =
Isa first affected Pohnpei as a tropical storm on April 12 . While passing near the island , the storm produced moderate winds across the island , peaking at 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . The winds downed several trees and tree limbs which destroyed 40 % of the island 's power lines . A few buildings reported roof damage . About 15 % of the crops on Pohnpei were damaged , including losses to the banana and breadfruit crops . After the passage of the typhoon , President of the Federated States of Micronesia Jacob Nena declared Pohnpei as a major disaster area due to the damage from Typhoon Isa and subsequent flooding ; on April 20 heavy rainfall caused widespread mudslides and 19 fatalities on the island , though they were not related to Isa .
In Guam , the threat of Typhoon Isa postponed a flight from Guam to Honolulu , Hawaii for 48 hours . The flight was the last in Operation Pacific Haven , which was a multimillion @-@ dollar humanitarian effort to transport more than 6 @,@ 600 Kurds in a political asylum to the mainland of the United States . The threat of the typhoon also canceled the first round of the Omega Tour golf event , which was the second professional golf tournament in the island 's history . Though Typhoon Isa passed well to the south of Guam , one of its outer rainbands stalled across the island , which dropped heavy rainfall of 15 – 25 cm ( 6 – 10 in ) across the island . The rainfall was welcome as it occurred during the dry season , and largely contributed to rainfall at the Guam International Airport being 45 % above normal from the period between January through April . The rainband also produced wind gusts that reached 86 km / h ( 53 mph ) at the island 's Naval Air Station ; the winds resulted in sporadic power outages across the island . The typhoon caused some light damage to buildings , particularly on the south side of the island . The combination of winds and sea salt caused damage to the island 's tomato , okra , cucumber , and soy bean crops .
Typhoon Isa later dropped light rainfall on the island of Rota . Across its path , damage from the storm totaled over $ 1 million ( 1997 USD , $ 1 @.@ 3 million 2006 USD ) . No deaths or injuries were reported .
= Lesser Antillean macaw =
The Lesser Antillean macaw or Guadeloupe macaw ( Ara guadeloupensis ) is a hypothetical extinct species of macaw that is thought to have been endemic to the Lesser Antillean island region of Guadeloupe . In spite of the absence of conserved specimens , many details about the Lesser Antillean macaw are known from several contemporary accounts , and the bird is the subject of some illustrations . Austin Hobart Clark described the species on the basis of these accounts in 1905 . Due to the lack of physical remains , and the possibility that sightings were of macaws from the South American mainland , doubts have been raised about the existence of this species . A phalanx bone from the island of Marie @-@ Galante confirmed the existence of a similar @-@ sized macaw inhabiting the region prior to the arrival of humans , and was correlated with the Lesser Antillean macaw in 2015 . Later that year , historical sources distinguishing between the red macaws of Guadeloupe and the scarlet macaw ( A. macao ) of the mainland were identified , further supporting its validity .
According to contemporary descriptions , the body of the Lesser Antillean macaw was red and the wings were red , blue and yellow . The tail feathers were between 38 and 51 cm ( 15 and 20 in ) long . Apart from the smaller size and the all @-@ red coloration of the tail feathers , it resembled the scarlet macaw and may therefore have been a close relative of that species . The bird ate fruit – including the poisonous manchineel , was monogamous , nested in trees and laid two eggs once or twice a year . Early writers described it as being abundant in Guadeloupe , but it was becoming rare by 1760 , and only survived in uninhabited areas . Disease and hunting by humans are thought to have eradicated it shortly afterwards . The Lesser Antillean macaw is one of 13 extinct macaw species that have been proposed to have lived in the Caribbean islands . Many of these species are now considered dubious because only three are known from physical remains , and there are no extant endemic macaws on the islands today .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Lesser Antillean macaw is well @-@ documented compared to most other extinct Caribbean macaws , since it was mentioned and described by several contemporary writers . Parrots thought to be the Lesser Antillean macaw were first mentioned by the Spanish historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in 1553 , referring to a 1496 account by the Spanish bibliographer Ferdinand Columbus , who mentioned chicken @-@ sized parrots — which the Island Caribs called " Guacamayas " — in Guadeloupe . In 1774 , the French naturalist Comte de Buffon stated that the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus had found macaws in Guadeloupe . The French botanist Jean @-@ Baptiste Du Tertre gave the first detailed descriptions in 1654 and 1676 , and illustrated the bird and other animals found in Guadeloupe . The French clergyman Jean @-@ Baptiste Labat also described the bird in 1742 . Writers such as George Edwards and John Latham also mentioned the presence of red and blue macaws on the islands off America .
The American zoologist Austin Hobart Clark gave the Lesser Antillean macaw its scientific name , Ara guadeloupensis , in 1905 , based on the contemporary accounts , and he also cited a 1765 color plate as possibly depicting this species . He wrote that it was different in several ways from the superficially similar scarlet macaw ( A. macao ) , as well as the green @-@ winged macaw ( A. chloropterus ) and the Cuban macaw ( A. tricolor ) . Clark suggested the species might have existed on the islands of Dominica and Martinique , based on accounts of red macaws there , as well as on Guadeloupe . In his 1907 book Extinct Birds , the British zoologist Walter Rothschild instead claimed each island had its own species , and that the Lesser Antillean macaw was confined to Guadeloupe . In 1967 , the American ornithologist James Greenway wrote that the macaws reported from Guadeloupe could have been imported to the region from elsewhere by the native population , but this is difficult to prove . Greenway also suggested that the scarlet macaw and the Cuban macaw formed a superspecies with the Lesser Antillean macaw and other hypothetical extinct species suggested for Jamaica and Hispaniola . According to the English paleontologist Julian Hume , the similarity between the Lesser Antillean macaw and the scarlet macaw indicates that they were close relatives , and that the Guadeloupe species may have descended from the mainland macaw .
A small parrot ulna found on the Folle Anse archaeological site on Marie @-@ Galante , an island in the Guadeloupe region , was assigned to the Lesser Antillean macaw by the ornithologists Matthew Williams and David Steadman in 2001 . In 2008 , the ornithologists Storrs Olson and Edgar Maíz López cast doubt upon this identification , and proposed that the bone instead belonged to the extant imperial amazon ( Amazona imperialis ) . The size and robustness of the bone was similar to ulnae of the imperial amazon , and though it was worn , the authors identified what appeared to be a notch , which is also present on ulnae of the genus Amazona , but not in the genus Ara . Subfossil remains from the island of Montserrat have also been suggested to belong to the Lesser Antillean macaw . The species was recognized by Birdlife International and the IUCN Red List until 2013 , but was not considered valid thereafter .
In 2015 , a terminal phalanx bone ( ungual claw bone ) attributable to the genus Ara from south @-@ western Marie @-@ Galante was described by ecologists Monica Gala and Arnaud Lenoble . It was discovered in the Blanchard Cave during excavations in 2013 @-@ 2014 , in a fossil @-@ bearing deposit dating to the late Pleistocene epoch . The deposit was radiocarbon dated to about 10 @,@ 690 years ago ; the earliest evidence of human settlement in the area has been dated to 5 @,@ 300 years ago . This confirmed that the Guadeloupe region once had an endemic macaw which could not have been brought there by humans . All other macaw bones from the Lesser Antillean islands have been recovered from archaeological sites , and could therefore have been the remains of birds brought there by Amerindians . The size of the phalanx bone matched what was described for the Lesser Antillean macaw by contemporary writers , and the authors therefore correlated the two . They conceded that this connection could only be tentative , as there were no remains of the Lesser Antillean macaw to compare with .
Later in 2015 , Lenoble reviewed overlooked historical Spanish and French sources , finding references to mainly red macaws consistent with the Lesser Antillean macaw . The writings of the French missionary Raymond Breton ( on Guadeloupe from 1635 to 1654 ) were especially illuminating , as they showed that both he and the native Island Caribs clearly distinguished between the red macaws of Guadeloupe and the scarlet macaws from the mainland , which supports the idea that the Lesser Antillean macaw represents an independent species . As the Lesser Antillean Carib language had different words reserved for men and women , Breton gave the name of the bird as Kínoulou ( ♂ ) and Caarou ( ♀ ) . Lenoble furthermore concluded that the supposed violet macaw ( named Anodorhynchus purpurascens based on accounts of blue parrots from Guadeloupe ) was based on misidentified references to the also @-@ extinct Guadeloupe amazon ( Amazona violacea ) , and therefore never existed .
As many as 13 now @-@ extinct species of macaw have variously been suggested to have lived on the Caribbean islands , but many of these were based on old descriptions or drawings and only represent hypothetical species . In addition to the Lesser Antillean macaw , only two endemic Caribbean macaw species are known from physical remains ; the Cuban macaw is known from 19 museum skins and subfossils , and the Saint Croix macaw ( A. autochthones ) is known only from subfossils . Macaws are known to have been transported between the Caribbean islands and from mainland South America to the Caribbean both in historic times by Europeans and native peoples , and in prehistoric times by Paleoamericans . Parrots were important in the culture of native Caribbeans , and were among the gifts offered to Christopher Columbus when he reached the Bahamas in 1492 . Historical records of macaws on these islands , therefore , may not have represented distinct , endemic species ; it is also possible that these macaws were escaped or feral birds that had been transported to the islands from elsewhere . All the endemic Caribbean macaws were likely driven to extinction by humans in historic and prehistoric times . The identity and distribution of indigenous macaws in the Caribbean is only likely to be further resolved through paleontological discoveries and examination of contemporary reports and artwork .
= = Description = =
The Lesser Antillean macaw was described as having similar coloration to the scarlet macaw , but with shorter tail feathers between 38 and 51 cm ( 15 and 20 in ) long . In contrast , the tail feathers of the scarlet macaw are 61 cm ( 2 ft ) long and have blue tips , and the outer feathers are almost entirely blue . In spite of the tail feathers being shorter , it is not certain whether the Lesser Antillean macaw was smaller than the scarlet macaw overall , as the relative proportions of body parts vary between macaw species . The tail feathers were longer than those of the Cuban macaw , which were 30 cm ( 12 in ) long . The morphology of the fossil phalanx bone from Marie @-@ Galante was most similar to the second or third ungual of the scarlet macaw , though the bone is slightly smaller at 15 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 60 in ) compared to 15 – 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 0 @.@ 67 in ) .
Du Tertre described the Lesser Antillean macaw as follows in 1654 :
The Macaw is the largest of all the parrot tribe ; for although the parrots of Guadeloupe are larger than all other parrots , both of the islands and of the main land , the Macaws are a third larger than they ... The head , neck , underparts , and back are flame color . The wings are a mixture of yellow , azure , and scarlet . The tail is wholly red , and a foot and a half long .
Though Clark converted Du Tertre 's tail measurement to 18 in ( 45 @.@ 7 cm ) , Lenoble pointed out that a 17th @-@ century French foot unit was slightly larger than the English equivalent , and the measurement should rather be converted to 19 @.@ 3 in ( 49 cm ) , indicating a smaller size difference between the Lesser Antillean macaw and the scarlet macaw .
In 1742 , Labat described the macaw in much the same way as Du Tertre , while adding several details :
It is the size of a full grown fowl . The feathers of the head , neck , back and underparts are flame color ; the wings are of a mixture of blue , yellow and red ; the tail , which is from fifteen to twenty inches in length is wholly red . The head and the beak are very large , and it walks gravely ; it talks very well , if it is taught when young ; its voice is strong and distinct ; it is amiable and kind , and allows itself to be caressed ...
Both authors wrote that the macaws were the largest parrots of Guadeloupe , and stressed that the parrots of each Caribbean island were distinct , and could be differentiated both based on their morphology and their vocalizations . According to Hume , this means that the birds described could not simply have been escaped South American macaws . Furthermore , the docile and amiable nature described by Du Tertre and Labat does not match the behavior of South American macaws .
Breton 's mid @-@ 1600s accounts of the macaw confirmed it as distinct from mainland scarlet macaws :
Macaws are larger than parrots , with a very beautiful red plumage mixed with purple in the tail and wings ... Macaws found on islands are called Kínoulou , f . Caarou . Coyáli is found on the continent , and is redder and more elegant than the island variety .
Apart from Du Tertre 's crude 1667 drawing and Labat 's 1722 derivative , a few contemporary paintings depict red macaws that may be the Lesser Antillean macaw . A color plate accompanying a 1765 volume of Buffon 's encyclopaedia Histoire Naturelle ( no . 12 in Planches Enluminées , entitled L 'Ara Rouge ) shows a red macaw with entirely red tail feathers and more red on the tertial and scapular feathers of the wing than are present on the scarlet macaw . Copies of the plate differ in the nuances used , but are identical in pattern . The painting suggests that a specimen may have been present in Europe at the time . The Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus cited the plate in his 1766 description of the scarlet macaw , but his description does not match the bird shown . A 1626 painting by the Dutch artist Roelant Savery , which also includes a dodo , shows a red macaw that agrees with the descriptions of the Lesser Antillean macaw . A second macaw in the painting may be the hypothetical extinct Martinique macaw ( A. martinicus ) , but though many parrots were imported into Europe at the time from all over the world , it is impossible to determine the accuracy of such paintings today .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
Du Tertre gave a detailed account of the behavior of the Lesser Antillean macaw in 1654 :
This bird lives on berries , and on the fruit of certain trees , but principally on the apples of the manchioneel ( ! ) , which is a powerful and caustic poison to other animals . It is the prettiest sight in the world to see ten or a dozen Macaws in a green tree . Their voice is loud and piercing , and they always cry when flying . If one imitates their cry , they stop short . They have a grave and dignified demeanor , and so far from being alarmed by many shots fired under a tree where they are perched , they gaze at their companions who fall dead to the ground without being disturbed at all , so that one may fire five or six times into the same tree without their appearing to be frightened .
In a 1667 work , Du Tertre gave a similar account , and added that the macaw only ate the poisonous manchineel ( Hippomane mancinella ) fruits in times of necessity . He also described the monogamous reproductive behavior of the bird :
The male and the female are inseparable companions and it is rare that one is seen singly . When they wish to breed ( which they do once or twice a year ) they make a hole with their beaks in the stump of a large tree , and construct a nest with feathers from their own bodies . They lay two eggs , the size of those of a partridge ( Perdix cinerea ) . The others of the parrot kind make their nests in the same way , but lay green eggs ... The Macaws are much larger than the large parrots of Guadeloupe or Grenada , and live longer than a man ; but they are almost all subject to a falling sickness .
The twice @-@ yearly breeding mentioned by Du Tertre may have actually been staggered breeding , which is practiced by some tropical birds .
Though Clark suggested that the Lesser Antillean macaw also occurred on Dominica and Martinique , there is no evidence for this . Instead , it probably existed on other islands close to Guadeloupe . The fossil phalanx bone from Marie @-@ Galante was deposited in a time when that island and the rest of the Guadeloupe archipelago were closer together than they are today due to lower sea @-@ levels . The areas were separated by three channels , the largest of which was 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 miles ) wide . This would not have been a hindrance to flying animals , and the macaws of the Guadeloupe islands would probably have been a single population during the Pleistocene .
= = Extinction = =
In 1534 , German historian Johann Huttich wrote that the forests of Guadeloupe were full of red macaws , which were apparently as abundant as grasshoppers , and the native people of the region cooked its flesh together with that of humans and of other birds . In 1654 , Du Tert
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Axe in 1964 , with services terminating at Severn Beach , and from December that year the station was unstaffed after 2 pm . Staff were withdrawn completely on 17 July 1967 , a fate shared by most of the other stations on the Severn Beach Line . The southern running line was lifted on 19 October 1970 , and the adjacent platform abandoned and its shelter demolished . The ticket office and footbridge were also demolished , with a replacement entrance opened through the South Road garages .
British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , at which time operations at Redland passed to Regional Railways . All trains ran to Severn Beach , but the service pattern was irregular . This was changed in the mid @-@ 1990s , with a more frequent service to Avonmouth but very few on to Severn Beach . Local tourism expert Bernard Lane described the line 's state as
... the line the railway wished was not there . It was the line that got bus substitution whenever they were short of trains or queues , when a rugby match in Cardiff needed a special . It has a problem in that the route is slow and not very direct ; for years it was invisible , short of marketing and lacking a regular interval timetable .
By 1995 there was no Sunday service , and there was even talk of the line being closed completely .
When the railway was privatised in 1997 , local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was succeeded by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express , in 2001 . Following action by Friends of Severn Beach Railway ( FOSBR ) and a string of protests , services had increased to 10 per day in each direction by 2005 , with Bristol City Council providing a subsidy to Wessex Trains . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , subsequently rebranded as Great Western Railway . A minimum service requirement was written into the franchise agreement , ensuring an hourly service along the line . In 2007 , the Council unanimously agreed to pay £ 450 @,@ 000 per annum to fund extra services from May 2008 for three years , which resulted in a 60 % increase in passenger numbers along the line , and a 25 % year @-@ on @-@ year increase between June 2009 and June 2010 . Sunday services to Severn Beach were restored in 2010 .
Passenger numbers at Redland were further boosted by a marketing campaign by the Severnside Community Rail Partnership to attract more people , especially students , to use the station . The work won a Department for Transport Community Rail Marketing Award in 2007 . The Severnside CRP also formed a support group for the station , and improved the provision of timetabling information through the use of simplified departure timetable posters . In 2008 , they helped to renovate and repaint the station building . It was decorated in 2009 by students from Fairfield School , who created a mural of Victorian characters with incongruous details such as mobile phones , sunglasses and funny hats . The work won a Community Rail Award .
Customer help points with next train information screens were installed during 2008 / 09 , paid for by money from the Department for Transport 's " Access for All " fund and local councils . The help points were stolen in early 2010 , but have since been replaced . Ticket machines were installed in early 2011 , following complaints that passengers were unable to pay their fares . A small coffee stand and snack bar began operating at the station in 2014 .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise ( of which services at Redland are a part ) beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 .
With the coming upgrade to the Great Western Main Line , the main line from London to Bristol is due to be electrified by 2016 . However , the electrification will not extend beyond the main lines , so Redland will continue to be served by diesel trains , with the current " Sprinter " units expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units . Stephen Williams , MP for Bristol West , questioned whether electrification could continue to Redland . Then @-@ Secretary of State for Transport Philip Hammond replied that it would have to be looked at in the future . The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification of the entire Severn Beach Line .
Improved services at Redland are called for as part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area . There is an aspiration for half @-@ hourly services , with trains towards Bristol terminating alternately at Portishead and Bath Spa , however due to the large sections of the Severn Beach Line which are single @-@ track and to the congested main line from Temple Meads , such frequency is not currently feasible . The scheme was given the go @-@ ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal , whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government . There are also calls for the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line , which could allow a direct service from Redland to Bristol Parkway via Avonmouth . Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board , however Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion .
= Sleipnir =
In Norse mythology , Sleipnir ( Old Norse " slippy " or " the slipper " ) is an eight @-@ legged horse . Sleipnir is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In both sources , Sleipnir is Odin 's steed , is the child of Loki and Svaðilfari , is described as the best of all horses , and is sometimes ridden to the location of Hel . The Prose Edda contains extended information regarding the circumstances of Sleipnir 's birth , and details that he is grey in color .
Additionally , Sleipnir is mentioned in a riddle found in the 13th century legendary saga Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks , in the 13th century legendary saga Völsunga saga as the ancestor of the horse Grani , and book I of Gesta Danorum , written in the 12th century by Saxo Grammaticus , contains an episode considered by many scholars to involve Sleipnir . Sleipnir is generally accepted as depicted on two 8th century Gotlandic image stones ; the Tjängvide image stone and the Ardre VIII image stone .
Scholarly theories have been proposed regarding Sleipnir 's potential connection to shamanic practices among the Norse pagans . In modern times , Sleipnir appears in Icelandic folklore as the creator of Ásbyrgi , in works of art , literature , software , and in the names of ships .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In the Poetic Edda , Sleipnir appears or is mentioned in the poems Grímnismál , Sigrdrífumál , Baldrs draumar , and Hyndluljóð . In Grímnismál , Grimnir ( Odin in disguise and not yet having revealed his identity ) tells the boy Agnar in verse that Sleipnir is the best of horses ( " Odin is the best of the Æsir , Sleipnir of horses " ) . In Sigrdrífumál , the valkyrie Sigrdrífa tells the hero Sigurðr that runes should be cut " on Sleipnir 's teeth and on the sledge 's strap @-@ bands . " In Baldrs draumar , after the Æsir convene about the god Baldr 's bad dreams , Odin places a saddle on Sleipnir and the two ride to the location of Hel . The Völuspá hin skamma section of Hyndluljóð says that Loki produced " the wolf " with Angrboða , produced Sleipnir with Svaðilfari , and thirdly " one monster that was thought the most baleful , who was descended from Býleistr 's brother . "
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , Sleipnir is first mentioned in chapter 15 where the enthroned figure of High says that every day the Æsir ride across the bridge Bifröst , and provides a list of the Æsir 's horses . The list begins with Sleipnir : " best is Sleipnir , he is Odin 's , he has eight legs . " In chapter 41 , High quotes the Grímnismál stanza that mentions Sleipnir .
In chapter 42 , Sleipnir 's origins are described . Gangleri ( described earlier in the book as King Gylfi in disguise ) asks High who the horse Sleipnir belongs to and what there is to tell about it . High expresses surprise in Gangleri 's lack of knowledge about Sleipnir and its origin . High tells a story set " right at the beginning of the gods ' settlement , when the gods established Midgard and built Val @-@ Hall " about an unnamed builder who has offered to build a fortification for the gods in three seasons that will keep out invaders in exchange for the goddess Freyja , the sun , and the moon . After some debate , the gods agree to this , but place a number of restrictions on the builder , including that he must complete the work within three seasons with the help of no man . The builder makes a single request ; that he may have help from his stallion Svaðilfari , and due to Loki 's influence , this is allowed . The stallion Svaðilfari performs twice the deeds of strength as the builder , and hauls enormous rocks to the surprise of the gods . The builder , with Svaðilfari , makes fast progress on the wall , and three days before the deadline of summer , the builder was nearly at the entrance to the fortification . The gods convene , and figured out who was responsible , resulting in a unanimous agreement that , along with most trouble , Loki was to blame .
The gods declare that Loki would deserve a horrible death if he could not find a scheme that would cause the builder to forfeit his payment , and threatened to attack him . Loki , afraid , swore oaths that he would devise a scheme to cause the builder to forfeit the payment , whatever it would cost himself . That night , the builder drove out to fetch stone with his stallion Svaðilfari , and out from a wood ran a mare . The mare neighed at Svaðilfari , and " realizing what kind of horse it was , " Svaðilfari became frantic , neighed , tore apart his tackle , and ran towards the mare . The mare ran to the wood , Svaðilfari followed , and the builder chased after . The two horses ran around all night , causing the building work to be held up for the night , and the previous momentum of building work that the builder had been able to maintain was not continued .
When the Æsir realize that the builder is a hrimthurs , they disregard their previous oaths with the builder , and call for Thor . Thor arrives , and kills the builder by smashing the builder 's skull into shards with the hammer Mjöllnir . However , Loki had " such dealings " with Svaðilfari that " somewhat later " Loki gave birth to a grey foal with eight legs ; the horse Sleipnir , " the best horse among gods and men . "
In chapter 49 , High describes the death of the god Baldr . Hermóðr agrees to ride to Hel to offer a ransom for Baldr 's return , and so " then Odin 's horse Sleipnir was fetched and led forward . " Hermóðr mounts Sleipnir and rides away . Hermóðr rides for nine nights in deep , dark valleys where Hermóðr can see nothing . The two arrive at the river Gjöll and then continue to Gjöll bridge , encountering a maiden guarding the bridge named Móðguðr . Some dialogue occurs between Hermóðr and Móðguðr , including that Móðguðr notes that recently there had ridden five battalions of dead men across the bridge that made less sound than he . Sleipnir and Hermóðr continue " downwards and northwards " on the road to Hel , until the two arrive at Hel 's gates . Hermóðr dismounts from Sleipnir , tightens Sleipnir 's girth , mounts him , and spurs Sleipnir on . Sleipnir " jumped so hard and over the gate that it came nowhere near . " Hermóðr rides up to the hall , and dismounts from Sleipnir . After Hermóðr 's pleas to Hel to return Baldr are accepted under a condition , Hermóðr and Baldr retrace their path backward and return to Asgard .
In chapter 16 of the book Skáldskaparmál , a kenning given for Loki is " relative of Sleipnir . " In chapter 17 , a story is provided in which Odin rides Sleipnir into the land of Jötunheimr and arrives at the residence of the jötunn Hrungnir . Hrungnir asks " what sort of person this was " wearing a golden helmet , " riding sky and sea , " and says that the stranger " has a marvellously good horse . " Odin wagers his head that no horse as good could be found in all of Jötunheimr . Hrungnir admitted that it was a fine horse , yet states that he owns a much longer @-@ paced horse ; Gullfaxi . Incensed , Hrungnir leaps atop Gullfaxi , intending to attack Odin for Odin 's boasting . Odin gallops hard ahead of Hrungnir , and , in his , fury , Hrungnir finds himself having rushed into the gates of Asgard . In chapter 58 , Sleipnir is mentioned among a list of horses in Þorgrímsþula : " Hrafn and Sleipnir , splendid horses [ ... ] " . In addition , Sleipnir occurs twice in kennings for " ship " ( once appearing in chapter 25 in a work by the skald Refr , and " sea @-@ Sleipnir " appearing in chapter 49 in Húsdrápa , a work by the 10th century skald Úlfr Uggason ) .
= = = Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks = = =
In Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks , the poem Heiðreks gátur contains a riddle that mentions Sleipnir and Odin :
36 . Gestumblindi said :
" Who are the twain
that on ten feet run ?
three eyes they have ,
but only one tail .
Alright guess now
this riddle , Heithrek ! "
Heithrek said :
" Good is thy riddle , Gestumblindi ,
and guessed it is :
that is Odin riding on Sleipnir . "
= = = Völsunga saga = = =
In chapter 13 of Völsunga saga , the hero Sigurðr is on his way to a wood and he meets a long @-@ bearded old man he had never seen before . Sigurd tells the old man that he is going to choose a horse , and asks the old man to come with him to help him decide . The old man says that they should drive the horses down to the river Busiltjörn . The two drive the horses down into the deeps of Busiltjörn , and all of the horses swim back to land but a large , young , and handsome grey horse that no one had ever mounted . The grey @-@ bearded old man says that the horse is from " Sleipnir 's kin " and that " he must be raised carefully , because he will become better than any other horse . " The old man vanishes . Sigurd names the horse Grani , and the narrative adds that the old man was none other than ( the god ) Odin .
= = = Gesta Danorum = = =
Sleipnir is generally considered as appearing in a sequence of events described in book I of Gesta Danorum . In book I , the young Hadingus encounters " a certain man of great age who had lost an eye " who allies him with Liserus . Hadingus and Liserus set out to wage war on Lokerus , ruler of Kurland . Meeting defeat , the old man takes Hadingus with him onto his horse as they flee to the old man 's house , and the two drink an invigorating drought . The old man sings a prophecy , and takes Hadingus back to where he found him on his horse . During the ride back , Hadingus trembles beneath the old man 's mantle , and peers out of its holes . Hadingus realizes that he is flying through the air : " and he saw that before the steps of the horse lay the sea ; but was told not to steal a glimpse of the forbidden thing , and therefore turned his amazed eyes from the dread spectacle of the roads that he journeyed . " Additionally , in book II , Biarco mentions Odin and Sleipnir : " If I may look on the awful husband of Frigg , howsoever he be covered in his white shield , and guide his tall steed , he shall in no way go safe out of Leire ; it is lawful to lay low in war the war @-@ waging god . "
= = Archaeological record = =
Two of the 8th century picture stones from the island of Gotland , Sweden depict eight @-@ legged horses , which are thought by most scholars to depict Sleipnir : the Tjängvide image stone and the Ardre VIII image stone . Both stones feature a rider sitting atop an eight @-@ legged horse , which some scholars view as Odin . Above the rider on the Tjängvide image stone is a horizontal figure holding a spear , which may be a valkyrie , and a female figure greets the rider with a cup . The scene has been interpreted as a rider arriving at the world of the dead . The mid @-@ 7th century Eggja stone bearing the Odinic name haras ( Old Norse ' army god ' ) may be interpreted as depicting Sleipnir .
= = Theories = =
John Lindow theorizes that Sleipnir 's " connection to the world of the dead grants a special poignancy to one of the kennings in which Sleipnir turns up as a horse word , " referring to the skald Úlfr Uggason 's usage of " sea @-@ Sleipnir " in his Húsdrápa , which describes the funeral of Baldr . Lindow continues that " his use of Sleipnir in the kenning may show that Sleipnir 's role in the failed recovery of Baldr was known at that time and place in Iceland ; it certainly indicates that Sleipnir was an active participant in the mythology of the last decades of paganism . " Lindow adds that the eight legs of Sleipnir " have been interpreted as an indication of great speed or as being connected in some unclear way with cult activity . "
Hilda Ellis Davidson says that " the eight @-@ legged horse of Odin is the typical steed of the shaman " and that in the shaman 's journeys to the heavens or the underworld , a shaman " is usually represented as riding on some bird or animal . " Davidson says that while the creature may vary , the horse is fairly common " in the lands where horses are in general use , and Sleipnir 's ability to bear the god through the air is typical of the shaman 's steed " and cites an example from a study of shamanism by Mircea Eliade of an eight @-@ legged foal from a story of a Buryat shaman . Davidson says that while attempts have been made to connect Sleipnir with hobby horses and steeds with more than four feet that appear in carnivals and processions , but that " a more fruitful resemblance seems to be on the bier on which a dead man is carried in the funeral procession by four bearers ; borne along thus , he may be described as riding on a steed with eight legs . " As an example , Davidson cites a funeral dirge from the Gondi people in India as recorded by Verrier Elwin , stating that " it contains references to Bagri Maro , the horse with eight legs , and it is clear from the song that it is the dead man 's bier . " Davidson says that the song is sung when a distinguished Muria dies , and provides a verse :
What horse is this ?
It is the horse of Bagri Maro .
What should we say of its legs ?
This horse has eight legs .
What should we say of its heads ?
This horse has four heads . . . .
Catch the bridle and mount the horse .
Davidson adds that the representation of Odin 's steed as eight @-@ legged could arise naturally out of such an image , and that " this is in accordance with the picture of Sleipnir as a horse that could bear its rider to the land of the dead . "
Ulla Loumand cites Sleipnir and the flying horse Hófvarpnir as " prime examples " of horses in Norse mythology as being able to " mediate between earth and sky , between Ásgarðr , Miðgarðr and Útgarðr and between the world of mortal men and the underworld . "
The Encyclopedia of Indo @-@ European Culture theorizes that Sleipnir 's eight legs may be the remnants of horse @-@ associated divine twins found in Indo @-@ European cultures and ultimately stemming from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European religion . The encyclopedia states that " [ ... ] Sleipnir is born with an extra set of legs , thus representing an original pair of horses . Like Freyr and Njörðr , Sleipnir is responsible for carrying the dead to the otherworld . " The encyclopedia cites parallels between the birth of Sleipnir and myths originally pointing to a Celtic goddess who gave birth to the Divine horse twins . These elements include a demand for a goddess by an unwanted suitor ( the hrimthurs demanding the goddess Freyja ) and the seduction of builders .
= = Modern influence = =
According to Icelandic folklore , the horseshoe shaped canyon Ásbyrgi located in Jökulsárgljúfur National Park , northern Iceland was formed by Sleipnir 's hoof . Sleipnir is depicted with Odin on Dagfin Werenskjold 's wooden relief " Odin på Sleipnir " ( 1945 – 1950 ) on the exterior of the Oslo City Hall in Oslo , Norway . Sleipnir has been and remains a popular name for ships in Northern Europe , and Rudyard Kipling 's short story entitled " Sleipnir , late Thurinda " ( 1888 ) features a horse named " Sleipnir " . A statue of Sleipnir ( 1998 ) stands in Wednesbury , England , a town which takes its name from the Anglo @-@ Saxon version of Odin , Wōden .
= Dengue fever =
Dengue fever is a mosquito @-@ borne tropical disease caused by the dengue virus . Symptoms typically begin three to fourteen days after infection . This may include a high fever , headache , vomiting , muscle and joint pains , and a characteristic skin rash . Recovery generally takes less than two to seven days . In a small proportion of cases , the disease develops into the life @-@ threatening dengue hemorrhagic fever , resulting in bleeding , low levels of blood platelets and blood plasma leakage , or into dengue shock syndrome , where dangerously low blood pressure occurs .
Dengue is spread by several species of mosquito of the Aedes type , principally A. aegypti . The virus has five different types ; infection with one type usually gives lifelong immunity to that type , but only short @-@ term immunity to the others . Subsequent infection with a different type increases the risk of severe complications . A number of tests are available to confirm the diagnosis including detecting antibodies to the virus or its RNA .
A novel vaccine for dengue fever has been approved in three countries , but it is not yet commercially available . Prevention is by reducing mosquito habitat and limiting exposure to bites . This may be done by getting rid of or covering standing water and wearing clothing that covers much of the body . Treatment of acute dengue is supportive and includes giving fluid either by mouth or intravenously for mild or moderate disease . For more severe cases blood transfusion may be required . About half a million people require admission to hospital a year . Nonsteroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drug ( NSAIDs ) such as ibuprofen should not be used .
Dengue has become a global problem since the Second World War and is common in more than 110 countries . Each year between 50 and 528 million people are infected and approximately 10 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 die . The earliest descriptions of an outbreak date from 1779 . Its viral cause and spread were understood by the early 20th century . Apart from eliminating the mosquitoes , work is ongoing for medication targeted directly at the virus .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Typically , people infected with dengue virus are asymptomatic ( 80 % ) or have only mild symptoms such as an uncomplicated fever . Others have more severe illness ( 5 % ) , and in a small proportion it is life @-@ threatening . The incubation period ( time between exposure and onset of symptoms ) ranges from 3 to 14 days , but most often it is 4 to 7 days . Therefore , travelers returning from endemic areas are unlikely to have dengue if fever or other symptoms start more than 14 days after arriving home . Children often experience symptoms similar to those of the common cold and gastroenteritis ( vomiting and diarrhea ) and have a greater risk of severe complications , though initial symptoms are generally mild but include high fever .
= = = Clinical course = = =
The characteristic symptoms of dengue are sudden @-@ onset fever , headache ( typically located behind the eyes ) , muscle and joint pains , and a rash . The alternative name for dengue , " breakbone fever " , comes from the associated muscle and joint pains . The course of infection is divided into three phases : febrile , critical , and recovery .
The febrile phase involves high fever , potentially over 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) , and is associated with generalized pain and a headache ; this usually lasts two to seven days . Nausea and vomiting may also occur . A rash occurs in 50 – 80 % of those with symptoms in the first or second day of symptoms as flushed skin , or later in the course of illness ( days 4 – 7 ) , as a measles @-@ like rash . A rash described as " islands of white in a sea of red " has also been observed . Some petechiae ( small red spots that do not disappear when the skin is pressed , which are caused by broken capillaries ) can appear at this point , as may some mild bleeding from the mucous membranes of the mouth and nose . The fever itself is classically biphasic or saddleback in nature , breaking and then returning for one or two days .
In some people , the disease proceeds to a critical phase as fever resolves . During this period , there is leakage of plasma from the blood vessels , typically lasting one to two days . This may result in fluid accumulation in the chest and abdominal cavity as well as depletion of fluid from the circulation and decreased blood supply to vital organs . There may also be organ dysfunction and severe bleeding , typically from the gastrointestinal tract . Shock ( dengue shock syndrome ) and hemorrhage ( dengue hemorrhagic fever ) occur in less than 5 % of all cases of dengue , however those who have previously been infected with other serotypes of dengue virus ( " secondary infection " ) are at an increased risk . This critical phase , while rare , occurs relatively more commonly in children and young adults .
The recovery phase occurs next , with resorption of the leaked fluid into the bloodstream . This usually lasts two to three days . The improvement is often striking , and can be accompanied with severe itching and a slow heart rate . Another rash may occur with either a maculopapular or a vasculitic appearance , which is followed by peeling of the skin . During this stage , a fluid overload state may occur ; if it affects the brain , it may cause a reduced level of consciousness or seizures . A feeling of fatigue may last for weeks in adults .
= = = Associated problems = = =
Dengue can occasionally affect several other body systems , either in isolation or along with the classic dengue symptoms . A decreased level of consciousness occurs in 0 @.@ 5 – 6 % of severe cases , which is attributable either to inflammation of the brain by the virus or indirectly as a result of impairment of vital organs , for example , the liver .
Other neurological disorders have been reported in the context of dengue , such as transverse myelitis and Guillain @-@ Barré syndrome . Infection of the heart and acute liver failure are among the rarer complications .
A pregnant woman who develops dengue may be at a higher risk of miscarriage as well as low birth weight and premature birth .
= = Cause = =
= = = Virology = = =
Dengue fever virus ( DENV ) is an RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae ; genus Flavivirus . Other members of the same genus include yellow fever virus , West Nile virus , St. Louis encephalitis virus , Japanese encephalitis virus , tick @-@ borne encephalitis virus , Kyasanur forest disease virus , and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus . Most are transmitted by arthropods ( mosquitoes or ticks ) , and are therefore also referred to as arboviruses ( arthropod @-@ borne viruses ) .
The dengue virus genome ( genetic material ) contains about 11 @,@ 000 nucleotide bases , which code for the three different types of protein molecules ( C , prM and E ) that form the virus particle and seven other types of protein molecules ( NS1 , NS2a , NS2b , NS3 , NS4a , NS4b , NS5 ) that are found in infected host cells only and are required for replication of the virus . There are five strains of the virus , called serotypes , of which the first four are referred to as DENV @-@ 1 , DENV @-@ 2 , DENV @-@ 3 and DENV @-@ 4 . The fifth type was announced in 2013 . The distinctions between the serotypes are based on their antigenicity .
= = = Transmission = = =
Dengue virus is primarily transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes , particularly A. aegypti . These mosquitoes usually live between the latitudes of 35 ° North and 35 ° South below an elevation of 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . They typically bite during the early morning and in the evening , but they may bite and thus spread infection at any time of day . Other Aedes species that transmit the disease include A. albopictus , A. polynesiensis and A. scutellaris . Humans are the primary host of the virus , but it also circulates in nonhuman primates . An infection can be acquired via a single bite . A female mosquito that takes a blood meal from a person infected with dengue fever , during the initial 2 – 10 day febrile period , becomes itself infected with the virus in the cells lining its gut . About 8 – 10 days later , the virus spreads to other tissues including the mosquito 's salivary glands and is subsequently released into its saliva . The virus seems to have no detrimental effect on the mosquito , which remains infected for life . Aedes aegypti is particularly involved , as it prefers to lay its eggs in artificial water containers , to live in close proximity to humans , and to feed on people rather than other vertebrates .
Dengue can also be transmitted via infected blood products and through organ donation . In countries such as Singapore , where dengue is endemic , the risk is estimated to be between 1 @.@ 6 and 6 per 10 @,@ 000 transfusions . Vertical transmission ( from mother to child ) during pregnancy or at birth has been reported . Other person @-@ to @-@ person modes of transmission have also been reported , but are very unusual . The genetic variation in dengue viruses is region specific , suggestive that establishment into new territories is relatively infrequent , despite dengue emerging in new regions in recent decades .
= = = Predisposition = = =
Severe disease is more common in babies and young children , and in contrast to many other infections , it is more common in children who are relatively well nourished . Other risk factors for severe disease include female sex , high body mass index , and viral load . While each serotype can cause the full spectrum of disease , virus strain is a risk factor . Infection with one serotype is thought to produce lifelong immunity to that type , but only short @-@ term protection against the other three . The risk of severe disease from secondary infection increases if someone previously exposed to serotype DENV @-@ 1 contracts serotype DENV @-@ 2 or DENV @-@ 3 , or if someone previously exposed to DENV @-@ 3 acquires DENV @-@ 2 . Dengue can be life @-@ threatening in people with chronic diseases such as diabetes and asthma .
Polymorphisms ( normal variations ) in particular genes have been linked with an increased risk of severe dengue complications . Examples include the genes coding for the proteins known as TNFα , mannan @-@ binding lectin , CTLA4 , TGFβ , DC @-@ SIGN , PLCE1 , and particular forms of human leukocyte antigen from gene variations of HLA @-@ B. A common genetic abnormality , especially in Africans , known as glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency , appears to increase the risk . Polymorphisms in the genes for the vitamin D receptor and FcγR seem to offer protection against severe disease in secondary dengue infection .
= = Mechanism = =
When a mosquito carrying dengue virus bites a person , the virus enters the skin together with the mosquito 's saliva . It binds to and enters white blood cells , and reproduces inside the cells while they move throughout the body . The white blood cells respond by producing a number of signaling proteins , such as cytokines and interferons , which are responsible for many of the symptoms , such as the fever , the flu @-@ like symptoms , and the severe pains . In severe infection , the virus production inside the body is greatly increased , and many more organs ( such as the liver and the bone marrow ) can be affected . Fluid from the bloodstream leaks through the wall of small blood vessels into body cavities due to capillary permeability . As a result , less blood circulates in the blood vessels , and the blood pressure becomes so low that it cannot supply sufficient blood to vital organs . Furthermore , dysfunction of the bone marrow due to infection of the stromal cells leads to reduced numbers of platelets , which are necessary for effective blood clotting ; this increases the risk of bleeding , the other major complication of dengue fever .
= = = Viral replication = = =
Once inside the skin , dengue virus binds to Langerhans cells ( a population of dendritic cells in the skin that identifies pathogens ) . The virus enters the cells through binding between viral proteins and membrane proteins on the Langerhans cell , specifically the C @-@ type lectins called DC @-@ SIGN , mannose receptor and CLEC5A . DC @-@ SIGN , a non @-@ specific receptor for foreign material on dendritic cells , seems to be the main point of entry . The dendritic cell moves to the nearest lymph node . Meanwhile , the virus genome is translated in membrane @-@ bound vesicles on the cell 's endoplasmic reticulum , where the cell 's protein synthesis apparatus produces new viral proteins that replicate the viral RNA and begin to form viral particles . Immature virus particles are transported to the Golgi apparatus , the part of the cell where some of the proteins receive necessary sugar chains ( glycoproteins ) . The now mature new viruses are released by exocytosis . They are then able to enter other white blood cells , such as monocytes and macrophages .
The initial reaction of infected cells is to produce interferon , a cytokine that raises a number of defenses against viral infection through the innate immune system by augmenting the production of a large group of proteins mediated by the JAK @-@ STAT pathway . Some serotypes of dengue virus appear to have mechanisms to slow down this process . Interferon also activates the adaptive immune system , which leads to the generation of antibodies against the virus as well as T cells that directly attack any cell infected with the virus . Various antibodies are generated ; some bind closely to the viral proteins and target them for phagocytosis ( ingestion by specialized cells and destruction ) , but some bind the virus less well and appear instead to deliver the virus into a part of the phagocytes where it is not destroyed but is able to replicate further .
= = = Severe disease = = =
It is not entirely clear why secondary infection with a different strain of dengue virus places people at risk of dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome . The most widely accepted hypothesis is that of antibody @-@ dependent enhancement ( ADE ) . The exact mechanism behind ADE is unclear . It may be caused by poor binding of non @-@ neutralizing antibodies and delivery into the wrong compartment of white blood cells that have ingested the virus for destruction . There is a suspicion that ADE is not the only mechanism underlying severe dengue @-@ related complications , and various lines of research have implied a role for T cells and soluble factors such as cytokines and the complement system .
Severe disease is marked by the problems of capillary permeability ( an allowance of fluid and protein normally contained within blood to pass ) and disordered blood clotting . These changes appear associated with a disordered state of the endothelial glycocalyx , which acts as a molecular filter of blood components . Leaky capillaries ( and the critical phase ) are thought to be caused by an immune system response . Other processes of interest include infected cells that become necrotic — which affect both coagulation and fibrinolysis ( the opposing systems of blood clotting and clot degradation ) — and low platelets in the blood , also a factor in normal clotting .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis of dengue is typically made clinically , on the basis of reported symptoms and physical examination ; this applies especially in endemic areas . However , early disease can be difficult to differentiate from other viral infections . A probable diagnosis is based on the findings of fever plus two of the following : nausea and vomiting , rash , generalized pains , low white blood cell count , positive tourniquet test , or any warning sign ( see table ) in someone who lives in an endemic area . Warning signs typically occur before the onset of severe dengue . The tourniquet test , which is particularly useful in settings where no laboratory investigations are readily available , involves the application of a blood pressure cuff at between the diastolic and systolic pressure for five minutes , followed by the counting of any petechial hemorrhages ; a higher number makes a diagnosis of dengue more likely with the cut off being more than 10 to 20 per 1 inch2 ( 6 @.@ 25 cm2 ) .
The diagnosis should be considered in anyone who develops a fever within two weeks of being in the tropics or subtropics . It can be difficult to distinguish dengue fever and chikungunya , a similar viral infection that shares many symptoms and occurs in similar parts of the world to dengue . Often , investigations are performed to exclude other conditions that cause similar symptoms , such as malaria , leptospirosis , viral hemorrhagic fever , typhoid fever , meningococcal disease , measles , and influenza . Zika fever also has similar symptoms as dengue .
The earliest change detectable on laboratory investigations is a low white blood cell count , which may then be followed by low platelets and metabolic acidosis . A moderately elevated level of aminotransferase ( AST and ALT ) from the liver is commonly associated with low platelets and white blood cells . In severe disease , plasma leakage results in hemoconcentration ( as indicated by a rising hematocrit ) and hypoalbuminemia . Pleural effusions or ascites can be detected by physical examination when large , but the demonstration of fluid on ultrasound may assist in the early identification of dengue shock syndrome . The use of ultrasound is limited by lack of availability in many settings . Dengue shock syndrome is present if pulse pressure drops to ≤ 20 mm Hg along with peripheral vascular collapse . Peripheral vascular collapse is determined in children via delayed capillary refill , rapid heart rate , or cold extremities . While warning signs are an important aspect for early detection of potential serious disease , the evidence for any specific clinical or laboratory marker is weak .
= = = Classification = = =
The World Health Organization 's 2009 classification divides dengue fever into two groups : uncomplicated and severe . This replaces the 1997 WHO classification , which needed to be simplified as it had been found to be too restrictive , though the older classification is still widely used including by the World Health Organization 's Regional Office for South @-@ East Asia as of 2011 . Severe dengue is defined as that associated with severe bleeding , severe organ dysfunction , or severe plasma leakage while all other cases are uncomplicated . The 1997 classification divided dengue into undifferentiated fever , dengue fever , and dengue hemorrhagic fever . Dengue hemorrhagic fever was subdivided further into grades I – IV . Grade I is the presence only of easy bruising or a positive tourniquet test in someone with fever , grade II is the presence of spontaneous bleeding into the skin and elsewhere , grade III is the clinical evidence of shock , and grade IV is shock so severe that blood pressure and pulse cannot be detected . Grades III and IV are referred to as " dengue shock syndrome " .
= = = Laboratory tests = = =
The diagnosis of dengue fever may be confirmed by microbiological laboratory testing . This can be done by virus isolation in cell cultures , nucleic acid detection by PCR , viral antigen detection ( such as for NS1 ) or specific antibodies ( serology ) . Virus isolation and nucleic acid detection are more accurate than antigen detection , but these tests are not widely available due to their greater cost . Detection of NS1 during the febrile phase of a primary infection may be greater than 90 % sensitive however is only 60 – 80 % in subsequent infections . All tests may be negative in the early stages of the disease . PCR and viral antigen detection are more accurate in the first seven days . In 2012 a PCR test was introduced that can run on equipment used to diagnose influenza ; this is likely to improve access to PCR @-@ based diagnosis .
These laboratory tests are only of diagnostic value during the acute phase of the illness with the exception of serology . Tests for dengue virus @-@ specific antibodies , types IgG and IgM , can be useful in confirming a diagnosis in the later stages of the infection . Both IgG and IgM are produced after 5 – 7 days . The highest levels ( titres ) of IgM are detected following a primary infection , but IgM is also produced in reinfection . IgM becomes undetectable 30 – 90 days after a primary infection , but earlier following re @-@ infections . IgG , by contrast , remains detectable for over 60 years and , in the absence of symptoms , is a useful indicator of past infection . After a primary infection , IgG reaches peak levels in the blood after 14 – 21 days . In subsequent re @-@ infections , levels peak earlier and the titres are usually higher . Both IgG and IgM provide protective immunity to the infecting serotype of the virus . In testing for IgG and IgM antibodies there may be cross @-@ reactivity with other flaviviruses which may result in a false positive after recent infections or vaccinations with yellow fever virus or Japanese encephalitis . The detection of IgG alone is not considered diagnostic unless blood samples are collected 14 days apart and a greater than fourfold increase in levels of specific IgG is detected . In a person with symptoms , the detection of IgM is considered diagnostic .
= = Prevention = =
Prevention depends on control of and protection from the bites of the mosquito that transmits it . The World Health Organization recommends an Integrated Vector Control program consisting of five elements :
Advocacy , social mobilization and legislation to ensure that public health bodies and communities are strengthened ;
Collaboration between the health and other sectors ( public and private ) ;
An integrated approach to disease control to maximize use of resources ;
Evidence @-@ based decision making to ensure any interventions are targeted appropriately ; and
Capacity @-@ building to ensure an adequate response to the local situation .
The primary method of controlling A. aegypti is by eliminating its habitats . This is done by getting rid of open sources of water , or if this is not possible , by adding insecticides or biological control agents to these areas . Generalized spraying with organophosphate or pyrethroid insecticides , while sometimes done , is not thought to be effective . Reducing open collections of water through environmental modification is the preferred method of control , given the concerns of negative health effects from insecticides and greater logistical difficulties with control agents . People can prevent mosquito bites by wearing clothing that fully covers the skin , using mosquito netting while resting , and / or the application of insect repellent ( DEET being the most effective ) . However , these methods appear not to be sufficiently effective , as the frequency of outbreaks appears to be increasing in some areas , probably due to urbanization increasing the habitat of A. aegypti . The range of the disease appears to be expanding possibly due to climate change .
= = = Vaccine = = =
As of December 2015 , there is no commercially available vaccine for dengue fever . One that is partially effective is predicted to become available in Mexico , the Philippines , and Brazil in early 2016 . It received approval in December 2015 . The vaccine is produced by Sanofi and goes by the brand name Dengvaxia . It is based on a weakened combination of the yellow fever virus and each of the four dengue serotypes . Two studies of a vaccine found it was 60 % effective and prevented more than 80 to 90 % of severe cases . This is less than wished for by some .
There are ongoing programs working on a dengue vaccine to cover all four serotypes . Now that there is a fifth serotype this will need to be factored in . One of the concerns is that a vaccine could increase the risk of severe disease through antibody @-@ dependent enhancement ( ADE ) . The ideal vaccine is safe , effective after one or two injections , covers all serotypes , does not contribute to ADE , is easily transported and stored , and is both affordable and cost @-@ effective .
= = = Anti @-@ dengue day = = =
International Anti @-@ Dengue Day is observed every year on June 15 . The idea was first agreed upon in 2010 with the first event held in Jakarta , Indonesia in 2011 . Further events were held in 2012 in Yangon , Myanmar and in 2013 in Vietnam . Goals are to increase public awareness about dengue , mobilize resources for its prevention and control and , to demonstrate the Asian region ’ s commitment in tackling the disease .
= = Management = =
There are no specific antiviral drugs for dengue , however maintaining proper fluid balance is important . Treatment depends on the symptoms . Those who are able to drink , are passing urine , have no " warning signs " and are otherwise healthy can be managed at home with daily follow up and oral rehydration therapy . Those who have other health problems , have " warning signs " , or who cannot manage regular follow @-@ up should be cared for in hospital . In those with severe dengue care should be provided in an area where there is access to an intensive care unit .
Intravenous hydration , if required , is typically only needed for one or two days . In children with shock due to dengue a rapid dose of 20mL / kg is reasonable . The rate of fluid administration is than titrated to a urinary output of 0 @.@ 5 – 1 mL / kg / h , stable vital signs and normalization of hematocrit . The smallest amount of fluid required to achieve this is recommended .
Invasive medical procedures such as nasogastric intubation , intramuscular injections and arterial punctures are avoided , in view of the bleeding risk . Paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) is used for fever and discomfort while NSAIDs such as ibuprofen and aspirin are avoided as they might aggravate the risk of bleeding . Blood transfusion is initiated early in people presenting with unstable vital signs in the face of a decreasing hematocrit , rather than waiting for the hemoglobin concentration to decrease to some predetermined " transfusion trigger " level . Packed red blood cells or whole blood are recommended , while platelets and fresh frozen plasma are usually not . There is not enough evidence to determine if corticosteroids have a positive or negative effect in dengue fever .
During the recovery phase intravenous fluids are discontinued to prevent a state of fluid overload . If fluid overload occurs and vital signs are stable , stopping further fluid may be all that is needed . If a person is outside of the critical phase , a loop diuretic such as furosemide may be used to eliminate excess fluid from the circulation .
= = Epidemiology = =
Most people with dengue recover without any ongoing problems . The fatality rate is 1 – 5 % , and less than 1 % with adequate treatment ; however those who develop significantly low blood pressure may have a fatality rate of up to 26 % . Dengue is common in more than 110 countries . It infects 50 to 528 million people worldwide a year , leading to half a million hospitalizations , and approximately 20 @,@ 000 deaths . For the decade of the 2000s , 12 countries in Southeast Asia were estimated to have about 3 million infections and 6 @,@ 000 deaths annually . It is reported in at least 22 countries in Africa ; but is likely present in all of them with 20 % of the population at risk . This makes it one of the most common vector @-@ borne diseases worldwide .
Infections are most commonly acquired in the urban environment . In recent decades , the expansion of villages , towns and cities in the areas in which it is common , and the increased mobility of people has increased the number of epidemics and circulating viruses . Dengue fever , which was once confined to Southeast Asia , has now spread to Southern China , countries in the Pacific Ocean and America , and might pose a threat to Europe .
Rates of dengue increased 30 fold between 1960 and 2010 . This increase is believed to be due to a combination of urbanization , population growth , increased international travel , and global warming . The geographical distribution is around the equator . Of the 2 @.@ 5 billion people living in areas where it is common 70 % are from Asia and the Pacific . An infection with dengue is second only to malaria as a diagnosed cause of fever among travelers returning from the developing world . It is the most common viral disease transmitted by arthropods , and has a disease burden estimated at 1 @,@ 600 disability @-@ adjusted life years per million population . The World Health Organization counts dengue as one of seventeen neglected tropical diseases .
Like most arboviruses , dengue virus is maintained in nature in cycles that involve preferred blood @-@ sucking vectors and vertebrate hosts . The viruses are maintained in the forests of Southeast Asia and Africa by transmission from female Aedes mosquitoes — of species other than A. aegypti — to their offspring and to lower primates . In towns and cities , the virus is primarily transmitted by the highly domesticated A. aegypti . In rural settings the virus is transmitted to humans by A. aegypti and other species of Aedes such as A. albopictus . Both these species had expanding ranges in the second half of the 20th century . In all settings the infected lower primates or humans greatly increase the number of circulating dengue viruses , in a process called amplification .
= = History = =
The first record of a case of probable dengue fever is in a Chinese medical encyclopedia from the Jin Dynasty ( 265 – 420 AD ) which referred to a " water poison " associated with flying insects . The primary vector , A. aegypti , spread out of Africa in the 15th to 19th centuries due in part to increased globalization secondary to the slave trade . There have been descriptions of epidemics in the 17th century , but the most plausible early reports of dengue epidemics are from 1779 and 1780 , when an epidemic swept across Asia , Africa and North America . From that time until 1940 , epidemics were infrequent .
In 1906 , transmission by the Aedes mosquitoes was confirmed , and in 1907 dengue was the second disease ( after yellow fever ) that was shown to be caused by a virus . Further investigations by John Burton Cleland and Joseph Franklin Siler completed the basic understanding of dengue transmission .
The marked spread of dengue during and after the Second World War has been attributed to ecologic disruption . The same trends also led to the spread of different serotypes of the disease to new areas , and to the emergence of dengue hemorrhagic fever . This severe form of the disease was first reported in the Philippines in 1953 ; by the 1970s , it had become a major cause of child mortality and had emerged in the Pacific and the Americas . Dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome were first noted in Central and South America in 1981 , as DENV @-@ 2 was contracted by people who had previously been infected with DENV @-@ 1 several years earlier .
= = = Etymology = = =
The origins of the Spanish word dengue are not certain , but it is possibly derived from dinga in the Swahili phrase Ka @-@ dinga pepo , which describes the disease as being caused by an evil spirit . Slaves in the West Indies having contracted dengue were said to have the posture and gait of a dandy , and the disease was known as " dandy fever " .
The term " break @-@ bone fever " was applied by physician and United States Founding Father Benjamin Rush , in a 1789 report of the 1780 epidemic in Philadelphia . In the report title he uses the more formal term " bilious remitting fever " . The term dengue fever came into general use only after 1828 . Other historical terms include " breakheart fever " and " la dengue " . Terms for severe disease include " infectious thrombocytopenic purpura " and " Philippine " , " Thai " , or " Singapore hemorrhagic fever " .
= = Research = =
Research efforts to prevent and treat dengue include various means of vector control , vaccine development , and antiviral drugs .
= = = Vector = = =
With regards to vector control , a number of novel methods have been used to reduce mosquito numbers with some success including the placement of the guppy ( Poecilia reticulata ) or copepods in standing water to eat the mosquito larvae . There are also trials with genetically modified male A. aegypti that after release into the wild mate with females , and render their offspring unable to fly .
= = = Wolbachia = = =
Attempts are ongoing to infect the mosquito population with bacteria of the Wolbachia genus , which makes the mosquitoes partially resistant to dengue virus . While artificially induced infections with Wolbachia is effective , it is unclear if naturally acquired infections are protective . Working is still ongoing as of 2015 to determine the best type of Wolbachia to use .
= = = Treatment = = =
Apart from attempts to control the spread of the Aedes mosquito there are ongoing efforts to develop antiviral drugs that would be used to treat attacks of dengue fever and prevent severe complications . Discovery of the structure of the viral proteins may aid the development of effective drugs . There are several plausible targets . The first approach is inhibition of the viral RNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerase ( coded by NS5 ) , which copies the viral genetic material , with nucleoside analogs . Secondly , it may be possible to develop specific inhibitors of the viral protease ( coded by NS3 ) , which splices viral proteins . Finally , it may be possible to develop entry inhibitors , which stop the virus entering cells , or inhibitors of the 5 ′ capping process , which is required for viral replication .
= Izuna 2 : The Unemployed Ninja Returns =
Izuna 2 : The Unemployed Ninja Returns , released in Japan as Gōma Reifu Den Izuna Ni ( 降魔霊符伝イヅナ 弐 ) , is a dungeon crawler video game developed by Ninja Studio and published in Japan by Success and in North America by Atlus for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . It is the sequel to Izuna : Legend of the Unemployed Ninja and was released in Japan on November 29 , 2007 and in North America on July 22 , 2008 .
Like the first game , Izuna 2 focuses on the adventures of Izuna and her friends . Shino , Izuna 's friend , disappears in the midst of a wedding , so Izuna goes on a quest to find her . Izuna finds her , only to discover that Shino was looking for her sister , Shizune , so Izuna and her group decide to help search for Shizune . But by looking for Shizune , Izuna angers a group of foreign gods , who attempt to prevent her from reuniting with Shizune .
= = Gameplay = =
Izuna 2 , like the original Izuna game , is a dungeon crawler . The player controls Izuna or various other characters and explores randomly generated dungeons . Each dungeon has multiple floors that need to be cleared , and many of these dungeons have bosses that must be defeated . The player manages a health bar ; if the health bar is depleted , the player dies and is forced to return to town . Dying , a common occurrence in the game , will cause the player to lose all money and items being carried , though the player will not lose experience or levels . The health bar refills continuously every turn . To prevent players from remaining in place to restore health excessively , an " SP bar " was added . It constantly depletes per turn and a depleted SP bar decreases the player 's attack power . The game is turn @-@ based ; the player can perform an action , such as moving , using an item , or attacking , and every other enemy in the dungeon will perform an action as well . The game includes many role @-@ playing video game elements , such as equippable items , stats , and experience points to level up .
Equipment , items , and talismans can be found in dungeons . Their location and effects are randomly generated . Equipment comes in several classes : melee equipment such as swords , claws , arms , dolls , and boots , or ranged weapons such as boomerangs and bows . Items come in several types including pills , shuriken , kunai knives , bombs , caltrops , and restorative items that heal health or SP . Talismans can " stick , " or be attached , to equipment to add abilities or stats . A weapon can only have a limited number of talismans stuck to it . Talismans can also be used to cast magic , which uses SP .
Izuna 2 also includes a " tag " system not found in the previous game . The player enters dungeons with two characters , allowing the player to continue exploring the dungeon even after the first character has died . The player can switch characters in game during a fight through this system . Additionally , the player can use the secondary character in conjunction with the primary character to launch a powerful dual attack .
= = Plot = =
Ichika , a fisherwoman from the previous game , has plans to get married . However , during the night before Ichika 's marriage , Shino , Izuna 's best friend , disappears . Izuna frantically tries to find her and quickly locates her . Shino reveals that she was searching for her sister , Shizune , so Izuna and her friends decide to help Shino find Shizune .
Izuna enlists the help of the gods of Katamari Village , whom she aided in the previous game . Lord Takushiki , one of the gods , reveals that both Shizune and Izuna are " portable shrines " , or people who allow the gods to leave their home villages . Because the existence of two portable shrines in one area would cause conflict among gods , Takushiki sent Shizune to another region as a child . The foreign gods and their creatures from that region , mononokes , followed Shizune into Izuna 's homeland .
After defeating several foreign gods , Izuna successfully reunites Shino and Shizune . However , by defeating the foreign gods , Izuna angers the Dark Prince , the leader of these gods . Izuna is forced to defeat the Dark Prince . After doing so , she convinces him to return to his homeland , allowing peace to return to the region .
= = Development = =
According to the developer blog , the localization process for Izuna 2 was " surprisingly uncomplicated " and the original run through took less than a month . Success , the Japanese developer , provided Atlus , the North American developers , with well @-@ organized files , which helped make the translation and editing quick and easy . However , the quality assurance and debugging process was a " nightmare " due to the nature of the game and the randomized spawning of creatures . Additionally , the team looked closely at the bugs found by Japanese players and attempted to replicate every reported bug . This effort was marred by the lack of a debug menu , though debuggers were able to use both a one @-@ hit kill option and a floor @-@ skipping option . Unfortunately , the one @-@ hit kill option did not apply to the bosses , so debuggers still had to grind to gain enough levels to defeat the bosses . In total , six official testers found 104 system @-@ type bugs and 259 text bugs .
= = Release = =
On the Japanese release date of Izuna 2 , Success organized a series of fashion events at various stores in Akihabara . Cosplayers could compete for prizes by dressing up as either Izuna or Shino . Additionally , actors and members of the design staff attended to field questions and sign autographs . The game was also made available at Comiket 73 between December 21 and December 23 , 2007 .
In North America , Atlus initially announced plans to release an English version on April 17 , 2008 . Atlus released a trailer of the game in April 2008 , and in May 2008 , Izuna 2 appeared at the 2008 Run to the Sun convention in California . A competition was also held in the U.S. to help promote the release . Fans were asked to add text to a series of images involving interactions between different characters and could win a free copy of Izuna 2 and all of the posters given away as promotional items with the game .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Izuna 2 was released in several different containers . Sofmap , a Japanese retailer , released a collector 's box depicting Izuna and Shino bathing in an onsen , mirroring the design of many eroge games . Each American release contained one of two pinup @-@ styled mini @-@ posters of Izuna . Copies of the game purchased through either GameStop or Amazon each included an additional , retailer @-@ exclusive mini @-@ poster .
= = Reception = =
Izuna 2 received " mixed or average reviews " according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . Many critics pointed to the game 's " quintessential roguelike RPG " nature as a drawback because it required a great deal of grinding to progress in the game , though some critics enjoyed the difficulty of the game .
Reviewers were also split with their impressions of the " tag " system . GameShark found it to be a " nice twist " while RPGFan found it to be " irrelevant and not good . " Nintendo World Report called Izuna 2 " a respectable and fun dungeon @-@ crawler " marred mostly by its gameplay mechanics and disappointing graphics . They also pointed out that the game is targeted at " very specific gamer crowd " . Likewise , GamePro commented that the game " might prove too challenging to casual DS gamers who are just looking for a quick round of fun " and would most likely fit best for " DS owners looking for a hardcore dungeon crawling experience . " In spite of this , they found that the game had several notable positive aspects , including a " solid " control scheme and " well done " Japanese voice acting and English subtitling . X @-@ Play pointed to the game 's " original visual style and a quirky sense of humor " as characteristics that distinguished the game from roguelikes . They greatly enjoyed the dialogue and voice acting and felt that the game " shouldn 't get lost " among other dungeon crawlers released to the DS . However , 1UP.com found that the " amusingly slapstick storyline " was the only point that stood out against dungeon crawlers , though the game was " a considerable improvement " over the original . In general , 1UP.com thought the game was " a challenge meant for hardcore RPG fanatics but amusing enough that newcomers might find it worthwhile , too . " Likewise , IGN commented that the game would take " a very specific gamer to cuddle up to this cute , comedic experience " and pointed out that the game was " most unlikely of sequels . " In contrast to 1UP.com , IGN found the game to be " undoubtedly more of the same , " leading to the same benefits and drawbacks .
= New York State Route 220 =
New York State Route 220 ( NY 220 ) is a state highway located in Chenango County , New York , in the United States . It is signed as an east – west highway , but its actual routing wanders considerably from north to south as it proceeds across the county . The western terminus of NY 220 is at an intersection with NY 41 near the western county line in the town of Smithville . Its eastern terminus is in the town of Oxford , where it becomes County Route 32 ( CR 32 ) east of the village of Oxford . The stub of NY 220 east of Oxford serves as a signed connection between NY 12 and the New York State Veterans ' Home at Oxford located east of the village along the Chenango River .
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sandstones and conglomerates , with some claystone and siltstone , deposited in a fluvial to shallow marine environment . There are also Cambrian basaltic rocks , particularly near the homestead . The eastern parts of the station form a stony plateau within the Ashburton Range . The central parts are flat and include claypans , while to the west are stony ridges . The region is drained by an ephemeral waterway , Tomkinson Creek , and is considered a good candidate to contain manganese deposits , the mineral having been extracted in the 1950s and 1960s at the Mucketty mine just east of Muckaty Station .
The region is semi @-@ arid , and the vegetation is generally scrubland . Muckaty Station lies at the boundary of two bioregions , Tanami and Sturt Plateau . The Tanami bioregion is made up primarily of sandplains vegetated with bootlace oak ( Hakea lorea ) , desert bloodwoods ( Corymbia species ) , acacias and grevilleas , together with spinifex grasslands . The Sturt Plateau bioregion also includes spinifex grasslands , but with a canopy of bloodwood trees .
Most of the region 's fauna is typical of desert environments . Species include the red kangaroo , the eastern wallaroo ( also known as the euro ) , the northern nail @-@ tail wallaby , and the spinifex hopping mouse . The central pebble @-@ mound mouse also occurs in the region , and other mammal species including the Forrest 's mouse , desert mouse and short @-@ beaked echidna have been predicted by biologists to occur on the station . The station may lie within the range of the critically endangered night parrot ( Pezoporus occidentalis ) . There is relatively high diversity and abundance of reptiles , including the military dragon ( Ctenophorus isolepis gularis ) and the sand goanna ( Varanus gouldii flavirufus ) .
= = Radioactive waste facility = =
The search for a site at which to dispose of or store Australia 's low and intermediate @-@ level radioactive wastes commenced in 1980 . A formal public process of site selection that had commenced in 1991 finally failed in 2004 . On 7 December 2005 , the Australian government passed legislation , the Commonwealth Radioactive Waste Management Act , to facilitate the siting of a radioactive waste facility in the Northern Territory . Section four of the Act allowed the Australian government to schedule potential sites for a waste facility , and three Northern Territory sites were proposed under the legislation . Following criticisms made by the Northern Land Council , in December 2006 the legislation was revised to also allow Aboriginal Land Councils to nominate potential sites for a facility . In May 2007 the Northern Land Council , on behalf of Ngapa clan traditional owners , nominated a small area within Muckaty Station ( for which the Ngapa had traditional responsibility ) to be considered as a possible site for the facility . In September 2007 , the government accepted the nomination , bringing the total number of possible sites to four . The Government of the Northern Territory opposed the nomination , but could not prevent it . Ngapa clan members volunteered a 4 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 5 sq mi ) area to be considered for the facility , which was expected to require 1 square kilometre of land .
A parliamentary inquiry and media reports indicated that the Indigenous traditional owners of Muckaty Station were divided over whether it should host a radioactive waste facility . Some members of the Ngapa clan supported hosting the facility , while other traditional owners of Muckaty opposed it . There were also claims that some members of the Ngapa clan were among those who had signed a petition opposing the facility . Political scientist Rebecca Stringer criticised the federal government 's approach to the siting of the waste facility , arguing that it undermined the Indigenous owners ' sovereignty and control of their own lands . Environmental organisations and the Australian Greens are opposed to using the site for a dump .
In 2009 , the Australian government received a consultant 's report that examined Muckaty Station as one of four possible sites for a nuclear waste facility in the Northern Territory . The report was released in 2010 . In February 2012 , the Muckaty Station site was the only one under consideration by the government .
= = = Legal action = = =
In 2010 , Mark Lane Jangala and other traditional owners instructed law firms Maurice Blackburn , Surry Partners ( a firm that includes human rights lawyer George Newhouse ) , and lawyer Julian Burnside to commence legal proceedings against the Northern Land Council and the Australian government in the Federal Court of Australia to stop the nomination of Muckaty Station as a nuclear waste storage facility . The Federal Court challenge was due to commence early in 2013 before Justice Tony North , who handled the Tampa affair . According to a June 2012 report in The Age , some indigenous owners would " testify they were never consulted , while others [ will ] say that they were not properly consulted and never consented to the nomination " . The court did not begin hearing the case until 2 June 2014 , for what was expected to be a five @-@ week trial . However , on 18 June , the Northern Land Council withdrew the nomination of Muckaty as part of a legal settlement between the parties . The Australian government indicated there would be a three @-@ month period during which the Northern Land Council and traditional owners could determine whether they wished to nominate an alternative site for the dump elsewhere on Muckaty Station .
= Prepatellar bursitis =
Prepatellar bursitis is an inflammation of the prepatellar bursa at the front of the knee . It is marked by swelling at the knee , which can be tender to the touch but which does not restrict the knee 's range of motion . It is most commonly caused by trauma to the knee , either by a single acute instance or by chronic trauma over time . As such , prepatellar bursitis commonly occurs among individuals whose professions require frequent kneeling .
A definitive diagnosis of the condition can usually be made once a clinical history and physical examination have been obtained , though determining whether or not the bursitis is septic is not as straightforward . Treatment of prepatellar bursitis depends on the severity of the symptoms . Mild cases may only require rest and icing of the knee . A number of different treatment options have been used for severe septic cases , including intravenous antibiotics , surgical irrigation of the bursa , and bursectomy .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The primary symptom of prepatellar bursitis is the swelling of the area around the kneecap . It generally does not produce a significant amount of pain unless pressure is applied directly to the swelling . The area of swelling may be red ( erythema ) , warm to the touch , or surrounded by cellulitis , particularly if the area has become infected . In such cases , the bursitis is often accompanied by fever . Unlike arthritis , prepatellar bursitis generally does not affect the range of motion of the knee , though it may cause some discomfort when the knee is completely flexed . Flexion and extension of the knee may cause crepitus .
= = Causes = =
In human anatomy , a bursa is a small pouch filled with synovial fluid . Its purpose is to reduce friction between adjacent structures . The prepatellar bursa is one of several bursae of the knee joint , and is located between the patella and the skin . Prepatellar bursitis is an inflammation of this bursa . Bursae are readily inflamed when irritated , as their walls are very thin . Along with the pes anserine bursa , the prepatellar bursa is one of the most common bursae to cause knee pain when inflamed .
Prepatellar bursitis is caused by either a single instance of acute trauma to the knee , or repeated minor trauma to the knee . The trauma can cause extravasation of nearby fluids into the bursa , which stimulates an inflammatory response . This response occurs in two phases : The vascular phase , in which the blood flow to the surrounding area increases , and the cellular phase , in which leukocytes migrate from the blood to the affected area . Other possible causes include gout , sarcoidosis , CREST syndrome , diabetes mellitus , alcohol abuse , uremia , and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease . Some cases are idiopathic , though these may be caused by trauma that the patient does not remember .
The prepatellar bursa and the olecranon bursa are the two bursae that are most likely to become infected , or septic . Septic bursitis typically occurs when the trauma to the knee causes an abrasion , though it is also possible for the infection to be caused by bacteria traveling through the blood from a pre @-@ existing infection site . In approximately 80 % of septic cases , the infection is caused by Staphylococcus aureus ; other common infections are Streptococcus , Mycobacterium , and Brucella . It is highly unusual for septic bursitis to be caused by anaerobes , fungi , or Gram @-@ negative bacteria . In very rare cases , the infection can be caused by tuberculosis .
= = Diagnosis = =
There are several types of inflammation that can cause knee pain , including sprains , bursitis , and injuries to the meniscus . A diagnosis of prepatellar bursitis can be made based on a physical examination and the presence of risk factors in the person 's medical history ; swelling and tenderness at the front of the knee , combined with a profession that requires frequent kneeling , suggest prepatellar bursitis . Swelling of multiple joints along with restricted range of motion may indicate arthritis instead .
A physical examination and medical history are generally not enough to distinguish between infectious and non @-@ infectious bursitis ; aspiration of the bursal fluid is often required for this , along with a cell culture and Gram stain of the aspirated fluid . Septic prepatellar bursitis may be diagnosed if the fluid is found to have a neutrophil count above 1500 per microliter , a threshold significantly lower than that of septic arthritis ( 50 @,@ 000 cells per microliter ) . A tuberculosis infection can be confirmed using a roentgenogram and urinalysis .
= = Prevention = =
It is possible to prevent the onset of prepatellar bursitis , or prevent the symptoms from worsening , by avoiding trauma to the knee or frequent kneeling . Protective knee pads can also help prevent prepatellar bursitis for those whose professions require frequent kneeling and for athletes who play contact sports , such as American football , basketball , and wrestling .
= = Treatment = =
Non @-@ septic prepatellar bursitis can be treated with rest , the application of ice to the affected area , and anti @-@ inflammatory drugs , particularly ibuprofen . Elevation of the affected leg during rest may also expedite the recovery process . Severe cases may require fine @-@ needle aspiration of the bursa fluid , sometimes coupled with cortisone injections . However , some studies have shown that steroid injections may not be an effective treatment option . After the bursitis has been treated , rehabilitative exercise may help improve joint mechanics and reduce chronic pain .
Opinions vary as to which treatment options are most effective for septic prepatellar bursitis . McAfee and Smith recommend a course of oral antibiotics , usually oxacillin sodium or cephradine , and assert that surgery and drainage are unnecessary . Wilson @-@ MacDonald argues that oral antibiotics are " inadequate " , and recommends intravenous antibiotics for managing the infection . Some authors suggest surgical irrigation of the bursa by means of a subcutaneous tube . Others suggest that bursectomy may be necessary for intractable cases ; the operation is an outpatient procedure that can be performed in less than half an hour .
= = Epidemiology = =
The various nicknames associated with prepatellar bursitis arise from the fact that it commonly occurs among those individuals whose professions require frequent kneeling , such as carpenters , carpet layers , gardeners , housemaids , mechanics , miners , plumbers , and roofers . The exact incidence of the condition is not known ; it is difficult to estimate because only severe septic cases require hospital admission , and mild non @-@ septic cases generally go unreported . Prepatellar bursitis is more common among males than females . It affects all age groups , but is more likely to be septic when it occurs in children .
= Egbert of Wessex =
Egbert ( 771 / 775 – 839 ) , also known as Ecgberht , Ecgbert , or Ecgbriht , was King of Wessex from 802 until his death in 839 . His father was Ealhmund of Kent . In the 780s Egbert was forced into exile by Offa of Mercia and Beorhtric of Wessex , but on Beorhtric 's death in 802 Egbert returned and took the throne .
Little is known of the first 20 years of Egbert 's reign , but it is thought that he was able to maintain the independence of Wessex against the kingdom of Mercia , which at that time dominated the other southern English kingdoms . In 825 Egbert defeated Beornwulf of Mercia , ended Mercia 's supremacy at the Battle of Ellandun , and proceeded to take control of the Mercian dependencies in southeastern England . In 829 Egbert defeated Wiglaf of Mercia and drove him out of his kingdom , temporarily ruling Mercia directly . Later that year Egbert received the submission of the Northumbrian king at Dore . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle subsequently described Egbert as a bretwalda , or " Ruler of Britain " .
Egbert was unable to maintain this dominant position , and within a year Wiglaf regained the throne of Mercia . However , Wessex did retain control of Kent , Sussex , and Surrey ; these territories were given to Egbert 's son Æthelwulf to rule as a subking under Egbert . When Egbert died in 839 , Æthelwulf succeeded him ; the southeastern kingdoms were finally absorbed into the kingdom of Wessex after Æthelwulf 's death in 858 .
= = Family = =
Historians do not agree on Egbert 's ancestry . The earliest version of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , the Parker Chronicle , begins with a genealogical preface tracing the ancestry of Egbert 's son Æthelwulf back through Egbert , Ealhmund ( thought to be Ealhmund of Kent ) , and the otherwise unknown Eoppa and Eafa to Ingild , brother of King Ine of Wessex , who abdicated the throne in 726 . It continues back to Cerdic , founder of the House of Wessex . Egbert 's descent from Ingild was accepted by Frank Stenton , but not the earlier genealogy back to Cerdic . Heather Edwards in her Online Dictionary of National Biography article on Egbert argues that he was of Kentish origin , and that the West Saxon descent may have been manufactured during his reign to give him legitimacy , whereas Rory Naismith considered a Kentish origin unlikely , and that it is more probable that " Egbert was born of good West Saxon royal stock " .
Egbert 's wife 's name is unknown . A fifteenth century chronicle now held by Oxford University names Egbert 's wife as Redburga who was supposedly a relation of Charlemagne that he married when he was banished to Francia , but this is dismissed by academic historians in view of its late date . He is reputed to have had a half @-@ sister Alburga , later to be recognised as a saint for her founding of Wilton Abbey . She was married to Wulfstan , ealdorman of Wiltshire , and on his death in 802 she became a nun , Abbess of Wilton Abbey . He was believed at one time to also be the father of Saint Eadgyth of Polesworth and Æthelstan of Kent .
= = Political context and early life = =
Offa of Mercia , who reigned from 757 to 796 , was the dominant force in Anglo @-@ Saxon England in the second half of the eighth century . The relationship between Offa and Cynewulf , who was king of Wessex from 757 to 786 , is not well documented , but it seems likely that Cynewulf maintained some independence from Mercian overlordship . Evidence of the relationship between kings can come from charters , which were documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen , and which were witnessed by the kings who had power to grant the land . In some cases a king will appear on a charter as a subregulus , or " subking " , making it clear that he has an overlord . Cynewulf appears as " King of the West Saxons " on a charter of Offa 's in 772 ; and he was defeated by Offa in battle in 779 at Bensington , but there is nothing else to suggest Cynewulf was not his own master , and he is not known to have acknowledged Offa as overlord . Offa did have influence in the southeast of the country : a charter of 764 shows him in the company of Heahberht of Kent , suggesting that Offa 's influence helped place Heahberht on the throne . The extent of Offa 's control of Kent between 765 and 776 is a matter of debate amongst historians , but from 776 until about 784 it appears that the Kentish kings had substantial independence from Mercia .
Another Egbert , Egbert II of Kent , ruled in that kingdom throughout the 770s ; he is last mentioned in 779 , in a charter granting land at Rochester . In 784 a new king of Kent , Ealhmund , appears in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . According to a note in the margin , " this king Ealhmund was Egbert 's father [ i.e. Egbert of Wessex ] , Egbert was Æthelwulf 's father . " This is supported by the genealogical preface from the A text of the Chronicle , which gives Egbert 's father 's name as Ealhmund without further details . The preface probably dates from the late ninth century ; the marginal note is on the F manuscript of the Chronicle , which is a Kentish version dating from about 1100 .
Ealhmund does not appear to have long survived in power : there is no record of his activities after 784 . There is , however , extensive evidence of Offa 's domination of Kent during the late 780s , with his goals apparently going beyond overlordship to outright annexation of the kingdom , and he has been described as " the rival , not the overlord , of the Kentish kings " . It is possible that the young Egbert fled to Wessex in 785 or so ; it is suggestive that the Chronicle mentions in a later entry that Beorhtric , Cynewulf 's successor , helped Offa to exile Egbert .
Cynewulf was murdered in 786 . His succession was contested by Egbert , but he was defeated by Beorhtric , maybe with Offa 's assistance . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that Egbert spent three years in Francia before he was king , exiled by Beorhtric and Offa . The text says " iii " for three , but this may have been a scribal error , with the correct reading being " xiii " , that is , thirteen years . Beorhtric 's reign lasted sixteen years , and not thirteen ; and all extant texts of the Chronicle agree on " iii " , but many modern accounts assume that Egbert did indeed spend thirteen years in Francia . This requires assuming that the error in transcription is common to every manuscript of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle ; many historians make this assumption but others have rejected it as unlikely , given the consistency of the sources . In either case Egbert was probably exiled in 789 , when Beorhtric , his rival , married the daughter of Offa of Mercia .
At the time Egbert was in exile , Francia was ruled by Charlemagne , who maintained Frankish influence in Northumbria and is known to have supported Offa 's enemies in the south . Another exile in Gaul at this time was Odberht , a priest , who is almost certainly the same person as Eadberht , who later became king of Kent . According to a later chronicler , William of Malmesbury , Egbert learned the arts of government during his time in Gaul .
= = Early reign = =
Beorhtric 's dependency on Mercia continued into the reign of Cenwulf , who became king of Mercia a few months after Offa 's death . Beorhtric died in 802 , and Egbert came to the throne of Wessex , probably with the support of Charlemagne and perhaps also the papacy . The Mercians continued to oppose Egbert : the day of his accession , the Hwicce ( who had originally formed a separate kingdom , but by that time were part of Mercia ) attacked , under the leadership of their ealdorman , Æthelmund . Weohstan , a Wessex ealdorman , met him with men from Wiltshire : according to a 15th @-@ century source , Weohstan had married Alburga , Egbert 's sister , and so was Egbert 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . The Hwicce were defeated , though Weohstan was killed as well as Æthelmund . Nothing more is recorded of Egbert 's relations with Mercia for more than twenty years after this battle . It seems likely that Egbert had no influence outside his own borders , but on the other hand there is no evidence that he ever submitted to the overlordship of Cenwulf . Cenwulf did have overlordship of the rest of southern England , but in Cenwulf 's charters the title of " overlord of the southern English " never appears , presumably in consequence of the independence of the kingdom of Wessex .
In 815 the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that Egbert ravaged the whole of the territories of the remaining British kingdom , Dumnonia , known to the author of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as the West Welsh ; their territory was about equivalent to what is now Cornwall . Ten years later , a charter dated 19 August 825 indicates that Egbert was campaigning in Dumnonia again ; this may have been related to a battle recorded in the Chronicle at Gafulford in 823 , between the men of Devon and the Britons of Cornwall .
= = The battle of Ellendun = =
It was also in 825 that one of the most important battles in Anglo @-@ Saxon history took place , when Egbert defeated Beornwulf of Mercia at Ellendun — now Wroughton , near Swindon . This battle marked the end of the Mercian domination of southern England . The Chronicle tells how Egbert followed up his victory : " Then he sent his son Æthelwulf from the army , and Ealhstan , his bishop , and Wulfheard , his ealdorman , to Kent with a great troop . " Æthelwulf drove Baldred , the king of Kent , north over the Thames , and according to the Chronicle , the men of Kent , Essex , Surrey and Sussex then all submitted to Æthelwulf " because earlier they were wrongly forced away from his relatives . " This may refer to Offa 's interventions in Kent at the time Egbert 's father Ealhmund became king ; if so , the chronicler 's remark may also indicate Ealhmund had connections elsewhere in southeast England .
The Chronicle 's version of events makes it appear that Baldred was driven out shortly after the battle , but this was probably not the case . A document from Kent survives which gives the date , March 826 , as being in the third year of the reign of Beornwulf . This makes it likely that Beornwulf still had authority in Kent at this date , as Baldred 's overlord ; hence Baldred was apparently still in power . In Essex , Egbert expelled King Sigered , though the date is unknown . It may have been delayed until 829 , since a later chronicler associates the expulsion with a campaign of Egbert 's in that year against the Mercians .
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle does not say who was the aggressor at Ellendun , but one recent history asserts that Beornwulf was almost certainly the one who attacked . According to this view , Beornwulf may have taken advantage of the Wessex campaign in Dumnonia in the summer of 825 . Beornwulf 's motivation to launch an attack would have been the threat of unrest or instability in the southeast : the dynastic connections with Kent made Wessex a threat to Mercian dominance .
The consequences of Ellendun went beyond the immediate loss of Mercian power in the southeast . According to the Chronicle , the East Anglians asked for Egbert 's protection against the Mercians in the same year , 825 , though it may actually have been in the following year that the request was made . In 826 Beornwulf invaded East Anglia , presumably to recover his overlordship . He was slain , however , as was his successor , Ludeca , who invaded East Anglia in 827 , evidently for the same reason . It may be that the Mercians were hoping for support from Kent : there was some reason to suppose that Wulfred , the Archbishop of Canterbury , might be discontented with West Saxon rule , as Egbert had terminated Wulfred 's currency and had begun to mint his own , at Rochester and Canterbury , and it is known that Egbert seized property belonging to Canterbury . The outcome in East Anglia was a disaster for the Mercians which confirmed West Saxon power in the southeast .
= = Defeat of Mercia = =
In 829 Egbert invaded Mercia and drove Wiglaf , the king of Mercia , into exile . This victory gave Egbert control of the London Mint , and he issued coins as King of Mercia . It was after this victory that the West Saxon scribe described him as a bretwalda , meaning " wide @-@ ruler " or " Britain @-@ ruler " , in a famous passage in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . The relevant part of the annal reads , in the [ C ] manuscript of the Chronicle :
⁊ þy geare geeode Ecgbriht cing Myrcna rice ⁊ eall þæt be suþan Humbre wæs , ⁊ he wæs eahtaþa cing se ðe Bretenanwealda wæs .
In modern English :
And the same year King Egbert conquered the kingdom of Mercia , and all that was south of the Humber , and he was the eighth king who was ' Wide Ruler ' .
The previous seven bretwaldas are also named by the Chronicler , who gives the same seven names that Bede lists as holding imperium , starting with Ælle of Sussex and ending with Oswiu of Northumbria . The list is often thought to be incomplete , omitting as it does some dominant Mercian kings such as Penda and Offa . The exact meaning of the title has been much debated ; it has been described as " a term of encomiastic poetry " but there is also evidence that it implied a definite role of military leadership .
Later in 829 , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Egbert received the submission of the Northumbrians at Dore ( now a suburb of Sheffield ) ; the Northumbrian king was probably Eanred . According to a later chronicler , Roger of Wendover , Egbert invaded Northumbria and plundered it before Eanred submitted : " When Egbert had obtained all the southern kingdoms , he led a large army into Northumbria , and laid waste that province with severe pillaging , and made King Eanred pay tribute . " Roger of Wendover is known to have incorporated Northumbrian annals into his version ; the Chronicle does not mention these events . However , the nature of Eanred 's submission has been questioned : one historian has suggested that it is more likely that the meeting at Dore represented a mutual recognition of sovereignty .
In 830 Egbert led a successful expedition against the Welsh , almost certainly with the intent of extending West Saxon influence into the Welsh lands previously within the Mercian orbit . This marked the high point of Egbert 's influence .
= = Reduction in influence after 829 = =
In 830 , Mercia regained its independence under Wiglaf — the Chronicle merely says that Wiglaf " obtained the kingdom of Mercia again " , but the most likely explanation is that this was the result of a Mercian rebellion against Wessex rule .
Egbert 's dominion over southern England came to an end with Wiglaf 's recovery of power . Wiglaf 's return is followed by evidence of his independence from Wessex . Charters indicate Wiglaf had authority in Middlesex and Berkshire , and in a charter of 836 Wiglaf uses the phrase " my bishops , duces , and magistrates " to describe a group that included eleven bishops from the episcopate of Canterbury , including bishops of sees in West Saxon territory . It is significant that Wiglaf was still able to call together such a group of notables ; the West Saxons , even if they were able to do so , held no such councils . Wiglaf may also have brought Essex back into the Mercian orbit during the years after he recovered the throne . In East Anglia , King Æthelstan minted coins , possibly as early as 827 , but more likely c . 830 after Egbert 's influence was reduced with Wiglaf 's return to power in Mercia . This demonstration of independence on East Anglia 's part is not surprising , as it was Æthelstan who was probably responsible for the defeat and death of both Beornwulf and Ludeca .
Both Wessex 's sudden rise to power in the late 820s , and the subsequent failure to retain this dominant position , have been examined by historians looking for underlying causes . One plausible explanation for the events of these years is that Wessex 's fortunes were to some degree dependent on Carolingian support . The Franks supported Eardwulf when he recovered the throne of Northumbria in 808 , so it is plausible that they also supported Egbert 's accession in 802 . At Easter 839 , not long before Egbert 's death , he was in touch with Louis the Pious , king of the Franks , to arrange safe passage to Rome . Hence a continuing relationship with the Franks seems to be part of southern English politics during the first half of the ninth century .
Carolingian support may have been one of the factors that helped Egbert achieve the military successes of the late 820s . However , the Rhenish and Frankish commercial networks collapsed at some time in the 820s or 830s , and in addition , a rebellion broke out in February 830 against Louis the Pious — the first of a series of internal conflicts that lasted through the 830s and beyond . These distractions may have prevented Louis from supporting Egbert . In this view , the withdrawal of Frankish influence would have left East Anglia , Mercia and Wessex to find a balance of power not dependent on outside aid .
Despite the loss of dominance , Egbert 's military successes fundamentally changed the political landscape of Anglo @-@ Saxon England . Wessex retained control of the south @-@ eastern kingdoms , with the possible exception of Essex , and Mercia did not regain control of East Anglia . Egbert 's victories marked the end of the independent existence of the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex . The conquered territories were administered as a subkingdom for a while , including Surrey and possibly Essex . Although Æthelwulf was a subking under Egbert , it is clear that he maintained his own royal household , with which he travelled around his kingdom . Charters issued in Kent described Egbert and Æthelwulf as " kings of the West Saxons and also of the people of Kent . " When Æthelwulf died in 858 his will , in which Wessex is left to one son and the southeastern kingdom to another , makes it clear that it was not until after 858 that the kingdoms were fully integrated . Mercia remained a threat , however ; Egbert 's son Æthelwulf , established as king of Kent , gave estates to Christ Church , Canterbury , probably to counter any influence the Mercians might still have there .
In the southwest , Egbert was defeated in 836 at Carhampton by the Danes , but in 838 he won a battle against them and their allies the West Welsh at the Battle of Hingston Down in Cornwall . The Dumnonian royal line continued after this time , but it is at this date that the independence of one of the last British kingdoms may be considered to have ended . The details of Anglo @-@ Saxon expansion into Cornwall are quite poorly recorded , but some evidence comes from place names . The river Ottery , which flows east into the Tamar near Launceston , appears to be a boundary : south of the Ottery the placenames are overwhelmingly Cornish , whereas to the north they are more heavily influenced by the English newcomers .
= = Succession = =
At a council at Kingston upon Thames in 838 , Egbert and Æthelwulf granted land to the sees of Winchester and Canterbury in return for the promise of support for Æthelwulf 's claim to the throne . The archbishop of Canterbury , Ceolnoth , also accepted Egbert and Æthelwulf as the lords and protectors of the monasteries under Ceolnoth 's control . These agreements , along with a later charter in which Æthelwulf confirmed church privileges , suggest that the church had recognised that Wessex was a new political power that must be dealt with . Churchmen consecrated the king at coronation ceremonies , and helped to write the wills which specified the king 's heir ; their support had real value in establishing West Saxon control and a smooth succession for Egbert 's line . Both the record of the Council of Kingston , and another charter of that year , include the identical phrasing : that a condition of the grant is that " we ourselves and our heirs shall always hereafter have firm and unshakable friendships from Archbishop Ceolnoth and his congregation at Christ Church . "
Although nothing is known of any other claimants to the throne , it is likely that there were other surviving descendants of Cerdic ( the supposed progenitor of all the kings of Wessex ) who might have contended for the kingdom . Egbert died in 839 , and his will , according to the account of it found in the will of his grandson , Alfred the Great , left land only to male members of his family , so that the estates should not be lost to the royal house through marriage . Egbert 's wealth , acquired through conquest , was no doubt one reason for his ability to purchase the support of the southeastern church establishment ; the thriftiness of his will indicates he understood the importance of personal wealth to a king . The kingship of Wessex had been frequently contested among different branches of the royal line , and it is a noteworthy achievement of Egbert 's that he was able to ensure Æthelwulf 's untroubled succession . In addition , Æthelwulf 's experience of kingship , in the subkingdom formed from Egbert 's southeastern conquests , would have been valuable to him when he took the throne .
Egbert was buried in Winchester , as were his son , Æthelwulf , his grandson , Alfred the Great , and his great @-@ grandson , Edward the Elder . During the ninth century , Winchester began to show signs of urbanisation , and it is likely that the sequence of burials indicates that Winchester was held in high regard by the West Saxon royal line .
= Las Meninas =
Las Meninas ( pronounced : [ laz meˈninas ] ; Spanish for The Ladies @-@ in @-@ Waiting ) is a 1656 painting in the Museo del Prado in Madrid , by Diego Velázquez , the leading artist of the Spanish Golden Age . Its complex and enigmatic composition raises questions about reality and illusion , and creates an uncertain relationship between the viewer and the figures depicted . Because of these complexities , Las Meninas has been one of the most widely analyzed works in Western painting .
The painting shows a large room in the Royal Alcazar of Madrid during the reign of King Philip IV of Spain , and presents several figures , most identifiable from the Spanish court , captured , according to some commentators , in a particular moment as if in a snapshot . Some look out of the canvas towards the viewer , while others interact among themselves . The young Infanta Margaret Theresa is surrounded by her entourage of maids of honour , chaperone , bodyguard , two dwarfs and a dog . Just behind them , Velázquez portrays himself working at a large canvas . Velázquez looks outwards , beyond the pictorial space to where a viewer of the painting would stand . In the background there is a mirror that reflects the upper bodies of the king and queen . They appear to be placed outside the picture space in a position similar to that of the viewer , although some scholars have speculated that their image is a reflection from the painting Velázquez is shown working on .
Las Meninas has long been recognised as one of the most important paintings in Western art history . The Baroque painter Luca Giordano said that it represents the " theology of painting " and in 1827 the president of the Royal Academy of Arts Sir Thomas Lawrence described the work in a letter to his successor David Wilkie as " the true philosophy of the art " . More recently , it has been described as " Velázquez 's supreme achievement , a highly self @-@ conscious , calculated demonstration of what painting could achieve , and perhaps the most searching comment ever made on the possibilities of the easel painting " .
= = Background = =
= = = Court of Philip IV = = =
In 17th @-@ century Spain , painters rarely enjoyed high social status . Painting was regarded as a craft , not an art such as poetry or music . Nonetheless , Velázquez worked his way up through the ranks of the court of Philip IV , and in February 1651 was appointed palace chamberlain ( aposentador mayor del palacio ) . The post brought him status and material reward , but its duties made heavy demands on his time . During the remaining eight years of his life , he painted only a few works , mostly portraits of the royal family . When he painted Las Meninas , he had been with the royal household for 33 years .
Philip IV 's first wife , Elizabeth of France , died in 1644 ; and their only son , Balthasar Charles , died two years later . Lacking an heir , Philip married Mariana of Austria in 1649 , and Margaret Theresa ( 1651 – 1673 ) was their first child , and their only one at the time of the painting . Subsequently , she had a short @-@ lived brother Philip Prospero ( 1657 – 1661 ) , and then Charles ( 1661 – 1700 ) arrived , who succeeded to the throne as Charles II at the age of three . Velázquez painted portraits of Mariana and her children , and although Philip himself resisted being portrayed in his old age he did allow Velázquez to include him in Las Meninas . In the early 1650s he gave Velázquez the Pieza Principal ( " main room " ) of the late Balthasar Charles 's living quarters , by then serving as the palace museum , to use as his studio . It is here that Las Meninas is set . Philip had his own chair in the studio and would often sit and watch Velázquez at work . Although constrained by rigid etiquette , the art @-@ loving king seems to have had an unusually close relationship with the painter . After Velázquez 's death , he wrote " I am crushed " in the margin of a memorandum on the choice of his successor .
During the 1640s and 1650s , Velázquez served as both court painter and curator of Philip IV 's expanding collection of European art . He seems to have been given an unusual degree of freedom in the role . He supervised the decoration and interior design of the rooms holding the most valued paintings , adding mirrors , statues and tapestries . He was also responsible for the sourcing , attribution , hanging and inventory of many of the Spanish king 's paintings . By the early 1650s , Velázquez was widely respected in Spain as a connoisseur . Much of the collection of the Prado today — including works by Titian , Raphael , and Rubens — were acquired and assembled under Velázquez 's curatorship .
= = = Provenance and condition = = =
The painting was referred to in the earliest inventories as La Familia ( " The Family " ) . A detailed description of Las Meninas , which provides the identification of several of the figures , was published by Antonio Palomino ( " the Giorgio Vasari of the Spanish Golden Age " ) in 1724 . Examination under infrared light reveals minor pentimenti , that is , there are traces of earlier working that the artist himself later altered . For example , at first Velázquez 's own head inclined to his right rather than his left .
The painting has been cut down on both the left and right sides . It was damaged in the fire that destroyed the Alcázar in 1734 , and was restored by court painter Juan García de Miranda ( 1677 – 1749 ) . The left cheek of the Infanta was almost completely repainted to compensate for a substantial loss of pigment . After its rescue from the fire , the painting was inventoried as part of the royal collection in 1747 – 48 , and the Infanta was misidentified as Maria Theresa , Margaret Theresa 's older half @-@ sister , an error that was repeated when the painting was inventoried at the new Madrid Royal Palace in 1772 . A 1794 inventory reverted to a version of the earlier title , The Family of Philip IV , which was repeated in the records of 1814 . The painting entered the collection of the Museo del Prado on its foundation in 1819 . In 1843 , the Prado catalogue listed the work for the first time as Las Meninas .
In recent years , the picture has suffered a loss of texture and hue . Due to exposure to pollution and crowds of visitors , the once @-@ vivid contrasts between blue and white pigments in the costumes of the meninas have faded . It was last cleaned in 1984 under the supervision of the American conservator John Brealey , to remove a " yellow veil " of dust that had gathered since the previous restoration in the 19th century . The cleaning provoked , according to the art historian Federico Zeri , " furious protests , not because the picture had been damaged in any way , but because it looked different " . However , in the opinion of López @-@ Rey , the " restoration was impeccable " . Due to its size , importance , and value , the painting is not lent out for exhibition .
= = = Painting materials = = =
A thorough technical investigation including a pigment analysis of Las Meninas was conducted around 1981 in Museo Prado . The analysis revealed the usual pigments of the baroque period frequently used by Velázquez in his other paintings . The main pigments used for this painting were lead white , azurite ( for the skirt of the kneeling menina ) , vermilion and red lake , ochres and carbon blacks .
= = Description = =
= = = Subject matter = = =
Las Meninas is set in Velázquez 's studio in Philip IV 's Alcázar palace in Madrid . The high @-@ ceilinged room is presented , in the words of Silvio Gaggi , as " a simple box that could be divided into a perspective grid with a single vanishing point " . In the centre of the foreground stands the Infanta Margaret Theresa ( 1 ) . The five @-@ year @-@ old infanta , who later married Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I , was at this point Philip and Mariana 's only surviving child . She is attended by two ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting , or meninas : doña Isabel de Velasco ( 2 ) , who is poised to curtsy to the princess , and doña María Agustina Sarmiento de Sotomayor ( 3 ) , who kneels before Margaret Theresa , offering her a drink from a red cup , or bucaro , that she holds on a golden tray . To the right of the Infanta are two dwarfs : the achondroplastic German , Maribarbola ( 4 ) ( Maria Barbola ) , and the Italian , Nicolas Pertusato ( 5 ) , who playfully tries to rouse a sleepy mastiff with his foot . Behind them stands doña Marcela de Ulloa ( 6 ) , the princess 's chaperone , dressed in mourning and talking to an unidentified bodyguard ( or guardadamas ) ( 7 ) .
To the rear and at right stands Don José Nieto Velázquez ( 8 ) — the queen 's chamberlain during the 1650s , and head of the royal tapestry works — who may have been a relative of the artist . Nieto is shown pausing , with his right knee bent and his feet on different steps . As the art critic Harriet Stone observes , it is uncertain whether he is " coming or going " . He is rendered in silhouette and appears to hold open a curtain on a short flight of stairs , with an unclear wall or space behind . Both this backlight and the open doorway reveal space behind : in the words of the art historian Analisa Leppanen , they lure " our eyes inescapably into the depths " . The royal couple 's reflection pushes in the opposite direction , forward into the picture space . The vanishing point of the perspective is in the doorway , as can be shown by extending the line of the meeting of wall and ceiling on the right . Nieto is seen only by the king and queen , who share the viewer 's point of view , and not by the figures in the foreground . In the footnotes of Joel Snyder 's article , the author recognizes that Nieto is the queen 's attendant and was required to be at hand to open and close doors for her . Snyder suggests that Nieto appears in the doorway so that the king and queen might depart . In the context of the painting , Snyder argues that the scene is the end of the royal couple 's sitting for Velázquez and they are preparing to exit , explaining that is " why the menina to the right of the Infanta begins to curtsy " .
Velázquez himself ( 9 ) is pictured to the left of the scene , looking outward past a large canvas supported by an easel . On his chest is the red cross of the Order of Santiago , which he did not receive until 1659 , three years after the painting was completed . According to Palomino , Philip ordered this to be added after Velázquez 's death , " and some say that his Majesty himself painted it " . From the painter 's belt hang the symbolic keys of his court offices .
A mirror on the back wall reflects the upper bodies and heads of two figures identified from other paintings , and by Palomino , as King Philip IV ( 10 ) and Queen Mariana ( 11 ) . The most common assumption is that the reflection shows the couple in the pose they are holding for Velázquez as he paints them , while their daughter watches ; and that the painting therefore shows their view of the scene .
Of the nine figures depicted , five are looking directly out at the royal couple or the viewer . Their glances , along with the king and queen 's reflection , affirm the royal couple 's presence outside the painted space . Alternatively , art historians H. W. Janson and Joel Snyder suggest that the image of the king and queen is a reflection from Velázquez 's canvas , the front of which is obscured from the viewer . Other writers say the canvas Velázquez is painting is unusually large for a portrait by Velázquez , and is about the same size as Las Meninas . Las Meninas contains the only known double portrait of the royal couple painted by Velázquez .
The point of view of the picture is approximately that of the royal couple , though this has been widely debated . Many critics suppose that the scene is viewed by the king and queen as they pose for a double portrait , while the Infanta and her companions are present only to relieve their boredom . Leo Steinberg suggests that the King and Queen are to the left of the viewer and the reflection in the mirror is that of the canvas , a portrait of the king and queen . Others speculate that Velázquez represents himself painting the Infanta Margaret Theresa . No single theory has found universal agreement .
The back wall of the room , which is in shadow , is hung with rows of paintings , including one of a series of scenes from Ovid 's Metamorphoses by Peter Paul Rubens , and copies , by Velázquez 's son @-@ in @-@ law and principal assistant Juan del Mazo , of works by Jacob Jordaens . The paintings are shown in the exact positions recorded in an inventory taken around this time . The wall to the right is hung with a grid of eight smaller paintings , visible mainly as frames owing to their angle from the viewer . They can be identified from the inventory as more Mazo copies of paintings from the Rubens Ovid series , though only two of the subjects can be seen .
The paintings on the back wall are recognized as representing Minerva Punishing Arachne and Apollo 's Victory Over Marsyas . Both stories involve Minerva , the Goddess of Wisdom and patron of the arts . These two legends are both stories of mortals challenging gods and the dreadful consequences . One scholar points out that the legend dealing with two women , Minerva and Arachne , is on the same side of the mirror as the queen 's reflection while the male legend is on the side of the king .
= = = Composition = = =
The painted surface is divided into quarters horizontally and sevenths vertically ; this grid is used to organise the elaborate grouping of characters , and was a common device at the time . Velázquez presents nine figures — eleven if the king and queen 's reflected images are included — yet they occupy only the lower half of the canvas .
According to López @-@ Rey , the painting has three focal points : the Infanta Margaret Theresa , the self @-@ portrait and the half @-@ length reflected images of King
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Philip IV and Queen Mariana . In 1960 , the art historian Kenneth Clark made the point that the success of the composition is a result first and foremost of the accurate handling of light and shade :
Each focal point involves us in a new set of relations ; and to paint a complex group like the Meninas , the painter must carry in his head a single consistent scale of relations which he can apply throughout . He may use all kinds of devices to help him do this — perspective is one of them — but ultimately the truth about a complete visual impression depends on one thing , truth of tone . Drawing may be summary , colours drab , but if the relations of tone are true , the picture will hold .
However , the focal point of the painting is widely debated . Leo Steinberg argues that the orthogonals in the work are intentionally disguised so that the picture 's focal center shifts . Similar to Lopez @-@ Rey , he describes three foci . The man in the doorway , however , is the vanishing point . More specifically , the crook of his arm is where the orthogonals of the windows and lights of the ceiling meet .
Depth and dimension are rendered by the use of linear perspective , by the overlapping of the layers of shapes , and in particular , as stated by Clark , through the use of tone . This compositional element operates within the picture in a number of ways . First , there is the appearance of natural light within the painted room and beyond it . The pictorial space in the midground and foreground is lit from two sources : by thin shafts of light from the open door , and by broad streams coming through the window to the right . The 20th @-@ century French philosopher and cultural critic Michel Foucault observed that the light from the window illuminates both the studio foreground and the unrepresented area in front of it , in which the king , the queen , and the viewer are presumed to be situated . For José Ortega y Gasset , light divides the scene into three distinct parts , with foreground and background planes strongly illuminated , between which a darkened intermediate space includes silhouetted figures .
Velázquez uses this light not only to add volume and definition to each form but also to define the focal points of the painting . As the light streams in from the right it brightly glints on the braid and golden hair of the female dwarf , who is nearest the light source . But because her face is turned from the light , and in shadow , its tonality does not make it a point of particular interest . Similarly , the light glances obliquely on the cheek of the lady @-@ in @-@ waiting near her , but not on her facial features . Much of her lightly coloured dress is dimmed by shadow . The Infanta , however , stands in full illumination , and with her face turned towards the light source , even though her gaze is not . Her face is framed by the pale gossamer of her hair , setting her apart from everything else in the picture . The light models the volumetric geometry of her form , defining the conic nature of a small torso bound rigidly into a corset and stiffened bodice , and the panniered skirt extending around her like an oval candy @-@ box , casting its own deep shadow which , by its sharp contrast with the bright brocade , both emphasises and locates the small figure as the main point of attention .
Velázquez further emphasises the Infanta by his positioning and lighting of her maids of honour , whom he sets opposing one another : to left and right , before and behind the Infanta . The maid to the left faces the light , her brightly lit profile and sleeve creating a diagonal . Her opposite number creates a broader but less defined reflection of her attention , making a diagonal space between them , in which their charge stands protected .
A further internal diagonal passes through the space occupied by the Infanta . There is a similar connection between the female dwarf and the figure of Velázquez himself , both of whom look towards the viewer from similar angles , creating a visual tension . The face of Velázquez is dimly lit by light that is reflected , rather than direct . For this reason his features , though not as sharply defined , are more visible than those of the dwarf who is much nearer the light source . This appearance of a total face , full @-@ on to the viewer , draws the attention , and its importance is marked , tonally , by the contrasting frame of dark hair , the light on the hand and brush , and the skilfully placed triangle of light on the artist 's sleeve , pointing directly to the face .
From the figure of the artist , the viewer 's eye leaps again diagonally into the pictorial space . Another man stands , echoing and opposing the form of the artist , outside rather than inside , made clearly defined and yet barely identifiable by the light and shade . The positioning of such an area of strong tonal contrast right at the rear of the pictorial space is a daring compositional tactic . The shapes of bright light are similar to the irregular light shapes of the foreground Maid of Honour , but the sharply defined door @-@ frame repeats the border of the mirror .
The mirror is a perfectly defined unbroken pale rectangle within a broad black rectangle . A clear geometric shape , like a lit face , draws the attention of the viewer more than a broken geometric shape such as the door , or a shadowed or oblique face such as that of the dwarf in the foreground or that of the man in the background . The viewer cannot distinguish the features of the king and queen , but in the opalescent sheen of the mirror 's surface , the glowing ovals are plainly turned directly to the viewer . Jonathan Miller points out that apart from " adding suggestive gleams at the bevelled edges , the most important way the mirror betrays its identity is by disclosing imagery whose brightness is so inconsistent with the dimness of the surrounding wall that it can only have been borrowed , by reflection , from the strongly illuminated figures of the King and Queen " .
As the maids of honour are reflected in each other , so too do the king and queen have their doubles within the painting , in the dimly lit forms of the chaperone and guard , the two who serve and care for their daughter . The positioning of these figures sets up a pattern , one man , a couple , one man , a couple , and while the outer figures are nearer the viewer than the others , they all occupy the same horizontal band on the picture 's surface .
Adding to the inner complexities of the picture and creating further visual interactions is the male dwarf in the foreground , whose raised hand echoes the gesture of the figure in the background , while his playful demeanour , and distraction from the central action , are in complete contrast with it . The informality of his pose , his shadowed profile , and his dark hair all serve to make him a mirror image to the kneeling attendant of the Infanta . However , the painter has set him forward of the light streaming through the window , and so minimised the contrast of tone on this foreground figure .
Despite certain spatial ambiguities this is the painter 's most thoroughly rendered architectural space , and the only one in which a ceiling is shown . According to López @-@ Rey , in no other composition did Velázquez so dramatically lead the eye to areas beyond the viewer 's sight : both the canvas he is seen painting , and the space beyond the frame where the king and queen stand can only be imagined . The bareness of the dark ceiling , the back of Velázquez 's canvas , and the strict geometry of framed paintings contrast with the animated , brilliantly lit and sumptuously painted foreground entourage . Stone writes :
We cannot take in all the figures of the painting in one glance . Not only do the life @-@ size proportions of the painting preclude such an appreciation , but also the fact that the heads of the figures are turned in different directions means that our gaze is deflected . The painting communicates through images which , in order to be understood , must thus be considered in sequence , one after the other , in the context of a history that is still unfolding . It is a history that is still unframed , even in this painting composed of frames within frames .
According to Kahr , the composition could have been influenced by the traditional Dutch Gallery Pictures such as those by Frans Francken the Younger , Willem van Haecht , or David Teniers the Younger . Teniers ' work was owned by Philip IV and would have been known by Velázquez . Like Las Meninas , they often depict formal visits by important collectors or rulers , a common occurrence , and " show a room with a series of windows dominating one side wall and paintings hung between the windows as well as on the other walls " . Gallery Portraits were also used to glorify the artist as well as royalty or members of the higher classes , as may have been Velázquez 's intention with this work .
= = = Mirror and reflection = = =
The spatial structure and positioning of the mirror 's reflection are such that Philip IV and Mariana appear to be standing on the viewer 's side of the pictorial space , facing the Infanta and her entourage . According to Janson , not only is the gathering of figures in the foreground for Philip and Mariana 's benefit , but the painter 's attention is concentrated on the couple , as he appears to be working on their portrait . Although they can only be seen in the mirror reflection , their distant image occupies a central position in the canvas , in terms of social hierarchy as well as composition . As spectators , our position in relation to the painting is uncertain . It has been debated whether the ruling couple are standing beside the viewer or have replaced the viewer , who sees the scene through their eyes . Lending weight to the latter idea are the gazes of three of the figures — Velázquez , the Infanta , and Maribarbola — who appear to be looking directly at the viewer .
The mirror on the back wall indicates what is not there : the king and queen , and in the words of Harriet Stone , " the generations of spectators who assume the couple 's place before the painting " . Writing in 1980 , the critics Snyder and Cohn observed :
Velázquez wanted the mirror to depend upon the useable painted canvas for its image . Why should he want that ? The luminous image in the mirror appears to reflect the king and queen themselves , but it does more than just this : the mirror outdoes nature . The mirror image is only a reflection . A reflection of what ? Of the real thing — of the art of Velázquez . In the presence of his divinely ordained monarchs ... Velázquez exults in his artistry and counsels Philip and Maria not to look for the revelation of their image in the natural reflection of a looking glass but rather in the penetrating vision of their master painter . In the presence of Velázquez , a mirror image is a poor imitation of the real .
In Las Meninas , the king and queen are supposedly " outside " the painting , yet their reflection in the back wall mirror also places them " inside " the pictorial space .
Snyder proposes it is " a mirror of majesty " or an allusion to the mirror for princes . While it is a literal reflection of the king and queen , Snyder writes " it is the image of exemplary monarchs , a reflection of ideal character " Later he focuses his attention on the princess , writing that Velázquez 's portrait is " the painted equivalent of a manual for the education of the princess — a mirror of the princess "
The painting is likely to have been influenced by Jan van Eyck 's Arnolfini Portrait , of 1434 . At the time , van Eyck 's painting hung in Philip 's palace , and would have been familiar to Velázquez . The Arnolfini Portrait also has a mirror positioned at the back of the pictorial space , reflecting two figures who would have the same angle of vision as does the viewer of Velázquez 's painting ; they are too small to identify , but it has been speculated that one may be intended as the artist himself , though he is not shown in the act of painting . According to Lucien Dällenbach :
The mirror [ in Las Meninas ] faces the observer as in Van Eyck 's painting . But here the procedure is more realistic to the degree that the " rearview " mirror in which the royal couple appears is no longer convex but flat . Whereas the reflection in the Flemish painting recomposed objects and characters within a space that is condensed and deformed by the curve of the mirror , that of Velázquez refuses to play with the laws of perspective : it projects onto the canvas the perfect double of the king and queen positioned in front of the painting . Moreover , in showing the figures whom the painter observes , and also , through the mediation of the mirror , the figures who are observing him , the painter achieves a reciprocity of gazes that makes the interior oscillate with the exterior and which causes the image to " emerge from its frame " at the same time that it invites the visitors to enter the painting .
Jonathan Miller asks : " What are we to make of the blurred features of the royal couple ? It is unlikely that it has anything to do with the optical imperfection of the mirror , which would , in reality , have displayed a focused image of the King and Queen " . He notes that " in addition to the represented mirror , he teasingly implies an unrepresented one , without which it is difficult to imagine how he could have shown himself painting the picture we now see " .
= = Interpretation = =
The elusiveness of Las Meninas , according to Dawson Carr , " suggests that art , and life , are an illusion " . The relationship between illusion and reality were central concerns in Spanish culture during the 17th century , figuring largely in Don Quixote : the best @-@ known work of Spanish Baroque literature . In this respect , Calderón de la Barca 's play Life is a Dream is commonly seen as the literary equivalent of Velázquez 's painting :
Jon Manchip White notes that the painting can be seen as a résumé of the whole of Velázquez 's life and career , as well as a summary of his art to that point . He placed his only confirmed self @-@ portrait in a room in the royal palace surrounded by an assembly of royalty , courtiers , and fine objects that represent his life at court . The art historian Svetlana Alpers suggests that , by portraying the artist at work in the company of royalty and nobility , Velázquez was claiming high status for both the artist and his art , and in particular to propose that painting is a liberal rather than a mechanical art . This distinction was a point of controversy at the time . It would have been significant to Velázquez , since the rules of the Order of Santiago excluded those whose occupations were mechanical . Kahr asserts that this was the best way for Velázquez to show that he was " neither a craftsman or a tradesman , but an official of the court " . Furthermore , this was a way to prove himself worthy of acceptance by the royal family .
Michel Foucault devoted the opening chapter of The Order of Things ( 1966 ) to an analysis of Las Meninas . Foucault describes the painting in meticulous detail , but in a language that is " neither prescribed by , nor filtered through the various texts of art @-@ historical investigation " . Foucault viewed the painting without regard to the subject matter , nor to the artist 's biography , technical ability , sources and influences , social context , or relationship with his patrons . Instead he analyses its conscious artifice , highlighting the complex network of visual relationships between painter , subject @-@ model , and viewer :
We are looking at a picture in which the painter is in turn looking out at us . A mere confrontation , eyes catching one another 's glance , direct looks superimposing themselves upon one another as they cross . And yet this slender line of reciprocal visibility embraces a whole complex network of uncertainties , exchanges , and feints . The painter is turning his eyes towards us only in so far as we happen to occupy the same position as his subject .
For Foucault , Las Meninas illustrates the first signs of a new episteme , or way of thinking . It represents a midpoint between what he sees as the two " great discontinuities " in European thought , the classical and the modern : " Perhaps there exists , in this painting by Velázquez , the representation as it were of Classical representation , and the definition of the space it opens up to us ... representation , freed finally from the relation that was impeding it , can offer itself as representation in its pure form . "
Now he ( the painter ) can be seen , caught in a moment of stillness , at the neutral centre of his oscillation . His dark torso and bright face are half @-@ way between the visible and the invisible : emerging from the canvas beyond our view , he moves into our gaze ; but when , in a moment , he makes a step to the right , removing himself from our gaze , he will be standing exactly in front of the canvas he is painting ; he will enter that region where his painting , neglected for an instant , will , for him , become visible once more , free of shadow and free of reticence . As though the painter could not at the same time be seen on the picture where he is represented and also see that upon which he is representing something . "
In the conclusion of Order of Things Foucault explained why he undertook such a forensic analysis of Las Meninas :
let us , if we may , look for the previously existing law of that interplay [ ie the law of representation ] in the painting of Las Meninas ... In Classical thought , the personage for whom the representation exists , and who represents himself within it , recognizing himself therein as an image or reflection , he who ties together all the interlacing threads of the ' representation in the form of a picture or table ' – he is never to be found in that table himself . Before the end of the eighteenth century , man did not exist @-@ any more than the potency of life , the fecundity of labour , or the historical density of language . He is a quite recent creature , which the demiurge of knowledge fabricated with its own hands less than two hundred years ago : but he has grown old so quickly that it has been only too easy to imagine that he had been waiting for thousands of years in the darkness for that moment of illumination in which he would finally be known .
Foucault 's analysis of Las Meninas , although on one level a contribution to art history , is more about epistemology , specifically the ' cognitive status of the modern human sciences ' , based on the possibility , suggested by Ludwig Wittgenstein , that a picture is a model of reality ( TLP 2 @.@ 22 )
= = Las Meninas as culmination of themes in Velázquez = =
Many aspects of Las Meninas relate to earlier works by Velázquez in which he plays with conventions of representation . In the Rokeby Venus — his only surviving nude — the face of the subject is visible , blurred beyond any realism , in a mirror . The angle of the mirror is such that although " often described as looking at herself , [ she ] is more disconcertingly looking at us " . In the early Christ in the House of Martha and Mary of 1618 , Christ and his companions are seen only through a serving hatch to a room behind , according to the National Gallery ( London ) , who are clear that this is the intention , although before restoration many art historians regarded this scene as either a painting hanging on the wall in the main scene , or a reflection in a mirror , and the debate has continued . The dress worn in the two scenes also differs : the main scene is in contemporary dress , while the scene with Christ uses conventional iconographic biblical dress . This is also a feature of Los Borrachos of 1629 , where contemporary peasants consort with the god Bacchus and his companions , who have the conventional undress of mythology . In this , as in some of his early bodegones , the figures look directly at the viewer as if seeking a reaction .
In Las Hilanderas , probably painted the year after Las Meninas , two different scenes from Ovid are shown : one in contemporary dress in the foreground , and the other partly in antique dress , played before a tapestry on the back wall of a room behind the first . According to the critic Sira Dambe , " aspects of representation and power are addressed in this painting in ways closely connected with their treatment in Las Meninas " . In a series of portraits of the late 1630s and 1640s — all now in the Prado — Velázquez painted clowns and other members of the royal household posing as gods , heroes , and philosophers ; the intention is certainly partly comic , at least for those in the know , but in a highly ambiguous way .
Velázquez 's portraits of the royal family themselves had until then been straightforward , if often unflatteringly direct and highly complex in expression . On the other hand , his royal portraits , designed to be seen across vast palace rooms , feature more strongly than his other works the bravura handling for which he is famous : " Velázquez 's handling of paint is exceptionally free , and as one approaches Las Meninas there is a point at which the figures suddenly dissolve into smears and blobs of paint . The long @-@ handled brushes he used enabled him to stand back and judge the total effect . "
= = Influence = =
In 1692 , the Neapolitan painter Luca Giordano became one of the few allowed to view paintings held in Philip IV 's private apartments , and was greatly impressed by Las Meninas . Giordano described the work as the " theology of painting " , and was inspired to paint A Homage to Velázquez ( National Gallery , London ) . By the early 18th century his oeuvre was gaining international recognition , and later in the century British collectors ventured to Spain in search of acquisitions . Since the popularity of Italian art was then at its height among British connoisseurs , they concentrated on paintings that showed obvious Italian influence , largely ignoring others such as Las Meninas .
An almost immediate influence can be seen in the two portraits by Mazo of subjects depicted in Las Meninas , which in some ways reverse the motif of that painting . Ten years later , in 1666 , Mazo painted Infanta Margaret Theresa , who was then 15 and just about to leave Madrid to marry the Holy Roman Emperor . In the background are figures in two further receding doorways , one of which was the new King Charles ( Margaret Theresa 's brother ) , and another the dwarf Maribarbola . A Mazo portrait of the widowed Queen Mariana again shows , through a doorway in the Alcázar , the young king with dwarfs , possibly including Maribarbola , and attendants who offer him a drink . Mazo 's painting of The Family of the Artist also shows a composition similar to that of Las Meninas .
Francisco Goya etched a print of Las Meninas in 1778 , and later used Velázquez 's painting as the model for his Charles IV of Spain and His Family . As in Las Meninas , the royal family in Goya 's work is apparently visiting the artist 's studio . In both paintings the artist is shown working on a canvas , of which only the rear is visible . Goya , however , replaces the atmospheric and warm perspective of Las Meninas with what Pierre Gassier calls a sense of " imminent suffocation " . Goya 's royal family is presented on a " stage facing the public , while in the shadow of the wings the painter , with a grim smile , points and says : ' Look at them and judge for yourself ! ' "
The 19th @-@ century British art collector William John Bankes travelled to Spain during the Peninsular War ( 1808 – 1814 ) and acquired a copy of Las Meninas painted by Mazo , which he believed to be an original preparatory oil sketch by Velázquez — although Velázquez did not usually paint studies . Bankes described his purchase as " the glory of my collection " , noting that he had been " a long while in treaty for it and was obliged to pay a high price " . The copy was admired throughout the 19th century in Britain .
The art world developed a new appreciation for Velázquez 's less Italianate paintings after 1819 , when Ferdinand VII opened the royal collection to the public . In 1879 John Singer Sargent painted a small @-@ scale copy of Las Meninas , and in 1882 painted a homage to the painting in his The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit , while the Irish artist Sir John Lavery chose Velázquez 's masterpiece as the basis for his portrait The Royal Family at Buckingham Palace , 1913 . George V visited Lavery 's studio during the execution of the painting , and , perhaps remembering the legend that Philip IV had daubed the cross of the Knights of Santiago on the figure of Velázquez , asked Lavery if he could contribute to the portrait with his own hand . According to Lavery , " Thinking that royal blue might be an appropriate colour , I mixed it on the palette , and taking a brush he [ George V ] applied it to the Garter ribbon . "
Between August and December 1957 , Pablo Picasso painted a series of 58 interpretations of Las Meninas , and figures from it , which currently fill the Las Meninas room of the Museu Picasso in Barcelona , Spain . Picasso did not vary the characters within the series , but largely retained the naturalness of the scene ; according to the museum , his works constitute an " exhaustive study of form , rhythm , colour and movement " . A print of 1973 by Richard Hamilton called Picasso 's Meninas draws on both Velázquez and Picasso . Photographer Joel @-@ Peter Witkin was commissioned by the Spanish Ministry of Culture to create a work titled Las Meninas , New Mexico ( 1987 ) which references Velázquez 's painting as well as other works by Spanish artists .
The American novelist David Foster Wallace titled an unpublished short story after this painting ; the story was incorporated into his 1995 magnum opus Infinite Jest as the " Wardine " section , but without the Velásquez allusion .
In 2004 , the video artist Eve Sussman filmed 89 Seconds at Alcázar , a high @-@ definition video tableau inspired by Las Meninas . The work is a recreation of the moments leading up to and directly following the approximately 89 seconds when the royal family and their courtiers would have come together in the exact configuration of Velázquez 's painting . Sussman had assembled a team of 35 , including an architect , a set designer , a choreographer , a costume designer , actors , actresses , and a film crew .
A 2008 exhibit at the Museu Picasso titled " Forgetting Velázquez : Las Meninas " included art responding to by Velázquez 's painting by Fermín Aguayo , Avigdor Arikha , Claudio Bravo , Juan Carreño de Miranda , Michael Craig @-@ Martin , Salvador Dalí , Juan Downey , Goya , Hamilton , Mazo , Vik Muniz , Jorge Oteiza , Picasso , Antonio Saura , Franz von Stuck , Sussman , Manolo Valdés , and Witkin , among others .
= = A version in England = =
A smaller version of the painting , thought to be a draft , is preserved in the country house of Kingston Lacy in Dorset , England . Several experts , including the former Curator of the Department of Renaissance and Baroque Painting in the Museo del Prado and current Director of the Moll Institute of Studies of Flemish Paintings , in Madrid , Professor Matías Díaz Padrón , suggest that this " could be a model " painted by Velázquez before the completed work which hangs in the Museo del Prado , perhaps to be approved by the king . Conflicting with this is the fact that the Kingston Lacy version represents the final state of Las Meninas , not the earlier state of the painting revealed by radiographs , suggesting that it was painted after the completed work , not before it .
Another possibility is that the Kingston Lacy painting is a copy by Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo ( c . 1612 @-@ 1667 ) , son @-@ in @-@ law and close follower of Velázquez . The version is missing some of the final work 's details and nuances such as the royal couple 's reflection in the mirror . Its composition is almost identical to the original . Although its colors are lighter , the light is less strong . Pencil lines outlining the Infanta 's face , eyes , and hair are also visible .
The Kingston Lacy painting was previously owned by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos and then by Ceán Bermúdez , who were both friends of Goya whose portraits he painted . Bermúdez 's writings on the painting were published posthumously in 1885 .
= Tropical cyclogenesis =
Tropical cyclogenesis is the development and strengthening of a tropical cyclone in the atmosphere . The mechanisms through which tropical cyclogenesis occurs are distinctly different from those through which mid @-@ latitude cyclogenesis occurs . Tropical cyclogenesis involves the development of a warm @-@ core cyclone , due to significant convection in a favorable atmospheric environment . There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis : sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures , atmospheric instability , high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a preexisting low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear .
Tropical cyclones tend to develop during the summer , but have been noted in nearly every month in most basins . Climate cycles such as ENSO and the Madden – Julian oscillation modulate the timing and frequency of tropical cyclone development . There is a limit on tropical cyclone intensity which is strongly related to the water temperatures along its path . An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide . Of those , 47 reach hurricane / typhoon strength , and 20 become intense tropical cyclones ( at least Category 3 intensity on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale ) .
= = Requirements for tropical cyclone formation = =
There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis : sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures , atmospheric instability , high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to sustain a low pressure center , a preexisting low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . While these conditions are necessary for tropical cyclone formation , they do not guarantee that a tropical cyclone will form .
= = = Warm waters , instability , and mid @-@ level moisture = = =
Normally , an ocean temperature of 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) spanning through at least a 50 @-@ metre depth is considered the minimum to maintain the special mesocyclone that is the tropical cyclone . These warm waters are needed to maintain the warm core that fuels tropical systems . This value is well above 16 @.@ 1 ° C ( 60 @.@ 9 ° F ) , the global average surface temperature of the oceans . However , this requirement can be considered only a general baseline because it assumes that the ambient atmospheric environment surrounding an area of disturbed weather presents average conditions .
Tropical cyclones are known to form even when normal conditions are not met . For example , cooler air temperatures at a higher altitude ( e.g. , at the 500 hPa level , or 5 @.@ 9 km ) can lead to tropical cyclogenesis at lower water temperatures , as a certain lapse rate is required to force the atmosphere to be unstable enough for convection . In a moist atmosphere , this lapse rate is 6 @.@ 5 ° C / km , while in an atmosphere with less than 100 % relative humidity , the required lapse rate is 9 @.@ 8 ° C / km .
At the 500 hPa level , the air temperature averages − 7 ° C ( 18 ° F ) within the tropics , but air in the tropics is normally dry at this level , giving the air room to wet @-@ bulb , or cool as it moistens , to a more favorable temperature that can then support convection . A wetbulb temperature at 500 hPa in a tropical atmosphere of − 13 @.@ 2 ° C is required to initiate convection if the water temperature is 26 @.@ 5 ° C , and this temperature requirement increases or decreases proportionally by 1 ° C in the sea surface temperature for each 1 ° C change at 500 hpa . Under a cold cyclone , 500 hPa temperatures can fall as low as − 30 ° C , which can initiate convection even in the driest atmospheres . This also explains why moisture in the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere , roughly at the 500 hPa level , is normally a requirement for development . However , when dry air is found at the same height , temperatures at 500 hPa need to be even colder as dry atmospheres require a greater lapse rate for instability than moist atmospheres . At heights near the tropopause , the 30 @-@ year average temperature ( as measured in the period encompassing 1961 through 1990 ) was − 77 ° C ( − 132 ° F ) . A recent example of a tropical cyclone that maintained itself over cooler waters was Epsilon of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season .
= = = = Role of Maximum Potential Intensity ( MPI ) = = = =
Kerry Emanuel created a mathematical model around 1988 to compute the upper limit of tropical cyclone intensity based on sea surface temperature and atmospheric profiles from the latest global model runs . Emanuel 's model is called the maximum potential intensity , or MPI . Maps created from this equation show regions where tropical storm and hurricane formation is possible , based upon the thermodynamics of the atmosphere at the time of the last model run ( either 0000 or 1200 UTC ) . This does not take into account vertical wind shear .
= = = Coriolis force = = =
A minimum distance of 500 km ( 310 mi ) from the equator is normally needed for tropical cyclogenesis . The Coriolis force imparts rotation on the flow and arises as winds begin to flow in toward the lower pressure created by the pre @-@ existing disturbance . In areas with a very small or non @-@ existent Coriolis force ( e.g. near the Equator ) , the only significant atmospheric forces in play are the pressure gradient force ( the pressure difference that causes winds to blow from high to low pressure ) and a smaller friction force ; these two alone would not cause the large @-@ scale rotation required for tropical cyclogenesis . The existence of a significant Coriolis force allows the developing vortex to achieve gradient wind balance . This is a balance condition found in mature tropical cyclones that allows latent heat to concentrate near the storm core ; this results in the maintenance or intensification of the vortex if other development factors are neutral .
= = = Low level disturbance = = =
Whether it be a depression in the intertropical covergence zone ( ITCZ ) , a tropical wave , a broad surface front , or an outflow boundary , a low level feature with sufficient vorticity and convergence is required to begin tropical cyclogenesis . Even with perfect upper level conditions and the required atmospheric instability , the lack of a surface focus will prevent the development of organized convection and a surface low . Tropical cyclones can form when smaller circulations within the Intertropical Convergence Zone merge .
= = = Weak vertical wind shear = = =
Vertical wind shear of less than 10 m / s ( 20 kt , 22 mph ) between the surface and the tropopause is favored for tropical cyclone development . A weaker vertical shear makes the storm grow faster vertically into the air , which helps the storm develop and become stronger . If the vertical shear is too strong , the storm cannot rise to its full potential and its energy becomes spread out over too large of an area for the storm to strengthen . Strong wind shear can " blow " the tropical cyclone apart , as it displaces the mid @-@ level warm core from the surface circulation and dries out the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere , halting development . In smaller systems , the development of a significant mesoscale convective complex in a sheared environment can send out a large enough outflow boundary to destroy the surface cyclone . Moderate wind shear can lead to the initial development of the convective complex and surface low similar to the mid @-@ latitudes , but it must relax to allow tropical cyclogenesis to continue .
= = = = Favorable trough interactions = = = =
Limited vertical wind shear can be positive for tropical cyclone formation . When an upper @-@ level trough or upper @-@ level low is roughly the same scale as the tropical disturbance , the system can be steered by the upper level system into an area with better diffluence aloft , which can cause further development . Weaker upper cyclones are better candidates for a favorable interaction . There is evidence that weakly sheared tropical cyclones initially develop more rapidly than non @-@ sheared tropical cyclones , although this comes at the cost of a peak in intensity with much weaker wind speeds and higher minimum pressure . This process is also known as baroclinic initiation of a tropical cyclone . Trailing upper cyclones and upper troughs can cause additional outflow channels and aid in the intensification process . It should be noted that developing tropical disturbances can help create or deepen upper troughs or upper lows in their wake due to the outflow jet emanating from the developing tropical disturbance / cyclone .
There are cases where large , mid @-@ latitude troughs can help with tropical cyclogenesis when an upper @-@ level jet stream passes to the northwest of the developing system , which will aid divergence aloft and inflow at the surface , spinning up the cyclone . This type of interaction is more often associated with disturbances already in the process of recurvature .
= = Times of formation = =
Worldwide , tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer when water temperatures are warmest . Each basin , however , has its own seasonal patterns . On a worldwide scale , May is the least active month , while September is the most active .
In the North Atlantic , a distinct hurricane season occurs from June 1 through November 30 , sharply peaking from late August through October . The statistical peak of the North Atlantic hurricane season is September 10 . The Northeast Pacific has a broader period of activity , but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic . The Northwest Pacific sees tropical cyclones year @-@ round , with a minimum in February and a peak in early September . In the North Indian basin , storms are most common from April to December , with peaks in May and November .
In the Southern Hemisphere , tropical cyclone activity generally begins in early November and generally ends on April 30 . Southern Hemisphere activity peaks in mid @-@ February to early March . Virtually all the Southern Hemisphere activity is seen from the southern African coast eastward , toward South America . Tropical cyclones are rare events across the south Atlantic ocean and the southeastern Pacific ocean .
= = Unusual areas of formation = =
= = = Middle latitudes = = =
Areas farther than 30 degrees from the equator ( except in the vicinity of a warm current ) are not normally conducive to tropical cyclone formation or strengthening , and areas more than 40 degrees from the equator are often very hostile to such development . The primary limiting factor is water temperatures , although higher shear at increasing latitudes is also a factor . These areas are sometimes frequented by cyclones moving poleward from tropical latitudes . On rare occasions , such as in 2004 , 1988 , and 1975 , storms may form or strengthen in this region . Typically , tropical cyclones will undergo extratropical transition after recurving polewards , and typically become fully extratropical after reaching 45 – 50 ˚ of latitude . The majority of extratropical cyclones tend to restrengthen after completing the transition period .
= = = Near the Equator = = =
Areas within approximately ten degrees latitude of the equator do not experience a significant Coriolis Force , a vital ingredient in tropical cyclone formation . However , recently a few tropical cyclones have been observed forming within five degrees of the equator .
= = = South Atlantic = = =
A combination of wind shear and a lack of tropical disturbances from the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) makes it very difficult for the South Atlantic to support tropical activity . Over four tropical cyclones have been observed here such as — a weak tropical storm in 1991 off the coast of Africa near Angola , Hurricane Catarina , which made landfall in Brazil in 2004 at Category 2 strength , and a smaller storm in January 2004 , east of Salvador , Brazil . The January storm is thought to have reached tropical storm intensity based on scatterometer wind measurements .
= = = Mediterranean and Black Seas = = =
Storms that appear similar to tropical cyclones in structure sometimes occur in the Mediterranean basin . Examples of these " Mediterranean tropical cyclones " formed in September 1947 , September 1969 , September 1973 , August 1976 , January 1982 , September 1983 , December 1984 , December 1985 , October 1994 , January 1995 , October 1996 , September 1997 , December 2005 , September 2006 , and November 2011 . However , there is debate on whether these storms were tropical in nature .
The Black Sea has , on occasion , produced or fueled storms that begin cyclonic rotation , and that appear to be similar to cyclones seen in the Mediterranean .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Tropical cyclogenesis is rare in the southeastern Pacific Ocean due to the cold sea @-@ surface temperatures generated by the Humboldt Current and to unfavourable wind shear ; there are no records of a tropical cyclone hitting western South America . But in mid @-@ 2015 , a rare subtropical cyclone was identified in early May relatively close to Chile . This system was unofficially dubbed Katie by researchers .
Vortices have been reported off the coast of Morocco in the past . However , it is debatable if they are truly tropical in character .
Tropical activity is also extremely rare in the Great Lakes . However , a storm system that appeared similar to a subtropical or tropical cyclone formed in 1996 on Lake Huron . It formed an eye @-@ like structure in its center , and it may have briefly been a subtropical or tropical cyclone .
= = Influence of large @-@ scale climate cycles = =
= = = Influence of ENSO = = =
Warm waters during the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation lower the potential of tropical cyclone formation primarily in the Atlantic Basin and around Australia . Because tropical cyclones in the northeastern Pacific and north Atlantic basins are both generated in large part by tropical waves from the same wave train , decreased tropical cyclone activity in the north Atlantic translates to increased tropical cyclone activity in the Eastern North Pacific .
In the Northwestern Pacific , El Niño shifts the formation of tropical cyclones eastward . During El Niño episodes , tropical cyclones tend to form in the eastern part of the basin , between 150 ° E and the International Date Line ( IDL ) . Coupled with an increase in activity in the North @-@ Central Pacific ( IDL to 140 ° W ) and the South @-@ Central Pacific ( east of 160 ° E ) , there is a net increase in tropical cyclone development near the International Date Line on both sides of the equator . While there is no linear relationship between the strength of an El Niño and tropical cyclone formation in the Northwestern Pacific , typhoons forming during El Niño years tend to have a longer duration and higher intensities . Tropical cyclogenesis in the Northwestern Pacific is suppressed west of 150 ° E in the year following an El Niño event .
= = = Influence of the MJO = = =
In general , westerly wind increases associated with the Madden – Julian oscillation lead to increased tropical cyclogenesis in all basins . As the oscillation propagates from west to east , it leads to an eastward march in tropical cyclogenesis with time during that hemisphere 's summer season . There is an inverse relationship between tropical cyclone activity in the western Pacific basin and the north Atlantic basin , however . When one basin is active , the other is normally quiet , and vice versa . The main reason for this appears to be the phase of the Madden – Julian oscillation , or MJO , which is normally in opposite modes between the two basins at any given time .
= = = Influence of equatorial Rossby waves = = =
Research has shown that trapped equatorial Rossby wave packets can increase the likelihood of tropical cyclogenesis in the Pacific Ocean , as they increase the low @-@ level westerly winds within that region , which then leads to greater low @-@ level vorticity . The individual waves can move at approximately 1 @.@ 8 m / s ( 4 mph ) each , though the group tends to remain stationary .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
Since 1984 , Colorado State University has been issuing seasonal tropical cyclone forecasts for the north Atlantic basin , with results that are better than climatology . The university has found several statistical relationships for this basin that appear to allow long range prediction of the number of tropical cyclones . Since then , numerous others have followed in the university 's steps , with some organizations issuing seasonal forecasts for the northwest Pacific and the Australian region . The predictors are related to regional oscillations in the global climate system : the Walker circulation which is related to the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation ; the North Atlantic oscillation or NAO ; the Arctic oscillation or AO ; and the Pacific North American pattern or PNA .
= Wings ( Little Mix song ) =
" Wings " is a song by British girl group Little Mix . It was co @-@ written by the group in collaboration with Iain James , Erika Nuri , Michelle Lewis , Mischke , Heidi Rojas and the song 's producers , TMS . It was released as their second single after winning the eighth series of The X Factor in 2011 , and the lead single from their debut studio album DNA ( 2012 ) . Syco Music serviced the single to BBC Radio 1 in the United Kingdom on 2 July 2012 and it was released for digital download on 24 August 2012 . The uptempo song , which features modern beats , drums , horns and clapping , is a pop arrangement with elements of R & B and old school . Lyrically , the song has themes of girl power , maternal advice and individuality .
" Wings " was well received by contemporary music critics , who praised its lyrical message , upbeat sound and vocals . " Wings " was the group 's most successful single to date , until they released " Black Magic " in 2015 . It topped the UK Singles Chart with sales of 107 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The single also reached number one in Ireland and Scotland and number three in Australia , where it was certified triple platinum . It charted in the top 40 in three other countries , peaking at number 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 26 on the US Billboard Pop Songs chart .
The accompanying music video was directed by Max and Dania at an abandoned warehouse . The clip shows the group dancing and singing in front of colourful backdrops and a pink Union Jack flag , wearing urban @-@ styled outfits corresponding to the backdrops . The video received favorable reviews from critics , who praised the group 's fashion sense , dancing and confidence . Little Mix promoted the song by performing it live on a number of television shows ( including Red or Black ? and The X Factor Australia ) and during their 2013 DNA Tour .
= = Inspiration and writing = =
In December 2011 , Little Mix won the eighth series of The X Factor ( UK ) , becoming the first group to do so and subsequently signing a recording deal with Syco Music . A cover of Damien Rice 's 2002 single " Cannonball " was released as the group 's debut single and winner 's single that month . Although " Cannonball " became their first number one single in the UK and Ireland , the group were adamant on writing an original single to follow it up . " Wings " was primarily written by Little Mix , Iain James , and TMS members Thomas Barnes , Peter Kelleher and Ben Kohn . However , Little Mix continued to collaborate with other writers until they felt the song was complete , including Erika Nuri of The Writing Camp , singer Michelle Lewis , Mischke , and Heidi Rojas . It was the first song written for the group 's debut studio album , DNA .
According to group member Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock , the line " Mama told me not to waste my time " was considered an important part during the development of " Wings " ; the song was in part based on the group 's personal experiences of overcoming bullying . Little Mix wanted the single to be something listeners could relate to without sounding cheesy . The lyrics were written as an uplifting message for both the group and their fans . Group member Jesy Nelson said : " There 's nothing wrong with writing songs about clubs and partying but I think it 's cool to do a song with meaning . " The song specifically drew inspiration from the group 's experience on The X Factor where they felt discouraged , being the favourites to be eliminated after the competition 's first live show . Nelson explained : " On our first week on X Factor the paps were all shouting ' See you on This Morning on Monday ' because that 's where all the losers go . I was like : ' Oh , right , thanks ! ' "
Other inspiration came from a time when Nelson aspired to be a singer as a teenager , but was discouraged by her teachers who told her she needed a back @-@ up plan or she would end up working at the retailer Tesco . The song in turn has a theme of maternal advice ; Nelson advised that listeners of " Wings " should listen to their mothers " because they 're always right " . Group member Jade Thirlwall stated that they also wanted the song to promote girl power and to return girl groups to prominence , inspired by 1990s girl groups such as the Spice Girls . " Wings " was further inspired by songs by Beyoncé and Michael Jackson .
= = Production and recording = =
Little Mix immediately began recording after taking a short break to spend time with their families , following their win on The X Factor . During the early stages of the song 's development in January 2012 , group member Perrie Edwards revealed : " We 're going a bit urban , old school with a bit of pop . We wanna bring back old school harmonies . And Jesy beat @-@ boxes and Leigh Anne raps , so we 're trying out different things . " The recording of " Wings " continued while the group were embarking on The X Factor Live Tour ( 25 February – 4 April 2012 ) . Recording took place at The Music Shed in London . The group knew on first @-@ listen that " Wings " had to be a single . In March 2012 , Little Mix played a demo to Syco owner Simon Cowell who was impressed , believing the group 's input bettered the quality of their music .
The song was produced by TMS with vocal production by James F.
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@ handed Major League Baseball pitcher who played for five seasons with the Texas Rangers ( 1973 – 1975 ) and Cleveland Indians ( 1978 – 1979 ) . He is noted for his once promising baseball career , which ended at age 26 because of arm and shoulder injuries .
Billed as the next Sandy Koufax , Clyde had a stellar high school career at Westchester High School . He was drafted with the first overall pick in the 1973 Major League Baseball draft . The Rangers planned to have Clyde pitch his first two professional games in the major leagues before moving him down to the minor leagues , but Rangers owner Bob Short decided to keep him in the roster for monetary purposes , where he had a 5 @.@ 01 earned run average in 18 starts . Journalists criticized the Rangers for promoting Clyde too soon , and after an uneventful 1974 campaign , he developed shoulder trouble and was sent down to the minor leagues in 1975 , where he pitched three seasons . He was traded to the Cleveland Indians in 1978 , and played two seasons before being demoted . Clyde attempted to make a comeback with the Houston Astros but was unsuccessful .
Clyde 's career made him the " poster @-@ boy " for bringing up young players prematurely and dealing with arm injuries . He was named by journalist Randy Galloway as among the worst cases of " mishandling " a young player in baseball history . He is considered by many as a savior of the Texas Rangers franchise because of the significant attendance boost that Clyde 's hype brought to the team , preventing it from a possible bankruptcy or American League takeover .
= = Early life = =
The son of a telephone executive , Clyde was born in Kansas City , Kansas , the oldest of four brothers . After living for a time in New Jersey , his family moved to Houston , Texas in 1969 . He played football and baseball at Westchester High School in Houston where he became known as a perfectionist and was an excellent student . During his senior year at Westchester , Clyde had a stellar record of 18 – 0 , giving up only three earned runs in 148 innings pitched , while pitching five no @-@ hitters and setting 14 national high school records . His dominance at the high school level attracted the attention of many MLB team scouts , many of whom billed Clyde as the " next Sandy Koufax " and others called him the " best pitching prospect they had ever seen " .
Clyde was praised by national publications such as Sports Illustrated and Newsweek prior to the 1973 MLB draft , and was the consensus among scouts as the best player available in the draft . That year the Texas Rangers held the first overall pick , having the worst record in baseball the previous year at 54 – 100 . He was the first player selected in the 1973 draft by the Rangers . He received a $ 125 @,@ 000 ( $ 666 @,@ 323 today ) signing bonus , the highest bonus ever given to a draft pick at the time , and a free college education . After signing his contract , Clyde stated that his career goal was to " become the greatest pitcher ever " .
= = Major League career = =
Prior to the draft , the Texas Rangers held the second lowest attendance in the American League , ahead of only the Cleveland Indians despite having Baseball Hall of Famer Ted Williams as manager at one point . They had moved from Washington , D.C. , two years prior , and owner Bob Short expanded Arlington Stadium an extra 20 @,@ 000 seats . Short was looking for some sort of way to boost attendance , and found it using fellow Texas native Clyde . When Clyde agreed to sign his rookie contract , part of the deal was to make his first two professional starts with the Rangers at their home field before heading to the minors to develop .
Twenty days after pitching his last high school game , Clyde won his first ever Major League start before over 35 @,@ 000 fans in Arlington Stadium , the first sellout in stadium history . After a poor start in which he walked the first two batters he faced , he settled down , pitched five innings , giving up only one hit ( a home run to Mike Adams ) while striking out eight batters in a 4 – 3 victory over the Minnesota Twins . Clyde later called it his most memorable game in his Major League career .
Clyde then pitched well in his second start against the Chicago White Sox , pitching six innings before a blister in his finger forced him out of the game . However , with his performance in the two starts , the Rangers dropped all plans to send him to the minors . The youngest player to play in a major league game in 1973 , Clyde pitched a total of eighteen games ( all starts ) that season , finishing with a record of 4 – 8 , with a 5 @.@ 01 earned run average ( ERA ) . Questioned about the difference between high school or professional baseball , Clyde stated that MLB hitters " see the ball better , thus they make contact more often " .
Clyde began 1974 season with a 3 – 0 record , but became embroiled in controversy following a dispute between new manager Billy Martin and general manager Bobby Brown . Martin and Brown argued about what was the best way on handling Clyde 's future development , which led to Brown 's resignation and forced Clyde caused to miss a month before remaining in the Rangers roster for the rest of the year . He played in 28 games ( 21 starts ) and finished with 3 – 9 record , and a 4 @.@ 38 ERA . He started one game in 1975 ( a loss ) before injuring his shoulder and was demoted to the Pittsfield Rangers of the Eastern League . He stayed in the minors for three seasons , having a shoulder operation in 1976 . The Rangers organization lost so much faith in Clyde 's ability that he was left unprotected in the 1976 Major League Baseball expansion draft , but was not chosen . He played for the Sacramento Solons in 1976 , and the Tucson Toros of the Pacific Coast League in 1977 where he had 5 – 7 record with a 5 @.@ 84 ERA . When the season ended , the Rangers traded Clyde and veteran Willie Horton to the Cleveland Indians for Tom Buskey and John Lowenstein on February 28 , 1978 .
Clyde started for the Indians that year , playing in 28 games and finished with a record of 8 – 11 , with a 4 @.@ 28 ERA and 83 strikeouts . In his first start with the Indians , he gave up four hits in a 3 – 2 complete game victory against the Oakland Athletics . Clyde also finished fourth in the American League with 11 wild pitches . He pitched in nine games with the Indians in 1979 ( 3 – 4 , 5 @.@ 91 ERA ) before tearing his rotator cuff and was demoted to the minors , playing in what would be his last Major League game on August 7 , 1979 . He was traded back to the Rangers after the 1979 season , but injured his shoulder for the second time , and was released prior to the 1980 season with the Rangers claiming that Clyde was " damaged goods " .
In 1981 , Clyde tried to restart his career with the Houston Astros , but he spent the season in the minor leagues splitting time between the Columbus Astros and Tucson Toros . He dominated for Columbus , having a 6 – 0 record with a 0 @.@ 76 ERA , but struggled with the Toros , having a 6 @.@ 85 earned run average . Clyde retired from professional baseball on February 5 , 1982 , while participating in an instructional league .
In his five @-@ year career , Clyde had an 18 – 33 win – loss record with a 4 @.@ 63 earned run average and 228 strikeouts in 84 games pitched .
= = Legacy = =
Named a " sensation " , " phenomenon " , or other hyped up words in his first two years in the league , most of Clyde 's troubles were attributed to the rush to get him into the majors before he was ready . This was due to the fact the Rangers finances were weak at the time . The Rangers averaged a near @-@ capacity crowd in Clyde 's six home starts , but 6 @,@ 000 fans for the other 75 home dates . Prior to Clyde 's debut , the highest crowd in Rangers history was 24 @,@ 000 . At the end of the 1973 season , Clyde drew nearly a third of all fans in attendance for Rangers home games throughout the year . According to journalist Randy Galloway , Clyde put baseball on the map in Dallas , as the city started to get interested on the sport , even after Clyde 's inconsistency forced him out of the league . Longtime Rangers coach Jackie Moore agreed with Galloway , stating that Clyde and Corbett buying the team " went a long way toward saving the franchise " . Using Clyde success of bringing attendance up as an example , Short sold the Rangers to Brad Corbett in 1974 , which prevented the American League from taking over the team , thus potentially saving the franchise .
Clyde 's unsuccessful career made him the " poster @-@ boy " for bringing up young players . In his autobiography White Rat his first big league manager , future Baseball Hall of Famer Whitey Herzog stated that he was often forced to leave Clyde in the game much longer than usual because fans wanted to see the 18 @-@ year @-@ old " phenom " pitch . It led to Clyde 's arm burning out at an early age , Herzog argued . In a 2003 interview with The New York Times , Herzog criticized Bob Short , stating that " ( Short ) sure wasn 't going to send him down without getting some people in the ballpark to see him . The kid should have gone to the minors after two starts . " He also said that Clyde " was one of the best young left @-@ handed pitchers I 've ever seen . " Former teammate Tom Grieve said that keeping Clyde in the roster was the " dumbest thing you could ever do to a high school pitcher . "
In a 2003 interview with the Associated Press , Clyde looked back on his career , recognizing that he was rushed too early , calling his career " a classic case not to handle a young talent " , and stating that his case had a " black side " to it but that he made a contribution to the sport . One week before the thirtieth anniversary of his first career game , Clyde threw the ceremonial first pitch to his ex – teammate Ken Suarez during an Rangers @-@ Astros game .
= = Personal life = =
Following the problems Clyde had during the 1974 and 1975 seasons , he became dependent on alcohol , which he later called " the lowest point of my life " . He had two failed marriages , the first one with his high school sweetheart , before settling down with his third wife , Robin , having two boys , Ryan and Reed , and a daughter , Lauren . He worked in his father @-@ in @-@ law 's lumber business in Tomball , Texas for 20 years , which he called one of the best periods of his life , giving him a " peace of mind " . He retired in 2003 as vice president of the company and worked as a coach for a local youth baseball team . He is now a caregiver for his elderly father .
= Matt Hardy =
Matthew Moore " Matt " Hardy ( born September 23 , 1974 ) is an American professional wrestler and wrestling promoter currently signed with Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . He is best known for his work in the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , later renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) .
Matt ( with brother Jeff ) gained notoriety in WWE 's tag team division due to their participation in Tables , Ladders , and Chairs matches . As a tag team wrestler , Hardy is a nine @-@ time world tag team champion , having held six World Tag Team Championships , one WWE Tag Team Championship , one WCW Tag Team Championship , and one TNA World Tag Team Championship .
Apart from his success as a tag team wrestler , Hardy is a three @-@ time world champion , having held the TNA World Heavyweight Championship twice and the ECW Championship once . He has also won the WWE 's United States , European , Hardcore , and Cruiserweight Championships once each . All totaled , Hardy has won 16 total championships between WWE and TNA .
Hardy has also won numerous championships in independent promotions , including OMEGA Championship Wrestling , where he is the founder , co @-@ owner , and current Heavyweight Champion in his second reign .
= = Early life = =
Son to Gilbert and Ruby Moore Hardy , he is the older brother of Jeff Hardy . Their mother died of brain cancer in 1987 . Hardy played baseball as a child and throughout high school , but had stopped by his senior year . He also played football , either as a linebacker or a defensive end . Hardy was a good student at Union Pines High School in North Carolina , and was a nominee for the " Morehead Award " , a scholarship to any university in North Carolina . Hardy attended University of North Carolina at Charlotte , where he majored in engineering ; after a year , however , he dropped out due to his father being ill . He then attended Sandhills Community College in Pinehurst to gain his associate degree .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 1992 – 1998 ) = = =
Hardy , along with his brother Jeff and friends , started their own federation , the Trampoline Wrestling Federation ( TWF ) and mimicked the moves they saw on television . They later created their own wrestling promotion , OMEGA Championship Wrestling , in which Hardy competed under the name High Voltage . Shortly after Hardy sent in a tape for the World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) Amateur Challenge using the ring name High Voltage , a tag team named High Voltage began competing in WCW , causing Hardy to change his name to Surge . A few years later , it was revealed to him by Chris Kanyon that the tape had been kept in the WCW Power Plant , watched multiple times , and that the name High Voltage was blatantly stolen from it .
The Hardys also wrestled for several other North Carolina @-@ based wrestling organizations and adapted a number of alter @-@ egos . As The Wolverine , Hardy captured the New England Wrestling Alliance ( NEWA ) Championship in May 1994 . As High Voltage , he teamed with Venom to claim the New Frontier Wrestling Association ( NFWA ) Tag Team Championship in March 1995 . A month later , High Voltage defeated the Willow for the NFWA Championship .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment = = =
= = = = The Hardy Boyz ( 1998 – 2001 ) = = = =
Hardy worked as a jobber for the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) from 1994 up until he signed a full @-@ time contract . His first WWF match was against Nikolai Volkoff on May 23 , 1994 , which he lost by submission He wrestled sporadically throughout 1994 in the WWF , losing matches against Crush , Razor Ramon , Hakushi , Owen Hart and the imposter Undertaker . Hardy continued wrestling with the WWF sporadically , including matches against Hunter Hearst Helmsley and " The Ringmaster " Steve Austin . It was not until 1998 , however , ( at the height of the attitude era ) that the Hardy brothers were given full @-@ time WWF contracts , and sent to train with former wrestler Dory Funk , Jr . The Hardy Boyz used a cruiserweight , fast @-@ paced high flying style in their matches , often leaping from great heights to do damage to their opponents ( and themselves in the process ) . Although Jeff was better known for his extreme moves , Hardy was a prodigious high @-@ flier himself . In 1999 , while feuding with Edge and Christian , the duo briefly picked up Michael Hayes as a manager . On July 5 , they won their first WWF Tag team Championship by defeating The Acolytes , but lost it to them a month later . However , they soon dumped Hayes , and joined the short lived stable The New Brood with Gangrel . After breaking away from Gangrel , Hardy and Jeff were briefly managed by Terri Runnels , after they won her services in the first ever tag team ladder match .
In 2000 , the Hardy Boyz found a new manager in their real @-@ life friend Lita . Together , the three became known as " Team Xtreme " . Throughout 2000 they continued feuding with Edge and Christian , defeating them for the WWF Tag Team Championship on two occasions . Hardy won the Hardcore Championship on April 24 , 2000 , on Raw Is War , by defeating Crash Holly , but lost it back to Holly three days later on SmackDown ! . At SummerSlam , The Hardy Boyz competed in the first ever Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match , for the WWF Tag Team , Championship against The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian , but were unsuccessful .
= = = = Version 1 ( 2001 – 2004 ) = = = =
In 2001 , after Jeff 's Intercontinental Championship run , Hardy was given a singles championship push . He won the European Championship on SmackDown ! four days before Backlash . Hardy believes that he was pushed to win the title because of Jeff winning the Intercontinental Championship , and because of the effort he put into his previous storyline with Triple H and Stone Cold Steve Austin . He became the second @-@ longest reigning European Champion in history and the longest @-@ reigning American @-@ born European Champion .
Throughout the year , the Hardy Boyz continued to win as a tag team , winning the WWF Tag Team Titles two more times , and the WCW Tag Team Championship during the Invasion . By the end of the year , the Hardy Boyz began a storyline where they were having trouble co @-@ existing . This culminated in a match between the two , with Lita as the guest referee , at the Vengeance pay @-@ per @-@ view , which Jeff won .
At the beginning of 2002 , it seemed Team Xtreme had patched things up . After the Brand Extension , however , Hardy was relegated to Heat while Jeff wrestled on the main show , Raw . On the August 12 episode of Raw , Hardy turned against Jeff during Jeff 's match against Rob Van Dam , because Hardy was frustrated at not receiving a match against Van Dam for the number one contendership for the Intercontinental Championship , making Hardy a heel in the process . A short time later , Hardy joined the SmackDown ! roster . On the October 3 episode of the show , Hardy took advantage of a run @-@ in from Brock Lesnar to defeat The Undertaker in a falls count anywhere match .
Hardy began dubbing himself " Matt Hardy : Version 1 " , complete with a " version 1 " hand signal . Along with his MF 'er ( Mattitude Follower ) Shannon Moore in his corner , 2003 began with Hardy frantically trying to lose weight to get under the 215 lb ( 98 kg ) weight limit to compete for the Cruiserweight Championship . After just barely making weight , Hardy defeated Billy Kidman at No Way Out to win the Cruiserweight title . At WrestleMania XIX , he successfully defended it against Rey Mysterio . The Mattitude faction then expanded to include Crash Holly as Moore 's " Moore @-@ on " ( follower ) . He later disbanded the group in November and returned to Raw in order to be able to travel and work with his then girlfriend Lita , who just returned from an injury . On his first night back , he turned on Lita in storyline after teasing a proposal to her . Hardy spent little time on Raw until he turned into a fan favorite after saving Lita from getting attacked by Kane in April 2004 . After losing a match against Kane at Summerslam , Lita was forced to marry Kane on the August 23 episode of Raw , Hardy was chokeslamed off the stage by Kane . Hardy then spent almost a year off from wrestling due to a severe knee injury .
= = = = Release and sporadic appearances ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = = =
Along with his friend Rhyno , Hardy was released by WWE on April 11 , 2005 . Edge and Lita received jeers from the crowds at WWE events , often resulting in chants , " You screwed Matt " , and , " We want Matt " . Paul Heyman , in a " shoot " promo , mocked Edge for his actions at One Night Stand . Lita , for the first time in over five years , became a heel as a result of the affair becoming public knowledge . Fans began a petition on the internet , wanting WWE to re @-@ sign Hardy , and amassed over fifteen thousand signatures .
Hardy released two character promotional vignettes , that he was planning to use before he was offered a new contract by WWE . Hardy called himself The Angelic Diablo with the tagline " the scar will become a symbol " in reference to the way in which he had been treated by Lita and WWE . On the June 20 episode of Raw , during the storyline wedding of Edge and Lita , Hardy 's entrance music and video were played when the priest asked if anyone had a reason why Edge and Lita should not be wed . On the July 11 episode of Raw , Hardy made his return , attacking Edge as he made his way to the ring . On the July 13 episode of WWE 's webcast Byte This ! , which featured Lita as its guest , one of the callers was Hardy himself .
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2005 ) = = =
Hardy appeared at a scheduled Ring of Honor ( ROH ) event on July 16 , 2005 , in Woodbridge , Connecticut where he defeated Christopher Daniels via submission . Hardy also cut a brief promo where he continued in full " worked shoot " mode , attacking WWE and John Laurinaitis . Following his official return to WWE , Hardy was met with backlash following a match with Homicide from the fans at a subsequent ROH event , which Hardy won . The next day at his final ROH appearance , he lost to Roderick Strong .
= = = Return to WWE = = =
= = = = Feud with Edge ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
On July 11 , 2005 , Hardy posted on his website that he was finally " free " , that wrestling fans had not seen the last of him , and that he had a surprise for the fans who had supported him . That night on Raw , Hardy attacked Edge backstage and again later during Edge 's match with Kane , leaving the commentators speechless . Before being escorted out of the building by security , Hardy stated that Edge and Lita would pay for their actions and told fans that they could see him at Ring of Honor while security officials and event staff were trying to restrain him . Hardy also called out Johnny Ace as security had him in handcuffs taking him out of the arena . This caused an uproar amongst fans , who were confused and wondered if the whole thing was a work or a shoot . Similar occurrences repeated during the following two weeks .
On the August 1 episode of Raw , Vince McMahon officially announced Hardy 's return to WWE , adding that Hardy would face Edge at SummerSlam . Hardy made his in @-@ ring return , defeating Snitsky on the August 8 Raw . Seconds after the victory , Hardy was attacked by Edge , and as he was being carried backstage , Matt counterattacked Edge in the locker room . On August 21 at SummerSlam , their match came to a premature end when Edge dropped Hardy onto the top of a ring post , causing him to bleed heavily . The referee ended the match on the grounds that Hardy could not continue , and Edge was declared the winner . After SummerSlam , the two continued fighting on Raw , including a Street Fight that resulted in Hardy performing a Side Effect on Edge off the entrance stage and into electrical equipment below . At Unforgiven , Edge faced Hardy in a steel cage match . Hardy caught an interfering Lita with the Twist of Fate and won the match with a leg @-@ drop off the top of the cage . Hardy and Edge faced each other at WWE Homecoming in a Loser Leaves Raw ladder match . Edge 's briefcase holding the contract for his WWE World title shot was suspended above the ring . The winner of the match received the contract and the loser was forced to leave Raw . After a contentious match , Edge tied Hardy 's arms in the ropes , and Lita trapped Hardy in a crucifix hold , leaving Hardy only able to watch Edge win . When the match ended , Edge and Lita gloated over the victory , but Hardy took it in stride and left the arena . With his defeat at the hands of Edge , Hardy was moved to the SmackDown ! brand where he re @-@ debuted with a win over Simon Dean on October 21 in Reno , Nevada . One week later , Hardy won the fan vote to represent Team Smackdown ( alongside the second @-@ highest vote @-@ getter Rey Mysterio ) to challenge team RAW ( Edge and Chris Masters ) at Taboo Tuesday . Edge , however , refused to wrestle and sent Snitsky in place of him in the match , which Hardy and Mysterio would win .
Back on SmackDown ! , Hardy started an angle with MNM ( Johnny Nitro and Joey Mercury ) and their manager Melina when Melina approached Hardy , seemingly wanting Hardy to join with her team . Hardy refused the offer , which led to him facing the tag team on several occasions with a variety of partners . One of his partners , Road Warrior Animal , brutally attacked him after they were defeated – sick of " pulling all the weight in tag teams " . Animal , who was renamed The Road Warrior , and Hardy feuded for a while after this , with Hardy picking up several wins over the veteran , including a qualifying match for a spot in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 22 . The match would be won by Rob Van Dam .
Hardy next competed in the SmackDown ! King of the Ring tournament , losing to eventual winner Booker T in the opening round thanks to a low blow and distraction from Sharmell . Hardy also became the first man to defeat Mr. Kennedy in singles ' competition . On July 25 , after the SmackDown ! taping , Hardy was taken out of action after doctors found the remnants of the staph infection that had plagued him the previous year . He was sidelined until August 25 while he healed . Hardy made a surprise appearance backstage at Unforgiven after Jeff 's match against Johnny Nitro . Lita joined the two in the segment , making this the first time the three had been seen together on WWE television since February 2003 . Hardy then began a rivalry against Gregory Helms which saw both winning over each other time and time again . Then at No Mercy , in both of their hometown , Cameron , North Carolina , Hardy beat Helms . The two met again one more time at Survivor Series , where Hardy 's team won in a clean sweep .
= = = = The Hardy Boyz reunion ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
On the November 21 , 2006 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , Hardy and Jeff competed in a match together for the first time in almost five years , defeating The Full Blooded Italians . At Survivor Series , the Hardy Boyz competed with CM Punk and D @-@ Generation X ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) as part of Team DX versus Team Rated @-@ RKO ( which included Edge , Randy Orton , Johnny Nitro with Melina , Mike Knox , and Gregory Helms ) in a traditional Survivor Series match . Team DX won in a clean sweep , last eliminating Orton . At December to Dismember , the Hardy Boyz issued an open challenge to any tag team who wanted to face them . MNM answered their challenge by reuniting at December to Dismember , a match that the Hardy Boyz would be victorious in . At Armageddon , Hardy and Jeff competed against Paul London and Brian Kendrick , MNM , and Dave Taylor and William Regal in a Ladder match for the WWE Tag Team Championship but lost . Subsequently , he and Jeff feuded with Joey Mercury and Johnny Nitro after the legitimate incident where they injured Mercury 's face at Armageddon 2006 . This led to a bitter long term rivalry , and at the 2007 Royal Rumble , Hardy and Jeff defeated MNM . Mercury and Hardy continued to feud until Mercury was released from WWE in March . Before Mercury 's release , however , Hardy defeated him to earn a spot in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 23 , which was ultimately won by Mr. Kennedy .
The night after WrestleMania on Raw , the Hardys competed in a 10 @-@ team battle royal for the World Tag Team Championship . They won the titles for the sixth time from then WWE Champion John Cena and Shawn Michaels after last eliminating Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch . After briefly feuding with Cade and Murdoch , the Hardys retained their World Tag Team Championship in their first title defense at Backlash . The Hardy Boyz would also successfully retained their titles at Judgment Day . One month later at One Night Stand , they defeated The World 's Greatest Tag Team to retain the titles in a Ladder match . The following night on Raw , Vince McMahon demanded that The Hardys once again defend their championships against Cade and Murdoch . The Hardys were defeated after Murdoch pushed Jeff 's foot off the bottom rope during Cade 's pinfall , causing the three count to continue . They invoked their rematch clause against Cade and Murdoch at Vengeance : Night of Champions , but were unsuccessful .
= = = = Feud with MVP ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
On the July 6 , 2007 episode of SmackDown ! , Hardy won a non @-@ title match against United States Champion Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) , which resulted in a feud between the two . Hardy was unsuccessful to defeat MVP at The Great American Bash for the United States Championship . MVP then claimed that he was " better than Hardy at everything " , which led to a series of contests between Hardy and MVP , such as a basketball game , an arm wrestling contest , and a chess match which MVP " sneezed " on and ruined when Hardy put him in check . MVP challenged Hardy to a boxing match at Saturday Night 's Main Event , however MVP was legitimately diagnosed with the heart condition Wolff @-@ Parkinson @-@ White syndrome . Since MVP was unable to compete , Hardy faced his replacement , former world champion boxer , Evander Holyfield . The match ended in a no contest after MVP entered the ring to verbally abuse Holyfield , who then knocked him out . MVP also challenged Hardy to a beer drinking contest at SummerSlam , but as revenge for what happened at SNME , Hardy allowed Stone Cold Steve Austin to replace him ; Austin simply performed a stunner on MVP then kept drinking .
After a segment involving MVP inadvertently choosing Hardy as his tag @-@ team partner , Theodore Long promptly set up a match against Deuce ' n Domino for the WWE Tag Team Championship which the duo were able to win , therefore setting up Hardy 's first reign as WWE Tag Team Champion . It was the first time Hardy held a tag team championship with someone other than his brother . Hardy and MVP retained the titles at Unforgiven in a rematch against former champions Deuce ' n Domino . Hardy was scheduled to face MVP at Cyber Sunday , but due to a head injury sustained on the previous episode of SmackDown ! , he was not medically cleared to compete . As part of the storyline , Hardy continually asked MVP for a shot at the United States Championship but MVP refused stating that he was more focused on the Tag Team Championship . During this time , MVP teased a babyface turn as he seemingly got along better with Hardy during matches , even when they were on opposite sides .
On the November 16 episode of SmackDown ! , Hardy and MVP dropped the WWE Tag Team Championship to John Morrison and The Miz . Despite the fact that Hardy was hurt , MVP immediately invoked the rematch clause . After the rematch , in which Hardy was forced to tap out , MVP attacked Hardy , repeatedly targeting his knee . It was later confirmed by WWE.com that Hardy had suffered an injury at his former partner 's hands and that he might not be able to compete at Survivor Series . But his team however won the match despite his absence . Despite his absence at the pay @-@ per @-@ view , his team was able to win the match . On November 21 , WWE 's official website reported that Hardy underwent an emergency appendectomy in Tampa , Florida . A CAT scan revealed an inflamed appendix after Hardy was feeling extreme pain . Later surgery revealed that his appendix had already burst . According to Hardy himself , on December 8 doctors back in North Carolina found an abscess of infection that had not been caught , and he had it drained , spending an additional several days in the hospital . Hardy made an appearance at the December 31 episode of Raw supporting his brother Jeff . To further Jeff 's storyline with Randy Orton , however , Hardy was attacked by Orton . Hardy made his return at a live event in Muncie , Indiana on March 1 , 2008 .
On March 30 , 2008 , at WrestleMania XXIV , Hardy made his televised return to WWE programming in the Money in the Bank ladder match by cutting through the crowd , and attacking MVP to prevent him from winning the match . He made his official in @-@ ring return the next night on Raw , losing a singles match to WWE Champion Randy Orton . On the April 4 episode of SmackDown ! , Hardy faced MVP in a non @-@ title match , which he won , re @-@ igniting their storyline rivalry . On April 27 , 2008 , Hardy defeated MVP to win the United States Championship at Backlash , and successfully retained his title against MVP five days later on Smackdown .
After some sporadic feuds for the title , Hardy was drafted to the ECW brand on the June 23 , 2008 episode of Raw during the 2008 WWE Draft , in the process making the United States Championship exclusive to ECW . After a successful title defense against Chavo Guerrero at Night of Champions , he dropped the United States Championship to Shelton Benjamin at the Great American Bash pay @-@ per @-@ view on July 20 , 2008 , which meant that the title returned to SmackDown .
= = = = ECW Champion ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
On the July 22 episode of ECW , Hardy became the number one contender to Mark Henry 's ECW Championship after defeating John Morrison , The Miz and Finlay in a fatal four @-@ way match . He won the title match at SummerSlam by disqualification due to interference from Henry 's manager , Tony Atlas , thus he failed to win the title . Due to the ending of the pay @-@ per @-@ view match , Hardy received a rematch for the title on the next episode of ECW , but again failed to win the title when Henry pinned him after a distraction by Atlas .
At Unforgiven , Hardy won the ECW Championship during the Championship scramble match , defeating then @-@ champion Henry , The Miz , Finlay and Chavo Guerrero by pinning the Miz with three minutes left , thus making Hardy the first person in history to win a championship scramble in WWE , and marking his first world heavyweight championship win . He continued to feud with Henry until No Mercy , where Hardy successfully retained the title . After successful defenses against Henry , Chavo , Finlay , and Evan Bourne , Hardy lost the title to Jack Swagger on the January 13 , 2009 episode of ECW , which was taped on January 12 .
= = = = Feud with Jeff and departure ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
At the 2009 Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view , after losing an ECW Championship rematch to Swagger , Hardy turned on his brother when he hit Jeff with a steel chair , allowing Edge to win the WWE Championship turning him heel for the first time since 2004 . On the January 27 , 2009 episode of ECW , it was announced by General Manager Theodore Long that Hardy had requested , and been granted , his release from ECW , and had re @-@ signed with the SmackDown brand . On the January 30 episode of SmackDown ! , Hardy explained that his actions at the Royal Rumble were due to him being fed up with " sharing the spotlight " with Jeff and taking care of Jeff when he was nothing more than a " self @-@ destructive screw @-@ up " and a " constant mistake " , and that , from that point onward , he no longer considered Jeff as a partner or sibling . As part of the buildup to this feud , Hardy implied that he was responsible for all of Jeff 's accidents leading back to November , including an assault in a hotel stairwell that prevented him from appearing at Survivor Series , an automobile accident and a pyrotechnics accident , in an attempt to stop Jeff holding the WWE Championship , and , on the March 3 episode of SmackDown ! , he also implied that he was responsible for the fire that burned down Jeff 's house , going so far as to reveal that he had in his possession a dog collar that supposedly belonged to Jeff 's dog , who perished in the fire , that he supposedly salvaged from the wreckage of the house , which provoked Jeff into viciously attacking him . At WrestleMania XXV , Hardy defeated Jeff in an Extreme Rules match , and in a stretcher match on the following episode of SmackDown .
On the April 13 episode of Raw , Hardy was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the WWE draft . Two weeks later , in a rematch from WrestleMania , Hardy lost to Jeff in an " I Quit " match at Backlash , in which he broke his hand . Hardy continued to wrestle with his hand in a cast , incorporating it into his persona and claiming that he was wrestling under protest . He reignited his feud with MVP on Raw again for the United States Championship ; this time with Hardy as the heel . He also formed a tag team with William Regal , and the two acted as henchmen for General Manager Vickie Guerrero . At the June 22 taping of WWE Superstars , Hardy suffered yet another injury , when his intestines " exploded " through his abdominal wall , during a triple threat match against MVP and Kofi Kingston . Hardy had suffered a tear in his abdominal muscle two years previously , but had not needed surgery until it worsened , and became a danger to his health .
He was then traded to the SmackDown brand on June 29 , and underwent surgery for the torn abdominal muscle on July 2 . He made his return on the August 7 episode of SmackDown as the special guest referee in the World Heavyweight Championship match between his brother , Jeff , and CM Punk , and helped Jeff retain the championship by counting the pinfall . The following week Hardy saved his brother when CM Punk and The Hart Dynasty attacked both Jeff and John Morrison , turning into a fan favorite again . On the August 21 episode of SmackDown , after apologizing for his past actions towards Jeff , he had his first match back after his injury when he teamed with Jeff and John Morrison to defeat The Hart Dynasty and CM Punk , when Matt pinned Punk .
In early 2010 , Hardy began an on @-@ screen relationship with Maria ; but was brief and the relationship ended when Maria was released from her WWE contract . On the February 16 , 2010 episode of ECW , it was announced that Hardy would be mentoring Justin Gabriel on NXT . On the March 5 episode of SmackDown , Hardy qualified for the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXVI by defeating Drew McIntyre , but was unsuccessful at WrestleMania , as the match was won by Jack Swagger . Hardy was suspended by Vince McMahon because he attacked Drew McIntyre after McIntyre lost to Kofi Kingston at Over the Limit . He was able to get his revenge on McIntyre during the Viewer 's Choice episode of Raw when chosen as the opponent for McIntyre , with Theodore Long stating that Hardy was suspended from SmackDown , but not from Raw . On the following episode of SmackDown , however , Vickie Guerrero announced that , per orders of Vince McMahon , Hardy had been suspended from all WWE programming . However , at Fatal 4 @-@ Way , Hardy prevented McIntyre from regaining the Intercontinental Championship , thus continuing their feud . On the following edition of SmackDown he was reinstated by General Manager Theodore Long and had a match with McIntyre which Hardy won . After the match , it was announced that McIntyre 's visa had legitimately expired and was sent back to Scotland , thus ending their feud . Hardy would then qualify for the Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view 's Smackdown ladder match , which would be won by Kane .
On September 12 , WWE confirmed they had sent Hardy home from a European tour . Following this , Hardy began posting videos on his YouTube channel expressing his disinterest in the WWE product and insisting that he wanted to be released from the company . On October 15 , 2010 , WWE announced that Hardy had been released from his contract . Hardy later stated that his release had been in effect two weeks before WWE made the announcement .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2011 ) = = =
On January 9 , 2011 , Hardy made his debut for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) at the Genesis pay @-@ per @-@ view , as part of the heel stable Immortal . He was the surprise opponent for Rob Van Dam , and defeated him to prevent Van Dam from receiving a match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , held by Hardy 's brother Jeff . In the main event , Hardy attempted to interfere in Jeff 's World Heavyweight Championship match with Mr. Anderson , but was stopped by Van Dam , which led to Jeff losing both the match and the championship . On the January 13 episode of Impact ! , the Hardy Boyz reunited to defeat Anderson and Van Dam in a tag team match , following interference from Beer Money , Inc .. Two weeks later , Hardy suffered his first loss in TNA when he was defeated by Mr. Anderson . On February 13 at Against All Odds , Rob Van Dam defeated Hardy in a rematch .
On the following episode of Impact ! , Hardy , along with the rest of Immortal and Ric Flair , betrayed Fortune . On March 13 at Victory Road Hardy was defeated by Flair 's previous protégé , A.J. Styles . On April 17 at Lockdown , Immortal , represented by Hardy , Abyss , Bully Ray and Ric Flair , was defeated by Fortune members James Storm , Kazarian and Robert Roode and Christopher Daniels , who replaced an injured A.J. Styles , in a Lethal Lockdown match . On the April 21 episode of Impact ! , Hardy faced Sting for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , Hardy 's first World Title match in TNA , but was defeated . The following month Hardy was granted a shot at the TNA World Tag Team Championship against James Storm and Robert Roode , Beer Money , Inc . While the champions looked to defend the title against the Hardy Boyz , Matt instead introduced the returning Chris Harris , Storm 's old tag team partner , as his partner for the title match . The match took place at Sacrifice , where Storm and Roode retained their title .
On June 20 , Hardy announced that he was taking a few weeks off from TNA . The following day , it was reported that the promotion had actually suspended Hardy . On August 20 , Hardy was released from TNA following a DUI arrest that occurred earlier that same day .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2011 – present ) = = =
Hardy announced his retirement from full @-@ time professional wrestling due to injuries on September 1 , 2011 . He issued a challenge to his long @-@ time rival MVP , who was wrestling in Japan at the time , to one final match at " Crossfire Live ! " in Nashville . The event was held May 19 , 2012 and benefited the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation . Hardy won the match .
Throughout 2012 , Hardy would wrestle sporadically on the independent circuit , working with promotions such as Mid Atlantic Championship Wrestling , Pro Wrestling Syndicate and Northeast Wrestling . On September 22 , 2012 , Hardy defeated Sami Callihan at Northeast Wrestling 's Under the Stars event . On October 5 , Hardy was defeated by Kevin Steen at Pro Wrestling Xperience 's An Evil Twist of Fate . On October 19 , Hardy was defeated by Eddie Edwards at Scuared Circle Wrestling 's V2 event . On October 26 , Hardy defeated Chris Masters in the Big Time Wrestling 16º Anniversary Show . On November 11 , Hardy , as the masked wrestler Rhaway Reaper , defeated the Pro Wrestling Syndicate Kevin Matthews , winning the championship . On November 17 in the main event of Extreme Rising Remember November iPPV Hardy wrestled Shane Douglas to a no contest after Luke Hawx interfered and pushed Hardy off the top rope to the floor , legitimately injuring him . At Extreme Rising 's third iPPV on December , 29 Hardy defeated Sabu . On February 9 , 2013 Hardy lost the Pro Wrestling Syndicate Championship back to Kevin Matthews .
On January 15 , 2013 , Hardy announced the return of OMEGA in Durham , North Carolina the main event featured Matt Hardy , Jeff Hardy , James Storm and Shane " Hurricane " Helms defeating Lodi , Gunner , Steve Corino and C.W. Anderson . On February 16 , at Family Wrestling Entertainment 's No Limit , Hardy wrestled a TLC match for the FWE Heavyweight Championship against the champion Carlito and Tommy Dreamer , but he was defeated . On October 12 , Hardy defeated C.W. Anderson to advance in the finals of the OMEGA Heavyweight Championship tournament . After the match , Willow would appear saving Hardy and the rest from an after match beatdown . On November 9 , 2013 , Hardy and Devon defeated Homicide and Eddie Kingston at House of Hardcore 3 . On November 30 , 2013 , at WrestleCade , Hardy defeated Carlito to become the first ever WrestleCade Champion . On December 28 , at Extreme Rising Unfininished Business iPPV , Hardy was defeated by Luke Hawx in a steel cage grudge match , ending their year @-@ long feud .
On April 26 , 2014 , at OMEGA Chaos in Cameron The Hardys defeated The Briscoe Brothers . On May 3 , 2014 , following a match between Christian York and Drolix , Hardy defeated Drolix to become the new MCW Heavyweight Champion . On June 14 , 2014 at House of Hardcore 6 , Hardy defeated Tommy Dreamer and Carlito in a three @-@ way TLC match . At Maryland Championship Wrestling 's Shane Shamrock Cup , Hardy defeated Luke Hawx in a TLC match for Hardy 's MCW Heavyweight title and Hawx Extreme Rising World title . Hardy won the match , but he gave back the title to Hawx . On October 4 , Hardy lost the MCW Heavyweight Chamapionship back to Drolix , following outside interference from Kevin Eck . On November 1 , 2014 , Hardy made his debut for the Japanese Wrestle @-@ 1 promotion , losing to Seiya Sanada in a three @-@ way match , which also included Tajiri .
On February 9 , 2015 , Hardy appeared on FWE 's " No Limits 2015 " iPPV , challenging Drew Galloway for the ICW World Heavyweight Championship , but was defeated .
On November 21 , 2015 , Hardy won the OMEGA Heavyweight Championship for the second time , defeating former student Trevor Lee . Following this , Hardy ( upon regaining the TNA World Title as part of his villainous egotistical " Iconic " gimmick ) began proclaiming himself to be the only world champion that matters , and the only " true " world champion in wrestling , as he held both the TNA and OMEGA Championships , which ( according to him ) put him above any other promotions ' world champions .
On November 28 , 2015 , Hardy lost the WrestleCade Championship to Jeff Jarrett at WrestleCade IV in Winston @-@ Salem , NC after taking two guitar shots to the head , which opened a six @-@ inch gash on his head , which later required 38 stitches to close . Hardy regained the Wrestlecade Championship in a triple @-@ threat cage match against Jarrett and Ethan Carter III in Hickory , NC on May 20 , 2016 .
In 2016 , Hardy would defend the TNA and OMEGA Titles jointly at OMEGA events as part of his " only true world champion " gimmick .
= = = Return to ROH ( 2012 – 2014 ) = = =
On September 11 , 2012 , ROH announced that Hardy would be returning to the promotion , with his first appearance being at Death Before Dishonor X : State of Emergency . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Hardy confronted Adam Cole and challenged him to a match for the ROH World Television Championship , thus establishing himself as a babyface character . On December 16 at Final Battle 2012 : Doomsday , Hardy defeated Cole in a non @-@ title match .
At the following iPPV , 11th Anniversary Show on March 2 , 2013 , Hardy joined the villainous S.C.U.M. stable . On April 5 at the Supercard of Honor VII iPPV , Hardy unsuccessfully challenged Matt Taven for the ROH World Television Championship in a three way elimination match , which also included Adam Cole . On June 22 at Best in the World 2013 , Hardy defeated former S.C.U.M. stablemate Kevin Steen in a No Disqualification match to become the number one contender to the ROH World Championship . Hardy received his title shot at the following day 's Ring of Honor Wrestling tapings , but was defeated by the defending champion , Jay Briscoe . Later that same day , S.C.U.M. was forced to disband after losing a Steel Cage Warfare match against Team ROH . On December 14 , 2013 at Final Battle 2013 , Hardy defeated Adam Page in a singles match , later on in the main event Hardy aided Adam Cole in retaining his title and forming a tag team with him .
After Hardy 's client Adam Cole defeated Jay Briscoe to become the Undisputed Ring of Honor World Champion , Cole presented Jay Briscoe 's custom made world championship belt ( Briscoe claimed to still be the Ring of Honor champion as he forfeited the title due to injury and never officially lost it ) to Hardy as a show of appreciation , Hardy re @-@ branded the belt as the Ring of Honor Iconic ( Innovative Creator and Originator of a New @-@ Found Industry Champion ) Championship , however , the title has not been sanctioned as an official championship by Ring of Honor . On June 22 , 2014 at Best in the World , Hardy and Michael Bennett were defeated by The Briscoe Brothers in a no disqualification tag team match . In July , Hardy opted out of his ROH contract and went back to TNA .
= = = Return to TNA = = =
= = = = The Hardys reunion ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = = =
On July 24 , 2014 , Matt returned to TNA as a face and reunited with Jeff Hardy to reform The Hardys . At the Destination X episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardys were defeated by The Wolves in a match for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . The next week , Matt was one of many TNA wrestlers who stopped Dixie Carter from running away from Team 3D , which led to Carter being put through a table . On the August 14 episode of Impact Wrestling , Team 3D ( formerly the Dudley Boyz ) challenged The Hardys to a match , which Team 3D won . At the Hardcore Justice episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardys and Team 3D talked about a match involving themselves and The Wolves . When The Wolves were asked by the two teams , they agreed . Later that night , Kurt Angle announced all three teams would compete in a best of three series for the TNA World Tag Team Championship with the winners of the first match choosing the stipulation of the next one . The Hardys won the second match of the series on the September 10 episode of Impact Wrestling in a tables match and choose a ladder match for the third match of the series . The Hardys were unsuccessful in winning that match on the September 17 episode of Impact Wrestling , as the Wolves won that match . The Wolves then went on to pick the final match of the series to be a Full Metal Mayhem match to take place on the October 8 episode of Impact Wrestling . The Hardys were unsuccessful in that match as the Wolves won that match .
On October 22 , The Hardys entered a number one contenders tournament for the TNA World Tag Team Championship defeating The BroMans ( Jessie Godderz and DJ Z ) in the first round of the tournament . On the October 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardys defeated Team Dixie ( Ethan Carter III and Tyrus ) in the semifinals to advance to the finals of the tournament , where they defeated Samoa Joe and Low Ki to become number one contenders for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On the January 16 , 2015 episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardys defeated the Wolves . At the Lockdown episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardy Boyz were defeated by The Revolution in a six sides of steel cage match for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On the February 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy and The Wolves defeated The Revolution in a six @-@ man tag team match .
On March 10 , 2015 , TNA announced that Hardy has signed a full @-@ time contract with the company . In March , The Hardys participated in a tournament for the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship . On March 16 , 2015 , Matt and Jeff won an Ultimate X match for the titles . On May 8 , 2015 , Hardy vacated the TNA World Tag Team Championship due to his brother Jeff being injured .
= = = = TNA World Heavyweight Champion ( 2015 – 2016 ) = = = =
On June 28 , 2015 , Matt was among the five wrestlers who competed for the TNA King of the Mountain Championship at Slammiversary , with Jeff Jarrett ultimately emerging victorious . On the July 8 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy requested a world title shot against Ethan Carter III , but was denied and forced to face the Dirty Heels ( Austin Aries and Bobby Roode ) in a handicap match , which he lost . On the July 22 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Roode in a Tables match to become the # 1 contender for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . On the August 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy got his shot at the title against EC3 in a Full Metal Mayhem match , but failed to win the title . On the August 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Tyrus . On the September 2 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy got another shot at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship against EC3 , but again failed to win the title ; as part of the storyline , Jeff Hardy was forced to act as Ethan Carter 's personal assistant . On the September 30 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy was added to the Ethan Carter III vs. Drew Galloway main event match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship at Bound for Glory after he and Galloway defeated Carter and Tyrus , making it a three @-@ way match , following which Jeff , who EC3 had just " fired " in the previous episode , was revealed to be the special guest referee .
On October 4 at Bound for Glory , Matt won the TNA World Heavyweight Championship by pinning Galloway , making Hardy the third man in professional wrestling history to win the ECW Championship and the TNA World Heavyweight Championship since Rob Van Dam and Lashley . However , EC3 filed an injunction ( kayfabe ) that banned Hardy from appearing on Impact Wrestling for a month , which forced Hardy to relinquish the title in order to stay on the show . However , Hardy has been participating in the TNA World Title Series for the vacant title . He qualified to the round of 16 by defeating Davey Richards , Robbie E and Eddie Edwards . He then advanced to the round of 8 by defeating the King of the Mountain Champion Bobby Roode and then to Jessie Godderz to continue his winning streak . The semifinals and finals were held on the January 5 , 2016 , live episode of Impact Wrestling during its debut on Pop TV , in which he defeated Eric Young to advance to the final round . Hardy faced EC3 in the TNA World Title Series finals , but lost the match via pinfall .
Hardy won the TNA World Title from EC3 on the January 19 , 2016 episode of Impact Wrestling , becoming the first man to defeat him in a one @-@ on @-@ one match in TNA . During the match a double turn took place ; Hardy turned heel after Tyrus betrayed EC3 . The following week on Impact Wrestling , Jeff Hardy had confronted him about last week and issued a challenge to Matt for the World Heavyweight title in the main event and Matt accepted . However , later before the main event could begin , Eric Young and Bram would attack Jeff from behind . Kurt Angle would then come out to try save Jeff and Matt would have Tyrus attack Angle from behind . While Matt watched from the ramp , Young hit Jeff with the Piledriver off the apron through a table . The following week , he successfully retained his title against Kurt Angle . At Lockdown , he retained his title in a Six @-@ side of steel match against Ethan Carter III , with the help of Rockstar Spud . He lost his title against Drew Galloway , after a match featuring EC3 and Jeff Hardy . Two weeks later , he had his title match , but again in a losing effort . Angry with Jeff for it , he wanted an I Quit Match and had it after defeating Jeff and Drew Galloway in a tag team match . At the main event , an I Quit Match , the match eventually ended up in a no @-@ contest as both Matt and Jeff were badly injured and Matt was taken out to the hospital on a stretcher , ending the show .
= = = = Broken Matt Hardy ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
Hardy returned on May 17 episode of Impact Wrestling , revealing himself to be one of the impostor Willows behind the attacks on his brother Jeff . He would later attack Jeff during that episode 's main event , pushing him off the turnbuckle when he was attempting the Swanton Bomb on Mike Bennett . In the following weeks , Hardy would debut a new persona as a disheveled man with a strange accent , blaming Jeff ( who he began to refer to as " Brother Nero " ) for breaking him . At Slammiversary Matt was defeated by Jeff in a Full Metal Mayhem match . Matt was also defeated by Jeff in a Six Sides of Steel match on the June 21 edition of Impact Wrestling . On the June 28 episode , Matt challenged Jeff to a final battle with the Hardy brand on the line , to take place at their home in Cameron , North Carolina the next week , ending with Matt attacking Jeff . On the July 5 episode , Matt defeated Jeff in the match ( dubbed " The Final Deletion " ) to become sole owner of the Hardy brand .
= = Other media = =
In 1999 , Matt Hardy , along with his brother Jeff , appeared as an uncredited wrestler on That ' 70s Show episode " That Wrestling Show " . Matt and Jeff also appeared on Tough Enough in early 2001 , talking to and wrestling the contestants . He appeared in the February 25 , 2002 episode of Fear Factor competing against five other World Wrestling Federation wrestlers . He won $ 50 @,@ 000 for the American Cancer Society . Hardy also appeared on the October 13 , 2009 episode of Scare Tactics , as a mental patient who threatens to attack the prank 's victim .
In 2001 , Matt , Jeff and Lita appeared in Rolling Stone magazine 's 2001 Sports Hall of Fame issue . In 2003 , Matt and Jeff , with the help of Michael Krugman , wrote and published their autobiography The Hardy Boyz : Exist 2 Inspire . As part of WWE , Matt appeared in their DVD , The Hardy Boyz : Leap of Faith in 2001 . On April 29 , 2008 , WWE released " Twist of Fate : The Matt and Jeff Hardy Story " . The DVD featured footage of the brothers in OMEGA and WWE . Hardy also appears on The Hardy Show , an internet web show which features the Hardys , Shannon Moore and many of their friends .
Hardy plays himself in the 2013 film Pro Wrestlers vs. Zombies in which he and his real @-@ life wife Reby Sky battle the undead .
= = Personal life = =
His brother Jeff Hardy is also a professional wrestler , currently competing in Total Nonstop Action . Hardy is good friends with Marty Garner , Shannon Moore and Gregory Helms . Hardy was in a six @-@ year relationship with former WWE Diva Amy Dumas , known by the ring name " Lita " . They first met in January 1999 , at a NWA Mid @-@ Atlantic show , but did not begin dating until a few months later . The couple broke up when she had an affair with one of Hardy 's close friends , fellow wrestler Adam " Edge " Copeland in February 2005 . Hardy previously dated former WWE Diva Ashley Massaro .
In February 2011 , Hardy stated he was dating Rebecca " Reby Sky " Reyes . Hardy married Reyes on October 5 , 2013 . On December 5 , 2014 Hardy announced that he and Reby were expecting their first child , a boy . On June 23 , 2015 , Hardy and Sky welcomed their first child , a boy named Maxel " Max " Hardy . Reby and Maxel were in attendance at Bound for Glory in 2015 , in Hardy 's home state of North Carolina , when Hardy won the TNA World Heavyweight Championship and were seen celebrating with him afterwards .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Twist of Fate ( WWF / E , TNA ) Twist of Hate ( TNA ) ( Front facelock cutter , sometimes from the top rope / front facelock stunner )
Ice Pick ( TNA ) White Light Experience ( Independent circuit ) ( Double underhook with bodyscissors )
Signature moves
Corner clothesline followed by a running bulldog
Corner sitout powerbomb
Diving elbow drop , sometimes to the back of a bent @-@ over or kneeling opponent 's head , with theatrics
Diving leg drop , with theatrics
Forearm smash
Inverted DDT
Moonsault
Northern Lights suplex
Ricochet ( Belly to back suplex lifted and dropped into an elbow drop to the opponent 's midsection ) – 2003
Russian legsweep
Side Effect ( Sitout side slam )
Splash Mountain ( Sitout crucifix powerbomb )
Managers
Gangrel
Lita
Michael Hayes
Reby Sky / Hardy
Ric Flair
Terri Runnels
Tyrus
Vanguard 1
Nicknames
" Version 1 ( V1 ) " ( WWE )
" The Sensei of Mattitude " ( WWE )
" The Angelic Diablo " ( WWE )
" The Man Who Will Not Die " ( WWE )
" ( Arguably ) Everyone 's Favorite Wrestler " ( WWE )
" Broken " ( TNA )
" Big Money Matt " ( TNA )
" The ( self @-@ proclaimed ) Icon ( ic ) " ( ROH , TNA )
Entrance themes
World Wrestling Entertainment
" Loaded " by Zack Tempest ( Independent Circuit ; used while teaming with his brother Jeff )
" Live for the Moment " by Monster Magnet ( 2002 – September 7 , 2010 )
Ring of Honor
" Something for You " by David Rolfe ( used while part of The Kingdom )
" Another White Lie " by Voodoo Johnson
" Dirty Angel " by Voodoo Johnson ( used while part of S.C.U.M. )
Independent Circuit
" Unbroken ( Hotel Baby ) " by Monster Magnet
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
" Rogue and Cold Blooded " by Dale Oliver ( January 9 , 2011 – August 20 , 2011 )
" Immortal Theme " by Dale Oliver ( used while a part of Immortal )
" Reptillian " ( Creatures Intro ) by Peroxwhy ? gen ( July 31 , 2014 – January 19 , 2016 ; used as a member of The Hardys )
" SPUD Theme " ( w / " I Am Iconic " Intro ) by Dale Oliver ( February 4 , 2016 – June 7 , 2016 )
" No. 14 , Moonlight Sonata : III " performed by Nicolas James ( June 12 , 2016 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Future Stars of Wrestling
FSW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Maryland Championship Wrestling
MCW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Extreme Rising World Championship ( 1 time )
National Championship Wrestling
NCW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NCW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
New Dimension Wrestling
NDW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NDW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) 1 – with Jeff Hardy
New England Wrestling Alliance
NEWA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NEWA Hall of Fame ( Class of 2012 )
New Frontier Wrestling Association
NFWA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NFWA Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Venom
NWA 2000
NWA 2000 Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Jeff Hardy
OMEGA Championship Wrestling
OMEGA Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times , current )
OMEGA Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Jeff Hardy
Pro Wrestling South
PWS Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time , current )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year ( 2005 ) vs. Edge and Lita
Match of the Year ( 2000 ) with Jeff Hardy vs. The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian in a Triangle Ladder match at WrestleMania 2000
Match of the Year ( 2001 ) with Jeff Hardy vs. The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match at WrestleMania X @-@ Seven
Tag Team of the Year ( 2000 ) with Jeff Hardy
PWI ranked him # 17 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2003
Pro Wrestling Syndicate
PWS Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Remix Pro Wrestling
Remix Pro Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Facade
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA World Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
TNA World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Jeff Hardy
TNA World Tag Team Championship # 1 Contenders Tournament ( 2014 ) – with Jeff Hardy
World Wrestling Federation / World Wrestling Entertainment
ECW Championship ( 1 time )
WCW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Jeff Hardy
World Tag Team Championship ( 6 times ) – with Jeff Hardy
WWE Cruiserweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWE United States Championship ( 1 time )
WWF European Championship ( 1 time )
WWF Hardcore Championship ( 1 time )
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Montel Vontavious Porter
Bragging Rights Trophy ( 2009 ) – with Team SmackDown ( Chris Jericho , R @-@ Truth , Kane , Finlay and The Hart Dynasty ( David Hart Smith and Tyson Kidd ) )
Terri Invitational Tournament – with Jeff Hardy
WrestleCade
WrestleCade Championship ( 2 times , current )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Gimmick ( 2002 )
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2004 ) with Lita vs. Kane
1 The title was vacated in 1999 due to The Hardy Boyz signing contracts with the WWF .
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
= SM U @-@ 14 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 14 or U @-@ XIV was a U @-@ boat or submarine of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy during the First World War . She was launched in 1912 as the French Brumaire @-@ class submarine Curie ( Q 87 ) , but captured and rebuilt for service in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . At war 's end , the submarine was returned to France and restored to her former name .
Curie was launched in July 1912 at Toulon and completed in 1914 . She measured just under 171 feet ( 52 m ) long and displaced nearly 400 metric tons ( 390 long tons ) on the surface and just over 550 metric tons ( 540 long tons ) when submerged . At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , Curie was assigned to duty in the Mediterranean . In mid @-@ December , Curie 's commander conceived a plan to infiltrate the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's main base at Pola , but during the 20 December attempt , the vessel became ensnared in harbor defenses . Two Austro @-@ Hungarian ships sank Curie , killing three of her crew ; the remainder were taken prisoner .
The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , which had a small and largely obsolete U @-@ boat fleet , immediately began salvage efforts and succeeded in raising the lightly damaged submarine in early February 1915 . After a refit , the boat was commissioned as SM U @-@ 14 in June , but had little success early in her career . When her commander fell ill in October , he was replaced by Georg Ritter von Trapp . U @-@ 14 was damaged by a depth charge attack in February 1916 , and underwent an extensive modernization through November . Resuming duty under von Trapp , U @-@ 14 sank her first ship in April 1917 , but had her most successful patrol in August , when she sank five ships — including Milazzo , reportedly the largest cargo ship in the world — in a six @-@ day span .
In January 1918 , von Trapp was replaced as commander , but neither of his two successors were able to match his accomplishments . In all , U @-@ 14 sank 11 ships with a combined gross register tonnage of nearly 48 @,@ 000 tons . Returned to France at the end of the war , she rejoined the French Navy in July 1919 under her former name of Curie . She remained in service until 1928 and was scrapped in 1929 .
= = Design and construction = =
Curie was a part of the 16 @-@ boat Brumaire class authorized under the 1906 program . The Brumaire @-@ class boats were diesel @-@ powered versions of the steam @-@ powered Pluviôse class submarines ( which had been authorized the year before ) , and , like the Pluviôse boats , were named after either months of the French Republican Calendar or scientists . Curie was named after Pierre and Marie Curie .
The Bruimaire @-@ class was designed by French naval designer Maxime Laubeuf and featured a double hull . The boats were 170 feet 11 inches ( 52 @.@ 10 m ) long , 17 feet 9 inches ( 5 @.@ 41 m ) abeam , with a draft of 10 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 10 m ) when surfaced . They had a displacement of 397 metric tons ( 391 long tons ) surfaced and 551 metric tons ( 542 long tons ) submerged . Curie , like the other 15 submarines of the class , featured one 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) bow torpedo tube and could carry as many as eight torpedoes . As built , Curie did not have a deck gun .
The Brumaire @-@ class featured twin propeller shafts driven by two French license @-@ built MAN 6 @-@ cylinder diesel engines on the surface , or by two electric motors when submerged . Curie 's diesel engines generated a total of 840 brake horsepower ( 630 kW ) and could move the submarine at up to 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph )
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Brittany finally storms off saying that if Santana loved herself as much as Brittany loved her , she would put on the shirt and dance with her . The episode closes with the club , minus Santana , embracing their identities and performing " Born This Way " . During the song , Emma arrives wearing a T @-@ shirt that acknowledges her own problems — it reads " OCD " — and she and Will join the performance . Karofsky and Santana watch from the audience , with Santana wearing her " Lebanese " shirt .
= = Production = =
The episode was extended and ran for 90 minutes , as opposed to the usual 60 minutes . Michael Ausiello of TVLine reported that the producers included two extra musical performances to fill the extended time slot . Series creator Ian Brennan stated that he believed the extension was granted as there were two songs which would otherwise have been cut for length . He welcomed the additional 24 minutes of screen time , and commented : " We 're always desperately cutting down our episodes . Even when we write them , and then in the editing room we 're always throwing away stuff that I really love to get it down to time . [ ... ] It will be just really interesting content @-@ wise for us [ to have an extension ] . "
The focus of the episode is Lady Gaga 's song " Born This Way " , which she approved for use in Glee before the song premiered . This will be the second episode to highlight Gaga 's music , the first one being season one 's " Theatricality " . According to Monteith , the focus of " Born This Way " is the characters " embracing the things about [ them ] selves that [ they ] don 't like and tailoring [ their ] performances around that . " It features homophobic Dave Karofsky starting to come to terms with his homosexuality . The plot arc , which began in the season 's sixth episode , " Never Been Kissed " , is intended by series creator Ryan Murphy to have a happy ending . He explained that , while someone like Karofsky could turn to drugs or alcohol or commit suicide , Glee is " by nature optimistic " , so he plans to conclude the storyline positively . For fellow closeted character Santana , " Born This Way " set up the final three episodes of the season , which will increase focus on her love for her best friend Brittany . The episode additionally marked the first appearance of guest star Dr. Shane , " a very smart , cool and kind psychiatrist " who may become a recurring character . Other characters seen in " Born This Way " include glee club members Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Sam Evans and Lauren Zizes , Kurt 's boyfriend Blaine Anderson , school bully Azimio ( James Earl ) , Principal Figgins , and Karofsky 's father , Paul ( Daniel Roebuck ) .
In addition to " Born This Way " , the other songs covered in the episode were Keane 's " Somewhere Only We Know " , " As If We Never Said Goodbye " from the musical Sunset Boulevard , a mash @-@ up of " I Feel Pretty " from West Side Story and " Unpretty " by TLC , " I 've Gotta Be Me " from the musical Golden Rainbow , and Duck Sauce 's " Barbra Streisand " . All but " Barbra Streisand " were released as digital singles for the episode . " Somewhere Only We Know " was included on the series ' seventh soundtrack , Glee : The Music Presents the Warblers , and " As If We Never Said Goodbye " , " Born This Way " and " I Feel Pretty / Unpretty " were included on the series ' eighth soundtrack , Glee : The Music , Volume 6 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Born This Way " was first broadcast on April 26 , 2011 , in the United States . It averaged a 3 @.@ 4 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and also averaged nearly 8 @.@ 62 million American viewers during its initial airing . The first hour of the show garnered 8 @.@ 3 million American viewers and a 3 @.@ 3 / 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , despite airing simultaneously with a rerun of NCIS on CBS , The Biggest Loser on NBC , No Ordinary Family on ABC , and One Tree Hill on The CW . The last half @-@ hour of the episode had 8 @.@ 5 million American viewers , as well as a 3 @.@ 4 / 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , despite airing alongside a rerun of NCIS : Los Angeles on CBS , Dancing with the Stars on ABC , The Voice on NBC , and Hellcats on The CW . The total viewership and ratings were the lowest of the second season of Glee , and was down from those of the previous episode , " Night of Neglect " , which was watched by 9 @.@ 80 million American viewers and acquired a 3 @.@ 8 / 11 rating / share upon first airing . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 52 million viewers ( 2 @.@ 087 million on E4 , and 433 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Born This Way " was given a positive reception by many critics of the show . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone and Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly both considered it to be an improvement from the previous episode . Futterman wrote that it " gave us the charm , wit and just @-@ zany @-@ enough @-@ to @-@ be @-@ plausible plot lines we were sorely missing after last week 's predictable " episode , and added , " Even better : the episode didn 't feel as long as the 90 minutes it clocked in at . " IGN 's Robert Canning gave the episode a " great " rating of 8 out of 10 . While he said the episode was entertaining , he felt that it did not need to be an hour and a half . Emily Yahr of The Washington Post agreed about the extended length , and did not like what she called " lame attempts to fill time " , which she said " detracted from what started as a decent episode " . She did , however , cite several " promising storylines " , including Rachel 's , and noted , " Usually , New Directions leader Rachel Berry is a caricature of all things annoying — but this episode , we see her genuinely struggling with wanting to love herself the way she is " . The Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson summed it up as follows : " Not an epic episode , just sort of … meh . " Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times reacted more positively and wrote , " The 90 @-@ minute episode had a lot of laughs , a lot of heart , some good lessons , character development , a few good numbers and more than a few surprises . "
The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff gave it a " B " , and wrote that he " finally got a sense that , yes , this second season has been building toward something and has been trying to tell an emotional story , as well as a humorous one . ' Born This Way ' , for the first time in a long time , made me feel like I could say I was a fan of Glee without a million qualifiers . " Gary Mills of the Florida Times @-@ Union felt that the episode didn 't live up to its hype , but also said that he wasn 't disappointed . Brett Berk of Vanity Fair reacted positively , and noted that by " focusing on what makes these lovable dorks , well , lovable dorks — and not pop , or high @-@ school , superstars — tonight 's episode , if a bit tidily , reminded us that these are supposed to be kids " . Matt Zoller Seitz of Salon thought that " Born This Way " was " the show 's best episode to date " , and " an epic about a hero returning from a long journey , walking serenely through halls that once scared him , and performing with such skill and sincerity that his friends stared at him with love and awe . " Aly Semigran of MTV had mixed emotions . She criticized the abrupt changes of the storylines in the episode , and thought that the episode " was a noble effort " but " it didn 't quite work the way it was supposed to . " Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal stated that the episode " sounded just the perfect notes " and called it " the best episode yet " . He continued : " The night held wonderful gems : A clear message . Witty repartee ( … ) . Great character build up . And tailored songs that carried emotional heft . "
Several critics praised the development of Santana . Hankinson wrote , " My goodness , Santana . It 's as if all the writers sat around a room , identified the best lines of tonight 's episode and then decided to give them all to Santana . Fantastic . " VanDerWerff called Santana the highlight of the episode : " The best thing about this episode is Naya Rivera 's work as Santana and the story the three writers have cooked up for her . Rivera 's really come into her own this season , going from just a generic bitchy cheerleader to an actual character who has motivations and might be a better villain for the show than Sue . " He added , " the storyline of Santana realizing she was in love with Brittany and , thus , is probably a lesbian has been nicely plotted and surprisingly deep . The reveal about Santana hasn 't washed away her less savory qualities ; indeed , it 's heightened them , to a degree , as she struggles to be true to herself and still maintain her status as the hottest girl in school . " Jenna Mullins of E ! Online wrote of Santana , " This episode just cemented my love for her . The insult spew in the beginning of the episode was awesomely mean . " She also said that Santana 's " inner monologue is often more entertaining than other characters ' outer monologues " . CNN 's Lisa Respers France considered Santana the episode 's highlight , and went on to write , " She embraced her inner lesbian ( sort of ) and rattled off the best [ lines ] like ' the only straight I am is straight @-@ up [ bitch ] . ' You gotta love that . "
Some critics reacted negatively to the episode . Scott Pierce of The Salt Lake Tribune felt that the show has jumped the shark starting from this episode . He felt that the Kurt storyline had some major flaws , and that the messages being sent have been mixed . The episode garnered criticism from a number of conservatives , who found the depiction of homosexuality abrasive . In an interview with ABC News , conservative media critic Dan Gainor felt that it was Ryan Murphy 's " latest depraved initiative to promote his gay agenda . " He added : " This is clearly Ryan Murphy 's vision of what growing up should be , not most of America 's . It 's a high school most parents would not want to send their kids to . "
= = = Music and performances = = =
The musical performances and cover versions in the episode received generally positive commentary . Gonzalez stated that she loved the song choices , and Meghan Brown of The Atlantic felt that this episode carried the best selection of music of a Glee episode in a long time . Flandez commended that they are " tailored songs that carried emotional heft " .
Critics mostly reacted with acclaim for the mash @-@ up of " I Feel Pretty / Unpretty " . Gonzalez gave the performance an " A " and commented : " While part of me would have said that pairing Rachel and Quinn for a duet would vocally be like putting a pit bull in a cage match with a Maltipoo , it actually worked ! There was a surprisingly balanced and incredibly lovely tone . " All three writers of The Atlantic 's review praised the mash @-@ up : Patrick Burns said it was beautiful , and noted that " the arrangement was clever , the ladies sounded great , and the song was placed perfectly into the plot of two characters who were restored a bit of their depth in this episode " , Brown stated that the song was lovely , and Kevin Fallon felt that it was " unexpectedly gorgeous and haunting " , and noted that it was " yet another example of how skilled the music directors are at these mash @-@ ups . " Semigran felt that it was the best performance of the night , and TV Line 's Michael Slezak gave the piece an " A " , and said that it was a " vocally and visually stunning set piece for the unlikeliest of duet partners . " Flandez commented that the song " floated like gossamer between Rachel and Quinn as they beautifully poured the sentiments of ugly ducklings " , and Futterman wrote , " It 's a poignant moment , and the inclusion of West Side Story 's ' I Feel Pretty ' makes for a great pop / theater mash @-@ up that reminds us of what Glee is at its heart . "
Kurt 's performance of " As If We Never Said Goodbye " was also met with critical acclaim . Brown stated that the song was " absolutely stunning in every conceivable way . " She thought that he had the emotional connection , the musicality , and the storytelling ability " down pat " . Gonzalez gave the song an " A − " and wrote , " Kurt apparently picked up a few helpful notes ... from his Warbler brothers and emerged an even better solo singer than I recall . ... Most enjoyable , however , was a tenderness Kurt added to the song that I don 't think could have been duplicated by any other member of this ensemble . " Slezak commended Kurt 's voice , gave the song an " A " , and said , " I feel like we haven 't had too many strong musical moments from Kurt this season , but this number , which pushed Chris Colfer 's falsetto to impressive heights , went a long way to erase the deficit . " Futterman thought that it was " a sweeter moment than last season 's ' Rose 's Turn ' , but the high notes and big vocals are still there . " Berk gave it three out of five stars and called it " lovely , and properly sentimental " . Zoller Seitz called the performance " spellbinding " and concluded , " Chris Colfer turns ' As if We Never Said Goodbye ' into a valentine to self @-@ knowledge and self @-@ improvement — and a young , gay singer 's dream of treating the world as a stage and commanding it like a star . "
The New Directions ' rendition of " Born This Way " was strongly approved by Lady Gaga . On her Twitter account , she wrote , " I really loved Glee 's Born This Way episode . I admire the show for being brave + fighting for such modern social messaging . Never back down . " Gonzalez gave the performance a " B + " , and commented that it wasn 't her favorite group number , mostly because she felt the song " wasn 't [ Lady Gaga 's ] best effort " . Berk was less kind about the song , and called it a " crappy but thematically admirable Gaga tune " , though he gave it three stars out of five . Slezak gave it an " A − " and approved of the rendition : " it was nice to see and hear Tina , Mercedes and Kurt on lead vocals — instead of , say , Blaine , Rachel , and Mr. Schue . "
The duet of " I Gotta Be Me " by Finn and Mike was considered to be " shockingly adorable " by Berk , who gave it four stars out of five . Slezak was less impressed : " The jazz band arrangement and the Mike @-@ teaches @-@ Finn @-@ some @-@ moves choreography was cute , I guess , but it 's not a good sign that I spent half the number focusing on Mike 's matching green t @-@ shirt and shoe laces . " He went on to question the song 's inclusion — " In an episode about confronting one 's greatest teenage insecurities , I wonder if there might have been a better choice for a solo than the popular football player with the cheerleader girlfriend lamenting his inability to dance " — and ultimately gave the performance a " B − " . Futterman also commented on the song 's selection , though from a slightly different angle : " In theory it 's charming — and there are definitely moments of the ' I can dance / You can 't dance ' exchange that were enjoyable — but we couldn 't ever imagine this song as something Finn would have voluntarily picked . "
" Somewhere Only We Know " , as performed by Blaine and the Warblers , received an " A + " from Gonzalez , who loved the song and commented that she was " going to miss the Warblers " . Slezak gave the performance a " B " , and said that he " can 't be too mad at another pretty song sung well by Darren Criss . " The performance was acclaimed by Futterman , who wrote , " While the rest of the Warblers maintain their stoic facade , Blaine shows enough emotion to make this bittersweet Keane tune a simple , yet powerful , performance . "
The flash @-@ mob mall performance of " Barbra Streisand " was deemed to be pointless by Gonzalez , and she gave it a " C " , her lowest grade of the episode . Futterman enjoyed the performance , thinking that it was " the episode 's most fun moment and beats out last year 's ' Safety Dance ' for Glee numbers done in a mall . " Slezak also reacted positively to the performance , giving it a " B + " .
= = = Chart history = = =
Several of the cover versions featured debuted on numerous musical charts . The show 's rendition of " Born This Way " debuted at number forty @-@ four on the Billboard Hot 100 , on an issue dated for May 4 , 2011 . It sold 73 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week of release as a digitally downloadable single . The mash @-@ up of " I Feel Pretty / Unpretty " was the highest charted single featured in the episode , debuting at number twenty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 . It also peaked at number thirteen on the Digital 100 charts and sold 112 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States in its first week of release . It was the highest charting Glee single on the Billboard charts since " Loser Like Me " , which debuted at number six on the Billboard Hot 100 and sold over 210 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week . " Somewhere Only We Know " peaked at number forty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 charts , and it sold over 75 @,@ 000 copies within its first week . The fourth single , " As If We Never Said Goodbye " , charted at number eighty .
In Ireland , two of the songs debuted on the Irish Singles Charts on an issue dated May 5 , 2011 . The mash @-@ up peaked at number thirty @-@ seven , while the cover version of " Somewhere Only We Know " trailed behind at number forty @-@ seven . On May 6 , three of the singles appeared on the Canadian Hot 100 . The " I Feel Pretty / Unpretty " mash @-@ up peaked the highest out of all the singles , debuting at twenty @-@ eight . It was followed by " Born This Way " and " Somewhere Only We Know " , which debuted at number thirty @-@ one and fifty @-@ two on the charts , respectively .
= Antoni Gaudí =
Antoni Gaudí i Cornet ( Catalan pronunciation : [ ənˈtɔni ɣəwˈði ] ; 25 June 1852 – 10 June 1926 ) was a Spanish Catalan architect from Reus and the best known practitioner of Catalan Modernism . Gaudí 's works reflect an individualized and distinctive style . Most are located in Barcelona , including his magnum opus , the Sagrada Família .
Gaudí 's work was influenced by his passions in life : architecture , nature , and religion . Gaudí considered every detail of his creations and integrated into his architecture such crafts as ceramics , stained glass , wrought ironwork forging and carpentry . He also introduced new techniques in the treatment of materials , such as trencadís which used waste ceramic pieces .
Under the influence of neo @-@ Gothic art and Oriental techniques , Gaudí became part of the Modernista movement which was reaching its peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . His work transcended mainstream Modernisme , culminating in an organic style inspired by natural forms . Gaudí rarely drew detailed plans of his works , instead preferring to create them as three @-@ dimensional scale models and molding the details as he conceived them .
Gaudí 's work enjoys global popularity and continuing admiration and study by architects . His masterpiece , the still @-@ incomplete Sagrada Família , is the most @-@ visited monument in Spain . Between 1984 and 2005 , seven of his works were declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO . Gaudí 's Roman Catholic faith intensified during his life and religious images appear in many of his works . This earned him the nickname " God 's Architect " and led to calls for his beatification .
= = Biography = =
= = = Birth , childhood and studies = = =
Antoni Gaudi was born in 1852 in Riudoms or Reus , to the coppersmith Francesc Gaudí i Serra ( 1813 – 1906 ) and Antònia Cornet i Bertran ( 1819 – 1876 ) . He was the youngest of five children , of whom three survived to adulthood : Rosa ( 1844 – 1879 ) , Francesc ( 1851 – 1876 ) and Antoni . Gaudí 's family originated in the Auvergne region in southern France . One of his ancestors , Joan Gaudí , a hawker , moved to Catalonia in the 17th century ; possible origins of Gaudí 's family name include Gaudy or Gaudin .
Gaudí 's exact birthplace is unknown because no supporting documents have been found , leading to a controversy about whether he was born in Reus or Riudoms , two neighbouring municipalities of the Baix Camp district . Most of Gaudí 's identification documents from both his student and professional years gave Reus as his birthplace . Gaudí stated on various occasions that he was born in Riudoms , his paternal family 's village . Gaudí was baptised in the church of Sant Pere Apòstol in Reus the day after his birth under the name " Antoni Plàcid Guillem Gaudí i Cornet " .
Gaudí had a deep appreciation for his native land and great pride in his Mediterranean heritage . He believed Mediterranean people to be endowed with creativity , originality and an innate sense for art and design . Gaudí reportedly described this distinction by stating , " We own the image . Fantasy comes from the ghosts . Fantasy is what people in the North own . We are concrete . The image comes from the Mediterranean . Orestes knows his way , where Hamlet is torn apart by his doubts . " Time spent outdoors , particularly during summer stays in the Gaudí family home Mas de la Calderera , afforded Gaudí the opportunity to study nature . Gaudí 's enjoyment of the natural world led him to join the Centre Excursionista de Catalunya in 1879 at the age of 27 . The organisation arranged expeditions to explore Catalonia and southern France , often riding on horseback or walking ten kilometres a day .
Young Gaudí suffered from poor health , including rheumatism , which may have contributed to his reticent and reserved character . These health concerns and the hygienist theories of Dr. Kneipp contributed to Gaudí 's decision to adopt vegetarianism early in his life . His religious faith and strict vegetarianism led him to undertake several lengthy and severe fasts . These fasts were often unhealthy and occasionally , as in 1894 , led to life @-@ threatening illness .
Gaudí attended a nursery school run by Francesc Berenguer , whose son , also called Francesc , later became one of Gaudí 's main assistants . He enrolled in the Piarists school in Reus where he displayed his artistic talents via drawings for a seminar called El Arlequín ( the Harlequin ) . During this time he worked as an apprentice in the " Vapor Nou " textile mill in Reus . In 1868 he moved to Barcelona to study teaching in the Convent del Carme . In his adolescent years Gaudí became interested in utopian socialism and , together with his fellow students Eduard Toda i Güell and Josep Ribera i Sans , planned a restoration of the Poblet Monastery that would have transformed it into a Utopian phalanstère .
Between 1875 and 1878 , Gaudí completed his compulsory military service in the infantry regiment in Barcelona as a Military Administrator . Most of his service was spent on sick leave , enabling him to continue his studies . His poor health kept him from having to fight in the Third Carlist War , which lasted from 1872 to 1876 . In 1876 Gaudí 's mother died at the age of 57 , as did his 25 @-@ year @-@ old brother Francesc , who had just graduated as a physician . During this time Gaudí studied architecture at the Llotja School and the Barcelona Higher School of Architecture , graduating in 1878 . To finance his studies , Gaudí worked as a draughtsman for various architects and constructors such as Leandre Serrallach , Joan Martorell , Emili Sala Cortés , Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano and Josep Fontserè . In addition to his architecture classes , he studied French , history , economics , philosophy and aesthetics . His grades were average and he occasionally failed courses . When handing him his degree , Elies Rogent , director of Barcelona Architecture School , said : " We have given this academic title either to a fool or a genius . Time will show . " Gaudí , when receiving his degree , reportedly told his friend , the sculptor Llorenç Matamala , with his ironical sense of humour , " Llorenç , they 're saying I 'm an architect now . "
= = = Adulthood and professional work = = =
Gaudí 's first projects were the lampposts he designed for the Plaça Reial in Barcelona , the unfinished Girossi newsstands , and the Cooperativa Obrera Mataronense ( Workers ' Cooperative of Mataró ) building . He gained wider recognition for his first important commission , the Casa Vicens , and subsequently received more significant proposals . At the Paris World 's Fair of 1878 Gaudí displayed a showcase he had produced for the glove manufacturer Comella . Its functional and aesthetic modernista design impressed Catalan industrialist Eusebi Güell , who then commissioned some of Gaudí 's most outstanding work : the Güell wine cellars , the Güell pavilions , the Palau Güell ( Güell palace ) , the Park Güell ( Güell park ) and the crypt of the church of the Colònia Güell . Gaudí also became a friend of the marquis of Comillas , the father @-@ in @-@ law of Count Güell , for whom he designed " El Capricho " in Comillas .
In 1883 Gaudí was put in charge of the recently initiated project to build a Barcelona cathedral called Basílica i Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Família ( Basilica and Expiatory Church of the Holy Family , or Sagrada Família ) . Gaudí completely changed the initial design and imbued it with his own distinctive style . From 1915 until his death he devoted himself entirely to this project . Given the number of commissions he began receiving , he had to rely on his team to work on multiple projects simultaneously . His team consisted of professionals from all fields of construction . Several of the architects who worked under him became prominent in the field later on , such as Josep Maria Jujol , Joan Rubió , Cèsar Martinell , Francesc Folguera and Josep Francesc Ràfols . In 1885 , Gaudí moved to rural Sant Feliu de Codines to escape the cholera epidemic that was ravaging Barcelona . He lived in Francesc Ullar 's house , for whom he designed a dinner table as a sign of his gratitude .
The 1888 World Fair was one of the era 's major events in Barcelona and represented a key point in the history of the Modernisme movement . Leading architects displayed their best works , including Gaudí , who showcased the building he had designed for the Compañía Trasatlántica ( Transatlantic Company ) . Consequently he received a commission to restructure the Saló de Cent of the Barcelona City Council , but this project was ultimately not carried out . In the early 1890s Gaudí received two commissions from outside of Catalonia , namely the Episcopal Palace , Astorga , and the Casa Botines in León . These works contributed to Gaudí 's growing renown across Spain . In 1891 , he travelled to Málaga and Tangiers to examine the site for a project for the Franciscan Catholic Missions that the 2nd marquis of Comillas had requested him to design .
In 1899 Gaudí joined the Cercle Artístic de Sant Lluc ( Saint Luke artistic circle ) , a Catholic artistic society founded in 1893 by the bishop Josep Torras i Bages and the brothers Josep and Joan Llimona . He also joined the Lliga Espiritual de la Mare de Déu de Montserrat ( spiritual league of Our lady of Montserrat ) , another Catholic Catalan organisation . The conservative and religious character of his political thought was closely linked to his defence of the cultural identity of the Catalan people .
At the beginning of the century , Gaudí was working on numerous projects simultaneously . They reflected his shift to a more personal style inspired by nature . In 1900 , he received an award for the best building of the year from the Barcelona City Council for his Casa Calvet . During the first decade of the century Gaudí dedicated himself to projects like the Casa Figueras ( Figueras house , better known as Bellesguard ) , the Park Güell , an unsuccessful urbanisation project , and the restoration of the Cathedral of Palma de Mallorca , for which he visited Majorca several times . Between 1904 and 1910 he constructed the Casa Batlló ( Batlló house ) and the Casa Milà ( Milá house ) , two of his most emblematic works .
As a result of Gaudí 's increasing fame , in 1902 the painter Joan Llimona chose Gaudí 's features to represent Saint Philip Neri in the paintings for the aisle of the Sant Felip Neri church in Barcelona . Together with Joan Santaló , son of his friend the physician Pere Santaló , he unsuccessfully founded a wrought iron manufacturing company the same year .
After moving to Barcelona , Gaudí frequently changed his address : as a student he lived in residences , generally in the area of the Gothic Quarter ; when he started his career he moved around several rented flats in the Eixample area . Finally , in 1906 , he settled in a house in the Güell Park that he owned and which had been constructed by his assistant Francesc Berenguer as a showcase property for the estate . It has since been transformed into the Gaudí Museum . There he lived with his father ( who died in 1906 at the age of 93 ) and his niece Rosa Egea Gaudí ( who died in 1912 at the age of 36 ) . He lived in the house until 1925 , several months before his death , when he began residing inside the workshop of the Sagrada Família .
An event that had a profound impact on Gaudí 's personality was Tragic Week in 1909 . Gaudí remained in his house in Güell Park during this turbulent period . The anticlerical atmosphere and attacks on churches and convents caused Gaudí to worry for the safety of the Sagrada Família , but the building escaped damage .
In 1910 , an exhibition in the Grand Palais of Paris was devoted to his work , during the annual salon of the Société des Beaux @-@ Arts ( Fine Arts Society ) of France . Gaudí participated on the invitation of count Güell , displaying a series of pictures , plans and plaster scale models of several of his works . Although he participated hors concours , he received good reviews from the French press . A large part of this exposition could be seen the following year at the I Salón Nacional de Arquitectura that took place in the municipal exhibition hall of El Buen Retiro in Madrid .
During the Paris exposition in May 1910 , Gaudí spent a holiday in Vic , where he designed two basalt lampposts and wrought iron for the Plaça Major of Vic in honor of Jaume Balmes 's centenary . The following year he resided as a convalescent in Puigcerdà while suffering from tuberculosis . During this time he conceived the idea for the facade of the Passion of the Sagrada Família . Due to ill health he prepared a will at the office of the notary Ramon Cantó i Figueres on 9 June , but later completely recovered .
The decade from 1910 was a hard one for Gaudí . During this decade , the architect experienced the deaths of his niece Rosa in 1912 and his main collaborator Francesc Berenguer in 1914 ; a severe economic crisis which paralysed work on the Sagrada Família in 1915 ; the 1916 death of his friend Josep Torras i Bages , bishop of Vic ; the 1917 disruption of work at the Colonia Güell ; and the 1918 death of his friend and patron Eusebi Güell . Perhaps because of these tragedies he devoted himself entirely to the Sagrada Família from 1915 , taking refuge in his work . Gaudí confessed to his collaborators :
My good friends are dead ; I have no family and no clients , no fortune nor anything . Now I can dedicate myself entirely to the Church .
Gaudí dedicated the last years of his life entirely to the " Cathedral of the Poor " , as it was commonly known , for which he took alms in order to continue . Apart from his dedication to this cause , he participated in few other activities , the majority of which were related to his Catholic faith : in 1916 he participated in a course about Gregorian chant at the Palau de la Música Catalana taught by the Benedictine monk Gregori M. Sunyol .
= = = Personal life = = =
Gaudí devoted his life entirely to his profession , remaining single . He is known to have been attracted to only one woman — Josefa Moreu , teacher at the Mataró Cooperative , in 1884 — but this was not reciprocated . Thereafter Gaudí took refuge in the profound spiritual peace his Catholic faith offered him . Gaudí is often depicted as unsociable and unpleasant , a man of gruff reactions and arrogant gestures . However , those who were close to him described him as friendly and polite , pleasant to talk to and faithful to friends . Among these , his patrons Eusebi Güell and the bishop of Vic , Josep Torras i Bages , stand out , as well as the writers Joan Maragall and Jacint Verdaguer , the physician Pere Santaló and some of his most faithful collaborators , such as Francesc Berenguer and Llorenç Matamala .
Gaudí 's personal appearance — Nordic features , blond hair and blue eyes — changed radically over the course of time . As a young man , he dressed like a dandy in costly suits , sporting well @-@ groomed hair and beard , indulging gourmet taste , making frequent visits to the theatre and the opera and visiting his project sites in a horse carriage . The older Gaudí ate frugally , dressed in old , worn @-@ out suits , and neglected his appearance to the extent that sometimes he was taken for a beggar , such as after the accident that caused his death .
Gaudí left hardly any written documents , apart from technical reports of his works required by official authorities , some letters to friends ( particularly to Joan Maragall ) and a few journal articles . Some quotes collected by his assistants and disciples have been preserved , above all by Josep Francesc Ràfols , Joan Bergós , Cèsar Martinell and Isidre Puig i Boada . The only written document Gaudí left is known as the Manuscrito de Reus ( Reus Manuscript ) ( 1873 – 1878 ) , a kind of student diary in which he collected diverse impressions of architecture and decorating , putting forward his ideas on the subject . Included are an analysis of the Christian church and of his ancestral home , as well as a text about ornamentation and comments on the design of a desk .
Gaudí was always in favour of Catalonian culture but was reluctant to become politically active to campaign for its autonomy . Politicians , such as Francesc Cambó and Enric Prat de la Riba , suggested that he run for deputy but he refused . In 1920 he was beaten by police in a riot during the Floral Games celebrations . On 11 September 1924 , National Day of Catalonia , he was beaten at a demonstration against the banning of the Catalan language by the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera . Gaudí was arrested by the Civil Guard , resulting in a short stay in prison , from which he was freed after paying 50 pesetas bail .
= = = Death = = =
On 7 June 1926 , Gaudí was taking his daily walk to the Sant Felip Neri church for his habitual prayer and confession . While walking along the Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes between Girona and Bailén streets , he was struck by a passing tram and lost consciousness . Assumed to be a beggar because of his lack of identity documents and shabby clothing , the unconscious Gaudí did not receive immediate aid . Eventually a police officer transported him in a taxi to the Santa Creu Hospital , where he received rudimentary care . By the time that the chaplain of the Sagrada Família , Mosén Gil Parés , recognised him on the following day , Gaudí 's condition had deteriorated too severely to benefit from additional treatment . Gaudí died on 10 June 1926 at the age of 73 and was buried two days later . A large crowd gathered to bid farewell to him in the chapel of Our Lady of Mount Carmel in the crypt of the Sagrada Família . His gravestone bears this inscription :
Antonius Gaudí Cornet . Reusensis . Annos natus LXXIV , vitae exemplaris vir , eximiusque artifex , mirabilis operis hujus , templi auctor , pie obiit Barcinone die X Junii MCMXXVI , hinc cineres tanti hominis , resurrectionem mortuorum expectant . R.I.P.
( Antoni Gaudí Cornet . From Reus . At the age of 74 , a man of exemplary life , and an extraordinary craftsman , the author of this marvelous work , the church , died piously in Barcelona on the tenth day of June 1926 ; henceforward the ashes of so great a man await the resurrection of the dead . May he rest in peace . )
= = Style = =
= = = Gaudí and Modernisme = = =
Gaudí 's professional life was distinctive in that he never ceased to investigate mechanical building structures . Early on , Gaudí was inspired by oriental arts ( India , Persia , Japan ) through the study of the historicist architectural theoreticians , such as Walter Pater , John Ruskin and William Morris . The influence of the Oriental movement can be seen in works like the Capricho , the Güell Palace , the Güell Pavilions and the Casa Vicens . Later on , he adhered to the neo @-@ Gothic movement that was in fashion at the time , following the ideas of the French architect Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc . This influence is reflected in the Teresian College , the Episcopal Palace in Astorga , the Casa Botines and the Bellesguard house as well as in the crypt and the apse of the Sagrada Família . Eventually , Gaudí embarked on a more personal phase , with the organic style inspired by nature in which he would build his major works .
During his time as a student , Gaudí was able to study a collection of photographs of Egyptian , Indian , Persian , Mayan , Chinese and Japanese art owned by the School of Architecture . The collection also included Moorish monuments in Spain , which left a deep mark on him and served as an inspiration in many of his works . He also studied the book Plans , elevations , sections and details of the Alhambra by Owen Jones , which he borrowed from the School 's library . He took various structural and ornamental solutions from nazarí and mudéjar art , which he used with variations and stylistic freedom in his works . Notably , Gaudí observed of Islamic art its spatial uncertainty , its concept of structures with limitless space ; its feeling of sequence , fragmented with holes and partitions , which create a divide without disrupting the feeling of open space by enclosing it with barriers .
Undoubtedly the style that most influenced him was the Gothic Revival , promoted in the latter half of the 19th century by the theoretical works of Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc . The French architect called for studying the styles of the past and adapting them in a rational manner , taking into account both structure and design . Nonetheless , for Gaudí the Gothic style was " imperfect " , because despite the effectiveness of some of its structural solutions it was an art that had yet to be " perfected " . In his own words :
Gothic art is imperfect , only half resolved ; it is a style created by the compasses , a formulaic industrial repetition . Its stability depends on constant propping up by the buttresses : it is a defective body held up on crutches . ( ... ) The proof that Gothic works are of deficient plasticity is that they produce their greatest emotional effect when they are mutilated , covered in ivy and lit by the moon .
After these initial influences , Gaudí moved towards Modernisme , then in its heyday . Modernisme in its earlier stages was inspired by historic architecture . Its practitioners saw its return to the past as a response to the industrial forms imposed by the Industrial Revolution 's technological advances . The use of these older styles represented a moral regeneration that allowed the bourgeoisie to identify with values they regarded as their cultural roots . The Renaixença ( rebirth ) , the revival of Catalan culture that began in the second half of the 19th century , brought more Gothic forms into the Catalan " national " style that aimed to combine nationalism and cosmopolitanism while at the same time integrating into the European modernizing movement .
Some essential features of Modernisme were : an anticlassical language inherited from Romanticism with a tendency to lyricism and subjectivity ; the determined connection of architecture with the applied arts and artistic work that produced an overtly ornamental style ; the use of new materials from which emerged a mixed constructional language , rich in contrasts , that sought a plastic effect for the whole ; a strong sense of optimism and faith in progress that produced an emphatic art that reflected the atmosphere of prosperity of the time , above all of the esthetic of the bourgeoisie .
= = = Quest for a new architectural language = = =
Gaudí is usually considered the great master of Catalan Modernism , but his works go beyond any one style or classification . They are imaginative works that find their main inspiration in nature . Gaudí studied organic and anarchic geometric forms of nature thoroughly , searching for a way to give expression to these forms in architecture . Some of his greatest inspirations came from visits to the mountain of Montserrat , the caves of Mallorca , the saltpetre caves in Collbató , the crag of Fra Guerau in the Prades Mountains behind Reus , the Pareis mountain in the north of Mallorca and Sant Miquel del Fai in Bigues i Riells .
= = = = Geometrical forms = = = =
This study of nature translated into his use of ruled geometrical forms such as the hyperbolic paraboloid , the hyperboloid , the helicoid and the cone , which reflect the forms Gaudí found in nature . Ruled surfaces are forms generated by a straight line known as the generatrix , as it moves over one or several lines known as directrices . Gaudí found abundant examples of them in nature , for instance in rushes , reeds and bones ; he used to say that there is no better structure than the trunk of a tree or a human skeleton . These forms are at the same time functional and aesthetic , and Gaudí discovered how to adapt the language of nature to the structural forms of architecture . He used to equate the helicoid form to movement and the hyperboloid to light . Concerning ruled surfaces , he said :
Paraboloids , hyperboloids and helicoids , constantly varying the incidence of the light , are rich in matrices themselves , which make ornamentation and even modelling unnecessary .
Another element widely used by Gaudí was the catenary arch . He had studied geometry thoroughly when he was young , studying numerous articles about engineering , a field that praised the virtues of the catenary curve as a mechanical element , one which at that time , however , was used only in the construction of suspension bridges . Gaudí was the first to use this element in common architecture . Catenary arches in works like the Casa Milà , the Teresian College , the crypt of the Colònia Güell and the Sagrada Família allowed Gaudí to add an element of great strength to his structures , given that the catenary distributes the weight it regularly carries evenly , being affected only by self @-@ canceling tangential forces .
Gaudí evolved from plane to spatial geometry , to ruled geometry . These constructional forms are highly suited to the use of cheap materials such as brick . Gaudí frequently used brick laid with mortar in successive layers , as in the traditional Catalan vault , using the brick laid flat instead of on its side . This quest for new structural solutions culminated between 1910 and 1920 , when he exploited his research and experience in his masterpiece , the Sagrada Família . Gaudí conceived the interior of the church as if it were a forest , with a set of tree @-@ like columns divided into various branches to support a structure of intertwined hyperboloid vaults . He inclined the columns so they could better resist the perpendicular pressure on their section . He also gave them a double @-@ turn helicoidal shape ( right turn and left turn ) , as in the branches and trunks of trees . This created a structure that is now known as fractal . Together with a modulation of the space that divides it into small , independent and self @-@ supporting modules , it creates a structure that perfectly supports the mechanical traction forces without need for buttresses , as required by the neo @-@ Gothic style . Gaudí thus achieved a rational , structured and perfectly logical solution , creating at the same time a new architectural style that was original , simple , practical and aesthetic .
= = = = Surpassing the Gothic = = = =
This new constructional technique allowed Gaudí to achieve his greatest architectural goal ; to perfect and go beyond Gothic style . The hyperboloid vaults have their centre where Gothic vaults had their keystone , and the hyperboloid allows for a hole in this space to let natural light in . In the intersection between vaults , where Gothic vaults have ribs , the hyperboloid allows for holes as well , which Gaudí employed to give the impression of a starry sky .
Gaudí complemented this organic vision of architecture with a unique spatial vision that allowed him to conceive his designs in three dimensions , unlike the flat design of traditional architecture . He used to say that he had acquired this spatial sense as a boy by looking at the drawings his father made of the boilers and stills he produced . Because of this spatial conception , Gaudí always preferred to work with casts and scale models or even improvise on site as a work progressed . Reluctant to draw plans , only on rare occasions did he sketch his works , in fact only when required by authorities .
Another of Gaudí 's innovations in the technical realm was the use of a scale model to calculate structures : for the church of the Colònia Güell , he built a 1 : 10 scale model with a height of 4 metres ( 13 ft ) in a shed next to the building . There , he set up a model that had strings with small bags full of birdshot hanging from them . On a drawing board that was attached to the ceiling he drew the floor of the church , and he hung the strings ( for the catenaries ) with the birdshot ( for the weight ) from the supporting points of the building — columns , intersection of walls . These weights produced a catenary curve in both the arches and vaults . At that point , he took a picture that , when inverted , showed the structure for columns and arches that Gaudí was looking for . Gaudí then painted over these photographs with gouache or pastel . The outline of the church defined , he recorded every single detail of the building : architectural , stylistic and decorative .
Gaudí 's position in the history of architecture is that of a creative genius who , inspired by nature , developed a style of his own that attained technical perfection as well as aesthetic value , and bore the mark of his character . Gaudí 's structural innovations were to an extent the result of his journey through various styles , from Doric to Baroque via Gothic , his main inspiration . It could be said that these styles culminated in his work , which reinterpreted and perfected them . Gaudí passed through the historicism and eclecticism of his generation without connecting with other architectural movements of the 20th century that , with their rationalist postulates , derived from the Bauhaus school , and represented an antithetical evolution to that initiated by Gaudí , given that it later reflected the disdain and the initial lack of comprehension of the work of the modernista architect .
Among other factors that led to the initial neglect of the Catalan architect 's work was that despite having numerous assistants and helpers , Gaudí created no school of his own and never taught , nor did he leave written documents . Some of his subordinates adopted his innovations , above all Francesc Berenguer and Josep Maria Jujol ; others , like Cèsar Martinell , Francesc Folguera and Josep Francesc Ràfols graduated towards Noucentisme , leaving the master 's trail . Despite this , a degree of influence can be discerned in some architects that either formed part of the Modernista movement or departed from it and who had had no direct contact with him , such as Josep Maria Pericas ( Casa Alòs , Ripoll ) , Bernardí Martorell ( Olius cemetery ) and Lluís Muncunill ( Masia Freixa , Terrassa ) . Nonetheless , Gaudí left a deep mark on 20th @-@ century architecture : masters like Le Corbusier declared themselves admirers , and the works of other architects like Pier Luigi Nervi , Friedensreich Hundertwasser , Oscar Niemeyer , Félix Candela , Eduardo Torroja and Santiago Calatrava were inspired by Gaudí . Frei Otto used Gaudí 's forms in the construction of the Munich Olympic Stadium . In Japan , the work of Kenji Imai bears evidence of Gaudí 's influence , as can be seen in the Memorial for the Twenty @-@ six Martyrs of Japan in Nagasaki ( Japanese National Architecture Award in 1962 ) , where the use of Gaudí 's famous " trencadís " stands out .
= = = Design and craftsmanship = = =
During his student days , Gaudí attended craft workshops , such as those taught by Eudald Puntí , Llorenç Matamala and Joan Oñós , where he learned the basic aspects of techniques relating to architecture , including sculpture , carpentry , wrought ironwork , stained glass , ceramics , plaster modelling , etc . He also absorbed new technological developments , integrating into his technique the use of iron and reinforced concrete in construction . Gaudí took a broad view of architecture as a multifunctional design , in which every single detail in an arrangement has to be harmoniously made and well @-@ proportioned . This knowledge allowed him to design architectural projects , including all the elements of his works , from furnishings to illumination to wrought ironwork .
Gaudí was also an innovator in the realm of craftsmanship , conceiving new technical and decorative solutions with his materials , for example his way of designing ceramic mosaics made of waste pieces ( " trencadís " ) in original and imaginative combinations . For the restoration of Mallorca Cathedral he invented a new technique to produce stained glass , which consisted of juxtaposing three glass panes of primary colours , and sometimes a neutral one , varying the thickness of the glass in order to graduate the light 's intensity .
This was how he personally designed many of the Sagrada Família 's sculptures . He would thoroughly study the anatomy of the figure , concentrating on gestures . For this purpose , he studied the human skeleton and sometimes used d
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ummies made of wire to test the appropriate posture of the figure he was about to sculpt . In a second step , he photographed his models , using a mirror system that provided multiple perspectives . He then made plaster casts of the figures , both of people and animals ( on one occasion he made a donkey stand up so it would not move ) . He modified the proportions of these casts to obtain the figure 's desired appearance , depending on its place in the church ( the higher up , the bigger it would be ) . Eventually , he sculpted the figures in stone .
= = = = Urban spaces and landscaping = = = =
Gaudí also practiced landscaping , often in urban settings . He aimed to place his works in the most appropriate natural and architectural surroundings by studying the location of his constructions thoroughly and trying to naturally integrate them into those surroundings . For this purpose , he often used the material that was most common in the nearby environment , such as the slate of Bellesguard and the grey Bierzo granite in the Episcopal Palace , Astorga . Many of his projects were gardens , such as the Güell Park and the Can Artigas Gardens , or incorporated gardens , as in the Casa Vicens or the Güell Pavilions . Gaudí 's harmonious approach to landscaping is exemplified at the First Mystery of the Glory of the Rosary at Montserrat , where the architectural framework is nature itself — here the Montserrat rock — nature encircles the group of sculptures that adorned the path to the Holy Cave .
= = = = Interiors = = = =
Equally , Gaudí stood out as interior decorator , decorating most of his buildings personally , from the furnishings to the smallest details . In each case he knew how to apply stylistic particularities , personalising the decoration according to the owner 's taste , the predominant style of the arrangement or its place in the surroundings — whether urban or natural , secular or religious . Many of his works were related to liturgical furnishing . From the design of a desk for his office at the beginning of his career to the furnishings designed for the Sobrellano Palace of Comillas , he designed all furnishing of the Vicens , Calvet , Batlló and Milà houses , of the Güell Palace and the Bellesguard Tower , and the liturgical furnishing of the Sagrada Família . It is noteworthy that Gaudí studied some ergonomy in order to adapt his furnishings to human anatomy . Many of his furnishings are exhibited at Gaudí Museum .
Another aspect is the intelligent distribution of space , always with the aim of creating a comfortable , intimate , interior atmosphere . For this purpose , Gaudí would divide the space into sections , adapted to their specific use , by means of low walls , dropped ceilings , sliding doors and wall closets . Apart from taking care of every detail of all structural and ornamental elements , he made sure his constructions had good lighting and ventilation . For this purpose , he studied each project 's orientation with respect to the cardinal points , as well as the local climate and its place in its surroundings . At that time , there was an increasing demand for more domestic comfort , with piped water and gas and the use of electric light , all of which Gaudí expertly incorporated . For the Sagrada Família , for example , he carried out thorough studies on acoustics and illumination , in order to optimise them . With regard to light , he stated :
Light achieves maximum harmony at an inclination of 45 ° , since it resides on objects in a way that is neither horizontal nor vertical . This can be considered medium light , and it offers the most perfect vision of objects and their most exquisite nuances . It is the Mediterranean light .
Lighting also served Gaudí for the organisation of space , which required a careful study of the gradient of light intensity to adequately adapt to each specific environment . He achieved this with different elements such as skylights , windows , shutters and blinds ; a notable case is the gradation of colour used in the atrium of the Casa Batlló to achieve uniform distribution of light throughout the interior . He also tended to build south @-@ facing houses to maximise sunlight .
= = Works = =
Gaudí 's work is normally classed as modernista , and it belongs to this movement because of its eagerness to renovate without breaking with tradition , its quest for modernity , the ornamental sense applied to works , and the multidisciplinary character of its undertakings , where craftsmanship plays a central role . To this , Gaudí adds a dose of the baroque , adopts technical advances and continues to use traditional architectural language . Together with his inspiration from nature and the original touch of his works , this amalgam gives his works their personal and unique character in the history of architecture .
Chronologically , it is difficult to establish guidelines that illustrate the evolution of Gaudí 's style faithfully . Although he moved on from his initially historicist approach to immerse himself completely in the modernista movement which arose so vigorously in the last third of the 19th century in Catalonia , before finally attaining his personal , organic style , this process did not consist of clearly defined stages with obvious boundaries : rather , at every stage there are reflections of all the earlier ones , as he gradually assimilated and surpassed them . One of the best descriptions of Gaudí 's work was made by his disciple and biographer Joan Bergós , according to plastic and structural criteria . Bergós establishes five periods in Gaudí 's productions : preliminary period , mudéjar @-@ morisco ( Moorish / mudéjar art ) , emulated Gothic , naturalist and expressionist , and organic synthesis .
= = = Early works = = =
Gaudís first works both from his student days and the time just after his graduation stand out for the precision of their details , the use of geometry and the prevalence of mechanical considerations in the structural calculations .
= = = = University years = = = =
During his studies , Gaudí designed various projects , among which the following stand out : a cemetery gate ( 1875 ) , a Spanish pavilion for the Philadelphia World Fair of 1876 , a quay @-@ side building ( 1876 ) , a courtyard for the Diputació de Barcelona ( 1876 ) , a monumental fountain for the Plaça Catalunya in Barcelona ( 1877 ) and a university assembly hall ( 1877 ) .
Antoni Gaudí started his professional career while still at university . To pay for his studies , he worked as a draughtsman for some of the most outstanding Barcelona architects of the time , such as Joan Martorell , Josep Fontserè , Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano , Leandre Serrallach and Emili Sala Cortés . Gaudí had a long @-@ standing relationship with Josep Fontserè , since his family was also from Riudoms and they had known each other for some time . Despite not having an architecture degree , Fontserè received the commission from the city council for the Parc de la Ciutadella development , carried out between 1873 and 1882 . For this project , Gaudí was in charge of the design of the Park 's entrance gate , the bandstand 's balustrade and the water project for the monumental fountain , where he designed an artificial cave that showed his liking for nature and the organic touch he would give his architecture .
Gaudí worked for Francisco de Paula del Villar on the apse of the Montserrat monastery , designing the niche for the image of the Black Virgin of Montserrat in 1876 . He would later substitute Villar in the works of the Sagrada Família . With Leandre Serrallach , he worked on a tram line project to Villa Arcadia in Montjuïc . Eventually , he collaborated with Joan Martorell on the Jesuit church on Carrer Casp and the Salesian convent in Passeig de Sant Joan , as well as the Villaricos church ( Almería ) . He also carried out a project for Martorell for the competition for a new facade for Barcelona cathedral , which was never accepted . His relationship with Martorell , whom he always considered one of his main and most influential masters , brought him unexpected luck ; he later recommended Gaudí for the Sagrada Família .
= = = = Early post @-@ graduation projects = = = =
After his graduation as an architect in 1878 , Gaudí 's first work was a set of lampposts for the Plaça Reial , the project for the Girossi newsstands and the Mataró cooperative , which was his first important work . He received the request from the city council of Barcelona in February 1878 , when he had graduated but not yet received his degree , which was sent from Madrid on 15 March of the same year . For this commission he designed two types of lampposts : one with six arms , of which two were installed in the Plaça Reial , and another with three , of which two were installed in the Pla del Palau , opposite the Civil Government . The lampposts were inaugurated during the Mercè festivities in 1879 . Made of cast iron with a marble base , they have a decoration in which the caduceus of Mercury is prominent , symbol of commerce and emblem of Barcelona .
The Girossi newsstands project , which was never carried out , was a commission from the tradesman Enrique Girossi de Sanctis . It would have consisted of 20 newsstands , spread throughout Barcelona . Each would have included a public lavatory , a flower stand and glass panels for advertisements as well as a clock , a calendar , a barometer and a thermometer . Gaudí conceived a structure with iron pillars and marble and glass slabs , crowned by a large iron and glass roof , with a gas illumination system .
The Cooperativa Obrera Mataronense ( Mataró Workers ' Cooperative ) was Gaudí 's first big project , on which he worked from 1878 to 1882 , for Salvador Pagès i Anglada . The project , for the cooperative 's head office in Mataró , comprised a factory , a worker 's housing estate , a social centre and a services building , though only the factory and the services building were completed . In the factory roof Gaudí used the catenary arch for the first time , with a bolt assembly system devised by Philibert de l 'Orme . He also used ceramic tile decoration for the first time in the services building . Gaudí laid out the site taking account of solar orientation , another signature of his works , and included landscaped areas . He even designed the Cooperative 's banner , with the figure of a bee , symbol of industriousness .
In May 1878 Gaudí designed a display cabinet for the Esteban Comella glove factory , which was exhibited in the Spanish pavilion at the Paris World Exhibition that year . It was this work that attracted the attention of the entrepreneur Eusebi Güell , visiting the French capital ; he was so impressed that he wanted to meet Gaudí on his return , beginning a long friendship and professional collaboration . Güell became Gaudí 's main patron and sponsor of many of his large projects .
= = = = First Güell projects = = = =
Güell 's first task for Gaudí , that same year , was the design of the furniture for the pantheon chapel of the Palacio de Sobrellano in Comillas , which was then being constructed by Joan Martorell , Gaudí 's teacher , at the request of the Marquis of Comillas , Güell 's father in law . Gaudí designed a chair , a bench and a prayer stool : the chair was upholstered with velvet , finished with two eagles and the Marquis 's coat of arms ; the bench stands out with the motif of a dragon , designed by Llorenç Matamala ; the prayer stool is decorated with plants .
Also in 1878 he drew up the plans for a theatre in the former town of Sant Gervasi de Cassoles ( now a district of Barcelona ) ; Gaudí did not take part in the construction of the theatre , which no longer exists . The following year he designed the furniture and counter for the Gibert Pharmacy , with marquetry of Arab influence . The same year he made five drawings for a procession in honour of the poet Francesc Vicent Garcia i Torres in Vallfogona de Riucorb , where this celebrated 17th @-@ century writer and friend of Lope de Vega was the parish priest . Gaudí 's project was centred on the poet and on several aspects of agricultural work , such as reaping and harvesting grapes and olives ; however , as a result of organisational problems Gaudí 's ideas were not carried out .
Between 1879 and 1881 he drew up a proposal for the decoration of the church of Sant Pacià , belonging to the Colegio de Jesús @-@ María in Sant Andreu del Palomar : he created the altar in a Gothic style , the monstrance with Byzantine influence , the mosaics and the lighting , as well as the school 's furniture . The church caught fire during the Tragic Week of 1909 , and now only the mosaics remain , of " opus tesselatum " , probably the work of the Italian mosaicist Luigi Pellerin . He was given the task of decorating the church of the Colegio de Jesús @-@ María in Tarragona ( 1880 – 1882 ) : he created the altar in white Italian marble , and its front part , or antependium , with four columns bearing medallions of polychrome alabaster , with figures of angels ; the ostensory with gilt wood , the work of Eudald Puntí , decorated with rosaries , angels , tetramorph symbols and the dove of the Holy Ghost ; and the choir stalls , which were destroyed in 1936 .
In 1880 he designed an electric lighting project for Barcelona 's Muralla de Mar , or seawall , which was not carried out . It consisted of eight large iron streetlamps , profusely decorated with plant motifs , friezes , shields and names of battles and Catalan admirals . The same year he participated in the competition for the construction of the San Sebastián social centre ( now town hall ) , won by Luis Aladrén Mendivi and Adolfo Morales de los Ríos ; Gaudí submitted a project that synthesised several of his earlier studies , such as the fountain for the Plaça Catalunya and the courtyard of the Provincial Council .
= = = = Collaboration with Martorell = = = =
A new task of the Güell @-@ López 's for Comillas was the gazebo for Alfonso XII 's visit to the Cantabrian town in 1881 . Gaudí designed a small pavilion in the shape of a Hindu turban , covered in mosaics and decorated with an abundance of small bells which jingled constantly . It was subsequently moved into the Güell Pavilions .
In 1882 he designed a Benedictine monastery and a church dedicated to the Holy Spirit in Villaricos ( Cuevas de Vera , Almeria ) for his former teacher , Joan Martorell . It was of neo @-@ Gothic design , similar to the Convent of the Salesians that Gaudí also planned with Martorell . Ultimately it was not carried out , and the project plans were destroyed in the looting of the Sagrada Família in 1936 . The same year he was tasked with constructing a hunting lodge and wine cellars at a country residence known as La Cuadra , in Garraf ( Sitges ) , property of baron Eusebi Güell . Ultimately the wine cellars , but not the lodge , were built some years later . With Martorell he also collaborated on three other projects : the church of the Jesuit School in Carrer Caspe ; the Convent of the Salesians in Passeig de Sant Joan , a neo @-@ Gothic project with an altar in the centre of the crossing ; and the facade project for Barcelona cathedral , for the competition convened by the cathedral chapter in 1882 , ultimately won by Josep Oriol Mestres and August Font i Carreras .
Gaudí 's collaboration with Martorell was a determining factor in Gaudí 's recommendation for the Sagrada Família . The church was the idea of Josep Maria Bocabella , founder of the Devotees of Saint Joseph Association , which acquired a complete block of Barcelona 's Eixample district . The project was originally entrusted to Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano , who planned the construction of a neo @-@ Gothic church , on which work began in 1882 . However , the following year Villar resigned due to disagreements with the construction board , and the task went to Gaudí , who completely redesigned the project , apart from the part of the crypt that had already been built . Gaudí devoted the rest of his life to the construction of the church , which was to be the synthesis of all of his architectural discoveries .
= = = Orientalist period = = =
During these years Gaudí completed a series of works with a distinctly oriental flavour , inspired by the art of the Middle and Far East ( India , Persia , Japan ) , as well as Islamic @-@ Hispanic art , mainly Mudejar and Nazari . Gaudí used ceramic tile decoration abundantly , as well as Moorish arches , columns of exposed brick and pinnacles in the shape of pavilions or domes .
Between 1883 and 1888 he constructed the Casa Vicens , commissioned by stockbroker Manuel Vicens i Montaner . It was constructed with four floors , with facades on three sides and an extensive garden , including a monumental brick fountain . The house was surrounded by a wall with iron gates , decorated with palmetto leaves , work of Llorenç Matamala . The walls of the house are of stone alternated with lines of tile , which imitate yellow flowers typical of this area ; the house is topped with chimneys and turrets . In the interior the polychrome wooden roof beams stand out , adorned with floral themes of papier maché ; the walls are decorated with vegetable motifs , as well as paintings by Josep Torrescasana ; finally , the floor consists of Roman @-@ style mosaics of " opus tesselatum " . One of the most original rooms is the smoking room , notable the ceiling , decorated with Moorish honeycomb @-@ work , reminiscent of the Generalife in the Alhambra in Granada .
In the same year , 1883 , Gaudí designed the Santísimo Sacramento chapel for the parish church of San Félix de Alella , as well as some topographical plans for the Can Rosell de la Llena country residence in Gelida . He also received a commission to build a small annex to the Palacio de Sobrellano , for the Baron of Comillas , in the Cantabrian town of the same name . Known as El Capricho , it was commissioned by Máximo Díaz de Quijano and constructed between 1883 and 1885 . Cristòfor Cascante i Colom , Gaudí 's fellow student , directed the construction . In an oriental style , it has an elongated shape , on three levels and a cylindrical tower in the shape of a Persian minaret , faced completely in ceramics . The entrance is set behind four columns supporting depressed arches , with capitals decorated with birds and leaves , similar to those that can be seen at the Casa Vicens . Notable are the main lounge , with its large sash window , and the smoking room with a ceiling consisting of a false Arab @-@ style stucco vault .
Gaudí carried out a second commission from Eusebi Güell between 1884 and 1887 , the Güell Pavilions in Pedralbes , now on the outskirts of Barcelona . Güell had a country residence in Les Corts de Sarrià , consisting of two adjacent properties known as Can Feliu and Can Cuyàs de la Riera . The architect Joan Martorell had built a Caribbean @-@ style mansion , which was demolished in 1919 to make way for the Royal Palace of Pedralbes . Gaudí undertook to refurbish the house and construct a wall and porter 's lodge . He completed the stone wall with several entrances , the main entrance with an iron gate in the shape of a dragon , with symbology allusive to the myths of Hercules and the Garden of the Hesperides . The buildings consist of a stable , covered longeing ring and porter 's lodge : the stable has a rectangular base and catenary arches ; the longeing ring has a square base with a hyperboloid dome ; the porter 's lodge consists of three small buildings , the central one being polygonal with a hyperbolic dome , and the other two smaller and cubic . All three are topped by ventilators in the shape of chimneys faced with ceramics . The walls are of exposed brick in various shades of reds and yellows ; in certain sections prefabricated cement blocks are also used . The Pavilions are now the headquarters of the Real Cátedra Gaudí , of the Polytechnic University of Catalonia .
In 1885 Gaudí accepted a commission from Josep Maria Bocabella , promotor of the Sagrada Família , for an altar in the oratory of the Bocabella family , who had obtained permission from the Pope to have an altar in their home . The altar is made of varnished mahogany , with a slab of white marble in the centre for relics . It is decorated with plants and religious motifs , such as the Greek letters alpha and omega , symbol of the beginning and end , gospel phrases and images of Saint Francis of Paola , Saint Teresa of Avila and the Holy Family and closed with a curtain of crimson embroidery . It was made by the cabinet maker Frederic Labòria , who also collaborated with Gaudí on the Sagrada Família .
Shortly after , Gaudí received an important new commission from Güell : the construction of his family house , in the Carrer Nou de la Rambla in Barcelona . The Palau Güell ( 1886 – 1888 ) continues the tradition of large Catalan urban mansions such as those in Carrer Montcada . Gaudí designed a monumental entrance with a magnificent parabolic arch above iron gates , decorated with the Catalan coat of arms and a helmet with a winged dragon , the work of Joan Oñós . A notable feature is the triple @-@ height entrance hall ; it is the core of the building , surrounded by the main rooms of the palace , and it is remarkable for its double dome , parabolic within and conical on the outside , a solution typical of Byzantine art . For the gallery on the street facade Gaudí used an original system of catenary arches and columns with hyperbolic capitals , a style he used only here . He designed the interior of the palace with a sumptuous Mudejar @-@ style decoration , where the wood and iron coffered ceilings stand out . The chimneys on the roof are a remarkable feature , faced in vividly coloured ceramic tiles , as is the tall spire in the form of a lantern tower , which is the external termination of the dome within , and is also faced with ceramic tiles and topped with an iron weather vane .
On the occasion of the World Expo held in Barcelona in 1888 , Gaudí constructed the pavilion for the Compañía Trasatlántica , property of the Marquis of Comillas , in the Maritime Section of the event . He created it in a Granadinian Nazari style , with horseshoe arches and stucco decoration ; the building survived until the Passeig Marítim was opened up in 1960 . In the wake of the event he received a commission from Barcelona Council to restore the Saló de Cent and the grand stairs in Barcelona City Hall , as well as a chair for the queen Maria Cristina ; only the chair was made , and Mayor Francesc Rius i Taulet presented it to the Queen .
= = = Neo @-@ Gothic period = = =
During this period Gaudí was inspired above all by mediaeval Gothic art , but wanted to improve on its structural solutions . Neo @-@ gothic was one of the most successful historicist styles at that time , above all as a result of the theoretical studies of Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc . Gaudí studied examples in Catalonia , the Balearic Islands and Roussillon in depth , as well as Leonese and Castillian buildings during his stays in León and Burgos , and became convinced that it was an imperfect style , leaving major structural issues only partly resolved . In his works he eliminated the need of buttresses through the use of ruled surfaces , and abolished crenellations and excessive openwork .
The first example was the Teresian College ( Col · legi de les Teresianes ) ( 1888 – 1889 ) , in Barcelona 's Carrer Ganduxer , commissioned by San Enrique de Ossó . Gaudí fulfilled the wish of the order that the building should be austere , in keeping with their vows of poverty . He designed a simple building , using bricks for the exterior and some brick elements for the interior . Wrought ironwork , one of Gaudí 's favourite materials , appeared on the facades . The building is crowned by a row of merlons which suggest a castle , a possible reference to Saint Teresa 's Interior Castle . The corners have brick pinnacles topped by helicoidal columns and culminate in a four @-@ armed cross , typical of Gaudí 's works , and with ceramic shields bearing various symbols of the order . The interior includes a corridor which is famous for the series of catenary arches that it contains . These elegant arches are decorative and support the ceiling and the floor above . For Gaudí , the catenary arch was an ideal constructional element , capable of supporting great loads with slender masonry .
Gaudí received his next commission from a clergyman who had been a boyhood friend in his native Reus . When he was appointed bishop of Astorga , Joan Baptista Grau i Vallespinós asked Gaudí to design a new episcopal palace for the city , as the previous building had caught fire . Constructed between 1889 and 1915 , in a neo @-@ Gothic style with four cylindrical towers , it was surrounded by a moat . The stone with which it was built ( grey granite from the El Bierzo area ) is in harmony with its surroundings , particularly with the cathedral in its immediate vicinity , as well as with the natural landscape , which in late 19th @-@ century Astorga was more visible than today . The porch has three large flared arches , built of ashlar and separated by sloping buttresses . The structure is supported by columns with decorated capitals and by ribbed vaults on pointed arches , and topped with Mudejar @-@ style merlons . Gaudí resigned from the project in 1893 , at the death of Bishop Grau , due to disagreements with the Chapter , and it was finished in 1915 by Ricardo García Guereta . It currently houses a museum about the Way of Saint James , which passes through Astorga
Another of Gaudí 's projects outside of Catalonia was the Casa de los Botines , in León ( 1891 – 1894 ) , commissioned by Simón Fernández Fernández and Mariano Andrés Luna , textile merchants from Leon , who were recommended Gaudí by Eusebi Güell , with whom they did business . Gaudí 's project was an impressive neo @-@ Gothic style building , which bears his unmistakable modernista imprint . The building was used to accommodate offices and textile shops on the lower floors , as well as apartments on the upper floors . It was constructed with walls of solid limestone . The building is flanked by four cylindrical turrets surmounted by slate spires , and surrounded by an area with an iron grille . The Gothic facade style , with its cusped arches , has a clock and a sculpture of Saint George and the Dragon , the work of Llorenç Matamala . As of 2010 it was the headquarters of the Caja España .
In 1892 Gaudí was commissioned by Claudio López Bru , second Marquis of Comillas , with the Franciscana Catholic Missions for the city of Tangier , in Morocco ( at the time a Spanish colony ) . The project included a church , hospital and school , and Gaudí conceived a quadrilobulate ground @-@ plan floor structure , with catenary arches , parabolic towers , and hyperboloid windows . Gaudí deeply regretted the project 's eventual demise , always keeping his design with him . In spite of this , the project influenced the works of the Sagrada Família , in particular the design of the towers , with their paraboloid shape like those of the Missions .
In 1895 he designed a funerary chapel for the Güell family at the abbey of Montserrat , but little is known about this work , which was never built . That year , construction finally began on the Bodegas Güell , the 1882 project for a hunting lodge and some wineries at La Cuadra de Garraf ( Sitges ) , property of Eusebi Güell . Constructed between 1895 and 1897 under the direction of Francesc Berenguer , Gaudí 's aide , the wineries have a triangular end facade , a very steep stone roof , a group of chimneys and two bridges that join them to an older building . It has three floors : the bottom one for a garage , an apartment and a chapel with catenary arches , with the altar in the centre . It was completed with a porter 's lodge , notable for the iron gate in the shape of a fishing net .
In the township of Sant Gervasi de Cassoles ( now a district of Barcelona ) , the widow of Jaume Figueras commissioned Gaudí to renovate the Torre Bellesguard ( 1900 – 1909 ) , former summer palace of King Martin I the Humane . Gaudí designed it in a neo @-@ Gothic style , respecting the former building as much as possible , and tried as always to integrate the architecture into the natural surroundings . This influenced his choice of local slate for the construction . The building 's ground @-@ plan measures 15 x 15 meters , with the corners oriented to the four cardinal points . Constructed in stone and brick , it is taller than it is wide , with a spire topped with the four @-@ armed cross , the Catalan flag and the royal crown . The house has a basement , ground floor , first floor and an attic , with a gable roof .
= = = Naturalist period = = =
During this period Gaudí perfected his personal style , inspired by the organic shapes of nature , putting into practise a whole series of new structural solutions originating from his deep analysis of ruled geometry . To this he added a great creative freedom and an imaginative ornamental style . His works acquired a great structural richness , with shapes and volumes devoid of rational rigidity or any classic premise .
= = = = 1898 – 1900 = = = =
Commissioned by the company Hijos de Pedro Mártir Calvet , Gaudí built the Casa Calvet ( 1898 – 1899 ) , in Barcelona 's Carrer Casp . The facade is built of Montjuïc stone , adorned with wrought iron balconies and topped with two pediments with wrought iron crosses . Another notable feature of the facade is the gallery on the main floor , decorated with plant and mythological motifs . For this project , Gaudí used a Baroque style , visible in the use of Solomonic columns , decoration with floral themes and the design of the terraced roof . In 1900 , he won the award for the best building of the year from Barcelona City Council .
A virtually unknown work by Gaudí is the Casa Clapés ( 1899 – 1900 ) , at 125 Carrer Escorial , commissioned by the painter Aleix Clapés , who collaborated on occasion with Gaudí , such as in decorating the Palau Güell and the Casa Milà . It has a ground floor and three apartments , with stuccoed walls and cast @-@ iron balconies . Due to its lack of decoration or original structural solutions its authorship was unknown until 1976 , when the architect 's signed plans by Gaudí were discovered . In 1900 , he renovated the house of Dr. Pere Santaló , at 32 Carrer Nou de la Rambla , a work of equally low importance . Santaló was a friend of Gaudí 's , whom he accompanied during his stay in Puigcerdà in 1911.It was he who recommended him to do manual work for his rheumatism .
Also in 1900 , he designed two banners : for the Orfeó Feliuà ( of Sant Feliu de Codines ) , made of brass , leather , cork and silk , with ornamental motifs based on the martyrdom of San Félix ( a millstone ) , music ( a staff and clef ) and the inscription " Orfeó Feliuà " ; and Our Lady of Mercy of Reus , for the pilgrimage of the Reus residents of Barcelona , with an image of Isabel Besora , the shepherdess to whom the Virgin appeared in 1592 , work of Aleix Clapés and , on the back , a rose and the Catalan flag . In the same year , for the shrine of Our Lady of Mercy in Reus , Gaudí outlined a project for the renovation of the church 's main facade , which ultimately was not undertaken , as the board considered it too expensive . Gaudí took this rejection quite badly , leaving some bitterness towards Reus , possibly the source of his subsequent claim that Riudoms was his place of birth . Between 1900 and 1902 Gaudí worked on the Casa Miralles , commissioned by the industrialist Hermenegild Miralles i Anglès ; Gaudí designed only the wall near the gateway , of undulating masonry , with an iron gate topped with the four @-@ armed cross . Subsequently , the house for Señor Miralles was designed by Domènec Sugrañes , associate architect of Gaudí .
Gaudí 's main new project at the beginning of the 20th century was the Park Güell ( 1900 – 1914 ) , commissioned by Eusebi Güell . It was intended to be a residential estate in the style of an English garden city . The project was unsuccessful : of the 60 plots into which the site was divided only one was sold . Despite this , the park entrances and service areas were built , displaying Gaudí 's genius and putting into practice many of his innovative structural solutions . The Park Güell is situated in Barcelona 's Càrmel district , a rugged area , with steep slopes that Gaudí negotiated with a system of viaducts integrated into the terrain . The main entrance to the park has a building on each side , intended as a porter 's lodge and an office , and the site is surrounded by a stone and glazed @-@ ceramic wall . These entrance buildings are an example of Gaudí at the height of his powers , with Catalan vaults that form a parabolic hyperboloid . After passing through the gate , steps lead to higher levels , decorated with sculpted fountains , notably the dragon fountain , which has become a symbol of the park and one of Gaudí 's most recognised emblems . These steps lead to the Hypostyle Hall , which was to have been the residents ' market , constructed with large Doric columns . Above this chamber is a large plaza in the form of a Greek theatre , with the famous undulating bench covered in broken ceramics ( " trencadís " ) , the work of Josep Maria Jujol . The park 's show home , the work of Francesc Berenguer , was Gaudí 's residence from 1906 to 1926 , and currently houses the Casa @-@ Museu Gaudí .
During this period Gaudí contributed to a group project , the Rosary of Montserrat ( 1900 – 1916 ) . Located on the way to the Holy Cave of Montserrat , it was a series of groups of sculptures that evoked the mysteries of the Virgin , who tells the rosary . This project involved the best architects and sculptors of the era , and is a curious example of Catalan Modernism . Gaudí designed the First Mystery of Glory , which represents the Holy Sepulcher . The series include a statue of Christ Risen , the work of Josep Llimona , and the Three Marys sculpted by Dionís Renart . Another monumental project designed by Gaudí for Montserrat was never carried out : it would have included crowning the summit of El Cavall Bernat ( one of the mountain peaks ) with a viewpoint in the shape of a royal crown , incorporating a 20 metres ( 66 ft ) high Catalan coat of arms into the wall .
= = = = 1901 – 03 = = = =
In 1901 Gaudí decorated the house of Isabel Güell López , Marchioness of Castelldosrius , and daughter of Eusebi Güell . Situated at 19 Carrer Junta de Comerç , the house had been built in 1885 and renovated between 1901 and 1904 ; it was destroyed by a bomb during the Civil War . The following year Gaudí took part in the decoration of the Bar Torino , property of Flaminio Mezzalana , located at 18 Passeig de Gràcia ; Gaudí designed the ornamentation of el Salón Árabe of that establishment , made with varnished Arabian @-@ style cardboard tiles ( which no longer exist ) .
A project of great interest to Gaudí was the restoration of the Cathedral of Santa Maria in Palma de Mallorca ( 1903 – 1914 ) , commissioned by the city 's bishop , Pere Campins i Barceló . Gaudí planned a series of works including removing the baroque altarpiece , revealing the bishop 's throne , moving the choir @-@ stalls from the centre of the nave and placing them in the presbytery , clearing the way through chapel of the Holy Trinity , placing new pulpits , fitting the cathedral with electrical lighting , uncovering the Gothic windows of the Royal Chapel and filling them with stained glass , placing a large canopy above the main altar and completing the decoration with paintings . This was coordinated by Joan Rubió i Bellver , Gaudí 's assistant . Josep Maria Jujol and the painters Joaquín Torres García , Iu Pascual and Jaume Llongueras were also involved . Gaudí abandoned the project in 1914 due to disagreements with the Cathedral chapter .
= = = = 1904 = = = =
One of Gaudí 's largest and most striking works is the Casa Batlló ( 1904 – 1906 ) . Commissioned by Josep Batlló i Casanovas to renovate an existing building erected in 1875 by Emili Sala Cortés , Gaudí focused on the facade , the main floor , the patio and the roof , and built a fifth floor for the staff . For this project he was assisted by his aides Domènec Sugrañes , Joan Rubió and Josep Canaleta . The facade is of Montjuïc sandstone cut to create warped ruled surfaces ; the columns are bone @-@ shaped with vegetable decoration . Gaudí kept the rectangular shape of the old building 's balconies — with iron railings in the shape of masks — giving the rest of the facade an ascending undulating form . He also faced the facade with ceramic fragments of various colours ( " trencadís " ) , which Gaudí obtained from the waste material of the Pelegrí glass works . The interior courtyard is roofed by a skylight supported by an iron structure in the shape of a double T , which rests on a series of catenary aches . The helicoidal chimneys are a notable feature of the roof , topped with conical caps , covered in clear glass in the centre and ceramics at the top , and surmounted by clear glass balls filled with sand of different colours . The facade culminates in catenary vaults covered with two layers of brick and faced with glazed ceramic tiles in the form of scales ( in shades of yellow , green and blue ) , which resemble a dragon 's back ; on the left side is a cylindrical turret with anagrams of Jesus , Mary and Joseph , and with Gaudí 's four @-@ armed cross .
In 1904 , commissioned by the painter Lluís Graner , he designed the decoration of the Sala Mercè , in the Rambla dels Estudis , one of the first cinemas in Barcelona ; the theatre imitated a cave , inspired by the Coves del Drac ( Dragon 's Caves ) in Mallorca . Also for Graner he designed a detached house in the Bonanova district of Barcelona , of which only the foundations and the main gate were built , with three openings : for people , vehicles and birds ; the building would have had a structure similar to the Casa Batlló or the porter 's lodge of the Park Güell .
The same year he built a workshop , the Taller Badia , for Josep and Lluís Badia Miarnau , blacksmiths who worked for Gaudí on several of his works , such as the Batlló and Milà houses , the Park Güell and the Sagrada Família . Located at 278 Carrer Nàpols , it was a simple stone building . Around that time he also designed hexagonal hydraulic floor tiles for the Casa Batlló , they were eventually used instead for the Casa Milà ; they were a green colour and were decorated with seaweed , shells and starfish . These tiles were subsequently chosen to pave Barcelona 's Passeig de Gràcia .
Also in 1904 he built the Chalet de Catllaràs , in La Pobla de Lillet , for the Asland cement factory , owned by Eusebi Güell . It has a simple structure though very original , in the shape of a pointed arch , with two semi @-@ circular flights of stairs leading to the top two floors . This building fell into ruin when the cement works closed , and when it was eventually restored its appearance was radically altered , the ingenious original staircase being replaced with a simpler metal one . In the same area he created the Can Artigas Gardens between 1905 and 1907 , in an area called Font de la Magnesia , commissioned by the textile merchant Joan Artigas i Alart ; men who had worked the Park Güell were also involved on this project , similar to the famous park in Barcelona .
= = = = 1906 = = = =
In 1906 he designed a bridge over the Torrent de Pomeret , between Sarrià and Sant Gervasi . This river flowed directly between two of Gaudí 's works , Bellesguard and the Chalet Graner , and so he was asked to bridge the divide . Gaudí designed an interesting structure composed of juxtaposed triangles that would support the bridge 's framework , following the style of the viaducts that he made for the Park Güell . It would have been built with cement , and would have had a length of 154 metres ( 505 ft ) and a height of 15 metres ( 49 ft ) ; the balustrade would have been covered with glazed tiles , with an inscription dedicated to Santa Eulàlia . The project was not approved by the Town Council of Sarrià .
The same year Gaudí apparently took part in the construction of the Torre Damià Mateu , in Llinars del Vallès , in collaboration with his disciple Francesc Berenguer , though the project 's authorship is not clear or to what extent they each contributed to it . The style of the building evokes Gaudí 's early work , such as the Casa Vicens or the Güell Pavilions ; it had an entrance gate in the shape of a fishing net , currently installed in the Park Güell . The building was demolished in 1939 . Also in 1906 he designed a new banner , this time for the Guild of metalworkers and blacksmiths for the Corpus Christi procession of 1910 , in Barcelona Cathedral . It was dark green in colour , with Barcelona 's coat of arms in the upper left corner , and an image of Saint Eligius , patron of the guild , with typical tools of the trade . The banner was burned in July 1936 .
Another of Gaudí 's major projects and one of his most admired works is the Casa Milà , better known as La Pedrera ( 1906 – 1910 ) , commissioned by Pere Milà i Camps . Gaudí designed the house around two large , curved courtyards , with a structure of stone , brick and cast @-@ iron columns and steel beams . The facade is built of limestone from Vilafranca del Penedès , apart from the upper level , which is covered in white tiles , evoking a snowy mountain . It has a total of five floors , plus a loft made entirely of catenary arches , as well as two large interior courtyards , one circular and one oval . Notable features are the staircases to the roof , topped with the four @-@ armed cross , and the chimneys , covered in ceramics and with shapes that suggest mediaeval helmets . The interior decoration was carried out by Josep Maria Jujol and the painters Iu Pascual , Xavier Nogués and Aleix Clapés . The facade was to have been completed with a stone , metal and glass sculpture with Our lady of the Rosary accompanied by the archangels Michael and Gabriel , 4m in height . A sketch was made by the sculptor Carles Mani , but due to the events of the Tragic Week in 1909 the project was abandoned .
= = = = 1907 – 08 = = = =
In 1907 , to mark the seventh centenary of the birth of King James I , Gaudí designed a monument in his memory . It would have been situated in the Plaça del Rei , and would have also meant the renovation of the adjacent buildings : new roof for the cathedral , as well as the completion of its towers and cupola ; placement of three vases above the buttresses of the Chapel of Santa Àgada , dedicated to the Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary , as well as the figure of an angel on top of the chapel 's tower ; finally , the opening of a large square next to the walls ( now the Plaça Ramon Berenguer el Grand ) . The project was not executed because the city council disliked it .
In 1908 Gaudí devised a project for a skyscraper hotel in New York , the Hotel Attraction , commissioned by two American entrepreneurs whose names are unknown . It would have been 360 metres ( 1 @,@ 180 ft ) high ( taller than the Empire State Building ) , with a taller parabolic central section , topped with a star , and flanked by four volumes containing museums , art galleries and concert halls , with shapes similar to the Casa Milà . Inside it would have had five large rooms , one dedicated to every continent .
The final project for his great patron Eusebi Güell was the church for the Colònia Güell , an industrial village in Santa Coloma de Cervelló ( 1890 – 1918 ) . The project began in 1890 , and the factory , service buildings and housing for the workers were constructed . What would have been the colony 's church was designed by Gaudí in 1898 , though the first stone was not laid until 4 October 1908 . Unfortunately only the crypt ( known today as Crypt of the Colònia Güell ) was built , as Güell 's sons abandoned the project after his death in 1918 . Gaudí designed an oval church with five aisles , one central aisle and two at either side . He conceived it as fully integrated into nature . A porch of hyperbolic paraboloid vaults precedes the crypt , the first time that Gaudí used this structure and notably the first use of paraboloid vaults in the history of architecture . In the crypt the large hyperboloid stained glass windows stand out , with the shapes of flower petals and butterfly wings . Inside , circular brick pillars alternate with slanted basalt columns from Castellfollit de la Roca .
= = = Final period = = =
During the last years of his career , dedicated almost exclusively to the Sagrada Família , Gaudí reached the culmination of this naturalistic style , creating a synthesis of all of the solutions and styles he had tried until then . Gaudí achieved perfect harmony between structural and ornamental elements , between plastic and aesthetic , between function and form , between container and content , achieving the integration of all arts in one structured , logical work .
The first example of his final stage can be seen in a simple but very ingenious building , the Sagrada Família schools , a small school for the workers ' children . Built in 1909 , it has a rectangular ground plan of 10 by 20 metres ( 33 ft × 66 ft ) , and contained three classrooms , a vestibule and a chapel . It was built of exposed brick , in three overlapping layers , following the traditional Catalan method . The walls and roof have an undulating shape , giving the structure a sense of lightness but also strength . The Sagrada Família schools have set an example of constructive genius and have served as a source of inspiration for many architects , such is their simplicity , strength , originality , functionality and geometric excellence .
In May 1910 Gaudí paid a short visit to Vic , where he was tasked to design the lampposts for the city 's Plaça Major , in commemoration of the first centenary of the birth of Jaume Balm
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door knockers , and pets such as dogs in the bottom courtyard . Perhaps the most direct pieces of evidence to suggest that miniature ceramic tower models are faithful representations of real @-@ life Han timber towers are tile patterns . Artistic patterns found on the circular tiles that cap the eave @-@ ends on the miniature models are exact matches of patterns found on real @-@ life Han roof tiles excavated at sites such as the royal palaces in Chang 'an and Luoyang , and even the tiles of the original White Horse Temple . The ceramic model towers featured below come from tombs of the Han dynasty :
Besides towers , other ceramic models from the Han reveal a variety of building types . This includes multi @-@ story storehouses such as granaries , courtyard houses with multi @-@ story halls , kiosks , walled gate towers , mills , manufactories and workshops , animal pens , outhouses , and water wells . Even models of single @-@ story farmhouses show a great amount of detail , including tiled roofs , courtyards , steps leading to walkways , farmyards with troughs and basins , parapets , and privies . Models of granaries and storehouses had tiled rooftops , dougong brackets , windows , and stilt supports raising them above ground level . Han models of water wells sometimes feature tiny tiled roofs supported by beams that house the rope pulley used for lifting the bucket . The ceramic models featured below come from tombs of the Han dynasty :
= = = Roads , bridges , and canals = = =
In order to facilitate commerce and communication as well as speed the process of tax collection and movement of military troops , the Han government sponsored the building of new roads , bridges , and canal waterways . These include repairs and renovation work on the Dujiangyan Irrigation System of Sichuan and Zhengguo Canal of Shaanxi , both of which were built by the previous State of Qin . Accepting the proposal of Ni Kuan ( zh : 兒寬 ) , in 111 BCE Emperor Wu commissioned Er to lead the project of creating extensions to the Zhengguo Canal that could irrigate nearby terrain elevated above the main canal . Since a large amount of silt had built up over time at the bottom of the Zhengguo Canal ( causing flooding ) , in 95 BCE another project was initiated to tap irrigation waters from further up the Jing River , requiring the dredging of a new 100 km ( 62 mi ) long canal following a contour line above the Zhengguo . The Han state also maintained a system of dikes to protect farmland from seasonal floods .
Roadways , wooden bridges , postal stations , and relay stations were occasionally repaired , while many new facilities such as these were established . As written by Han authors , roads built during the Han were tamped down with metal rammers , yet there is uncertainty over the materials used ; Joseph Needham speculates that they were rubble and gravel . The widths of roads ranged from narrow footpaths where only a single horse or oxen could pass at once to large highways that could accommodate the simultaneous passage of nine horse @-@ drawn chariots abreast . Fortified Han roadways were built as far west as Shanshan ( Loulan ) near the Lop Desert , while Han forces utilized routes that traversed north of the Taklamakan Desert towards Kashgar . A vast network of roads , fortified passes , and wooden bridges built over rushing torrents in steep gorges of the Qin Mountains was consolidated during the Han , known as the gallery roads . During the reign of Emperor Wu , roads were built to connect newly conquered territories in what is now Yunnan in the far southwest as well as the Korean Peninsula in the far northeast .
One of the most common bridge @-@ types built during the Han was the wooden @-@ trestle beam bridge , described by literary sources and seen in reliefs carved on tomb bricks . Evidence for arch bridges is elusive : one outside of Chengdu 's south gate is claimed to date to the Han period , while that built by Ma Xian ( 馬賢 ) ( fl . 135 CE ) was certainly a beam bridge . In artwork , a relief sculpture from a Han tomb in Sichuan province shows an arch bridge with a gradual curve , suggesting that it is segmental , although the use of such bridges are not entirely confirmed . Although there are rare references to simple suspension bridges in Han sources , these are only mentioned in connection with travels to foreign countries in the Himalaya , Hindukush and Afghanistan , demonstrating the antiquity of the invention there . Floating pontoon bridges made of boats secured by iron chains were built during the Han ( some even spanning the Yellow River and Yangzi River ) and were most often employed for military purposes since they could be easily assembled and then disassembled .
= = Medicine = =
Much of the beliefs held by Han @-@ era physicians are known to modern historians through such texts as the Yellow Emperor 's Inner Canon ( Huangdi neijing ) medical corpus , which was compiled from the 3rd to 2nd century BCE and was mentioned in the Book of Later Han . It is clear from this text and others that their metaphysical beliefs in the five phases and yin and yang dictated their medical decisions and assumptions . The Han @-@ era Chinese believed that each organ in the body was associated with one of the five phases ( metal 金 , wood 木 , water 水 , fire 火 , earth 土 ) and had two circulatory qi channels ( 任督二脉 ) . If these channels were disrupted , Han medical texts suggest that one should consume an edible material associated with one of these phases that would counteract the organ 's prescribed phase and thus restore one 's health . For example , the Chinese believed that when the heart — associated with the fire phase — caused one to become sluggish , then one should eat sour food because it was associated with the wood phase ( which promoted fire ) . The Han Chinese also believed that by using pulse diagnosis , a physician could determine which organ of the body emitted " vital energy " ( qi ) and what qualities the latter had , in order to figure out the exact disorder the patient was suffering . Despite the influence of metaphysical theory on medicine , Han texts also give practical advice , such as the proper way to perform clinical lancing to remove an abscess . The Huangdi neijing noted the symptoms and reactions of people with various diseases of the liver , heart , spleen , lung , or kidneys in a 24 @-@ hour period , which was a recognition of circadian rhythm , although explained in terms of the five phases .
In his Essential Medical Treasures of the Golden Chamber ( Jinkui yaolue ) , Zhang Zhongjing ( c . 150 – c . 219 CE ) was the first to suggest a regulated diet rich in certain vitamins could prevent different types of disease , an idea which led Hu Sihui ( fl . 1314 – 1330 CE ) to prescribe a diet rich in Vitamin B1 as a treatment for beriberi . Zhang 's major work was the Treatise on Cold Injury and Miscellaneous Disorders ( Shanghan zabing lun ) . His contemporary and alleged associate Hua Tuo ( d . 208 CE ) was a physician who had studied the Huangdi neijing and became knowledgeable in Chinese herbology . Hua Tuo used anesthesia on patients during surgery and created an ointment that was meant to fully heal surgery wounds within a month . In one diagnosis of an ill woman , he deciphered that she bore a dead fetus within her womb which he then removed , curing her of her ailments .
Historical sources say that Hua Tuo rarely practiced moxibustion and acupuncture . The first mentioning of acupuncture in Chinese literature appeared in the Huangdi neijing . Acupuncture needles made of gold were found in the tomb of the Han King Liu Sheng ( d . 113 BCE ) . Some stone @-@ carved depictions of acupuncture date to the Eastern Han Era ( 25 – 220 CE ) . Hua Tuo also wrote about the allegedly life @-@ prolonging exercises of calisthenics . In the 2nd @-@ century @-@ BCE medical texts excavated from the tombs of Mawangdui , illustrated diagrams of calisthenic positions are accompanied by descriptive titles and captions . Vivienne Lo writes that the modern physical exercises of taijiquan and qigong are derived from Han @-@ era calisthenics .
= = Cartography = =
Map @-@ making in China preceded the Han dynasty . Since two 4th @-@ century @-@ BCE silk maps from the State of Qin ( found in Gansu , displaying the region about the Jialing River ) show the measured distance between timber @-@ gathering sites , Mei @-@ ling Hsu argues that these are to be considered the first known economic maps ( as they predate the maps of the Roman geographer Strabo , c . 64 BCE – 24 CE ) . Maps from the Han period have also been uncovered by modern archaeologists , such as those found with 2nd @-@ century @-@ BCE silk texts at Mawangdui . In contrast to the Qin maps , the Han maps found at Mawangdui employ a more diverse use of map symbols , cover a larger terrain , and display information on local populations and even pinpoint locations of military camps . One of the maps discovered at Mawangdui shows positions of Han military garrisons which were to attack Nanyue in 181 BCE .
In Chinese literature , the oldest reference to a map comes from the year 227 BCE , when the assassin Jing Ke was to present a map to Ying Zheng 嬴政 , King of Qin ( ruling later as Qin Shi Huang , r . 221 – 210 BCE ) on behalf of Crown Prince Dan of Yan . Instead of presenting the map , he pulled out a dagger from his scroll , yet was unable to kill Ying Zheng . The Rites of Zhou ( Zhouli ) , compiled during the Han and commented by Liu Xin in the 1st century CE , mentioned the use of maps for governmental provinces and districts , principalities , frontier boundaries , and locations of ores and minerals for mining facilities . The first Chinese gazetteer was written in 52 CE and included information on territorial divisions , the founding of cities , and local products and customs . Pei Xiu ( 224 – 271 CE ) was the first to describe in detail the use of a graduated scale and geometrically plotted reference grid . However , historians Howard Nelson , Robert Temple , and Rafe de Crespigny argue that there is enough literary evidence that Zhang Heng 's now lost work of 116 CE established the geometric reference grid in Chinese cartography ( including a line from the Book of Later Han : " [ Zhang Heng ] cast a network of coordinates about heaven and earth , and reckoned on the basis of it " ) . Although there is speculation fueled by the report in Sima 's Records of the Grand Historian that a gigantic raised @-@ relief map representing the Qin Empire is located within the tomb of Qin Shi Huang , it is known that small raised @-@ relief maps were created during the Han dynasty , such as one made out of rice by the military officer Ma Yuan ( 14 BCE – 49 CE ) .
= = Nautics and vehicles = =
In 1975 , an ancient shipyard discovered in Guangzhou is now dated to the late 3rd century BCE , made during either the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BCE ) or early Western Han dynasty . It had three large platforms capable of building wooden ships that were 30 m ( 98 ft ) long , 8 m ( 26 ft ) wide , and had a weight capacity of 60 metric tons . Another Han shipyard in what is now Anhui province had a government @-@ operated maritime workshop where battle ships were assembled . The widespread use of iron tools during the Han dynasty was essential for crafting such vessels .
The southward expansion of the Han dynasty led to new trade routes and diplomatic contact with foreign kingdoms . In 111 BCE , Emperor Wu conquered the Kingdom of Nanyue in what is now modern northern Vietnam and Guangdong , Guangxi , Yunnan ; thereafter he opened up maritime trade to both Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean , as foreign merchants brought lapis lazuli , pearls , jade , and glasswares to the Han Empire from this southern sea route . When a group of travelers from the Roman Empire ( allegedly diplomats of Marcus Aurelius but most likely Roman merchants ) came to the Han court in 166 CE , they allegedly came from this southern trade route . By at least the 1st century CE — as proven by Eastern Han ceramic miniature models of ships found in various tombs — the Chinese would have been able to brave distant waters with the new steering invention of the stern @-@ mounted rudder . This came to replace the less efficient steering oar . While ancient China was home to various ship designs , including the layered and fortified tower ship meant for calm waters of lakes and river , the junk design ( jun 船 ) created by the 1st century CE was China 's first seaworthy sailing ship . The typical junk has a square @-@ ended bow and stern , a flat @-@ bottomed hull or carvel @-@ shaped hull with no keel or sternpost , and solid transverse bulkheads in the place of structural ribs found in Western seacrafts . Since the Chinese junk lacked a sternpost , the rudder was attached to the back of the ship by use of either socket @-@ and @-@ jaw or block and tackle ( which differed from the later European pintle and gudgeon design of the 12th century ) . As written by a 3rd @-@ century author , junks had for @-@ and @-@ aft rigs and lug sails .
Although horse and ox @-@ drawn carts and spoke @-@ wheeled chariots had existed in China long before the Han dynasty , it was not until the 1st century BCE that literary evidence pointed to the invention of the wheelbarrow , while painted murals on Han tomb walls of the 2nd century CE show the wheelbarrow in use for hauling goods . While the ' throat @-@ and @-@ girth ' harness was still in use throughout much of the ancient world ( placing an excessive amount of pressure on horses ' necks ) , the Chinese were placing a wooden yoke across their horses ' chests with traces to the chariot shaft by the 4th century BCE in the State of Chu ( as seen on a Chu lacquerware ) . By Han times , the Chinese replaced this heavy yoke with a softer breast strap , as seen in Han stamped bricks and carved tomb reliefs . In the final stage of evolution , the modern horse collar was invented in China by the 5th century CE , during the Northern Wei period .
= = Weaponry and war machines = =
The pivot catapult , known as the traction trebuchet , had existed in China since the Warring States period ( as evidenced by the Mozi ) . It was regularly used in sieges during the Han dynasty , by both besiegers and the besieged . The most common projectile weapon used during the Han dynasty was the small handheld , trigger @-@ activated crossbow ( and to a lesser extent , the repeating crossbow ) , first invented in China during the 6th or 5th century BCE . Although the nomadic Xiongnu were able to twist their waists slightly while horse @-@ riding and shoot arrows at targets behind them , the official Chao Cuo ( d . 154 BCE ) deemed the Chinese crossbow superior to the Xiongnu bow .
The Han Chinese also employed chemical warfare . In quelling a peasant revolt near Guiyang in 178 CE , the imperial Han forces had horse @-@ drawn chariots carrying bellows that were used to pump powdered lime ( calcium oxide ) at the rebels , who were dispersed . In this same instance , they also lit incendiary rags tied to the tails of horses , so that the frightened horses would rush through the enemy lines and disrupt their formations .
To deter pursuits of marching infantry or riding cavalry , the Han Chinese made caltrops ( barbed iron balls with sharp spikes sticking out in all directions ) that could be scattered on the ground and pierce the feet or hooves of those who were unaware of them .
= Chickasaw Turnpike =
The Chickasaw Turnpike is a short two @-@ lane toll road in the rural south central region of the U.S. state of Oklahoma . It stretches for 13 @.@ 3 miles ( 21 @.@ 4 km ) from north of Sulphur to just south of Ada . The Oklahoma Turnpike Authority ( OTA ) owns , maintains , and collects tolls on the turnpike . The first section of the Chickasaw Turnpike opened on September 1 , 1991 .
The Chickasaw resulted from a compromise between urban and rural legislators . Originally , it was part of a now @-@ canceled plan to connect southern and eastern Oklahoma with a longer turnpike . It was also intended to link Ada to the Interstate system . A four @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) segment of the turnpike was transferred to the Oklahoma Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) , making it a toll @-@ free road , in 2011 .
= = Route description = =
The Chickasaw Turnpike takes a southwest @-@ to @-@ northeast route , passing through only two counties , Murray and Pontotoc . The turnpike begins in Murray County at U.S. Highway 177 ( US @-@ 177 ) north of Sulphur ; west of this interchange , the road becomes State Highway 7 Spur ( SH @-@ 7 Spur ) . The turnpike continues northeast into Pontotoc County . Just north of the county line is a barrier toll plaza , the only plaza along the route . Beyond the tollbooth lies an interchange serving the town of Roff . This is a partial interchange , providing access to Roff for eastbound travelers and access to the westbound lanes from Roff . The Chickasaw Turnpike then ends at SH @-@ 1 .
The Chickasaw Turnpike has only two lanes for the majority of its length ; however , there is a short eastbound passing lane . The Chickasaw is the only two @-@ lane turnpike in Oklahoma . Lightly traveled , the road is used by about 2 @,@ 000 vehicles per day .
= = History = =
The Chickasaw Turnpike was originally envisioned as a corridor running from Interstate 35 ( I @-@ 35 ) near Davis to I @-@ 40 near Henryetta . Proposed by southern Oklahoma politicians , the turnpike was intended to promote economic development by connecting Ada to the Interstate Highway System . It was proposed at the same time as three other turnpikes , which would become the Kilpatrick Turnpike in Oklahoma City , the Creek Turnpike in Tulsa , and the Cherokee Turnpike , which bypassed a mountainous section of US @-@ 412 in eastern Oklahoma . Rural legislators objected to the Kilpatrick and Creek Turnpikes , and moved to block them unless the Chickasaw Turnpike was built . Urban legislators relented and allowed the Chickasaw to be built as part of a compromise , with legislation requiring that the Chickasaw be built before work on the other two turnpikes could begin . The turnpike was authorized in 1987 .
Governor Henry Bellmon opposed the Chickasaw Turnpike , arguing it would be a money loser . Bellmon had the turnpike built with only two lanes and shortened it to its current termini . Dewey F. Bartlett , Jr . , an OTA board member ( and future mayor of Tulsa ) , was later quoted as saying " I think it stinks . We never wanted to build it . It was not anything we thought was appropriate . But in order to build the three turnpikes that were necessary , that is the only way they would build it . "
Bonds for the first section were approved in 1989 . The bonds specifically permitted the turnpike to be transferred to the Oklahoma Department of Transportation and become a free road , the only turnpike in Oklahoma eligible for this type of transfer . At the time , however , ODOT director Bobby Green said that his agency could not buy the turnpike due to a lack of funds . The Chickasaw cost nearly $ 44 million to build ( equivalent to $ 64 @.@ 4 million in 2015 ) . Its first section opened on September 1 , 1991 . Originally , the turnpike began at SH @-@ 7 west of Sulphur , proceeding northeast to the US @-@ 177 junction , then continuing northeast on its present @-@ day alignment .
As part of his 1994 turnpike package , Governor David Walters proposed expanding the Chickasaw Turnpike to four lanes and extending it to Henryetta . The Chickasaw improvements were eventually cut from the package , which ultimately died when a commission overseeing the sale of bonds by state agencies voted against it .
The OTA voted on November 11 , 2002 , to open discussions about transferring the Chickasaw to ODOT . The transfer would also include a one @-@ time payment of $ 14 million ( equivalent to $ 20 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) for maintenance . The turnpike had deteriorated since its original construction ; ODOT director Gary Ridley said that recurrent pavement problems necessitated constant repairs . He also mentioned that there were other issues , such as right @-@ of @-@ way problems , that could endanger ODOT 's ability to draw from the federal highway trust fund . House Speaker Pro Tempore @-@ designate Danny Hilliard opposed the transfer on the grounds of the road 's poor condition , as well as objecting to the partial interchanges . The lawmaker called the Chickasaw Turnpike " an albatross " and said " I told them that unless the Turnpike Authority brought that turnpike up to ODOT specifications , and completed the interchanges at Roff and US @-@ 177 north at Sulphur [ sic ] , we 're not interested in having that thing dumped on the taxpayers . "
To address these concerns , OTA began a $ 12 @.@ 8 @-@ million ( equivalent to $ 15 @.@ 4 million in 2015 ) pavement rehabilitation project on February 9 , 2006 . Construction constraints required the entire turnpike to be closed in March , causing traffic problems in Sulphur . The turnpike reopened on September 29 , 2006 . The Oklahoma Transportation Commission , which oversees ODOT , voted on August 6 , 2007 , to begin feasibility and cost – benefit analysis studies towards accepting the four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of the turnpike between SH @-@ 7 and US @-@ 177 . On August 1 , 2011 , the Transportation Commission voted to transfer the section of the turnpike west of US @-@ 177 to ODOT , designating it SH @-@ 7 Spur . The commission noted that OTA had raised the new SH @-@ 7 Spur to meet ODOT standards , and that expansion of the US @-@ 177 interchange to full access was the responsibility of ODOT . This was the first time that a turnpike had been transferred from OTA to ODOT . Transferring the turnpike was considered an inexpensive way to solve the problem of excessive truck traffic in Sulphur .
= = Tolls = =
As of 2009 , passengers of two @-@ axle vehicles ( such as cars and motorcycles ) pay tolls of 65 ¢ in cash or 55 ¢ if Pikepass is used . Drivers in vehicles with more than two axles , such as truckers , pay higher tolls . Tolls are collected at the single barrier toll plaza between the US @-@ 177 and Roff interchanges . Due to the partial interchanges , it is not possible to legally use the turnpike without passing through this toll plaza . The toll is the same regardless of the point of entry or exit .
The Chickasaw Turnpike has been fully automated since shortly after it opened . As Governor Bellmon predicted , it has been a consistent money loser since opening . Improvements are funded largely through proceeds from the more profitable Turner and Will Rogers Turnpikes .
= = Exit list = =
All exits are unnumbered .
= Boeing CH @-@ 47 Chinook in Australian service =
The Australian Defence Force has operated Boeing CH @-@ 47 Chinook heavy @-@ lift helicopters for most of the period from 1974 . Twelve CH @-@ 47C Chinooks were acquired initially , entering service with the Royal Australian Air Force in December 1974 . The eleven surviving aircraft were retired in 1989 as a cost @-@ saving measure , but it was found that the Australian Defence Force 's other helicopters could not emulate their capabilities . As a result , four of the CH @-@ 47Cs were upgraded to CH @-@ 47D status , and returned to service in 1995 with the Australian Army . The Army acquired two more CH @-@ 47Ds in 2000 and another pair in 2012 . The CH @-@ 47Ds were replaced with seven new CH @-@ 47F aircraft during 2015 , and another three were delivered in 2016 .
The Chinooks have mainly been used to support Army units in Australian service , though they have performed a wide range of other tasks . Three Chinooks took part in the Iraq War during 2003 , when they supported Australian special forces . A detachment of two Chinooks was also deployed to Afghanistan during the northern spring and summer months for each year between 2006 and 2013 , when they saw extensive combat . Two of the CH @-@ 47s deployed to Afghanistan were destroyed as a result of crashes .
= = Acquisition = =
During the early years of the 1960s the Australian Army and Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) considered new types of tactical transport aircraft to replace the RAAF 's obsolete Douglas Dakotas . The Army wanted a simple and rugged aircraft that could be purchased immediately for this role , and pressed for the acquisition of de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribous . However , the RAAF regarded the Caribou as inadequate for this role and preferred to acquire a more sophisticated aircraft type , leading to delays in the selection process .
This disagreement came to an end in September 1962 , when as part of the expansion of the military in response to Indonesia 's policy of " confrontation " with its neighbours , the RAAF was directed by the government to conduct an urgent evaluation of short takeoff and landing aircraft and heavy @-@ lift helicopters , which could be purchased to improve the Army 's tactical mobility . A team of seven RAAF officers headed by Group Captain Charles Read , the director of operational requirements , was dispatched to the United States and assessed the Sikorsky S @-@ 61 , Vertol 107 @-@ II and CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopters . The team judged the Chinook to be clearly the most suitable of these types , and recommended that several be acquired ; this was in line with the Army 's preference . The government subsequently accepted a recommendation made by the RAAF to acquire a package of twelve Caribou fixed @-@ wing aircraft and eight Chinooks , and placed an order for these aircraft within weeks of the evaluation being ordered . The Chinook order was subsequently cancelled by the government when it was learned that it would take several years for the helicopters to be delivered , and the RAAF 's orders of Caribous and Bell UH @-@ 1 Iroquois tactical transport helicopters were instead expanded .
The Australian military continued to consider the acquisition of a heavy @-@ lift helicopters throughout the 1960s , and a formal program was launched by the RAAF in 1969 . Another team of RAAF officers travelled to the United States , and evaluated the Sikorsky CH @-@ 53 and the Chinook . The team leader , Group Captain Peter Raw , ultimately recommended that CH @-@ 53s be ordered . Senior RAAF officers and the Army were not pleased with this outcome , and the Air Board rejected Raw 's report . Read , who was now an air vice @-@ marshal and deputy chief of the air staff , was directed to review the choice of helicopters , and again recommended that Chinooks be acquired . He justified this choice on the grounds that the Chinook could carry more cargo than the CH @-@ 53 and was better suited for operations in the mountains of the Australian @-@ administered Territory of Papua and New Guinea . Read 's recommendation was accepted by the government , and an order for twelve CH @-@ 47C Chinooks was placed in August 1970 . It was planned to rotate the helicopters in and out of service , with six being available at any time . The order was suspended later in 1970 when a series of engine problems affected the United States Army 's CH @-@ 47Cs , but was reinstated in March 1972 after these issues were resolved . The total cost of the purchase was $ A37 million . The order made Australia the first export customer for the CH @-@ 47 .
It was decided to station the Chinooks at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , located at the midpoint between the Army 's main field formations based in the outskirts of Sydney in New South Wales and the north Queensland city of Townsville . Construction began on support facilities for the helicopters at Amberley shortly after the order for them was confirmed in 1972 .
= = Operational service = =
= = = Royal Australian Air Force = = =
No. 12 Squadron was re @-@ raised at Amberley on 3 September 1973 to operate the Chinooks . This unit had previously flown bombers between 1939 and 1948 before being renumbered as No. 1 Squadron . The twelve CH @-@ 47s were transported from the United States to Australia on board the aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne , and were unloaded at Brisbane on 28 March 1974 . In April that year it was reported that six of the helicopters were to be placed in storage as a cost @-@ saving measure ; as of 1979 these aircraft had still not been flown . No. 12 Squadron began conducting training flights on 8 July 1974 , and the unit was declared operational in December the next year .
The Chinooks ' main role in RAAF service was to support the Army . The helicopters were used to transport troops , artillery guns , ammunition , fuel and other supplies . They also provided part of the aeromedical evacuation capability available to the Army . While the Chinooks generally operated in Northern Australia , they made frequent deployments to other parts of Australia , and No. 12 Squadron conducted an annual high @-@ altitude flying training exercise in Papua New Guinea . The CH @-@ 47Cs had a crew of four , comprising two pilots , a loadmaster and one other , and could transport up to 33 passengers or 11 @,@ 129 kilograms ( 24 @,@ 535 lb ) of cargo . In August 1980 , a CH @-@ 47 was flown from Amberley to Malaysia , and used to recover a Royal Malaysian Air Force S @-@ 61 helicopter that had crashed in a remote location . This was believed to have been the longest distance a helicopter had flown up to that time , and remains the longest flight to have been conducted by a RAAF helicopter .
During their RAAF service , the Chinooks also undertook a range of non @-@ military tasks . The helicopters frequently formed part of the Australian Defence Force 's response to natural disasters , including delivering food for people and livestock cut off by floods . They were also used for civilian construction tasks such as emplacing lighthouses and carrying air conditioning plants to the top of tall buildings . On two occasions Chinooks supported Queensland Police Service drug eradication efforts in remote parts of the state by transporting fuel for RAAF Iroquois helicopters and carrying seized narcotics . In August 1981 , two CH @-@ 47s lifted containers from the cargo ship Waigani Express to enable the vessel to be refloated after it ran aground in the Torres Strait . A similar operation was undertaken to free the Anro Asia when it ran aground near Caloundra , Queensland , in November the same year . Another unusual task was conducted in December 1981 when a Chinook transported two bulldozers onto a grounded iron ore carrier near Port Hedland , Western Australia , so that they could be used to reposition the ship 's load .
The RAAF 's Chinook fleet suffered two serious accidents . On 26 June 1975 , A15 @-@ 011 crashed when one of its engine turbines disintegrated . No. 3 Aircraft Depot was assigned responsibility for repairing the helicopter , but it did not reenter service until 21 May 1981 as the maintenance unit lacked experience with major helicopter repairs . On 4 February 1985 , A15 @-@ 001 crashed into Perseverance Dam near Toowoomba , Queensland , after striking power wires . The helicopter 's pilot , an exchange officer from the Royal Air Force , was killed and the other three aircrew suffered minor injuries . The helicopter was written off and used as a fire training aid at Amberley .
In November 1986 the Chiefs of Staff Committee and Minister for Defence Kim Beazley decided to transfer all of the RAAF 's Iroquois and Sikorsky S @-@ 70 Black Hawk battlefield helicopters to the Army ; the Chinooks remained with the RAAF at this time . In May 1989 the RAAF and Army jointly decided to withdraw the Chinooks from service . This decision was made to reduce costs , the Army believing that the Black Hawks would provide sufficient air lift capability . Due to the Chinooks ' high operating costs , only six of the helicopters were in service at the time . No. 12 Squadron ceased flying on 30 June 1989 , and was disbanded on 25 August that year .
= = = Australian Army = = =
While it was intended to sell the Chinooks after they were withdrawn from service , experience soon demonstrated that the Black Hawks were unable to fully replace them . In particular , it was found that heavy @-@ lift helicopters were needed to transport fuel supplies for the Black Hawks during exercises and operations . As a result , plans to sell the Chinooks were put on hold in late 1989 , and the Army and RAAF began investigating options to reactivate them . The 1991 Force Structure Review recommended that between four and six Chinooks be reintroduced to service to support the Black Hawks , with the helicopters preferably being upgraded to CH @-@ 47D standard .
A deal to upgrade several of the Chinooks was reached in May 1991 . Under this arrangement , seven of the surviving CH @-@ 47Cs were sold to the US Army for $ A40 million , with these funds being used to partly cover the cost of upgrading the remaining four to CH @-@ 47D status . The total cost of the project was $ A62 million , of which $ A42 million was required to upgrade the four helicopters and the remainder to cover the cost of spare parts , administration and new facilities for the Chinooks at Townsville . All eleven Chinooks were shipped to the United States in September 1993 , and the upgraded helicopters returned to Australia in 1995 . It was decided to transfer the Chinooks to the Australian Army , as by this time the RAAF no longer had significant expertise in operating the type .
The four CH @-@ 47Ds were assigned to C Squadron of the 5th Aviation Regiment , which was based at Townsville , and also comprised two squadrons equipped with Black Hawks and six Iroquois helicopters used as gunships . Two newly built CH @-@ 47Ds were ordered in 1998 , and joined the other four in 2001 .
Following their transfer to the Army , the Chinooks were used in similar roles to those they had undertaken in RAAF service . The first operational deployment of the Army Chinooks began in November 1997 , when two of the helicopters and three Black Hawks departed for Papua New Guinea . This force was used to transport food supplies in the highlands of the country following a severe drought , and returned to Australia in March 1998 .
In 2003 a detachment of three CH @-@ 47Ds was deployed to the Middle East as part of the Australian contribution to the invasion of Iraq . The detachment formed part of the Special Operations Task Group , and operated from Jordan to transport supplies and personnel to Australian special forces units operating in Western Iraq throughout the initial stage of the conflict . One of the tasks undertaken by the detachment was flying commandos from the 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment to Al Asad Airbase after the facility was captured by Special Air Service Regiment units . This deployment was the first time Australian military helicopters had participated in combat since the Vietnam War .
From 2006 to 2013 a detachment of two Chinooks operated in Afghanistan as part of the Australian forces deployed to the country . The initial detachment arrived at Kandahar International Airport in March 2006 , and was tasked with supporting the Australian Special Forces Task Group in the country . After the Special Forces Task Group was withdrawn in September 2013 the helicopters remained in the country and were used to support Coalition forces , with a particular emphasis on the Australian units which were located in Urozgan Province . The detachment was withdrawn to Australia during the Afghan winters , but redeployed to the country each spring . By the end of the final rotation on 14 September 2013 the helicopters had flown more than 6 @,@ 000 hours in combat and transported almost 40 @,@ 000 personnel .
Two Australian CH @-@ 47Ds were destroyed in Afghanistan . On 30 May 2011 , A15 @-@ 102 crashed in Zabul Province , resulting in the death of an Army unmanned aerial vehicle pilot who was travelling on board as a passenger . As it was impractical to recover the helicopter , it was destroyed by Coalition forces . The official inquiry into the crash found that it was caused by a known issue in which Chinooks suffered uncommanded pitch oscillations while flying through dense altitudes , and that the aircrew had not been adequate trained to prevent such incidents . Another Chinook was written off following a hard landing in Kandahar Province on 22 June 2012 , resulting in minor injuries to one of its aircrew . Both of the Chinooks at Kandahar International Airport also suffered significant damage in April 2013 , when the airport was struck by a severe hail storm . Two CH @-@ 47Ds were purchased in December 2011 to replace A15 @-@ 102 .
In February 2010 the Australian Government gave final approval for the Army to purchase seven CH @-@ 47F Chinooks to replace the CH @-@ 47Ds . A contract for these helicopters was signed on 19 March that year . The total cost of the CH @-@ 47F project , including the construction of new facilities and the acquisition of two flight simulators , was $ 631 million . The Australian CH @-@ 47Fs are fitted with equipment to better enable them to operate from the Royal Australian Navy 's Canberra class landing helicopter dock vessels , but are otherwise identical to the aircraft operated by the US Army .
Australia 's first two CH @-@ 47Fs entered service with the 5th Aviation Regiment on 5 May 2015 . At this time it was planned for C Squadron to be fully operational with the new Chinooks by January 2017 . The seventh CH @-@ 47F was delivered three weeks ahead of schedule in September 2015 . A further three CH @-@ 47Fs were ordered in December 2015 for $ US150 million , including spare parts , related equipment and some support costs . These helicopters were delivered two and half months earlier than planned in June 2016 . The 2016 Defence White Paper and its supporting documentation stated that the CH @-@ 47Fs will receive modifications to better enable them to perform aeromedical evacuation tasks by the 2025 – 26 financial year , and that it is intended to regularly upgrade the helicopters so that they can continue to be supported through the US military 's logistics system .
= = = Works consulted = = =
Australian Army Flying Museum , Oakey ( 2015 ) . " Army aviation in Australia 1970 – 2015 " ( PDF ) . Australian Army .
Australian Government ( 2016 ) . 2016 Defence White Paper . Canberra : Department of Defence . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9941680 @-@ 5 @-@ 4 .
Clarke , Chris ( 2011 ) . 90 Years of the RAAF : A Snapshot History . Canberra : Air Power Development Centre . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 920800 @-@ 56 @-@ 7 .
Department of Defence ( 1991 ) . Force Structure Review 1991 : Report to the Minister for Defence ( PDF ) . Canberra : Department of Defence . ISBN 0 @-@ 644 @-@ 14453 @-@ X.
Department of Defence ( 2004 ) . " The war in Iraq : ADF operations in the Middle East in 2003 " ( PDF ) . Department of Defence . Retrieved 26 June 2016 .
Department of Defence ( 2016 ) . 2016 Integrated Investment Program ( PDF ) . Canberra : Department of Defence . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9941680 @-@ 6 @-@ 1 .
Eather , Steve ( 1995 ) . Flying Squadrons of the Australian Defence Force . Weston Creek , Australian Capital Territory : Aerospace Publications . ISBN 1 @-@ 875671 @-@ 15 @-@ 3 .
McPhedran , Ian ( 2005 ) . The Amazing SAS : the inside story of Australia 's special forces . Pymble , New South Wales : HarperCollins . ISBN 0 @-@ 7322 @-@ 7981 @-@ X.
RAAF Historical Section ( 1995 ) . Units of the Royal Australian Air Force : A Concise History . Volume 3 : Bomber Units . Canberra : Australian Government Publishing Service . ISBN 0 @-@ 644 @-@ 42795 @-@ 7 .
Ripley , Tim ( 2004 ) . Air War Iraq . Barnsley : Pen and Sword Aviation . ISBN 1 @-@ 84415 @-@ 069 @-@ 0 .
Sharp , Martin ( 1998 ) . Command and Control of Battlefield Helicopters : The Search for a Joint Approach ( PDF ) . Canberra : Air Power Studies Centre . ISBN 0642265318 . OCLC 9924581 . CS1 maint : Ignored ISBN errors ( link )
Stephens , Alan ( 1995 ) . Going Solo : The Royal Australian Air Force 1946 – 1971 . Canberra : Australian Government Publishing Service . ISBN 0 @-@ 644 @-@ 42803 @-@ 1 .
Wilson , Stewart ( 1994 ) . Military Aircraft of Australia . Weston Creek , Australian Capital Territory : Aerospace Publications . ISBN 1 @-@ 875671 @-@ 08 @-@ 0 .
= Panavia Tornado =
The Panavia Tornado is a family of twin @-@ engine , variable @-@ sweep wing multirole combat aircraft , which was jointly developed and manufactured by Italy , the United Kingdom , and West Germany . There are three primary Tornado variants : the Tornado IDS ( interdictor / strike ) fighter @-@ bomber , the suppression of enemy air defences Tornado ECR ( electronic combat / reconnaissance ) and the Tornado ADV ( air defence variant ) interceptor aircraft .
The Tornado was developed and built by Panavia Aircraft GmbH , a tri @-@ national consortium consisting of British Aerospace ( previously British Aircraft Corporation ) , MBB of West Germany , and Aeritalia of Italy . It first flew on 14 August 1974 and was introduced into service in 1979 – 1980 . Due to its multirole nature , it was able to replace several different fleets of aircraft in the adopting air forces . The Royal Saudi Air Force ( RSAF ) became the only export operator of the Tornado in addition to the three original partner nations . A tri @-@ nation training and evaluation unit operating from RAF Cottesmore , the Tri @-@ National Tornado Training Establishment , maintained a level of international co @-@ operation beyond the production stage .
The Tornado was used by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , Italian Air Force and RSAF during the 1991 Gulf War , in which the Tornado conducted many low @-@ altitude penetrating strike missions . The Tornados of various operators were also used in conflicts in the former Yugoslavia during the Bosnian War and Kosovo War , the Iraq War , Libya during the Libyan civil war , as well as smaller roles in Afghanistan , Yemen , and Syria . Including all variants , 992 aircraft were built .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
During the 1960s , aeronautical designers looked to variable @-@ geometry wing designs to gain the manoeuvrability and efficient cruise of straight wings with the speed of swept wing designs . The United Kingdom had cancelled the procurement of the TSR @-@ 2 and subsequent F @-@ 111K aircraft , and was still looking for a replacement for its Avro Vulcan and Blackburn Buccaneer strike aircraft . Britain and France had initiated the AFVG ( Anglo French Variable Geometry ) project in 1965 , but this had ended with French withdrawal in 1967 . Britain continued to develop a variable @-@ geometry aircraft similar to the proposed AFVG , and sought new partners to achieve this .
In 1968 , West Germany , the Netherlands , Belgium , Italy and Canada formed a working group to examine replacements for the Lockheed F @-@ 104 Starfighter , initially called the Multi Role Aircraft ( MRA ) , later renamed as the Multi Role Combat Aircraft ( MRCA ) . The participating nations all had ageing fleets that required replacing ; but , as the requirements were so diverse , it was decided to develop a single aircraft that could perform a variety of missions that were previously undertaken by a fleet of different aircraft . Britain joined the MRCA group in 1968 , represented by Air Vice @-@ Marshal Michael Giddings , and a memorandum of agreement was drafted between Britain , West Germany , and Italy in May 1969 .
By the end of 1968 , the prospective purchases from the six countries amounted to 1 @,@ 500 aircraft . Canada and Belgium had departed before any long @-@ term commitments had been made to the programme ; Canada had found the project politically unpalatable ; there was a perception in political circles that much of the manufacturing and specifications were focused on Western Europe . France had made a favourable offer to Belgium on the Dassault Mirage 5 , which created doubt as to whether the MRCA would be worthwhile from Belgium 's operational perspective .
= = = Panavia Aircraft GmbH = = =
On 26 March 1969 , four partner nations – United Kingdom , Germany , Italy and the Netherlands , agreed to form a multinational company , Panavia Aircraft GmbH , to develop and manufacture the MRCA . The project 's aim was to produce an aircraft capable of undertaking missions in the tactical strike , reconnaissance , air defence , and maritime roles ; thus allowing the MRCA to replace several different aircraft then in use by the partner nations . Various concepts , including alternative fixed @-@ wing and single @-@ engine designs , were studied while defining the aircraft . The Netherlands pulled out of the project in 1970 , citing that the aircraft was too complicated and technical for the RNLAF 's preferences , which had sought a simpler aircraft with outstanding manoeuvrability . An additional blow was struck by the German requirement reduced from an initial 600 aircraft to 324 in 1972 .
When the agreement was finalised , the United Kingdom and West Germany each had a 42 @.@ 5 % stake of the workload , with the remaining 15 % going to Italy ; this division of the production work was heavily influenced by international political bargaining . The front fuselage and tail assembly was assigned to BAC ( now BAE Systems ) in the United Kingdom ; the centre fuselage to MBB ( now EADS ) in West Germany ; and the wings to Aeritalia ( now Alenia Aeronautica ) in Italy . Similarly , tri @-@ national worksharing was used for engines , general and avionic equipment . A separate multinational company , Turbo @-@ Union , was formed in June 1970 to develop and build the RB199 engines for the aircraft , with ownership similarly split 40 % Rolls @-@ Royce , 40 % MTU , and 20 % FIAT .
At the conclusion of the project definition phase in May 1970 , the concepts were reduced to two designs ; a single seat Panavia 100 which West Germany initially preferred , and the twin @-@ seat Panavia 200 which the RAF preferred ( this would become the Tornado ) . The aircraft was briefly called the Panavia Panther , and the project soon coalesced towards the two @-@ seat option . In September 1971 , the three governments signed an Intention to Proceed ( ITP ) document , at which point the aircraft was intended solely for the low @-@ level strike mission , where it was viewed as a viable threat to Soviet defences in that role . It was at this point that Britain 's Chief of the Defence Staff announced " two @-@ thirds of the fighting front line will be composed of this single , basic aircraft type " .
= = = Prototypes and testing = = =
The first of more than a dozen Tornado prototypes took flight on 14 August 1974 at Manching , Germany ; the pilot , Paul Millett stated of the occasion : " Aircraft handling was delightful ... the actual flight went so smoothly that I did begin to wonder whether this was not yet another simulation " . Flight testing led to the need for minor modifications . Airflow disturbances were responded to by re @-@ profiling the engine intakes and the fuselage to minimise surging and buffeting experienced at supersonic speeds . Testing revealed that a nose @-@ wheel steering augmentation system , connecting with the yaw damper , was necessary to counteract the destabilising effect produced by deploying the thrust reverser during landing rollouts . In August 1976 , Soviet espionage activities were exposed trying to obtain information on the aircraft .
Two prototypes were lost in accidents , both of which had been primarily caused by poor piloting decisions and errors leading to two ground collision incidents ; a third Tornado prototype was seriously damaged by an incident involving pilot @-@ induced pitch oscillation . During the type 's development , aircraft designers of the era were beginning to incorporate features such as more sophisticated stability augmentation systems and autopilots . Aircraft such as the Tornado and the General Dynamics F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon made use of these new technologies . Failure testing of the Tornado 's triplex analogue command and stability augmentation system ( CSAS ) was conducted on a series of realistic flight control rigs ; the variable @-@ sweep wings in combination with varying , and frequently very heavy , payloads complicated the clearance process .
= = = Production = = =
The contract for the Batch 1 aircraft was signed on 29 July 1976 . The first aircraft were delivered to the RAF and German Air Force on 5 and 6 June 1979 respectively . The first Italian Tornado was delivered on 25 September 1981 . On 29 January 1981 , the Tri @-@ national Tornado Training Establishment ( TTTE ) officially opened at RAF Cottesmore , remaining active in training pilots from all operating nations until 31 March 1999 . The 500th Tornado to be produced was delivered to West Germany on 19 December 1987 .
Export customers were sought after West Germany withdrew its objections to exporting the aircraft ; Saudi Arabia was the only export customer of the Tornado . The agreement to purchase the Tornado was part of the controversial Al @-@ Yamamah arms deal between BAE Systems and the Saudi government . Oman had committed to purchasing Tornados and the equipment to operate them for a total value of £ 250 million in the late 1980s , but cancelled the order in 1990 due to financial difficulties .
During the 1970s , Australia considered joining the MRCA programme to find a replacement for their ageing Dassault Mirage IIIs ; ultimately the McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet was selected to meet the requirement . Canada similarly opted for the F / A @-@ 18 after considering the Tornado . Japan considered the Tornado in the 1980s , along with the General Dynamics F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon and F / A @-@ 18 ; before selecting the Mitsubishi F @-@ 2 , a domestically produced design based on the F @-@ 16 . In the 1990s , both Taiwan and South Korea expressed interest in acquiring a small number of Tornado ECR aircraft . In 2001 , EADS proposed a Tornado ECR variant with a greater electronic warfare capability for Australia .
Production came to an end in 1998 ; the last batch of aircraft being produced going to the Royal Saudi Air Force , who had ordered a total of 96 IDS Tornados . In June 2011 , it was announced that the RAF 's Tornado fleet had flown collectively over one million flying hours . Aviation author John Lake noted that : " The Trinational Panavia Consortium produced just short of 1 @,@ 000 Tornados , making it one of the most successful postwar bomber programs " . In 2008 , AirForces Monthly said of the Tornado : " For more than a quarter of a century ... the most important military aircraft in Western Europe . "
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The Panavia Tornado is a multirole , twin @-@ engined aircraft designed to excel at low @-@ level penetration of enemy defences . The mission envisaged during the Cold War was the delivery of conventional and nuclear ordnance on the invading forces of the Warsaw Pact countries of Eastern Europe ; this dictated several significant features of the design . Variable wing geometry , allowing for minimal drag during the critical low @-@ level dash towards a well @-@ prepared enemy , had been desired from the project 's start . Advanced navigation and flight computers , including the then @-@ innovative fly @-@ by @-@ wire system , greatly reduced the workload of the pilot during low @-@ level flight and eased control of the aircraft . For long range bombing missions , the Tornado has a retractable refuelling probe .
As a multirole aircraft , the Tornado is capable of undertaking more mission profiles than the anticipated strike mission ; various operators replaced multiple aircraft types with the Tornado as a common type – the use of
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Government of Croatia as a breakaway region with Serbia .
In the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . In an effort to bolster its defence , Croatia doubled police personnel to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the force was 3 @,@ 000 special police , deployed in twelve battalions adopting military unit organization . In addition , there were 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organized reserve police . The reserve police were set up in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but the reserve force lacked weapons . In May , the Croatian government responded by forming the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde ) , but its development was hampered by a United Nations arms embargo introduced in September 1991 .
= = Prelude = =
By late June and throughout July , northern Dalmatia saw daily armed skirmishes but no actual combat . Nonetheless , the increasing intensity of the conflict in the region and elsewhere in Croatia led to the preparation of bomb shelters in Zadar by city officials . Serbian Autonomous Oblast of Krajina ( SAO Krajina ) authorities called up three Territorial Defence units in the Zadar hinterland on 11 July , one day after another fatal shooting of a Croatian police patrol in the Zadar area , while the JNA 9th ( Knin ) Corps conscripted the local Serb population in Benkovac to strengthen its ranks by the end of the month . In late July , a paramilitary group , led by Miro Barešić and formally subordinated to the Croatian Ministry of Defence , conducted several sabotages in the Benkovac area . On 1 August , Croatia deployed two battalions of the ZNG 4th Guards Brigade to Kruševo near Obrovac . Two days later they engaged in combat against the SAO Krajina Territorial Defence and police forces , marking the first such engagement of the Croatian War of Independence in the region . On 26 August , the JNA 9th ( Knin ) Corps openly sided with the SAO Krajina forces as they jointly attacked Kijevo , expelling all Croats from the village . Another significant setback for Croatia in the region was JNA capture of the Maslenica Bridge on 11 September . That severed the last overland road link between Dalmatia and the rest of Croatia . On 11 – 13 September , an attack in the area of Skradin cut water and power supply to Šibenik .
On 14 September , the ZNG and the Croatian police blockaded and cut utilities to all JNA facilities located in Croatian @-@ controlled territory , beginning the Battle of the Barracks . The move blockaded 33 large JNA garrisons in Croatia and numerous smaller facilities , including border posts , weapons and ammunition storage depots . The blockade forced the JNA to amend its planned campaign in Croatia to accommodate the new development . The same day , a coastal artillery battery on the Žirje Island was captured by Croatian forces , after JNA Senior Sergeant Željko Baltić , battery commanding officer , switched his allegiance . The battery consisted of twelve Ansaldo 90 / 53 guns which were once armament of the Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto .
= = Order of battle = =
The JNA 's planned campaign included an advance in the Šibenik area by the 9th ( Knin ) Corps , which was tasked with isolating Dalmatia from the rest of Croatia . As it was fully mobilised and prepared for deployment , the corps began operations against the ZNG on 16 September . Its main axis of attack was directed at Vodice , with supporting advances towards Zadar , Drniš and Sinj . The push was designed to create favourable circumstances to attack Zadar , Šibenik and Split . With support from a corps @-@ level battalion of M @-@ 84 tanks and the SAO Krajina Territorial Defence , the JNA 221st Mechanised Brigade ( without its battalion of T @-@ 34 tanks ) , was committed to the main axis of the attack . The secondary advance , towards Biograd na Moru on the right flank , was assigned to the 180th Mechanised Brigade , supported by the armoured battalion removed from the 221st Brigade , the 557th Mixed Antitank Artillery Regiment and the SAO Krajina Territorial Defence . Offensive support was provided by the 9th Mixed Artillery Regiment and the 9th Military Police Battalion . The 221st Brigade was commanded by Colonel Borislav Đukić . Elements the 46th Partisan Division , drawn from the 24th ( Kragujevac ) Corps , also provuded support for the corps . The JNA garrison in Šibenik barracks included the 11th Marine Infantry Brigade — one of a handful of units regularly maintained at full combat readiness .
In opposition to the JNA , the ZNG 113th Infantry Brigade , commanded by Milivoj Petković , defended the city of Šibenik together with police forces , under overall control of the Šibenik crisis centre headed by Josip Juras . The 4th Battalion of the 113th Infantry Brigade , commanded by Josip Jukica , as well as the 4th Battalion of the 4th Guards Brigade , commanded by Ivan Zelić , defended the Drniš area , 25 kilometres ( 16 miles ) northeast of Šibenik , supported by a company of police . The 600 @-@ strong 4th Battalion of the 4th Guards Brigade represented the strongest ZNG unit in the area , while the JNA is estimated by Croatian sources to have deployed approximately 1 @,@ 500 troops against Drniš . On 20 September , all Croatian combat troops in Drniš area were subordinated to Luka Vujić . The western bank of the Krka River and approaches to Vodice were controlled by the 3rd Battalion of the 113th Infantry Brigade . While small arms were sufficient to arm a part of the battalion at a time , the battalion did not have any heavy weapons .
= = Timeline = =
The offensive commenced at 16 : 00 on 16 September . On the left flank , the JNA advanced towards Drniš , capturing the villages of Maljkovo and Kričke , and interdicting the Drniš – Split , east of the Krka River . On the opposite river bank , the JNA advanced towards Vodice and Šibenik , threatening the city from the west , reaching the western side of the 390 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 280 ft ) Šibenik Bridge on the Adriatic Highway . The advance was so rapid it cut off the 1st Company of the 3rd Battalion of the ZNG 113th Infantry Brigade from the rest of the ZNG force . That day , the ZNG captured a 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) coastal artillery battery near village of Zečevo . By 17 September , the commanding officer of the JNA 9th ( Knin ) Corps , Major General Vladimir Vuković , modified the initial deployment plan , because of strong resistance offered by the ZNG and the Croatian police , relying on populated areas and terrain features to hold back the JNA forces north of Vodice . The changes involved diverting a part of the force to attack Drniš and Sinj directly , while the remainder of the attacking force rested . The Yugoslav Navy started a blockade of Šibenik and the entire Croatian Adriatic coast .
On the night of 17 / 18 September , the JNA was ordered to trap and destroy the ZNG force in Drniš and the Miljevci Plateau area , while holding positions achieved elsewhere . In the morning , the JNA resumed its offensive towards Vodice , on the right flank of the attack , while the ZNG abandoned Drniš and pulled back to village of Unešić . On 19 September , the ZNG captured a 88 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) JNA coastal artillery battery on the Smokvica Island and the " Krušćica " barracks near Rogoznica . Weapons retrieved from the captured barracks , a shipment received from Gospić following capture of JNA facilities in the town , as well as use of the captured artillery pieces , significantly improved ZNG 's capabilities . The JNA advance south from Drniš was effectively halted that day , following three successful ambush attacks by the ZNG in Unešić , Pakovo Selo and south of Žitnić .
The JNA orders were changed again on 20 September , when the JNA 9th ( Knin ) Corps orders were supplanted by the Military @-@ Maritime District order , issued by Vice Admiral Mile Kandić , for the corps to reorient the JNA force north of Vodice towards Šibenik and Split . This required crossing the Šibenik Bridge spanning the Krka River ria . The eastward advance — with close air support from the Yugoslav Air Force — failed , and cost the air force four aircraft shot down by the ZNG . On 22 September , a Croatian counter @-@ attack , supported by recently acquired artillery , pushed back the JNA from the bridge by 10 : 00 , extending the ZNG @-@ controlled bridgehead to the area of Gaćelezi , 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 miles ) to the northwest . Four guns of the Žirje battery were used as anti @-@ tank guns in support of the counter @-@ attack .
On 22 September , the Croatian forces captured the JNA " Kuline " barracks in Šibenik itself along with the 15 Yugoslav Navy vessels based there . In addition , 19 vessels undergoing various stages of overhaul were captured in the " Velimir Škorpik " shipyard . The ships , comprising approximately a quarter of the Yugoslav Naval assets , included : Vlado Ćetković ( RTOP @-@ 402 ) Končar @-@ class fast attack craft ( renamed Šibenik ( RTOP @-@ 21 ) later on ) , Velimir Škorpik ( RČ @-@ 310 ) Osa @-@ class missile boat , Partizan II ( TČ @-@ 222 ) Shershen @-@ class torpedo boat and Biokovo ( PČ @-@ 171 ) , Cer ( PČ @-@ 180 ) and Durmitor ( PČ @-@ 181 ) Mirna @-@ class patrol boats .
On 23 September , the JNA fully secured Drniš and its surroundings . At the same time , it shifted its focus to the Battle of Zadar , away from Šibenik . The Yugoslav naval blockade was lifted unilaterally the same day . Even though a number of JNA facilities in the city were captured by the ZNG , several major JNA posts remained in Šibenik . Those included " Rade Končar " barracks housing the 11th Marine Infantry Brigade , " Ante Jonić " barracks , " Minerska " depot where naval mines were stored , " Jamnjak " depot and the " Ražine " artillery battery containing confiscated Croatian Territorial Defence weapons and " Duboka " fuel storage . The " Duboka " depot consisted of three 1 @,@ 410 @,@ 000 @-@ litre ( 310 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 370 @,@ 000 US gal ) storage tanks .
= = Aftermath = =
The JNA was defeated in the battle , subsequently nicknamed the " September War " ( Rujanski rat ) . Its total losses in the battle were not reported . The ZNG and the Croatian police sustained losses of three killed and 49 wounded troops in the battle . At the same time seven civilians were killed and 64 wounded . JNA artillery continued intermittent bombardment of Šibenik over the following 100 days resulting in further casualties and damage . The damaged structures included the Cathedral of St. James , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . An editorial in The New York Times labeled bombardment of the cathedral as a part of the " calculated assaults " on treasures of Croatia . During the fighting , electrical substations in Bilice and Konjsko were destroyed , disrupting electric power distribution in Dalmatia .
Evacuation of the JNA facilities and surrender of the confiscated Territorial Defence weapons stored in the Šibenik – Split area was agreed on 21 November . Throughout the process , tensions remained high , and the JNA made contingency plans to break through from Knin to Šibenik and Split to relieve the siege of its forces there — codenamed Operation Coast @-@ 91 ( Operacija Obala @-@ 91 ) and Operation Hurricane @-@ 91 ( Operacija Orkan @-@ 91 ) respectively . All of the JNA facilities in Šibenik , along with the confiscated Territorial Defence weapons , were handed over to the Croatian authorities by 10 December .
News coverage of the battle produced television footage of ZNG air defence artillery at Zečevo firing at a Yugoslav Air Force Soko J @-@ 21 Jastreb and scoring a hit on another J @-@ 21 using a guided missile . The footage , ending in shouts claiming that both of the planes were downed , became one of the most significant pieces of material in terms of propaganda and morale in Croatia . Nonetheless , the footage proved controversial , since the first plane is not shown falling to the ground or into the sea , but diving towards the horizon after giving away a puff of smoke — variously interpreted as smoke caused by the plane 's cannon fire or anti @-@ aircraft fire damage . While the first J @-@ 21 downing remains unconfirmed , the second J @-@ 21 , piloted by Croat Valter Juršić of the 240th Fighter @-@ Bomber Aviation Squadron , was shot down by Neven Livajić using a 9K38 Igla and wreckage of the plane was retrieved .
Another controversy which arose in the aftermath of the battle pertains to the Žirje Island coastal artillery battery . Extent of the role played by the battery was disputed between Brigadier General Rahim Ademi , who claimed the bridge was beyond range of the guns , and thirteen ZNG and police officers , who held various posts in Šibenik at the time , who claimed Ademi was wrong in his assessment . After the war , the guns were removed from Žirje . As of 2010 two were refurbished in preparation for return to Žirje , as museum exhibits .
The battle is commemorated annually in Šibenik each September . There are two documentary films covering Šibenik and its surroundings during the battle : My city will be happy too ( I moj će grad biti sretan ) by Matea Šarić and September War 1991 , Šibenik – Vodice ( Rujanski rat 1991 . Šibenik – Vodice ) by Šime Strikoman .
= Italian Heavy Draft =
The Italian Heavy Draft , or Rapid Heavy Draft , is a breed of draft horse from Italy . The full Italian name of the breed is Cavallo Agricolo Italiano da Tiro Pesante Rapido , " Italian Rapid Heavy Draft Farm Horse " , and the abbreviation TPR ( Italian pronunciation : [ tipiˈerre ] ) ) is often used .
Generally chestnut in color , the breed is known for its combination of strength and speed . Its development traces to 1860 and continued through the late 19th and early 20th centuries as breeders utilized a mix of foundation bloodstock that included native Italian stock and imported horses , all mainly of draft type . Its versatility has led to its use in both agricultural and military capacities , as well as for the production of mules . In 1926 , a stud book was formed , and population numbers continued to rise until the beginning of World War II . Breeding programs suffered during the war , and despite care afterward , population numbers continued to dwindle as increasing mechanization decreased the need for draft horses . In the 1970s , selective breeding goals were changed to produce a horse suitable for meat production , which today remains the primary use of the Italian Heavy Draft .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The Italian Heavy Draft generally stands between 14 @.@ 2 and 15 @.@ 3 hands ( 58 and 63 inches , 147 and 160 cm ) high , and weighs between 1 @,@ 320 and 1 @,@ 540 pounds ( 600 and 700 kg ) . They are generally chestnut ( usually with flaxen mane and tail ) , although they may be red roan , or bay . The head is light for a draft breed , with a straight or slightly convex profile , and it is set on a short , broad and muscular neck . The withers are fairly pronounced and muscular , the chest broad and deep , and the shoulders sloping . The back is straight and short , the flanks short and rounded , with a sloping croup . The legs are short , with broad joints and smallish , though well @-@ formed , hooves . It closely resembles the Breton breed , which was used heavily in the creation of the Italian Heavy Draft . Although larger , it also bears a resemblance to the Haflinger , also developed in northern Italy . Horses that meet the breed conformation standards set by the breed registry are branded with a design of a ladder with five pegs enclosed by a shield . Foals are examined twice , at between two and seven months and again two and a half years . Horses passing the first evaluation are branded on the left hindquarter ; those that pass the second are marked again on the left side of the neck .
= = History = =
Selection for what eventually became the Italian Heavy Draft was begun in 1860 at the Deposito Cavalli Stalloni ( military stud ) of Ferrara , Italy . The breed was originally developed by crossing native stock with large Brabant horses . While the resulting horses were strong , they were not light or fast enough for the farm work required of them by the Italians . To make the breed lighter and faster , Percheron and Boulonnais blood were added . However , the resulting horse was still not exactly what its creators were looking for , and in the 19th century they added more Breton blood to the mix , bringing the breed to its current conformation and gaits . In 1926 , a stud book was begun , and selection processes were developed to select horses for use in draft capacities . The breeding programs suffered during World War II , but a careful crossbreeding program with Ardennes , Percheron and Breton horses after the war brought the Italian Heavy Draft to its current state .
Despite the Italian Heavy Draft 's early popularity as a strong but fast draft horse , increasing mechanization in the farming and military sectors reduced the need for all draft horses , and population numbers declined . In the 1970s , selection processes were changed to focus on the production of animals for horse meat , and that has continued to be the primary focus through the present time . In 1976 , a breed association was formed in Italy to preserve and promote the Italian Heavy Draft . The association is charged with maintaining the stud book , evaluating breeding stock , granting equine passports , maintaining genetic databases , and exhibiting the breed . The main breeding areas for the Italian Heavy Draft are in the plains and hills around Verona , Padova , Vicenza , Venice , Treviso and Udine . In 2005 , it was estimated that there were just under 6 @,@ 500 Italian Heavy Drafts , about half of which were mares . The registered population at the end of 2010 was 6304 , with the largest numbers in Lazio and Umbria ; the number of unregistered Heavy Drafts is not reported .
No modern trace remains of the slower Italian Slow Heavy Draft Horse , the Cavallo Italiano da Tiro Pesante Lento , subject of a biometric and morphological study in 1939 .
= = Uses = =
The Italian Heavy Draft was originally bred to be a versatile horse used in agriculture , urban settings , and military capacities , as well as for the production of large mules for the military . The breed 's docility , size , strength , and speed made it extremely useful for Italian farmers before the introduction of mechanization . It is still used for farming in a few areas where mechanization is impractical . The mares are also still used for the production of mules , although most horses today are bred for meat . Italy is one of the top global consumers of horse meat ; consumption jumped by 31 percent between 2001 and 2006 . Eleven- to eighteen @-@ month @-@ old foals are preferred for slaughter .
= Matthew Charlton =
Matthew Charlton ( 15 March 1866 – 8 December 1948 ) was an Australian Labor Party politician .
Charlton was born at Linton in rural Victoria but moved to Lambton , New South Wales at the age of five . He worked as a coal miner after only a primary education and then married Martha Rollings in 1889 . Charlton had an interest in politics from his early middle age , and joined union strikes against wage reductions in 1896 .
After a two @-@ year stint in Kalgoorlie , Western Australia , Charlton returned to Lambton and rejoined the local colliery workers ' union , becoming its treasurer in 1901 . He won a by @-@ election for the NSW seat of Waratah in 1903 and transferred to Northumberland in 1904 .
In 1910 Charlton won the seat of Hunter and rose through the ranks of Andrew Fisher 's government , then staying with the Australian Labor Party during its period in opposition . Charlton rose through the ranks to become party leader in 1922 . He lost his first election campaign , partly because he was hospitalised with illness during its course . In 1924 Charlton was invited to a meeting of the League of Nations ( now United Nations ) but was unsuccessful in getting Australia to adopt the Geneva Protocol , established during the meeting .
Due to union strikes in 1925 , Charlton and his party lost the election held that year and he resigned in 1928 . He died on 8 December 1948 .
= = Early life = =
Little is recorded about Charlton 's early life , as he grew up in a relatively unknown mining district . It is known , however , that Charlton was born on 15 March 1866 in Linton , Victoria , a small town near Ballarat that today has less than 500 residents . He was born to Matthew Charlton , an English miner from Durham , and Mabel ( née Foard ) . In 1871 , the five @-@ year @-@ old Charlton 's father moved with his family to Lambton , a suburb of Newcastle , New South Wales . After primary education at Lambton Public School , Charlton began work at Lambton Colliery as a coal trapper ; a children 's @-@ only job opening trapdoors for coal carts . When too old for the job , Charlton was given a job at the coal @-@ face . At 23 he married Martha Rollings at nearby New Lambton .
= = Emerging interest in politics = =
In 1896 plans to reduce coal workers ' wages led to strike action . Charlton supported the struggle against wage reductions , but the effort failed and , along with many other miners , he moved to the goldfields near Kalgoorlie , Western Australia . After two years there , Charlton returned to Lambton and became an official in the Colliery Employees ' Federation , becoming treasurer in 1901 . While occupying that position , Charlton also prepared arbitration cases . Battling for an improvement in mine workers ' conditions , he attended a trade union congress in November 1902 , at which he moved for nationalisation of the coal mining industry , believing it would " eliminate cut @-@ throat competition between owners that depressed miners ' wages and conditions " . That idea was opposed as being too radical but a compromise was drawn up urging state governments to open and run their own coal mines , while affirming the ultimate desirability of full nationalisation .
= = State political career = =
Colleagues urged Charlton to stand for the state electoral district of Waratah , and on 5 December 1903 Charlton became the second member for the district in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly . His representation of that district was short @-@ lived , as the next year he transferred to Northumberland , replacing John Norton . Charlton became the unofficial spokesperson for the miners , speaking principally about mining matters in parliament . In 1909 a coal miners ' strike struck New South Wales and Charlton was called upon by the Colliery Employees ' Federation to represent it in front of a wage board . Charlton was unsuccessful in gaining better conditions for the miners but he did settle the dispute , talking to miners around the state and convincing them to return to work . He resigned from state politics and in 1910 Charlton wrested the federal Division of Hunter from the sitting Frank Liddell.Hunter has remained a safe Labor seat ever since .
= = Early federal career = =
Charlton was an immediate success with Andrew Fisher and was promoted to the temporary chairmanship of committees in the House in 1913 , however Charlton threatened to resign in 1915 over a dispute in government delays in granting the committee increased powers . Fisher mollified him and in 1916 Charlton proved his loyalty to the new Labor leader Billy Hughes by voting for Hughes ' conscription referendum bill , even though he was vehemently opposed to conscription and fought hard against it . However , Charlton seemed to accept the affirmative result of the referendum and again proved his loyalty to Hughes by defending him when he became the target of caucus criticism . Charlton attempted to deflect attacks made on Hughes to a party conference , but Hughes left the party before a decision could be made .
The new Labor leader Frank Tudor was a weak leader in health and political prowess . A successor @-@ designate was chosen by the caucus but it was not Charlton . T. J. Ryan was chosen over him , but he died in 1921 and Charlton filled the deputy leadership position . During election year , 1922 , Tudor died also , and Charlton became Leader of the Opposition going into the 1922 election .
= = Leader of the Opposition = =
Charlton offered alternative policies and looked to be favourite until he was hospitalised with illness halfway through the campaign . Labor still won the most seats as a single party , but Charlton was unable to defeat a strong government coalition . Labor remained in opposition .
Because of great losses during World War I , Charlton opposed military training and commitments of Australian forces . In 1924 Charlton was invited to a League of Nations ( now United Nations ) conference in Geneva , Switzerland . At the conference Charlton strongly opposed war , and the Geneva Protocol took form . Upon his return to Australia , Charlton advocated adoption of the protocol , but the government sided with the British and refused to observe it .
Charlton lost the 1925 election , largely due to his stance on industrial relations and continual militant union action which plagued his campaign . Charlton always aided in maintaining amicable relations in the party and many times lent his expertise to conflicts within the NSW branch of the Labor Party . He resigned from his positions on 29 March 1928 . His successor James Scullin went on to become the Prime Minister of Australia , something Charlton never managed to do .
= = Final years = =
Following his six years of service as Labor leader , Charlton took an interest in local government and became an alderman on the Lambton Council from 1934 to 1938 ( before its merger with the City of Newcastle ) . On 8 December 1948 Charlton died at Lambton , New South Wales , where he grew up and had lived most of his life .
The Division of Charlton in the Hunter Region was named in his honour and had been a safe Labor seat since its creation in 1984 until its abolition in 2016 .
= Italian battleship Andrea Doria =
Andrea Doria was the lead ship of her class of battleships built by the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . The class included only one sister ship , Caio Duilio . Andrea Doria was named after the 16th century Genoese admiral of the same name . Laid down in March 1912 , the battleship was launched a year later in March 1913 , and completed in March 1916 . She was armed with a main battery of thirteen 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns and had a top speed of 21 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) .
Andrea Doria saw no major action in World War I , and served extensively in Mediterranean in the 1920s and 1930s . She was involved in the suppression of rebels in Fiume and the Corfu incident in the 1920s . Starting in 1937 , Andrea Doria underwent an extensive modernization , which lasted until 1940 . She saw relatively little action during World War II ; she was tasked with escorting convoys to Libya throughout 1941 and into 1942 , during which she engaged in the inconclusive First Battle of Sirte . After the Armistice in September 1943 the ship was sailed to Malta and interned by the Allies . She remained there until 1944 , when she was permitted to return to Italian ports . Andrea Doria survived the war and soldiered on in the post @-@ war navy as a training ship until 1956 . Paid off in September , she was formally stricken from the naval register on 1 November and sold for scrapping later that year .
= = Design = =
Andrea Doria was 176 meters ( 577 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 28 m ( 92 ft ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 4 m ( 31 ft ) . At full combat load , she displaced up to 24 @,@ 729 metric tons ( 24 @,@ 338 long tons ; 27 @,@ 259 short tons ) . She had a crew of 35 officers and 1 @,@ 198 enlisted men . She was powered by four Parsons steam turbines , with steam provided by eight oil @-@ fired and twelve coal and oil @-@ burning Yarrow boilers . The boilers were trunked into two large funnels . The engines were rated at 30 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 22 @,@ 000 kW ) , which provided a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She had a cruising radius of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of thirteen 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) 46 @-@ caliber guns in three triple turrets and two twin turrets . The secondary battery comprised sixteen 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns , all mounted in casemates clustered around the forward and aft main battery turrets . Andrea Doria was also armed with thirteen 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) 50 @-@ caliber guns and six 76 @-@ mm anti @-@ aircraft guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . She was protected with Krupp cemented steel manufactured by Terni . The belt armor was 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the main deck was 98 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 280 mm ( 11 in ) worth of armor plating .
= = = Modifications = = =
Andrea Doria was heavily rebuilt in 1937 – 1940 at Trieste . Her forecastle deck was extended further aft , until it reached the mainmast . The stern and bow were rebuilt , increasing the length of the ship to 186 @.@ 9 m ( 613 ft ) , and the displacement grew to 28 @,@ 882 t ( 28 @,@ 426 long tons ; 31 @,@ 837 short tons ) . Her old machinery was replaced with more efficient equipment and her twenty boilers were replaced with eight oil @-@ fired models ; the new power plant was rated at 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) and speed increased to 26 kn ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) . The ship 's amidships turret was removed and the remaining guns were bored out to 320 mm ( 13 in ) . Her secondary battery was completely overhauled ; the 152 mm guns were replaced with twelve 135 mm ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) guns in triple turrets amidships . The anti @-@ aircraft battery was significantly improved , to include ten 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns , fifteen 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and sixteen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns . Later , during World War II , four more 37 mm guns were installed and two of the 20 mm guns were removed . After emerging from the modernization , Andrea Doria 's crew numbered 35 officers and 1 @,@ 450 enlisted men .
= = Service history = =
Andrea Doria , named for the 16th century Genoese admiral of the same name , was laid down at the La Spezia shipyard in Naples on 24 March 1912 . She was launched on 30 March 1913 and completed by 13 March 1916 . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , which had been Italy 's primary rival for decades , was the primary opponent in the conflict . The Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet lay in its harbors directly across the narrow Adriatic Sea and did not emerge for the duration of the conflict . In addition , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and minelayers could operate too effectively in the narrow waters of the Adriatic . The threat from these underwater weapons to his capital ships was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Meanwhile , Revel 's battleships would be preserved to confront the Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet in the event that it sought a decisive engagement .
Starting in November 1918 , Andrea Doria was based in Taranto . On 10 November , she was sent to Corfu , where she remained until 19 February 1919 . She then returned to Taranto , before proceeding to Constantinople in July , departing on the 4th and arriving on the 9th of the month . She joined an Allied fleet in the city and remained there until 9 November , when she returned again to Taranto . In 1920 , most of the Italian fleet was temporarily demobilized to provide crews to bring ex @-@ German warships that had been awarded to Italy under the Treaty of Versailles ; Andrea Doria was the only battleship to remain operational during the period . In November , the Treaty of Rapallo was signed with the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes . Andrea Doria was sent to remove the rebellious forces of Gabriele d 'Annunzio from Fiume that month . On 24 December , she joined the attack on Fiume , and two days later fired three salvos from her 76 mm guns at the destroyer Espero , which had rebelled and joined d 'Annunzio . Andrea Doria 's gunfire badly damaged Espero . Andrea Doria also shelled d 'Annunzio 's headquarters and wounded him ; he surrendered on 31 December .
During the 1923 Corfu incident with Greece , the Italian Navy , including Andrea Doria , was deployed to the island to secure a Greek apology following the murder of Enrico Tellini and four others . Following the peaceful resolution of the incident , Andrea Doria visited Spain . On 16 January 1925 , Andrea Doria visited Lisbon to participate in the 400th anniversary of the death of Vasco de Gama . She thereafter went to La Spezia for a refit , which began on 7 February and was completed by June . Following civil unrest in Syria , Andrea Doria steamed to the eastern Mediterranean with a squadron of destroyers in the event that Italian nationals would need to be evacuated . The ships remained docked in Leros until 12 December , by which time the disturbances in Syria had been calmed down . She spent the next six years on normal peacetime duties , until she was withdrawn from service in August 1932 . She was placed in reserve in Taranto , with a skeleton crew for maintenance . In March 1937 , she started the major reconstruction in Trieste , where she arrived on the 30th . The refit began on 8 April at the Cantieri Riuniti dell 'Adriatico shipyard .
= = = World War II = = =
Andrea Doria was still out of service in 1939 when the Second World War broke out in Europe . Work was finished by October 1940 , and on the 26th of the month , she rejoined the Italian fleet in the 5th Division in Taranto . She was undamaged by the British attack on Taranto on the night of 11 – 12 November , and was sent to Naples on the 12th . In early December , the Italian Navy reorganized the fleet ; Andrea Doria remained in the 5th Division , along with the battleship Giulio Cesare . She undertook her first operation in early January with the new battleship Vittorio Veneto in response to Operation Excess , a complex series of British convoys to Malta . The Italian battleships were unable to locate any British forces , and so returned to port by 11 January . On 8 February , Andrea Doria sortied again , along with Vittorio Veneto and Giulio Cesare , in response to reports of a British fleet in the area . They were steaming off Sardinia when they received word that the British had bombarded Genoa ; they immediately turned north to intercept them , but heavy fog allowed the British to escape .
In December 1941 , Andrea Doria formed part of the escort during Operation M41 , a major convoy from Italy to Benghazi in Libya on the 13th . M42 followed on 17 – 19 December , where Andrea Doria saw action against British cruisers and destroyers in the First Battle of Sirte . Late on the 17th , the Italian fleet , commanded by Admiral Angelo Iachino , engaged the British light forces . Both sides acted hesitantly , however , and no decisive engagement resulted . Operation M43 followed on 3 January 1942 ; Andrea Doria again provided escort for the three convoys to Libya . While on the operation , Andrea Doria suffered mechanical problems and had to return to port early . She remained inactive for the remainder of the year , and indeed until the Armistice in September 1943 that removed Italy from the war , owing to severe fuel shortages in the Italian Navy . On 9 September 1943 , Andrea Doria left Italy , bound for internment in Malta , where she remained until 8 June 1944 . She was then released to return to Sicily , and eventually returned to Taranto on 14 March 1945 . After the war ended in May 1945 , Andrea Doria went to Syracuse , where she remained until 13 December 1949 . She was then made flagship of the Italian fleet , a role she performed until 9 December 1950 . She held the position again from 9 March 1951 to May 1953 , after which time she was used as a gunnery training ship . She was paid off on 16 September 1956 , after serving in the Italian Navy for over 40 years . She was formally stricken from the naval register on 1 November and subsequently broken up for scrap in La Spezia .
= Behemoth ( roller coaster ) =
Behemoth is a steel roller coaster at Canada 's Wonderland in Vaughan , Ontario , Canada . It is a Hypercoaster designed and developed by Swiss manufacturer , Bolliger & Mabillard . Behemoth was the tallest and fastest roller coaster in Canada until 2012 when Leviathan , a roller coaster also manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard , was built at the opposite side of Canada 's Wonderland , claiming these titles . Behemoth is similar to Diamondback ( Kings Island ) , Goliath ( La Ronde ) and Nitro ( Six Flags Great Adventure ) .
After a year and a half of preparation and development , Behemoth premiered in May 2008 . With its high speeds , tall heights and rapid changes in both direction and elevation , the attraction is one of the most aggressive thrill rides in the park . Behemoth also has a high hourly passenger throughput – making it one of the most efficient rides in the park .
The ride features a prototype seating arrangement to ensure an unobstructed view for every rider – a first for a roller coaster of this type . The Behemoth experience lasts for approximately three minutes and subjects the rider to a maximum speed of 124 km / h ( 77 mph ) achieved in less than 3 @.@ 9 seconds followed by five air @-@ time hills , a hammerhead turn and two helixes .
= = History = =
Behemoth was announced on 27 August 2007 . The estimated C $ 26 million ride represented the single biggest investment in the 27 @-@ year history of Canada 's Wonderland . When completed , Behemoth became the 15th roller coaster at the park .
After 17 @.@ 5 months of planning and construction , steel construction of the track and supports was completed on 22 January 2008 . The ride was officially opened on 24 April 2008 for Media Day . On Season Pass Preview Night , the ride was open to season pass holders on 25 April 2008 . Behemoth opened to the public on 4 May 2008 .
For the 2014 season , seat belts were added to the trains .
= = Characteristics = =
Behemoth is rated a five out of five ( double black diamond ) according to Wonderland 's Attraction Rating System . This rating specifies that the ride will have " high speeds and / or heights , aggressive and unexpected forces and rapid directional or elevation change . " Passengers of any age must be 137 centimetres ( 54 in ) tall to ride .
Behemoth has a high throughput and will accommodate approximately 1 @,@ 545 passengers an hour , making it one of the most efficient roller coasters in the park .
= = = Train = = =
" Behemoth 's three open @-@ air steel and fiberglass trains feature a prototype v @-@ shaped staggered seating arrangement to ensure an unobstructed view for every rider . " This prototype design is a first for Bolliger & Mabillard roller coasters which was later reproduced for Diamondback at Kings Island , Intimidator at Carowinds and Shambhala : Expedición al Himalaya at PortAventura . The trains are named Red Train , Orange Train , and Yellow Train , after their coloured fronts . Each of the trains comprise eight cars , seating four guests each for a total capacity of 32 . Each passenger is seated in a bucket seat restrained by a lapbar harness ; and a seatbelt . Some persons over a certain weight / waist size cannot be accommodated by this arrangement .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track is 1 @,@ 620 @.@ 9 metres ( 5 @,@ 318 ft ) in length and the height of the lift is approximately 70 metres ( 230 ft ) . The angle of the first descent is approximately 75 degrees . The track includes trim brakes and magnetic brakes for smoothness .
= = = Station = = =
A two @-@ story sheltered station house contains the ride loading and unloading area . The ground floor of the station contains the maintenance area for the trains , equipped with Radiant Heaters .
At the boarding area , the station features three colour @-@ coded cabinets for loose belongings – one designated for each of the three trains . The operator 's booth is also located on this platform .
= = = Gift shop = = =
Unlike most of the park 's other attractions , Behemoth has its own gift shop at the exit . The shop sells ride memorabilia and displays the photos taken during the ride .
= = Experience = =
The ride features a prototype seating arrangement to ensure an unobstructed view for every rider – a first for a roller coaster of this type . The Behemoth experience lasts for approximately three minutes and subjects the rider to a maximum speed of 124 km / h ( 77 mph ) achieved in less than 3 @.@ 9 seconds followed by five air @-@ time hills , a hammerhead turn and two helixes .
= = = First drop = = =
After departing the station , the train turns right and begins to slowly climb the lift hill through the use of a chain lift . After approximately thirty seconds , the maximum height of 70 metres ( 230 ft ) is reached . From the top , a passenger can clearly see the iconic CN Tower to the left and overlook the entire park to the right . The train drops from the peak at a 75 @-@ degree angle to reach the maximum speed of 125 km / h ( 78 mph ) in 3 @.@ 9 seconds .
= = = Air @-@ time hills = = =
At the base of the first drop , the train banks a few degrees to the right and climbs the first air @-@ time hill and descends . Following this , the train climbs up to a hairpin 180 @-@ degree hammerhead turn to the left . The train descends from the height of the turn to travel up and over three more air @-@ time hills . After the hills , the train climbs up a steep slope into the mid @-@ course brake run .
= = = Helix pair = = =
After the momentary reduction in speed , the train turns to the right and descends into a downward 540 @-@ degree helix . Immediately following the first helix , the train climbs into an upward 270 @-@ degree helix to the left . Following the climb is a small descent and a final hill . The train climbs up from the final hill into the terminal brake run .
= = = Disembarkment = = =
The train waits at the terminal brake run until it is cleared for return by the station . The train proceeds forward and turns 180 @-@ degrees to the left to return to the station .
= = Reception = =
Behemoth is one of the most popular attractions at Canada 's Wonderland and it has enjoyed a great deal of success since its establishment . The ride appeals to a wide demographic with park staff noting that both young children and senior citizens line up for the attraction .
With the addition of Behemoth , we wanted to compliment our already impressive line @-@ up of more than 200 rides , shows and attractions with a world class roller coaster that will showcase Wonderland as one of the premier amusement parks in our industry .
= = = Awards = = =
The Golden Ticket Awards is an annual set of awards given out by Amusement Today , a newspaper published for the amusement industry . The rankings are selected by an international poll conducted by the newspaper . When Behemoth debuted in 2008 , it ranked third as the Best New Ride of the year .
= Marian Breland Bailey =
Marian Breland Bailey , born Marian Ruth Kruse ( December 2 , 1920 – September 25 , 2001 ) and nicknamed " Mouse " , was an American psychologist , an applied behavior analyst who played a major role in developing empirically validated and humane animal training methods and in promoting their widespread implementation . She and her first husband , Keller Breland ( 1915 – 1965 ) , studied at the University of Minnesota under behaviorist B. F. Skinner and became " the first applied animal psychologists . "
= = Childhood and education = =
Born to Christian and Harriet ( Prime ) Kruse , Marian Ruth Kruse grew up in Minneapolis , Minnesota . German @-@ born Christian worked for an automotive supply store , and Harriet was a registered nurse . Marian 's father and then others called her " Maus " ( " mouse " ) , a common German nickname for little girls . After graduating from Washburn High School as her senior class 's valedictorian , Marian Kruse went to the University of Minnesota to major in Latin and minor in Greek . Although financial times were difficult as her family had lost everything during the banking collapse of the Great Depression , a full scholarship and a Works Progress Administration award for writers supported her undergraduate education . Before long , she also became a research assistant for B. F. ( Fred ) Skinner .
To meet a science requirement , Marian took psychology because , as she later explained , " I thought it the least painful science . " As a straight A student , she was recommended for a highly selective psychology class taught by Skinner ( the first of what Skinner later called " pro @-@ seminars " ) , under whom she studied along with George Collier , W. K. Estes , Norman Guttman , Kenneth MacCorquodale , Paul Everett Meehl , and others bound for later fame in their field . With its emphasis on Skinner 's new operant training techniques , the course inspired Marian to major in psychology with a minor in child psychology and to study operant conditioning .
Marian worked as Skinner 's teaching and laboratory assistant when he published his pivotal work The Behavior of Organisms in 1938 . She trained rats for Skinner , typed lecture notes for him , proofread his classic text The Behavior of Organisms , and even babysat his children . Skinner gave her the final galley proof of The Behavior of Organisms , which she considered a prized possession . While still an undergraduate student , Marian met her future husband Keller Breland , who came to call her " Mouse " without knowing that family called her " Maus " . Marian and others soon decided that her name was Mouse .
In 1940 , Marian joined Psi Chi , the national honor society in psychology . She graduated with her bachelor of arts degree summa cum laude in 1941 , the only member of her graduating class with an A average .
= = Work with Keller Breland = =
After Marian earned her bachelor 's degree , she married psychologist Keller Breland on August 1 , 1941 . Together , they had three children : Bradley ( 1946 ) , Frances ( 1948 ) , and Elizabeth ( 1952 ) .
Marian became the second graduate student to work under the renowned Skinner . Her husband soon came to work with Skinner as well . While graduate students , they collaborated with Skinner on military research during World War II . Their work involved training pigeons for use by the U.S. Navy , teaching the birds to guide bombs . This was never actually used . Although many sources incorrectly refer to the work as Project Pigeon or the Pigeon Project , Marian assured colleagues that its name had actually been " Pigeon in a Pelican " , with pelican referring to the missile each pigeon was to guide .
The Brelands saw the commercial possibilities of operant training . So they left the University of Minnesota without completing their doctorates , and founded Animal Behavior Enterprises ( ABE ) on a farm in Minnesota . Skinner tried to dissuade the Brelands from abandoning their graduate education for an untested commercial endeavor . Classmate Paul Meehl bet $ 10 they would fail . ( His 1961 check for $ 10 later hung framed on Marian 's office wall . )
ABE 's first project was training farm animals to appear in feed advertisements for General Mills . The Brelands went on to train " more animals and different species of animals than any other animal trainers " of their time , including animals of the land ( cats , cattle , chickens , dogs , goats , pigs , rabbits , raccoons , rats , and sheep ) , the air ( ducks , parrots , and ravens ) , and the sea ( dolphins and whales ) . At their busiest , they trained " more than 1 @,@ 000 animals at a given time " . In training animals for recreational facilities such as Marineland of Florida , Parrot Jungle , SeaWorld , and Six Flags , they created the very first dolphin and bird shows , a form of program now considered traditional entertainment fare . Most major theme parks ' animal programs can be traced back to the Brelands ' pioneering work . The Brelands also established the first coin @-@ operated animal shows . The Buck Bunny commercial featured their trained rabbits for a Coast Federal Savings television ad that ran for twenty years and which still holds the record for longest running TV commercial advertisement . They trained animals for many other venues including circuses , motion pictures , museums , stores , and zoos .
Earlier animal trainers had historically relied primarily on punishment when teaching animals . The Brelands instead followed Skinner 's emphasis on the use of positive reinforcement to train animals , using rewards for desired behavior . Although other students of Skinner 's later entered commercial animal training as well , the Brelands ' techniques dominated the field because they found ways to simplify the training of complex behaviors . The Brelands did not just train the animals . They also trained other animal trainers , establishing in 1947 " the first school and instruction manual for teaching animal trainers the applied technology of behavior analysis . " Marlin Perkins of Wild Kingdom and Walt Disney were among those who learned from them .
Marian led ABE 's government research , some of which remains classified to this day . Known projects included the development of an avian ambush detection system . In 1950 , the Brelands relocated ABE to a farm near Hot Springs , Arkansas . In 1955 , they opened the " I.Q. Zoo " in Hot Springs as both a training facility and a showcase of trained animals . " Popular acts included chickens that walked tightropes , dispensed souvenirs and fortune cards , danced to music from jukeboxes , played baseball and ran the bases ; rabbits that kissed their ( plastic ) girlfriends , rode fire trucks and sounded sirens , and rolled wheels of fortune ; ducks that played pianos and drums ; and raccoons that played basketball . "
The Brelands were also " the first to introduce the public to the applied technology of behavior analysis via numerous personal appearances at fairs , exhibitions , and theme parks across the country " . They appeared on well known television shows such as The Today Show , The Tonight Show , Wild Kingdom , and You Asked For It . Publications including Colliers , Life , Popular Mechanics , Reader 's Digest , Saturday Evening Post , Time , and even The Wall Street Journal featured them and their work . Although Keller was often the public face of ABE with some ads referring to " Keller Breland 's I.Q. Zoo , " the Brelands collaborated equally in ABE 's endeavors .
The Brelands stirred controversy among behaviorists with their 1961 article , " The misbehavior of organisms " — the title of which involved a play on words referring to Skinner 's classic 1938 work The Behavior of Organisms . Marian and Keller outlined training difficulties in which instinct or instinctive drift might occur as tendencies biologically inherent in a species intrude into the behaviors a trainer was attempting to teach an animal . The article is recognized as a milestone in the history of psychology .
In 1963 , Marian designed and implemented a program to improve techniques for working with profoundly mentally retarded individuals at a human development center in Alexandria , Louisiana . She emphasized the value of positive reinforcement , and taught ward attendants humane practices that became the standard for institutions of this kind . The 1965 training manual Teaching the Mentally Retarded , which she and others prepared , remained in use for decades .
On June 16 , 1965 , Keller died of a heart attack . In their 1966 textbook , Marian described him as the “ dreamer ” and herself as the “ engineer ” . She continued writing , researching , and training animals .
= = Work with Bob Bailey = =
In 1976 , Marian married Robert E. ( Bob ) Bailey . He had been the first Director of Training in the Navy 's Marine Mammal Program , then became ABE 's General Manager . He and Marian had founded the facility " Animal Wonderland " in 1972 . Among their many activities , the Baileys worked with the Canine Companions for Independence nonprofit organization which trained dogs to assist disabled individuals . Together , the Baileys trained animals from over 140 species .
Marian 's graduate studies had stopped when she and Keller left to found ABE . Marian now returned to grad school , and earned her Ph.D. in Psychology at the University of Arkansas in 1978 . She then served as a professor of psychology at Henderson State University from 1981 until her retirement in 1998 . During these years , the Baileys produced educational films on topics such as the history of behaviorism . Their film work included The History of Behavioral Analysis Biographies , the ABE documentary Patient Like the Chipmunks , and An Apple for the Student : How Behavioral Psychology Can Change the American Classroom .
Marian continued writing about the " misbehavior " of animals during operant conditioning for publications like American Psychologist , ' , the official journal of the American Psychological Association ( APA ) . The Baileys were chief among the behaviorists who began using the Internet for instruction , problem solving , and promotion of their science .
In 1996 , the Baileys began the Bailey & Bailey Operant Conditioning Workshops , which provided training to animal trainers , psychologists , students , and many others from throughout the world . The program of study involved four increasingly advanced levels of the " physically , mentally , and emotionally demanding " workshops . In 1998 , the University of Arkansas inducted Marian into the university 's Fulbright College Alumni Academy as one of their first Distinguished Alumni Award recipients .
On September 25 , 2001 , Marian died at St. Joseph 's Hospital in Hot Springs .
= = Remembering Mouse = =
After Marian 's death , numerous professionals in the field recognized her death with obituaries and biographies . Dr. Art Gillaspy and Dr. Elson Bihm of the University of Central Arkansas wrote an obituary for the American Psychologist . Psi Chi 's journalEye on Psi Chi honored Marian , who had been a member for over sixty years , with a biography by Dr. Todd Wiebers of Henderson State . The year after her death , the Arkansas Historical Quarterly featured a retrospective on Marian , who had been a figure in the state of Arkansas for decades . Her husband Bob provided a biographical tribute for the Division 25 Recorder , the official publication of the APA 's Division 25 for Behavior Analysis . Other obituaries and biographies have appeared online .
In her name , Henderson State University presents the Marian Breland Bailey Endowed Scholarship in Psychology to select psychology undergraduates . Memorial contributions in Marian 's memory go to this scholarship and to the Arkansas Kidney Foundation .
Marian 's husband Bob continued to teach seminars they developed and the Bailey & Bailey Operant Conditioning Workshops which they began together .
The Archives of the History of Psychology in Akron , Ohio , and the Smithsonian Math and Science Museum in Washington , D.C. , now house collections of Marian 's documents and items .
= Yemi Odubade =
Yemi Odubade ( born 4 July 1984 ) is a Nigerian footballer who plays for Eastleigh as a striker .
Odubade began his football career in England , playing in the Sussex County League for Eastbourne Town in 2002 , where he scored over 70 times in just two seasons at the East Sussex club in all competitions . This attracted the interest of Yeovil Town , and he later signed for the club in July 2004 . At Yeovil , Odubade found first @-@ team opportunities sparse , playing a total of six times during the club 's 2004 – 05 campaign , scoring once . He left the club in February 2005 and joined Eastbourne Borough shortly after . The following season , Odubade impressed Oxford United manager Brian Talbot in two FA Cup ties , and he joined the League Two side two months later for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 .
He spent three and a half years at Oxford , playing a total of 145 games for the club . Shortly after the 2008 – 09 season he was released , and joined Stevenage on a free transfer in May
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His father was the Kingdom of Hawaii 's ( secular ) minister of public instruction , whose schools practiced the " manual labor principle of education " . Engs wrote that Armstrong 's Hawaiian childhood insulated him from racist sentiment on the mainland . Armstrong attended private schools in Oahu before moving to study on the mainland . He shied away from the ministry , believing as his father , " the shorter one 's creed , the better " . Armstrong 's experience in the Civil War — including as a prisoner of war , leader of the United States Colored Troops , and General — led to his lifelong pursuit of " noble strife " in helping his " fellow man " . He joined the Freedmen 's Bureau and served as the first principal of the Hampton Institute on the Virginia Peninsula . Hampton 's task was to prepare African Americans " to teach their people the ' civilizing ' ways of white men " through " Christian teachings , a strict code of conduct , and manual labor " . Hampton was one of eight American Missionary Association teacher @-@ training schools . Armstrong left a 25 @-@ year legacy , and introduced the school 's manual and industrial teaching methods in the late 1860s despite its increased cost . Engs distinguishes this vision from the post @-@ 1900 industrial education , with Armstrong 's " industry " signifying the industriousness of " self @-@ discipline and self @-@ reliance " . The labor proceeds also supported the black students through school , though only during school months . Armstrong sought to see his " best " graduates ascend to higher education and to occupations " originally envisioned for whites " . As his " most famous student " , " virtual son " , and " spiritual heir " , Booker T. Washington opened the Tuskegee Institute in the style of Hampton . Armstrong later expanded Hampton 's scope to include Native Americans , who were kept apart from the blacks as a " school within a school " .
Engs notes that missionaries struggled to reconcile the task of assimilating discriminated peoples into a society that defined itself by that active discrimination . Engs portrays Armstrong as a natural politician , administrator , and " risk @-@ taker " who sought broad @-@ based support from opposed parties , including African Americans , the " anti @-@ Negro white South " , and white philanthropists of the North , which made Armstrong into a " master prevaricator " . As a " realist " , Armstrong adopted the subtleties of his patrons to keep Hampton open , and did not confuse " the uplift of African Americans " with " promoting their equality with whites " . Hampton 's curriculum was ultimately set by federal and donor money . In time , Armstrong 's goals for the school were derailed by increased costs and the school 's Northern industrialist backers , who made manual labor education the focus and end of the curriculum , rather than a means . Engs concludes that Armstrong 's black graduates lived in better circumstances than their peers . Many became teachers in the South and were " grateful " for their opportunities . Reversely , Hampton 's Native American graduates suffered in health at the school and had little job opportunity back out West . Engs also concluded that Armstrong 's work was limited by his reliance on the elite , emphasis on white men deciding black lives , and inability to change his philosophy when his assumptions became outdated . Still , Engs thought that Armstrong succeeded in his intent to " civilize " students at Hampton , though this mattered little , Engs wrote , when white society was unprepared to accept them " no matter how civilized they might be " .
= = Reception = =
Wilbert Ahern ( Journal of American History ) found the book 's arguments convincing and " gracefully written " , but wanted to know more about Armstrong 's background in financial administration , forming of ties with the Northern philanthropists , and successful students apart from Booker T. Washington . Jennings Wagoner ( History of Education Quarterly ) noted that Armstrong 's intentions were portrayed as comparable to the leaders of George Fredrickson 's Inner Civil War , who saw their work as an extension of that of the Founding Fathers . Wagoner wrote that Engs provided a " well @-@ grounded " biography that handles Armstrong 's " complexities and contradictions " with skillful use of the historiography and understanding of the era . Ahern emphasized the biography 's " balance " in contrast to prior partisan writing on Armstrong . He noted Donald Spivey 's Schooling for the New Slavery and Engs 's first book , the 1979 Freedmen 's First Generation , as examples of work that associates Armstrong with " stifling ... African @-@ American aspirations " . Ahern also wrote that Engs 's work affirms the then @-@ controversial claim in James McPherson 's 1975 The Abolitionist Legacy that Armstrong was " fundamentally dedicated to the advancement of opportunity for African Americans " and other races . Edna Green Medford ( The North Carolina Historical Review ) wrote that the book was particularly valuable to the historiography of industrial education .
Medford praised Engs 's contextualization of the late @-@ nineteenth century in American political , racial , and educational thought , but criticized his treatment of the relationship between the school and its community , particularly in stories of its students interacting with the community . Ahern felt that Engs missed relevant , recent literature on Armstrong 's impact on Native Americans . Harold Forsythe ( The Journal of Southern History ) described Engs 's tone as mild , but with a " continuous ... critical bite " . Forsythe also marked the book 's reliance on Armstrong 's and Hampton records and consequent distance from the larger history of Virginia .
= Planned Parenthood =
Planned Parenthood Federation of America ( PPFA ) , or Planned Parenthood , is a nonprofit organization that provides reproductive health services in the United States and around the world . A member association of the International Planned Parenthood Federation ( IPPF ) , PPFA has its roots in Brooklyn , New York , where Margaret Sanger opened the first birth control clinic in the U.S. in 1916 . In 1921 , Sanger founded the American Birth Control League , which changed its name to Planned Parenthood in 1942 . Planned Parenthood is made up of 159 medical and non @-@ medical affiliates , which operate more than 650 health clinics in the United States , and it also partners with organizations in 12 countries globally . The organization directly provides a variety of reproductive health services and sexual education , contributes to research in reproductive technology , and does advocacy work aimed at protecting and expanding reproductive rights .
PPFA is the largest single provider of reproductive health services , including abortion , in the United States . In their 2014 Annual Report , PPFA reported seeing over 2 @.@ 5 million patients in over 4 million clinical visits and performing a total of nearly 9 @.@ 5 million discrete services including 324 @,@ 000 abortions . The organization has a combined annual revenue of US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion , including roughly US $ 530 million in government funding such as Medicaid reimbursements . Throughout its history PPFA and its member clinics have variously experienced support , controversy , protests , and violent attacks .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The origins of Planned Parenthood date to October 16 , 1916 , when Margaret Sanger , her sister Ethel Byrne , and Fania Mindell opened the first birth control clinic in the U.S. in the Brownsville section of the New York borough of Brooklyn . They distributed birth control , birth control advice , and birth control information . All three women were arrested and jailed for violating provisions of the Comstock Act , accused of distributing obscene materials at the clinic . The so @-@ called Brownsville trials brought national attention and support to their cause . Sanger and her co @-@ defendants were convicted on misdemeanor charges , which they appealed through two subsequent appeals courts . While the convictions were not overturned , the judge who issued the final ruling also modified the law to permit physician @-@ prescribed birth control . The women 's campaign led to major changes in the laws governing birth control and sex education in the United States .
In 1921 the clinic was organized into the American Birth Control League , the core of the only national birth control organization in the U.S. until the 1960s . By 1941 it was operating 222 centers and had served 49 @,@ 000 clients . However , some found its title offensive and " against families " , so the League began discussions for a new name . In 1942 the League became known as the Planned Parenthood Federation of America .
Largely relying on a volunteer workforce , by 1960 the Federation had provided family planning counseling in hundreds of communities across the country . Planned Parenthood was one of the founding members of the International Planned Parenthood Federation when it was launched at a conference in Bombay ( now Mumbai ) , India , in 1952 .
= = = After Sanger = = =
Following Margaret Sanger , Alan Frank Guttmacher became president of Planned Parenthood , serving from 1962 until 1974 . During his tenure , the Food and Drug Administration approved the sale of the original birth control pill , giving rise to new attitudes towards women 's reproductive freedom . Also during his presidency , Planned Parenthood lobbied the federal government to support reproductive health , culminating with President Richard Nixon 's signing of Title X to provide governmental subsidies for low @-@ income women to access family planning services . The Center for Family Planning Program Development was also founded as a semi @-@ autonomous division during this time . The center became an independent organization and was renamed the Guttmacher Institute in 1977 .
Faye Wattleton became the first African American president of the Planned Parenthood Federation of America in 1978 . Wattleton , who was also the youngest president in Planned Parenthood 's history , served in this role until 1992 . During her term , Planned Parenthood grew to become the seventh largest charity in the country , providing services to four million clients each year through its 170 affiliates , whose activities were spread across 50 states .
From 1996 to 2006 , Planned Parenthood was led by Gloria Feldt . Feldt activated the Planned Parenthood Action Fund ( PPAF ) , the organization 's political action committee , launching what was the most far reaching electoral advocacy effort in its history . The PPAF serves as the nonpartisan political advocacy arm of PPFA . It engages in educational and electoral activity , including legislative advocacy , voter education , and grassroots organizing to promote the PPFA mission . Feldt also launched the Responsible Choices Action Agenda , a nationwide campaign to increase services to prevent unwanted pregnancies , improve quality of reproductive care , and ensure access to safe and legal abortions . Another initiative was the commencement of a " Global Partnership Program " , with the aim of building a vibrant activist constituency in support of family planning .
On February 15 , 2006 , Cecile Richards , the daughter of former Texas governor Ann Richards , and formerly the deputy chief of staff to the U.S. Rep. Nancy Pelosi ( the Democratic Leader in the United States House of Representatives ) , became president of the organization . In 2012 Richards was voted one of Time magazine 's 100 Most Influential People in the World .
= = = Margaret Sanger Awards = = =
In 1966 PPFA began awarding the Margaret Sanger Award annually to honor , in their words , " individuals of distinction in recognition of excellence and leadership in furthering reproductive health and reproductive rights " . In the first year , it was awarded to four men , Carl G. Hartman , William H. Draper , Lyndon Baines Johnson , and Martin Luther King , Jr . Later recipients have included John D. Rockefeller III , Katharine Hepburn , Jane Fonda , Hillary Clinton , and Ted Turner .
= = Services = =
The services provided by PPFA affiliates vary by location , with just over half of all Planned Parenthood affiliates in the United States performing abortions . Services provided by PPFA include birth control and long @-@ acting reversible contraception ; emergency contraception ; breast and cervical cancer screening ; pregnancy testing and pregnancy options counseling ; testing and treatment for sexually transmitted infections ; sex education ; vasectomies ; LGBT services ; and abortion .
In 2013 PPFA reported seeing 2 @.@ 7 million patients in 4 @.@ 6 million clinical visits . Roughly 16 % of its clients are teenagers . According to PPFA , in 2014 the organization provided 3 @.@ 6 million contraceptive services , 4 @.@ 5 million sexually transmitted infection services , about 1 million cancer related services , over 1 million pregnancy tests and prenatal services , over 324 @,@ 000 abortion services , and over 100 @,@ 000 other services , for a total of 9 @.@ 5 million discrete services . PPFA is well known for providing services to minorities and the poor ; according to PPFA , approximately four out of five of their clients have incomes at or below 150 percent of the federal poverty level .
Given that each patient receives about three services on average , the percent of abortions provided out of the total services provided — 3 @.@ 4 % — may not clearly represent the importance of abortion to PPFA . Each year , 12 percent of PPFA 's patients gets an abortion , which is expensive when compared with other services .
= = Facilities = =
PPFA has two national offices in the United States : one in Washington , D.C. , and one in New York . It has three international offices , including a hub office in London , England . It has 68 medical and related affiliates and 101 other affiliates including 34 political action committees . These affiliates together operate more than 700 health centers in all 50 states and the District of Columbia . PPFA owns about US $ 54 million in property , including real estate . In addition , PPFA spends a little over US $ 1 million per year for rented space . The largest facility , a US $ 26 million , 78 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 200 @-@ square @-@ metre ) structure , was completed in Houston , Texas , in May 2010 .
= = Worldwide availability = =
PPFA 's international outreach and other activities are performed by Planned Parenthood Global , a division of PPFA , and by the International Planned Parenthood Federation ( IPPF ) which now consists of more than 149 Member Associations working in more than 189 countries . The IPPF is further associated with International Planned Parenthood Federation affiliates in the Caribbean and the Americas and IPPF European Network , as well as other organizations like Family Planning Queensland , Pro Familia ( Germany ) and mouvement français pour le planning familial ( French Movement for Family Planning ) . Offices are located in New York , NY ; Washington , DC ; Miami , FL ; Guatemala City , Guatemala ; Abuja , Nigeria ; and Nairobi , Kenya . The organization 's focus countries are Guatemala , Nicaragua , Costa Rica , Ecuador , Peru , Senegal , Burkina Faso , Nigeria , Sudan , South Sudan , Uganda , Ethiopia , and Kenya . The Bloomberg Philanthropies donated US $ 50 million for Planned Parenthood Global 's reproductive health and family planning efforts in Tanzania , Nicaragua , Burkina Faso , Senegal and Uganda . Among specific countries and territories serviced by Planned Parenthood Global 's reproductive planning outreach are Brazil , Colombia , El Salvador , French Guiana , Guatemala , Haiti , Honduras , Martinique , Mexico , Panama , Paraguay , Peru , Suriname , Venezuela , Puerto Rico , U.S. Virgin Islands , Dominican Republic , Barbados , Bolivia , Ecuador , Guadeloupe , Saint Martin , Guyana , Cape Verde and Samoa .
= = Funding = =
Planned Parenthood has received federal funding since 1970 , when President Richard Nixon signed into law the Family Planning Services and Population Research Act , amending the Public Health Service Act . Title X of that law provides funding for family planning services , including contraception and family planning information . The law had support from both Republicans and Democrats . Nixon described Title X funding as based on the premise that " no American woman should be denied access to family planning assistance because of her economic condition " .
In the fiscal year ending June 30 , 2014 , total revenue was US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion : non @-@ government health services revenue was US $ 305 million , government revenue ( such as Medicaid reimbursements ) was US $ 528 million , private contributions totaled US $ 392 million , and US $ 78 million came from other operating revenue . According to Planned Parenthood , 59 % of the group 's revenue is put towards the provision of health services , while non @-@ medical services such as sex education and public policy work make up another 15 % ; management expenses , fundraising , and international family planning programs account for about 16 % , and 10 % of the revenue in 2013 – 2014 was not spent .
Planned Parenthood receives over a third of its money in government grants and contracts ( about US $ 528 million in 2014 ) . By law , federal funding cannot be allocated for abortions ( except in rare cases ) , but some opponents of abortion have argued that allocating money to Planned Parenthood for the provision of other medical services allows other funds to be re @-@ allocated for abortions .
A coalition of national and local pro @-@ life groups have lobbied federal and state governments to stop funding Planned Parenthood . As a result , federal and state legislators have proposed legislation to reduce funding levels . Eight states — Alabama , Arkansas , Indiana , Kansas , Louisiana , New Hampshire , Ohio , and Utah — have enacted such proposals . In some cases the courts have overturned such actions , citing conflict with federal or state laws ; in others the federal executive branch has provided funding in lieu of the states . In some states , Planned Parenthood was completely or partially defunded .
In August 2015 , Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal attempted to end Louisiana 's contract with Planned Parenthood to treat Medicaid patients at a time when there was an epidemic of sexually transmitted diseases in Louisiana . Planned Parenthood and three patients sued the state of Louisiana , with the United States Department of Justice siding with Planned Parenthood .
On February 2 , 2016 , the U.S. House failed to override President Obama 's veto of H.R. 3762 which would have prohibited Planned Parenthood from receiving any federal Medicaid funds for one year .
Donors to Planned Parenthood have included the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , the Buffett Foundation , the Ford Foundation , the Turner Foundation , the Cullmans , and others . The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 's contributions to the organization have been specifically marked to avoid funding abortions . Some donors , such as the Buffett Foundation , have supported reproductive health that can include abortion services . Pro @-@ life groups have advocated the boycott of donors to Planned Parenthood . Corporate donors include CREDO Mobile .
= = Political advocacy = =
Planned Parenthood is an advocate for the legal and political protection of reproductive rights . This advocacy includes helping to sponsor abortion rights and women 's rights events . The Federation opposes restrictions on women 's reproductive health services , including parental consent laws for minors . To justify this position , Planned Parenthood has cited the case of Becky Bell , who died following an illegal abortion rather than seek parental consent for a legal one . Planned Parenthood also takes the position that laws requiring parental notification before an abortion can be performed on a minor are unconstitutional on privacy grounds .
The organization opposes laws requiring ultrasounds before abortions , stating that their only purpose is to make abortions more difficult to obtain . Planned Parenthood has also opposed initiatives that require waiting periods before abortions , and bans on late @-@ term abortions including intact dilation and extraction , which has been illegal in the U.S. since 2003 . Planned Parenthood supports the wide availability of emergency contraception such as the Plan B pill . It opposes conscience clauses , which allow pharmacists to refuse to dispense drugs against their beliefs . Planned Parenthood has been critical of hospitals that do not provide access to emergency contraception for rape victims . Citing the need for medically accurate information in sex education , Planned Parenthood opposes abstinence @-@ only education in public schools . Instead , Planned Parenthood is a provider of , and endorses , comprehensive sex education , which includes discussion of both abstinence and birth control .
Planned Parenthood 's advocacy activities are executed by the Planned Parenthood Action Fund , which is registered as a 501 ( c ) ( 4 ) charity , and files financial information jointly with PPFA . The committee was founded in 1996 , by then @-@ president Gloria Feldt , for the purpose of maintaining reproductive health rights and supporting political candidates of the same mindset . In the 2012 election cycle , the committee gained prominence based on its effectiveness of spending on candidates . Although the Planned Parenthood Action Fund ( PPAF ) shares some leadership with the Planned Parenthood Federation of America , the president of PPAF , Cecile Richards , testified before Congress in September 2015 that she did not manage the organization . The Planned Parenthood Action Fund has 58 active , separately incorporated chapters in 41 states and maintains national headquarters in New York and Washington , D.C. Planned Parenthood has received grants from the Obama administration to help promote the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , or ObamaCare .
= = = Political spending = = =
Planned Parenthood spends money on politics and elections through the Planned Parenthood Action Fund ( its federal political action committee ) , through its Super PAC , and through a variety of related 501 ( c ) ( 4 ) entities . Planned Parenthood endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections . In the 2014 election cycle , Planned Parenthood spent US $ 6 @,@ 587 @,@ 100 on contributions to candidates and political parties ( overwhelmingly to Democrats ) and on independent expenditures .
= = Before the U.S. Supreme Court = =
Planned Parenthood regional chapters have been active in the American courts . A number of cases in which Planned Parenthood has been a party have reached the U.S. Supreme Court . Notable among these cases is the 1992 case Planned Parenthood v. Casey , the case that sets forth the current constitutional abortion standard . In this case , " Planned Parenthood " was the Southeast Pennsylvania Chapter , and " Casey " was Robert Casey , the governor of Pennsylvania . The ultimate ruling was split , and Roe v. Wade was narrowed but upheld in an opinion written by Sandra Day O 'Connor , Anthony Kennedy , and David Souter . Harry Blackmun and John Paul Stevens concurred with the main decision in separately written opinions . The Supreme Court struck down spousal consent requirements for married women to obtain abortions , but found no " undue burden " — an alternative to strict scrutiny , which tests the allowable limitations on rights protected under the Constitution — from the other statutory requirements . Dissenting were William Rehnquist , Antonin Scalia , Clarence Thomas , and Byron White . Blackmun , Rehnquist , and White were the only justices who voted on the original Roe v. Wade decision in 1973 who were still on the Supreme Court to rule on this case , and their votes on this case were consistent with their votes on the original decision that legalized abortion . Only Blackmun voted to maintain Roe v. Wade in its entirety .
Other related cases include :
Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth ( 1976 ) . Planned Parenthood challenged the constitutionality of a Missouri law encompassing parental consent , spousal consent , clinic bookkeeping and allowed abortion methods . Portions of the challenged law were held to be constitutional , others not .
Planned Parenthood Association of Kansas City v. Ashcroft ( 1983 ) . Planned Parenthood challenged the constitutionality of a Missouri law encompassing parental consent , clinic record keeping , and hospitalization requirements . Most of the challenged law was held to be constitutional .
Planned Parenthood v. ACLA ( 2001 ) . The American Coalition of Life Activists ( ACLA ) released a flier and " Wanted " posters with complete personal information about doctors who performed abortions . A civil jury and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals both found that the materials were indeed " true threats " and not protected speech .
Gonzales v. Planned Parenthood ( 2003 ) . Planned Parenthood sued Attorney General Gonzales for an injunction against the enforcement of the Partial @-@ Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 . Planned Parenthood argued the act was unconstitutional because it violated the Fifth Amendment , namely in that it was overly vague , violated women 's constitutional right to have access to abortion , and did not include language for exceptions for the health of the mother . Both the district court and the US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit agreed , but that decision was overturned in a 5 – 4 ruling by the Supreme Court .
Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England ( 2006 ) . Planned Parenthood et al. challenged the constitutionality of a New Hampshire parental notification law related to access to abortion . In Sandra Day O 'Connor 's final decision before retirement , the Supreme Court sent the case back to lower courts with instructions to seek a remedy short of wholesale invalidation of the statute . New Hampshire ended up repealing the statute via the legislative process .
= = Other court cases = =
Some state attorneys general have subpoenaed medical records of patients treated by Planned Parenthood . Planned Parenthood has gone to court to keep from turning over these records , citing medical privacy and concerns about the motivation for seeking the records .
In 2006 , Kansas Attorney General Phill Kline , a Republican , released some sealed patient records obtained from Planned Parenthood to the public . His actions were described as " troubling " by the state Supreme Court , but Planned Parenthood was compelled to turn over the medical records , albeit with more stringent court @-@ mandated privacy safeguards for the patients involved . In 2007 Kline 's successor , Paul J. Morrison , a Democrat , notified the clinic that no criminal charges would be filed after a three @-@ year investigation , as " an objective , unbiased and thorough examination " showed no wrongdoing . Morrison stated that he believed Kline had politicized the attorney general 's office . In 2012 a Kansas district attorney found that that the practices of the Kansas City @-@ area Planned Parenthood clinic were " within accepted practices in the medical community " and dropped all of the remaining criminal charges . In all , the Planned Parenthood clinic had faced 107 criminal charges from Kline and other Kansas prosecutors , all of which were ultimately dismissed .
In 2006 , the Indiana Court of Appeals ruled that Planned Parenthood was not required to turn over its medical records in an investigation of possible child abuse . In 2005 Planned Parenthood Minnesota / North Dakota / South Dakota was fined US $ 50 @,@ 000 for violating a Minnesota state parental consent law .
In 2012 , a Texas state court judge , Gary Harger , denied Planned Parenthood request for a temporary restraining order against the State of Texas , concluding that the State may exclude otherwise qualified doctors and clinics from receiving state funding if the doctors or clinics advocate for abortion rights .
= = Debate and opposition = =
= = = Margaret Sanger and eugenics = = =
In the 1920s , various theories of eugenics were popular among intellectuals in the United States . ( For example , 75 % of colleges offered courses on eugenics . ) In her campaign to promote birth control , Sanger teamed with eugenics organizations such as the American Eugenics Society , although she argued against many of their positions . Scholars describe Sanger as believing that birth control and sterilization should be voluntary , and not based on race . Sanger advocated for " voluntary motherhood " — the right to choose when to be pregnant — for all women , as an important element of women 's rights . As part of her efforts to promote birth control , however , Sanger found common cause with proponents of eugenics , believing that she and they both sought to " assist the race toward the elimination of the unfit " .
Critics of Planned Parenthood often refer to Sanger 's connection with supporters of eugenics to discredit the organization by associating it , and birth control , with the more negative modern view of eugenics . Planned Parenthood has responded to this effort directly in a leaflet acknowledging that Sanger agreed with some of her contemporaries who advocated the voluntary hospitalization or sterilization of people with untreatable , disabling , hereditary conditions , and limits on the immigration of the diseased . The leaflet also states that Planned Parenthood " finds these views objectionable and outmoded " but says that it was compelled to discuss the topic because " anti @-@ family planning activists continue to attack Sanger ... because she is an easier target " than Planned Parenthood .
= = = Abortion = = =
Planned Parenthood has occupied a central position in the abortion debate in the U.S. , and has been among the most prominent targets of the United States pro @-@ life movement for decades . Some members of Congress , overwhelmingly Republican , have attempted since the 1980s to end federal funding of the organization , nearly leading to a government shutdown over the issue in 2011 . Planned Parenthood has consistently maintained that federal money received by Planned Parenthood is not used to fund abortion services , but pro @-@ life activists have argued that the federal funding frees up other resources that are , in turn , used to provide abortions .
Planned Parenthood is the largest single provider of abortions in the U.S. , but pro @-@ choice advocates have argued that the organization 's family planning services reduce the need for abortions ; in the words of Megan Crepeau of the Chicago Tribune , Planned Parenthood could be " characterized as America 's largest abortion preventer " . Pro @-@ life activists dispute the evidence that greater access to contraceptives reduces abortion frequency .
= = = = Undercover videos by anti @-@ abortion activists = = = =
Periodically , pro @-@ life advocates and activists have tried to demonstrate that Planned Parenthood does not follow applicable state or federal laws . The groups called or visited Planned Parenthood health centers posing as victims of statutory rape , minors who by law need parental notification before abortion , racist donors seeking to earmark donations to reduce the African @-@ American population , or pimps seeking abortions for underage prostitutes . As a result of some of these videos , several Planned Parenthood workers have been disciplined or fired . However , a 2005 review by the Bush administration 's Department of Health and Human Services " yielded no evidence of clinics around the nation failing to comply with laws on reporting child abuse , child molestation , sexual abuse , rape or incest " .
= = = = = Live Action videos = = = = =
Beginning in 2010 , Live Action has released several series of undercover videos filmed in Planned Parenthood centers . Live Action said one series showed Planned Parenthood employees at many affiliates actively assisting or being complicit in aiding a prostitution ring , advising patients on how to procure sex @-@ selective abortions , and one who said they would immerse a child born alive after a botched abortion in a chemical solution to make it stop moving and breathing . No criminal convictions resulted , but some Planned Parenthood employees and volunteers were fired for not following procedure , and the organization committed to retraining its staff . Additionally , one center was placed on probation .
= = = = = The Center for Medical Progress videos = = = = =
In 2015 an anti @-@ abortion organization called the Center for Medical Progress ( CMP ) released several videos that had been secretly recorded . The videos showed how members of CMP posed as representatives of a biotechnology company in order to gain access to meetings with abortion providers . Members of CMP have since been indicted by a Texas grand jury on felony charges for tampering with governmental records . On July 26 , 2016 , all charges against the CMP members were thrown out by a Texas judge .
= = Violence by anti @-@ abortion activists = =
In the U.S. , abortion providers have been threatened with death , and facilities that provide abortions have been attacked or vandalized . Planned Parenthood clinics have been the target of a number of instances of violence by anti @-@ abortion activists , including bombing , arson , and attacks with chemical weaponry . In 1994 , John Salvi entered a Brookline , Massachusetts Planned Parenthood clinic and opened fire , murdering receptionist Shannon Elizabeth Lowney and wounding three others . He fled to another Planned Parenthood clinic where he murdered Leane Nichols and wounded two others . In 2012 , a Grand Chute , Wisconsin , Planned Parenthood clinic was subject to a bombing perpetrated by an unknown individual . In 2015 , a Planned Parenthood clinic in Pullman , Washington was heavily damaged by arson .
= = = 2015 shooting = = =
On November 27 , 2015 , a gunman shot and killed two civilians and a police officer during a five @-@ hour gun battle at the Colorado Springs , Colorado clinic . The 57 @-@ year @-@ old gunman surrendered to police and was taken into custody . During his arrest , he gave a " rambling " interview in which , at one point , he said " no more baby parts " , echoing language used in the news media about the clinic following the Center for Medical Progress videos .
= Zoltán of Hungary =
Zoltán ( Hungarian pronunciation : [ ˈzoltaːn ] ; c . 880 or 903 – c . 950 ) , also Zolta , is mentioned in the Gesta Hungarorum as the third Grand Prince of the Hungarians who succeeded his father Árpád around 907 . Although modern historians tend to deny this report on his reign , because other chronicles do not list him among the Hungarian rulers , there is consensus that even if Zoltán never ascended the throne , all monarchs ruling in Hungary from the House of Árpád after around 955 were descended from him .
= = Life = =
= = = Zoltán in the Gesta Hungarorum = = =
Modern historians ' main source of Zoltán 's life is the Gesta Hungarorum , a late 12th @-@ century chronicle whose writer is now known as Anonymous . According to this source , Zoltán was the only son of Árpád , Grand Prince of the Hungarians . In contrast , the nearly contemporary Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus writes that " Zaltas " was Árpád 's fourth son . Zoltán 's name seemingly derived from the Arabian sultan title with Turkic mediation , but modern scholars have not unanimously accepted this etymology .
According to Anonymous , Zoltán was born after 903 , during his father 's second campaign against Menumorut . The latter was one of the many local rulers who are solely mentioned in the Gesta Hungarorum among the opponents of the Hungarians during their conquest of the Carpathian Basin . In the Gesta Hungarorum 's narration , Menumarot was forced to surrender and to give his daughter in marriage to Zoltán in 904 or 905 . When Menumorut died , Zoltán inherited his father @-@ in @-@ law 's duchy east of the river Tisza , which Anonymous claims was inhabited by " the peoples that are called Kozár " . Anonymous also states that Zoltán , still a minor , succeeded his father who died around 907 . Zoltán , in turn , later abdicated in favour of his son Taksony and died " in the third year of his son 's reign " .
And his son Zolta succeeded [ Árpád ] , who was similar to his father in character but dissimilar in appearance . Prince Zolta was a little lisping and pale , with soft , blonde hair , of middling stature ; a warlike duke , brave in spirit , merciful to his subjects , sweet of speech , but covetous of power , whom all the leading men and warriors of Hungary loved marvelously . Some time later , when Zolta was thirteen , all the leading men of the realm by their common counsel and of their equal wish appointed rectors of the kingdom beneath the prince to mend through the guidance of customary law the conflicts and lawsuits of litigants .
= = = Modern historians ' views = = =
Nowadays historians reject most details of Zoltán 's life presented by Anonymous . For instance , the Hungarian historian Gyula Kristó says that Zoltán was born around 880 instead of around 903 . His Romanian colleague Alexandru Madgearu likewise writes that either Zoltán was born many years earlier than 903 or his marriage must have happened years after 904 .
Zoltán 's father @-@ in @-@ law 's identity is also debated . Medievalist Pál Engel says that Menumorut is one of the " imaginary figures " invented by Anonymous in order to describe the conquering Hungarians ' heroic wars against them . Historian Charles R. Bowlus writes that he was a Moravian ruler whose daughter 's marriage with Zoltán symbolized the end of " Great Moravia " . Medievalist Tudor Sălăgean also says that Menumorut was a real person , the ruler of a one @-@ time duchy inhabited by Romanians , Slavs and many other peoples at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries .
Anonymous 's statement that Zoltán succeeded his father as grand prince , or even the idea that Zoltán ever ruled the federation of the Hungarian tribes have also been challenged . For instance , historian Sándor L. Tóth writes that Zoltán , being the youngest among Árpád 's four sons , could hardly precede his elder brothers in the line of succession . Kristó also says that other Hungarian chroniclers do not make mention of Zoltán 's rule , implying that Anonymous only inserted Zoltán into the incompletely preserved list of the grand princes because he knew that all Hungarian monarchs from the House of Árpád descended from him .
= = Family = =
The following is a family tree presenting Zoltán 's closest known relatives :
* Whether Menumorut is an actual or an invented person is debated by modern scholars . * * All later grand princes and kings of Hungary descended from Taksony .
= Military career of Benedict Arnold , 1781 =
The military career of Benedict Arnold in 1781 consisted of service in the British Army . Arnold had changed sides in September 1780 , after his plot to surrender the key Continental Army outpost at West Point was exposed . After spending the rest of 1780 recruiting Loyalists for a new regiment called the American Legion , Arnold was sent with 1 @,@ 600 men in late December by General Sir Henry Clinton to Virginia , with instructions to raid Richmond and then establish a strong fortification at Portsmouth .
Landing in Virginia on January 4 , 1781 , he raided Richmond the next day . After raiding a few nearby communities , he returned to Portsmouth , where his troops established fortifications . They remained there until late March , when 2 @,@ 000 reinforcements led by General William Phillips arrived . Phillips took command of the forces , and Arnold served under him as they resumed raiding operations aimed at potentially establishing a permanent presence at Richmond . Although they fought off a spirited militia defense in the Battle of Blandford in late April , the timely arrival of Continental forces under the Marquis de Lafayette prevented the taking of Richmond . Phillips continued to raid , but was ordered to Petersburg to effect a junction with General Charles Cornwallis , who was marching up from North Carolina . Phillips died on May 13 of a fever , and Arnold was briefly in command again until Cornwallis arrived a week later . Arnold returned to New York , suffering from a recurrence of gout .
When French and American movements to encircle Cornwallis at Yorktown became apparent to General Clinton , he sent Arnold on a raiding expedition in early September to New London , Connecticut in an attempt to draw American resources away from Virginia . Arnold raided the port , but a detachment of his troops was involved in the bloody Battle of Groton Heights at a fort across the Thames River . The operation was the last command Arnold held . In December , he and General Cornwallis , who had been released on parole after his surrender at Yorktown , sailed for England .
During his command of British troops , Arnold did not command a great deal of respect from other officers . His actions in Virginia and Connecticut were criticized , and allegations that he was primarily interested in money circulated in New York . On his arrival in England he was also unable to acquire new commands either in the army or with the British East India Company . He resumed his business and trade activities , and died in London in 1801 .
= = Background = =
Benedict Arnold was born in 1741 into a well @-@ to @-@ do family in the port city of Norwich in the British colony of Connecticut . He was interested in military affairs from an early age , serving briefly ( without seeing action ) in the colonial militia during the French and Indian War in 1757 . He embarked on a career as a businessman , first opening a shop in New Haven , and then engaging in overseas trade . He owned and operated ships , sailing to the West Indies , New France and Europe . When the British Parliament began to impose taxes on its colonies , Arnold 's businesses began to be affected by them and the resulting , sometimes violent , opposition , which he eventually joined . In 1767 he married a local woman , with whom he had three children , one of whom died in infancy . She died in 1775 , and Arnold left his children under the care of his sister Hannah at his home in New Haven .
= = Continental Army service , 1775 – 1780 = =
Arnold had distinguished himself early in the war , participating in the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775 and then boldly leading a raid on Fort Saint @-@ Jean near Montreal . He then led a small army from Cambridge , Massachusetts to Quebec City on an expedition through the wilderness of present @-@ day Maine , where he was wounded in the climactic Battle of Quebec on December 31 , 1775 . After leading an ineffectual siege of Quebec until April 1776 , he took over the military command of Montreal . He directed the American retreat from there on the arrival of British reinforcements , and his forces formed the rear guard of the retreating Continental Army as it headed south toward Ticonderoga . Arnold then organized the defense of Lake Champlain , and led the Continental Navy fleet that was defeated in the October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island .
During these actions , Arnold made a number of friends and a larger number of enemies within the army power structure and in Congress . He established decent relationships with George Washington , commander of the army , as well as Philip Schuyler and Horatio Gates , both of whom had command of the army 's Northern Department at different times during 1775 and 1776 . However , an acrimonious dispute with Moses Hazen , commander of the 2nd Canadian Regiment , boiled over into a court martial of Hazen at Ticonderoga during the summer of 1776 . Only action by Gates , then his superior at Ticonderoga , prevented his own arrest on countercharges leveled by Hazen . He had also had disagreements with John Brown and James Easton , two lower @-@ level officers with political connections . His conflict with them resulted in ongoing suggestions of improprieties on his part . Brown was particularly vicious , publishing a handbill that claimed of Arnold , " Money is this man 's God , and to get enough of it he would sacrifice his country " .
In December 1776 Washington sent Arnold to coordinate the defense of Rhode Island after the British occupied Newport . Due to inadequate supplies and militia training , no offensive action was possible . In February 1777 Arnold , along with several other brigadiers , was passed over by Congress for promotion to major general . While en route to Philadelphia to discuss the matter , he stopped in New Haven to visit his family , and fought in the rearguard Battle of Ridgefield against a British raiding party in which his left leg was injured once again . In Philadelphia , Arnold threatened to resign over the issue of rank , but demurred when it was learned that Ticonderoga had fallen . Sent north to assist in the defense of the Hudson River valley , he helped lift the Siege of Fort Stanwix in August , and then played key roles in the two Battles of Saratoga in September and October . He was stripped of his command after the first battle in a dispute with General Gates , who had come to see Arnold as a competitor for rank and glory . Midway through the second battle he rode off to the battlefield anyway , and led the troops to in a spirited attack on two British redoubts , suffering serious injuries to his leg .
After Arnold had recovered from his injuries ( he walked with a cane for the rest of his life ) , Washington gave him the military command of Philadelphia after the British withdrew from the city in May 1778 . There his actions increased political opposition to him , and further inquiries were made into his affairs . He also began consorting with Loyalist sympathizers , and married Peggy Shippen , the daughter of one such man . Shortly after , he opened negotiations with General Sir Henry Clinton , mediated by Major John André , offering his services to their side . After resigning his Philadelphia command in anger after poor treatment by Congress and local opponents , he sought and acquired in July 1780 the command of West Point , the key Continental Army base on the Hudson River . Pursuant to plans to make its taking easier by the British , he systematically weakened its defenses . When the plot was exposed in September 1780 with the capture by American forces of Major André , Arnold fled to New York , and was given a commission as a brigadier general in the British Army . Major André was hanged as a spy , greatly upsetting the British .
= = British Army service = =
The British gave Arnold a brigadier general 's commission with an annual income of several hundred pounds , but only paid him £ 6 @,@ 315 plus an annual pension of £ 360 because his plot failed . He and his wife settled in New York , where the Loyalist elites at first snubbed them , but were eventually overcome by Peggy 's charm . Arnold began recruiting a new Loyalist regiment , the American Legion , enrolling his young sons in the unit ( at least on paper ) . General Clinton then assigned Arnold to lead an expedition to the Chesapeake Bay . As his force began to take shape in November and December , rumors swirled in the city that many officers were refusing to serve under him . Many of the British soldiers in New York held Arnold responsible for the death of the popular Major André .
Arnold 's preparations for the Chesapeake Bay expedition interrupted a scheme hatched by George Washington and Henry " Light Horse Harry " Lee to kidnap Arnold . Pursuant to the plan , Lee 's sergeant major , John Champe staged a " desertion " from Lee 's unit in New Jersey to British lines in New York late in October 1780 , and convinced Arnold to take him on as a senior noncommissioned officer . Champe was supposed to make contact with covert operatives working in New York , with whom he would work to kidnap Arnold . After observing Arnold 's habits , a plan was developed to be executed on the night of December 11 . Arnold ordered his troops , including Champe , to embark on transports on December 11 , and thus scuttled the attempt . ( Champe participated in the start of the expedition , and finally managed to escape several weeks later and return to Lee 's unit . Washington and Lee rewarded him richly , and convinced him to retire from military service so that he would not risk hanging for his role in the affair if he was captured . )
= = = Virginia = = =
Arnold 's force of 1 @,@ 600 troops arrived off Virginia on January 1 , 1781 . Landing his troops on January 4 , he captured Richmond by surprise and then went on a rampage through Virginia , destroying supply houses , foundries , and mills . This activity brought out Virginia 's militia , led by Colonel Sampson Mathews , initiating Arnold 's return to Portsmouth to hold the port there . The relative inactivity of holding the port led Arnold to request a change of command . When reinforcements arrived in March , they were led by William Phillips ( who had served under Burgoyne at Saratoga ) , who took over the command . However , Clinton did not issue orders recalling Arnold , so he accompanied Phillips on new raiding expeditions into the Virginia countryside . The force advanced on Petersburg , where they defeated a militia force led by Baron von Steuben at the Battle of Blandford in late April . The arrival at Richmond of the Marquis de Lafayette and 900 Continental troops , sent by General Washington to oppose Arnold , prompted Phillips to begin making his way back to Portsmouth . While en route , they were ordered by Charles Cornwallis , the commander of the British southern army , to return to Petersburg , where he would join them with his force . Phillips fell ill on the way , and died of a fever at Petersburg on May 12 . Arnold commanded the army only until May 20 , when Cornwallis arrived to take over . One colonel wrote to Clinton of Arnold , " there are many officers who must wish some other general in command " . Cornwallis disregarded advice proferred by Arnold to locate a permanent base away from the coast that might have averted his later surrender at Yorktown . Shortly after Cornwallis 's arrival , Arnold suffered a severe attack of gout , and returned to New York .
During Arnold 's time in Virginia two things happened that had a negative impact on his reputation . He wrote a letter to Lord George Germain , the British colonial secretary , criticizing Clinton 's conduct of the war . Word of this communication reached Clinton , and Arnold was met on his return to New York with a frosty reception , and assignments to perform menial administrative tasks . Arnold attempted to make amends , writing to Germain , " I find my letter has given umbrage ; I am extremely sorry for it . " The second incident was a dispute with his naval counterpart on the Chesapeake , Captain Thomas Symonds , over the distribution of prizes captured during the various expeditions . Symonds was so incensed by Arnold 's attitude that he refused to leave port to respond to reports of transports carrying Lafayette 's troops on the bay . The incident became widely known when Arnold got back to New York , prompting one officer to write , " [ Arnold ] has hurt himself by discovering too much fondness for cash ... if he is attached to the latter ... he is no acquisition for us . "
Arnold 's stint in Virginia also demonstrated that he was a target of Patriot wrath and revenge . Virginia Governor Thomas Jefferson issued a large reward for his capture , and Washington gave orders to Lafayette to summarily hang Arnold should he be captured . Lafayette had shadowed Arnold and Phillips when they went to Petersburg to join with Cornwallis . After Phillips died , Arnold tried to open communications with the marquis ; the letters were returned unopened by Lafayette . Washington approvingly wrote to Lafayette that " your conduct [ ... ] meets my approbation [ ... ] in refusing to correspond with Arnold . " In conversation with one of Lafayette 's officers sent to confer on prisoner exchanges , Arnold is said to have asked what would happen to him should he be captured . The response was , " We should cut off the leg which was wounded in the country 's service , and we should hang the rest of you . " ( The Boot Monument at the Saratoga National Historical Park , honoring his role there , includes a representation of Arnold 's left boot . )
= = = New London = = =
On his return to New York in June Arnold made a variety of proposals for continuing to attack economic or military targets ( including West Point ) in order to force the Americans to end the war . Clinton was not interested in most of Arnold 's aggressive ideas , but the arrival of 3 @,@ 000 new Hessian troops led him to relent . He authorized an expedition against the port of New London , Connecticut , near Arnold 's childhood home of Norwich . On September 4 , not long after the birth of his and Peggy 's second son , Arnold 's force of over 1 @,@ 700 men raided and burned New London and captured Fort Griswold , causing damage estimated at $ 500 @,@ 000 . British casualties were high — nearly one quarter of the force sent against Fort Griswold was killed or wounded , a rate at which Clinton claimed he could ill afford more such victories . Although Arnold only reported 44 killed and 127 wounded in his official report , there were unofficial whispers that between 400 and 500 casualties had occurred , with at least one claim that it had been like " a Bunker Hill expedition " . The capture of Fort Griswold included American allegations that the British attackers slaughtered the surviving garrison after it had surrendered ; of a garrison numbering about 150 , more than 130 were killed or seriously wounded . Although Arnold was not in a position to influence what transpired at Fort Griswold ( he remained in New London and observed the action at Fort Griswold across the river ) , he was somewhat predictably blamed by many on both sides for the affair .
= = Later years = =
Even before the surrender of Cornwallis in October , Arnold had requested permission from Clinton to go to England to give Lord Germain his thoughts on the war in person . When word of the surrender reached New York , Arnold renewed the request , which Clinton then granted . On December 8 , 1781 , Arnold and his family left New York for England . In London he aligned himself with the Tories , advising Germain and King George III to renew the fight against the Americans . In the House of Commons , Edmund Burke expressed the hope that the government would not put Arnold " at the head of a part of a British army " lest " the sentiments of true honor , which every British officer [ holds ] dearer than life , should be afflicted . " To Arnold 's detriment the anti @-@ war Whigs had gotten the upper hand in Parliament , and Germain was forced to resign , with the government of Lord North falling not long after .
Arnold then applied to accompany General Carleton , who was going to New York to replace Clinton as commander @-@ in @-@ chief ; this request went nowhere . Other attempts to gain positions within the government or the British East India Company over the next few years all failed , and he was forced to subsist on the reduced pay of non @-@ wartime service . His reputation also came under criticism in the British press , especially when compared to that of Major André , who was celebrated for his patriotism . One particularly harsh critic said that Arnold was a " mean mercenary , who , having adopted a cause for the sake of plunder , quits it when convicted of that charge . " In turning him down for an East India Company posting , George Johnstone wrote , " Although I am satisfied with the purity of your conduct , the generality do not think so . While this is the case , no power in this country could suddenly place you in the situation you aim at under the East India Company . "
Despite repeated attempts to gain command positions in the British Army or with the British East India Company , he saw no further military duty . He resumed business activities , engaging in trade while based at first in Saint John , New Brunswick and then London . He died in London in 1801 , and was buried without military honors .
= Davis v. Ayala =
Davis v. Ayala , 576 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2015 ) was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States upheld a death sentence of a Hispanic defendant despite the fact that all Blacks and Hispanics were excluded from the jury during the defendant 's trial . The case involved a habeas corpus petition submitted by Hector Ayala , who was arrested and tried in the late 1980s for the alleged murder of three individuals during an attempted robbery of an automobile body shop in San Diego , California in April 1985 . At trial , the prosecution used peremptory challenges to strike all Black and Hispanic jurors who were available for jury service . The trial court judge allowed the prosecution to explain the basis for the peremptory challenges outside the presence of Ayala 's counsel , " so as not to disclose trial strategy " . Ayala was ultimately sentenced to death , but he filed several appeals challenging the constitutionality of the trial court 's decision to exclude his
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final match of the season was a further fixture against the Australians , in which he took eight wickets in the match for the North . In all , Crossland took 112 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 10 @.@ 06 in 1882 , topping the national bowling averages . Lancashire were recognised by some publications as being champion county , or more commonly as joint champions with Nottinghamshire in 1882 , and in addition to Crossland , Lancashire 's George Nash , Dick Barlow and Alexander Watson took fifty or more wickets at an average of under thirteen . In his obituary in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , it was suggested that were it not for the accusations of throwing against Crossland , he would have been selected for the sole Test match against the touring Australians at the Oval .
= = Throwing controversies = =
An article written for The Argus , an Australian daily newspaper , by an unnamed member of the Australian side in 1882 reported that Crossland bowled ; " with a delivery so like a throw that I feel sure it would not be allowed in Australia ; but , as we all know , throwing in England is just as common as bowling – more 's the pity . " Crossland 's delivery was the cause for much discussion throughout his most successful year of 1882 , but despite a commonly held view that he threw the ball , umpires never called a no ball against him for throwing . In 1883 , Middlesex refused to arrange matches with Lancashire due to the perceived unfair bowling of Crossland and some of his teammates . He continued to bowl effectively during 1883 , and peaked towards the end of the season , claiming seven wickets in an innings against " The Rest " while playing for a combined Lancashire and Yorkshire side , another seven in an innings for Lancashire against Surrey , and the best bowling figures of his career , eight for 57 for the North against the South . During the match against Surrey , which was held at the Oval , Crossland was heckled by the crowd , with cries of " well thrown " , and " take him off " , shouted during his bowling spell . The vehemence of the protests almost drew the Lancashire captain , A. N. Hornby to refuse to complete the match . In an end of season match for Dick Barlow 's XI against Tom Emmett 's XI ; he scored his highest first @-@ class score with the bat , reaching 51 runs in the second innings . He took 72 wickets in 1883 at an average of 12 @.@ 97 , placing him third in the national bowling averages . Lancashire 's policy of recruiting professional bowlers without much regard for their qualification to play for the county caused some bad @-@ feeling with other counties , most notably Crossland 's native Nottinghamshire . The bickering between the counties escalated and in 1883 , after receiving a provocative Christmas card from Lancashire , the Nottinghamshire committee sent an aggressive response :
LANCASHIRE COUNTY CRICKET . The only rules necessary for players in the County Eleven are that they shall neither have been born in , nor reside in , Lancashire . Sutton @-@ in @-@ Ashfield men will have the preference .
At the end of the 1883 season , a meeting of the county secretaries at Lord 's was held , during which a proposal was made " that the undermentioned counties agree among themselves not to employ any bowler whose action is at all doubtful . " The proposal was essentially a gentlemen 's agreement to try and prevent unfair bowling , necessitated by the umpires ' refusal to intervene . The resolution was signed by representatives from Derbyshire , Kent , Middlesex , Nottinghamshire , Surrey and Yorkshire , but those from Gloucestershire and Sussex refused to sign it , along with the representative from Lancashire . As a result , Middlesex were joined by Nottinghamshire in boycotting Lancashire in 1884 . Crossland was strong again , and claimed ten wickets in a match on three occasions ; first against Oxford University in late May – early June . In his next match , for the North against the South , he claimed seven wickets in each innings to record match figures of 14 for 80 . The crowd at Lord 's followed the example set at the Oval in the previous year , heckling Crossland throughout the match . He collected seven wickets in an innings again , in a match not classified as first @-@ class against Leicestershire , and completed the ten @-@ wicket haul with four wickets in the second innings . He faced the touring Australians twice during June , taking two wickets for the North , before collecting eleven wickets for Liverpool and District . The report in The Argus once again vilified Crossland , writing that " owing principally to the successful throwing of Crossland " the Australian first innings closed for 140 .
Crossland was considered for selection in the first Test against Australia , which was played at Lancashire 's Old Trafford ground . An official from the home ground chose the England team for each match . Lord Harris announced that he would not participate in the Test at Old Trafford if Crossland was selected . As a result , Lord Harris was not chosen by the Lancashire official , although in the end Crossland did not play either . Lord Harris , who was both the captain of Kent and England in 1884 , led the protests against throwing . He forced the retirement of two of Kent 's bowlers , but was reasonably satisfied with Lancashire in 1884 : for their match against Kent at Old Trafford , they dropped Nash , and by the meeting of the two sides in August that year , neither Crossland nor Nash were in the side . Lord Harris had hoped that this indicated that Lancashire were making efforts to " of [ their ] own free will , and without agreement with other counties , to place [ their ] eleven in an irreproachable position . "
= = Termination of county cricket career = =
In 1885 Lancashire once again were unable to face either Middlesex or Nottinghamshire as the two sides maintained their boycott . Crossland was chosen to appear for Charles Thornton 's England XI against Cambridge University , in which he took seven wickets for 117 . In late May , he took four for 52 and three for 51 against Kent at Old Trafford . After the match , Lord Harris , unhappy with the return of Crossland and Nash to the Lancashire side , requested that the Kent committee cancel the home fixture against Lancashire . The committee agreed with his argument , and Kent became the third first @-@ class county to refuse to play against Lancashire . Crossland only played six matches for Lancashire in 1885 before the Marylebone Cricket Club ruled that he had breached his residency qualification by returning to live in Nottinghamshire during the winter period . Due to this , he was not allowed to play for Lancashire , effectively ending his first @-@ class career . Nash retired from county cricket at the end of 1885 due to criticisms about his own action , and fixtures between Lancashire and Middlesex , Nottinghamshire and Kent resumed in 1886 . He played two further first @-@ class matches , in 1886 and 1887 , both for CI Thornton 's XI against Cambridge University .
At his peak in 1882 , Crossland was considered one of the fastest bowlers in England , and his yorker were described as W. G. Grace as being " exceedingly difficult to play . " In his Wisden obituary , it was reported that " the majority of experts having no hesitation in describing him as a rank thrower . " Grace was scarcely kinder , noting that he was " inclined to think that he ought to have been no @-@ balled in every over . " Although the widespread opinion against his action , the umpires , themselves professional , were reluctant to no ball him . In all first @-@ class matches , Crossland claimed 322 wickets at an average of 10 @.@ 95 . He took ten wickets in a match on six occasions , and five wickets in an innings 25 times . He scored 1 @,@ 172 runs with a high score of 51 .
= = Later life and career = =
Crossland remained in Lancashire after his expulsion from their county side , playing for a variety of club sides ; East Lancashire from 1885 to 1889 , Church and Oswaldtwistle in 1890 and Colne in 1891 . He died on 26 September 1903 in Blackburn . His burial was paid for by Lancashire County Cricket Club . Throwing in cricket came to a head in the early part of the twentieth century when the careers of a number of professional bowlers came to a close , most notably those of Lancashire 's Arthur Mold , Somerset 's Ted Tyler and Leicestershire 's Frederic Geeson .
= M @-@ 553 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 553 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) of the US state of Michigan . It connects M @-@ 35 near Gwinn with the Marquette Bypass , an expressway carrying US Highway 41 ( US 41 ) and M @-@ 28 in Marquette . M @-@ 553 connects Marquette with Sawyer International Airport at the unincorporated community of K.I. Sawyer AFB , the former site of a US Air Force base , in the Sands Plains area of Marquette County . The intersection with CR 480 in Sands Township , known locally as the Crossroads , is the site of several businesses . North of this location , M @-@ 553 runs through some hilly terrain around a local ski hill .
The trunkline was originally County Road 553 ( CR 553 ) in Marquette County . CR 553 dates back to the 1930s , was fully paved in the 1940s , and a segment of the roadway was relocated in the 1950s . During the early 1990s , the City of Marquette extended one of their streets , McClellan Avenue , southward to connect to CR 553 . The county road was transferred from the Marquette County Road Commission ( MCRC ) to the jurisdiction of the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) on October 1 , 1998 . MDOT assigned most of the former county road the M @-@ 553 designation after the transfer was complete . One section that was less than a mile ( about 1 @.@ 4 km ) was given the M @-@ 554 designation . This related trunkline was unsigned by the state with only city street signs to indicate its existence . In 2005 , control of various roadways was exchanged between the City of Marquette and MDOT , and M @-@ 553 was extended through the city . At the same time , M @-@ 554 was turned over to the city 's jurisdiction .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 553 begins as a two @-@ lane rural highway east of Gwinn at an intersection with M @-@ 35 in the community of New Swanzy . From there it runs north through some commercial properties into the Sands Plains , a sandy area sparsely covered with Jack Pines . The highway runs through an intersection with M @-@ 94 near the west gate of the former K. I. Sawyer Air Force Base . In this area , the trunkline is parallel to a line of the Canadian National Railway which connects mines of the Marquette Iron Range to Escanaba . M @-@ 553 crosses over the rail line west of the runway at the Sawyer International Airport located at the former Air Force base . On the north side of the airport , M @-@ 553 intersects Kelly Johnson Memorial Drive , the airport access road named for Clarence " Kelly " Johnson , who was a noted aviation engineer at Lockheed who helped design the SR @-@ 71 " Blackbird " reconnaissance aircraft . The trunkline continues farther through woodlands and turns to the northwest . M @-@ 553 passes the Marquette County Fairgrounds and reaches CR 480 at the Crossroads area just north of the Sands Plains and the Blueberry Ridge ski trail ; the area around the intersection has several businesses .
North of the intersection , M @-@ 553 passes some residential subdivisions in the northern end of Sands Township . As the highway continues northward , the landscape transitions into hilly , wooded terrain . The trunkline descends through a series of curves , first to the northwest and then a steep downhill curve , known locally as Glass ' Corrner , northeasterly alongside the Marquette Mountain ski area . The highway enters the city of Marquette and runs past the front of the ski resort 's chalet before crossing the Carp River . North of the river , the roadway ascends part of the west side of Mount Mesnard before leveling off near the intersection with Division Street . Past that intersection , M @-@ 553 follows McClellan Avenue as a four @-@ lane boulevard divided by a center turn lane through a residential area on the south side of the city . The trunkline passes between the Superior Hills Elementary School to the east and the Marquette Golf and Country Club to the west . There is a pedestrian bridge over the roadway adjacent to the school , and north of the overpass the center turn lane ends . With few exceptions , the adjacent properties in this area do not have direct access to the highway . M @-@ 553 descends one last hill and terminates at a Michigan left intersection with the US 41 / M @-@ 28 expressway ; McClellan Avenue continues north of the terminus through a business district to a residential area .
Like other state trunkline highways , M @-@ 553 is maintained by MDOT . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that , on average , 3 @,@ 615 vehicles between the M @-@ 35 and M @-@ 94 junctions , and 10 @,@ 021 vehicles north of Division Street , used the highway daily . No section of M @-@ 553 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = County road era = = =
The first roadway along the route of the modern M @-@ 553 was a county road ; it was first shown on maps by 1936 . At the time , the northern half of this county road was " improved " , meaning it was gravel or stone , while the southern half was an earthen road . The southern end started in downtown Gwinn at the time . The northern half was paved during World War II ; a new road was paved immediately east of Gwinn , shifting the road out of town . The remainder of CR 553 was paved by the middle of 1946 . At the time , CR 553 ran north from New Swanzy along what is now Marshall Drive to the county airport ; the roadway continued north of the airport along the present course except through the Sands area , where it ran to the east , and ended at a terminus on the south side of Marquette at Pioneer Road and Division Street . In 1953 , the county road commission relocated CR 553 near the county airport to eliminate a rail crossing and a pair of tight turns .
The county entered into negotiations with the US Air Force to lease the county airport for use as an Air Force Base in 1954 ; a lease was signed on January 24 , 1955 , and the base was active the next year . In the mid @-@ 1960s , the rail line and roadway in the area were moved to go around a section of the runway complex 's cargo ramps ; this relocation also added a new rail line crossing to CR 553 . In 1975 , residents of a trailer park on Pioneer Road and city officials asked the county road commission to reconfigure the intersection between the county road , Division Street and Pioneer Road to reduce accidents .
In 1976 , the MCRC shifted the southern end of CR 553 westward to its current alignment from K.I. Sawyer AFB to New Swanzy so that the road crossed the railroad in a different location , using a bridge instead of the previous at @-@ grade crossing . Later in the decade , another section of the roadway was realigned through Sands Township ; this segment was moved by 1979 south of the Crossroads area . The southern end of this project was completed by 1981 , and the roadway directly angled northwesterly instead of utilizing a long sweeping curve between the road to the south and the new road to the north . Later in 1986 , the roadway carrying CR 553 over the Carp River was washed away during spring flooding ; the county had to replace the culverts that supported the road with new ones , forcing a temporary road closure . The bridge over the rail line near the Air Force Base had weakened sufficiently by December 1988 that the MCRC had to lower the truck weight limits for the structure from 77 to 33 short tons ( 70 to 30 t ) for single @-@ unit trucks and 40 or 42 short tons ( 36 or 38 t ) for double- or triple @-@ unit trucks ; repairs to the structure were planned for the following year .
The City of Marquette started planning an extension of McClellan Avenue southward to CR 553 in the 1970s . When the projects were started in the 1990s , the goal was to reroute traffic and relieve congestion in town . By April 1994 , the street had been extended south from the retail corridor along the business loop north of the Marquette Bypass to the Superior Hills Elementary School . Funding at that time was in place for the extension only as far as Pioneer Road . The last segment between Pioneer Road and CR 553 was held up over environmental clearances and funding ; there were some wetlands in the path of the proposed construction . The US Congress initially denied funding for the extension in 1993 , but they approved funding for this section of the McClellan Avenue project later in 1994 while the environmental assessments were being reviewed . In 1995 , a passing lane was approved to run uphill southbound approaching Glass ' Corner in a project funded by the federal government based on MDOT recommendations .
The city and county continued to improve CR 553 and McClellan Avenue during 1996 . The county closed the road between the Carp River and the Crossroads starting in June 1996 . During the closure , they built the previously approved 1 @.@ 6 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) passing lane for southbound traffic headed uphill near Marquette Mountain ; the project was completed on November 1 , 1996 . By the end of that month , the city had the necessary environmental approvals and cleared the land needed for the last southward extension of McClellan Avenue ; construction crews were working on blasting rock , drainage and other earthworks for the project .
Local business owners near the intersection between McClellan Avenue and the Marquette Bypass petitioned the city and MDOT in November 1996 to reconfigure the intersection , calling it " confusing " , " dangerous " and " inconvenient " . The intersection was configured as a Michigan left design when McClellan Avenue was extended southward past the expressway in 1994 . Transportation planners defended the design , saying that the intersection was actually safer than several others in the city , even if its unique status made it unfamiliar to local drivers . Michigan left intersections are common in the Lower Peninsula , but this intersection was the first in the UP built that way .
In 1993 , the federal government announced plans to close K. I. Sawyer Air Force Base in 1995 . The after effects of the base closure were the impetus for a December 1996 study by UP counties on the designation of a north – south highway corridor in the region to help fuel redevelopment at the base ; the study would help MDOT and the counties prioritize transportation funding . When the local study group completed its report in June 1997 , CR 553 was included with M @-@ 35 and US 41 as part of the primary north – south traffic corridor in the Central Upper Peninsula . The group cited the redevelopment efforts at the former air force base for the designation . The McClellan Avenue extension was finished the following September , and CR 553 was realigned to flow into the south end of McClellan . Instead of curving to the northeast in the area , the county road turned northward and a T @-@ shaped intersection was built to reconnect CR 553 with the remainder of its routing into South Marquette , requiring the county road to make a right @-@ angle turn .
= = = State trunkline period = = =
As part of Governor John Engler 's " Build Michigan II " plan in the late 1990s , about 9 @,@ 200 miles ( 14 @,@ 800 km ) of roadway were investigated as potential candidates for state maintenance as part of the Rationalization plan . Included in these queries were county roads 553 , 460 and 462 ; the latter two roadways connected east – west across the former base . Traffic to and from the base was increasing as a byproduct of economic redevelopment at K.I. Sawyer , and if the state took control of the roadways , they would be marked on the state map like other state trunklines , further benefiting redevelopment . Local officials were concerned at the time because at least one proposal included a total of 103 miles ( 166 km ) of roads , one @-@ third of the county 's primary county road network . The MCRC manager was concerned that such a transfer could impact the level of funding the commission received for the maintenance of the roads that would remain under county jurisdiction .
The three county roads were transferred to state jurisdiction on October 1 , 1998 . MDOT renumbered the two roads across K.I. Sawyer as an extension of M @-@ 94 , and designated M @-@ 553 along most of CR 553 . The latter highway designation then terminated at the southern end of McClellan Avenue in the city of Marquette ; the remainder of CR 553 to the intersection with Pioneer Road and Division Street was given the M @-@ 554 moniker by the state .
The city and local residents expressed safety issues concerning pedestrians at Marquette Mountain in 2000 , and driveways access was consolidated by MDOT in a construction project while a specific pedestrian crossing was installed by the ski hill owner . The Carp River flooded on April 16 , 2002 , washing out the roadway where M @-@ 553 crossed the river . The washout sent " tons of sediment " into the river , impacting the fish habitat before the Central Lake Superior Watershed Partnership could assist MDOT to stabilize the banks . Before the event , the highway had crossed the water body using two 8 @-@ by @-@ 12 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m × 3 @.@ 7 m ) , oval metal culverts . The flood waters overwhelmed these culverts and washed away a 64 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 20 m ) section of roadway . MDOT budgeted $ 750 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 1 million in 2015 ) that May to rebuild the river crossing using a concrete bridge instead .
In April 2005 , the City of Marquette initially agreed to exchange jurisdiction over a number of roadways with MDOT . These transfers placed former Business US 41 ( Bus . US 41 ) and M @-@ 554 under city jurisdiction ; at the same time , the state would take over a section of McClellan Avenue to extend M @-@ 553 to its current northern terminus at the Marquette Bypass . One of the city 's requests in negotiating the transfer was to have MDOT defer to city zoning ordinances along McClellan Avenue regarding driveway access and snowmobile access . The transfers were made official on October 11 , 2005 , and signage was updated on November 9 .
Because of the transfer , MDOT initiated a speed study to determine what speed limits should apply on the extension . The McClellan Avenue section of M @-@ 553 was placed under a temporary traffic control order leaving the 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) limit in place . A school zone was considered near the Superior HIlls Elementary school . In 2009 , the speed limit along McClellan Avenue was raised to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . The school zone was implemented in December 2011 , reducing the speed limit to 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) for two 40 @-@ minute periods during the morning and afternoon . The reduced speed limit is indicated by a set of flashing lights installed in December 2011 .
MDOT started construction of a new 20 @-@ space commuter parking lot at the southern terminus of M @-@ 553 at M @-@ 35 on August 11 , 2008 , as part of an effort to offer expanded ride @-@ sharing opportunities in Marquette County . Another carpool lot was added at the Crossroads when MDOT partnered with the restaurant there . The state paved the gravel parking lot , and the business allowed the installation of signs .
= = Future = =
The section of M @-@ 553 known as Glass ' Corner has come to the attention of MDOT in 2012 as one of the more dangerous stretches of highway in the state . Short sight distances combined with the end of a southbound uphill passing lane immediately before the curve have been blamed for some serious crashes . In the short term , the department is going to install additional signage in 2012 to warn motorists approaching the section of highway . An audit of the area also recommended the installation of street lighting by Sands Township . Another intermediate @-@ term proposal is to study a reduction of the speed limit from 55 to 50 mph ( 89 to 80 km / h ) , an action that would require the involvement of the Michigan State Police . MDOT is seeking funding for a project to straighten some of the curves and decrease the grade of the roadway . This long @-@ term solution is forecast to cost $ 5 million in a project to be completed in 2017 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Marquette County .
= = Related trunkline = =
M @-@ 554 was a short state trunkline highway in the city of Marquette that follows what is now a part of Division Street . The southern terminus was at the intersection with M @-@ 553 and McClellan Avenue . From there , the highway ran just under a mile ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) within Marquette in a tree @-@ lined section of the city that is relatively flat ; the roadway that carried the M @-@ 554 designation has a few gentle curves . At the intersection with Pioneer Road and Division Street , the M @-@ 554 designation ended , and the roadway continued as Division Street . The only signage present along the route to indicate the highway number was the street signs erected by the City of Marquette Department of Public Works ; MDOT never posted the standard reassurance markers along the road , leaving M @-@ 554 as an unsigned highway , although at least one map manufacturer included the highway on its maps .
When CR 553 was transferred from the county to the state on October 1 , 1998 , one segment was not included in the routing for M @-@ 553 ; that section between the McClellan Avenue and Pioneer Road intersections was numbered M @-@ 554 by MDOT . The City of Marquette approved a plan to accept jurisdiction of M @-@ 554 from MDOT in April 2005 ; the plan also affected two other roads ( Bus . US 41 and M @-@ 553 ) . On October 10 , 2005 , the city and the state exchanged jurisdiction of the three roadways in Marquette . The signage was changed on November 9 , 2005 , reflecting the changeover of M @-@ 554 and Bus . US 41 to the city 's control and McClellan Avenue to the state 's control . This change ended the existence of M @-@ 554 . Since the transfer , the former M @-@ 554 is now part of an extended Division Street .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Marquette , Marquette County .
= Sinosauropteryx =
Sinosauropteryx ( meaning " Chinese reptilian wing " , Chinese : 中华龙鸟 ; pinyin : Zhōnghuá lóng niǎo ; literally : " China dragon bird " ) is a compsognathid dinosaur . Described in 1996 , it was the first dinosaur taxon outside of Avialae ( birds and their immediate relatives ) to be found with evidence of feathers . It was covered with a coat of very simple filament @-@ like feathers . Structures that indicate colouration have also been preserved in some of its feathers , which makes Sinosauropteryx the first non @-@ avialian dinosaurs where colouration has been determined . The colouration includes a reddish and light banded tail . Some contention has arisen with an alternative interpretation of the filamentous impression as remains of collagen fibres , but this has not been widely accepted .
Sinosauropteryx was a small theropod with an unusually long tail and short arms . The longest known specimen reaches up to 1 @.@ 07 metres ( 3 @.@ 5 feet ) in length , with an estimated weight of 0 @.@ 55 kilograms ( 1 @.@ 2 pounds ) It was a close relative of the similar but older genus Compsognathus , both genera belonging to the family Compsognathidae . Only one species of Sinosauropteryx has been named : S. prima , meaning " first " in reference to its status as the first feathered non @-@ avialian dinosaur species discovered . Three specimens have been described . The third specimen previously assigned to this genus represents either a second , as @-@ yet unnamed species or a distinct , related genus .
Sinosauropteryx lived in what is now northeastern China during the early Cretaceous period . It was among the first dinosaurs discovered from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning Province , and was a member of the Jehol Biota . Well @-@ preserved fossils of this species illustrate many aspects of its biology , such as its diet and reproduction .
= = Description = =
Sinosauropteryx was a small bipedal theropod , noted for its short arms , large first finger ( thumbs ) , and long tail . The taxon includes some of the smallest known adult non @-@ avian theropod specimens , with the holotype specimen measuring only 68 cm ( 27 in ) in length , including the tail . However , this individual was relatively young . The longest known specimen reaches up to 1 @.@ 07 m ( 3 @.@ 5 ft ) in length , with an estimated weight of 0 @.@ 55 kg ( 1 @.@ 2 lb ) .
Sinosauropteryx was anatomically similar to Compsognathus , differing from its European relatives in its proportions . The skull of Sinosauropteryx was 15 % longer than its thigh bones , unlike in Compsognathus , where the skull and thigh bones are approximately equivalent in length . The arms of Sinosauropteryx ( humerus and radius ) were only 30 % the length of its legs ( thigh bone and shin ) , compared to 40 % in Compsognathus . Additionally , Sinosauropteryx had several features unique among all other theropods . It had 64 vertebrae in its tail . This high number made its tail the longest relative to body length of any theropod . Its hands were long compared to its arms , about 84 % to 91 % of the length of the rest of the arm ( humerus and radius ) , and half the length of the foot . The first and second digits were about the same length , with a large claw on the first digit . The first fingers were large , being both longer and thicker than either of the bones of the forearm . The teeth differed slightly ( they were heterodont ) based on position : those near the tips of the upper jaws ( on the premaxillae ) were slender and lacked serrations , while those behind them ( on the maxillae ) were serrated and laterally compressed . The teeth of the lower jaws were similarly differentiated .
A pigmented area in the abdomen of the holotype has been suggested as possible traces of organs , and was interpreted as the liver by John Ruben and colleagues , which they described as part of a crocodilian @-@ like " hepatic piston " respiratory system . A later study , while agreeing that the pigmented area represented something originally inside the body , found no defined structure and noted that any organs would have been distorted by the processes that flattened the skeleton into an essentially two @-@ dimensional form . Dark pigment is also present in the eye region of the holotype and another specimen .
= = = Feathers = = =
All described specimens of Sinosauropteryx preserve integumentary structures ( filaments arising from the skin ) which most palaeontologists interpret as very primitive type of feathers . These short , down @-@ like filaments are preserved along the back half of the skull , the arms , neck , back , and top and bottom of the tail . Additional patches of feathers have been identified on the sides of the body , and palaeontologists Chen , Dong and Zheng proposed that the density of the feathers on the back and the randomness of the patches elsewhere on the body indicated the animals would have been fully feathered in life , with the ventral feathers having been removed by decomposition .
The filaments are preserved with a gap between the bones , which several authors have noted corresponds closely to the expected amount of skin and muscle tissue that would have been present in life . The feathers are closest to the bone on the skull and end of the tail , where little to no muscle was present , and the gap increases over the back vertebrae , where more musculature would be expected , indicating that the filaments were external to the skin and do not correspond with subcutaneous structures .
The filaments exhibit random orientations and are often wavy , which has been interpreted as evidence that they were soft and pliable in life . Microscopic examination shows that individual filaments appear dark along the edges and light internally , suggesting that they were hollow , like modern feathers . Compared to modern mammals the filaments were quite coarse , with each individual strand much larger and thicker than the corresponding hairs of similarly sized mammals .
The length of the filaments varies across the body . On the type specimen , they are shortest just in front of the eyes , with a length of 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) . Going further along the body , the filaments rapidly increase in length until reaching lengths of 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) over the shoulder blades . The length remains uniform over the back , until beyond the hips , when the filaments lengthen again and reach their maximum length midway down the tail at 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) . The filaments on the underside of the tail are shorter overall and decrease in length more rapidly than those on the dorsal surface . By the 25th tail vertebrae , the filaments on the underside reach a length of only 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) . The longest feathers present on the forearm measured 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) .
Though the feathers are too dense to isolate a single structure for examination , several studies have suggested the presence of two distinct filament types ( thick and thin ) interspersed with each other . The thick filaments tend to appear ' stiffer ' than thin filaments , and the thin filaments tend to lie parallel to each other but at angles to nearby thick filaments . These properties suggest that the individual feathers consisted of a central quill ( rachis ) with thinner barbs branching off from it , similar to but more primitive in structure than modern bird feathers . Overall , the filaments most closely resemble the " plumules " or down @-@ like feathers of some modern birds , with a thick central quill and long , thin barbs . The same structures are seen in other fossils from the Yixian Formation , including Confuciusornis .
While Sinosauropteryx had feather @-@ like structures , it was not very closely related to the previous " first bird " Archaeopteryx . There are many dinosaur clades that were more closely related to Archaeopteryx than Sinosauropteryx was , including the deinonychosaurians , the oviraptorosaurians , and the therizinosauroids . This indicates that feathers may have been a characteristic of many theropod dinosaurs , not just the obviously bird @-@ like ones , making it possible that equally distant animals such as Compsognathus had feathers as well .
= = = = Colouration = = = =
Sinosauropteryx was the first dinosaur to have its life colouration described by scientists based on physical evidence . Some fossils of Sinosauropteryx show an alternation of lighter and darker bands preserved on the tail . Chen and colleagues initially interpreted this banding pattern as an artifact of the splitting between the main slab and counter @-@ slab in which the original specimen was preserved . However , Longrich suggested in his 2002 presentation for the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology that these specimens actually preserve remnants of the colouration pattern the animal would have exhibited in life . He argued that the dark , banded areas on the tail were too evenly spaced to have been caused by random separation of the fossil slabs , and that they represent fossilized pigments present in the feathers . Additionally , rather than an artifact of preservation or decomposition , the presence of dark feathers along only the top of the body may also reflect the colour pattern in life , indicating that Sinosauropteryx prima was countershaded with dark colouration on its back and lighter colouration on its underside , with bands or stripes on the tail for camouflage .
Longrich 's conclusions were supported in a paper first published online in the journal Nature in January 2010 . Fucheng Zhang and colleagues examined the fossilized feathers of several dinosaurs and early birds , and found evidence that they preserved melanosomes , the cells that give the feathers of modern birds their colour . Among the specimens studied was a previously undescribed specimen of Sinosauropteryx , IVPP V14202 . By examining melanosome structure and distribution , Zhang and colleagues were able to confirm the presence of light and dark bands of colour in the tail feathers of Sinosauropteryx . Furthermore , the team was able to compare melanosome types to those of modern birds to determine a general range of colour . From the presence of phaeomelanosomes , spherical melanosomes that make and store red pigment , they concluded that the darker feathers of Sinosauropteryx were chestnut or reddish brown in colour .
= = Classification = =
Despite its feathers , most palaeontologists do not consider Sinosauropteryx to be birds . Phylogenetically , the genus is only distantly related to the clade Aves , usually defined as Archaeopteryx lithographica plus modern birds . The scientists who described Sinosauropteryx , however , used a character @-@ based , or apomorphic , definition of the Class Aves , in which any animal with feathers is considered to be a bird . They argued that the filamentous plumes of Sinosauropteryx represent true feathers with a rachis and barbs , and thus that Sinosauropteryx should be considered a true bird . They classified the genus as belonging to a new biological order , Sinosauropterygiformes , family Sinosauropterygidae , within the subclass Sauriurae . These proposals have not been accepted , and Sinosauropteryx is generally classified in the family Compsognathidae , a group of small @-@ bodied long @-@ tailed coelurosaurian theropods known from the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous of Asia , Europe , and South America .
Below is a cladogram showing the placement of Sinosauropteryx within Coelurosauria by Senter et al. in 2012 .
There is only one named species of Sinosauropteryx , S. prima . A possible second species is represented by the specimen GMV 2124 ( aka NGMC 2124 ) , which was described as a third , larger specimen of S. prima by Ji and Ji in 1997 . However , in a 2002 presentation and abstract for the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology , Nick Longrich showed that this specimen differs in several anatomical aspects from the others , including its relatively large size , proportionally longer shins , and shorter tail . Longrich suggested that GMV 2124 was a compsognathid coelurosaurian , while Sinosauropteryx proper was a more primitive kind of coelurosaurian or even a basal carnosaurian . In 2007 , Gishlick and Gauthier concurred that this specimen was probably a new taxon , and tentatively re @-@ classified it as Sinosauropteryx ? sp . , though they suggested it may belong in a new genus . Also in 2007 , Ji , Ji and colleagues wrote that GMV 2124 is probably a new genus , noting the differences in tail length and hindlimb proportions .
= = = Distinguishing anatomical features = = =
Ji and Ji ( 1996 ) identified many features that set Sinosauropteryx apart from other birds and dinosaurs . They found that it was a small primitive bird with a relatively high skull , blunt rostrum and a slightly high premaxilla ; that the antorbital fenestra was elliptical but not enlarged , the dentary was robust , the surangular was narrow and elongated , and the dentition is extremely well developed and acute ; that there are over 50 extremely elongated caudals , constituting 60 % of the body length , and the forelimb is extremely short with a short and thick humerus ; the pubis was elongated and extremely inflated at its distal end and the ischium is broad ; the hind limb was long and robust , the tibia is only slightly longer than the femur , the tarsals are separated , and the metatarsals are relatively robust with unfused proximal ends ; the feathers are short , small , and uniform ; many ornament the top of the skull , cervical , and dorsal regions , in addition to the dorsal and ventral caudal region .
= = History of discovery = =
The first fossil specimen of the dinosaur later named Sinosauropteryx prima was uncovered in August 1996 by Li Yumin . Yumin was a farmer and part @-@ time fossil hunter who often prospected around Liaoning Province to acquire fossils to sell to individuals and museums . Yumin recognized the unique quality of the specimen , which was separated into two slabs , and sold the slabs to two separate museums in China : the National Geological Museum in Beijing , and the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Paleontology . The director of the Beijing museum , Ji Qiang , recognized the importance of the find , as did visiting Canadian palaeontologist Phil Currie and artist Michael Skrepnick , who became aware of the fossil by chance as they explored the Beijing museum 's collections after leading a fossil tour of the area during the first week of October , 1996 . Currie recognized the significance of the fossil immediately . As The New York Times quoted him , " When I saw this slab of silt stone mixed with volcanic ash in which the creature is embedded , I was bowled over . " When originally described , the authors named Sinosauropteryx , meaning " Chinese Reptilian Wing .
Chinese authorities initially barred photographs of the specimen from publication . However , Currie brought a photograph to the 1996 meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History in New York , causing crowds of palaeontologists to gather and discuss the new discovery . The news reportedly left palaeontologist John Ostrom , who in the 1970s had pioneered the theory that birds evolved from dinosaurs , " in a state of shock . " Ostrom later joined an international team of researchers who gathered in Beijing to examine the fossils ; other team members included feather expert Alan Brush , fossil bird expert Larry Martin , and Peter Wellnhofer , an expert on the early bird Archaeopteryx .
Three specimens have been assigned to Sinosauropteryx prima : the holotype GMV 2123 ( and its counter slab [ opposite face ] , NIGP 127586 ) , NIGP 127587 , and D 2141 . Another specimen , IVPP V14202 , was assigned to the genus but not to the only species by Zhang and colleagues . The assignment of an additional larger specimen to S. prima , GMV 2124 , was later found to be in error . All of the fossils were found in the Jianshangou or Dawangzhangzi Beds of the Yixian Formation in the Beipiao and Lingyuan regions of Liaoning , China . These fossil beds have been dated to 124 @.@ 6 – 122 million years ago , during the late Barremian to early Aptian stages of the Early Cretaceous .
= = = Identity of filaments = = =
Controversy regarding the identity of the filaments preserved in the first Sinosauropteryx specimen began almost immediately , as the team of scientists spent three days in Beijing examining the specimen under a microscope . The results of their studies ( reported during a press conference at the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences on Thursday , April 24 , 1997 ) were inconclusive ; the team agreed that the structures preserved on Sinosauropteryx were not modern feathers , but suggested further research was required to discover their exact nature . Palaeontologist Alan Feduccia , who had not yet examined the specimen , wrote in Audubon Magazine that the structures of Sinosauropteryx ( which he considered at the time to be a synonym of Compsognathus , as Compsognathus prima ) were stiffening structures from a frill running along the back , and that dinosaur palaeontologists were engaging in wishful thinking when equating the structures with feathers . Subsequent publications saw some of the team members disagreeing over the identity of the structures .
Feduccia 's frill argument was followed up in several other publications , in which researchers interpreted the filamentous impressions around Sinosauropteryx fossils as remains of collagen fibres rather than primitive feathers . Since the structures are clearly external to the body , these researchers have proposed that the fibres formed a frill on the back of the animal and underside of its tail , similar to some modern aquatic lizards . The absence of feathers would refute the proposal that Sinosauropteryx is the most basal known theropod genus with feathers , and also raise questions about the current theory of feather origins itself . It calls into question the idea that the first feathers evolved not for flight but for insulation , and that they made their first appearance in relatively basal dinosaur lineages that later evolved into modern birds .
Most researchers have disagreed with the identification of the structures as collagen or other structural fibres . Notably , the team of scientists that reported the presence of pigmentation cells in the structures argued that their presence proved the structures were feathers , not collagen , because collagen does not contain pigment . Gregory S. Paul reidentified what the collagen hypothesis 's proponents consider a body outline outside of the fibres as an artefact of preparation : breakage and brushed @-@ on sealant have been misidentified as the outline of the body .
= = Palaeobiology = =
= = = Diet = = =
The specimen NIGP 127587 was preserved with the remains of a lizard in its gut region , indicating that small , fast @-@ moving animals made up part of the diet of Sinosauropteryx prima . Numerous lizards of this type have been found in the same rocks as Sinosauropteryx , but have yet to be described .
The possible Sinosauropteryx specimen GMV 2124 ( Sinosauropteryx ? sp . ) was found with three mammal jaws in its gut region . Hurum , Luo , and Kielan @-@ Jaworowska ( 2006 ) identified two of these jaws as belonging to Zhangheotherium and the third to Sinobaatar , showing that these two mammals were part of the animal 's diet . Zhangheotherium is known to have had a spur on the ankle , like the modern platypus , which would indicate that Sinosauropteryx fed on possibly venomous mammals .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The same specimen of S. prima which had preserved a lizard in its stomach contents ( NIGP 127587 ) also had several small eggs in its abdomen . Two eggs were preserved just in front of and above the pubic boot , and several more may lie underneath them on the slab . It is unlikely that they were eaten by the animal , as they are in the wrong part of the body cavity for the egg shells to have remained intact . It is more likely that they are unlaid eggs produced by the animal itself . Each egg measured 36 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) long by 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) wide . The presence of two developed eggs suggests that Sinosauropteryx had dual oviducts and laid eggs in pairs , like other theropods .
= = Palaeoecology = =
Sinosauropteryx , as a Yixian Formation dinosaur , is a member of the Jehol Biota , the assemblage of organisms found in the Yixian Formation and overlying Jiufotang Formation . The Yixian Formation is composed largely of volcanic rocks such as andesite and basalt . Between the volcanic layers are several beds of sedimentary rocks representing deposition in a lake . The freshwater lake strata of the Yixian Formation have preserved a wide variety of plants , invertebrates , and vertebrates . Gymnosperm forests were extensive , with a few early flowering plants as well . Ostracods and insects were diverse , and bivalves and gastropods were abundant . Mammals and birds are also well @-@ known from the formation . The setting was subject to periodic mortality events including volcanic eruptions , wildfires , and noxious gases erupting from the lakes . The climate has been interpreted as temperate , with distinct wet and dry seasons . The yearly temperature during this time period averaged about 10 degrees celsius ( 50 degrees Fahrenheit ) , indicating a temperate climate with unusually cold winters for the generally warm Mesozoic era , possibly due to northern China 's high latitude during this time .
= Bjorli Station =
Bjorli Station ( Norwegian : Bjorli stasjon ) is a railway station on the Rauma Line located at Bjorli in Lesja , Norway . The station opened on 19 November 1921 and was the line 's terminus until 1923 . In addition to a station building , Bjorli had a water tower , roundhouse , turntable and a restaurant seating 700 people , the latter which was bombed to pieces in 1940 . The station is served by Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) trains four times per day per direction . In the summer , the station is the terminus of a tourist services from Åndalsnes .
= = History = =
Construction of the station started in 1918 and was finished in 1921 . The station , excluding its water tower and restaurant , cost 117 @,@ 062 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) to build and took 26 @,@ 883 man @-@ hours . The station and axillary buildings were designed by Gudmund Hoel of NSB Arkitektkontor . The station opened with the first part of the Rauma Line on 19 November 1921 . It remained the terminus until 25 November 1923 , when the next section , to Verma Station , opened .
The station is located in a wide , flat terrain , so getting sufficient pressure to supply water for the steam locomotives would be very expensive . Instead , a water tower was built at the station , with water pumped from the river Rauma . The pump is located 140 meters ( 460 ft ) from the tower , with the water intake being another 50 meters ( 160 ft ) from the pump . The water tower was built in natural stone brick and is square . After the steam locomotive services ended , was used as a storage facility . The tower cost NOK 103 @,@ 795 to build . The station also received a turntable , which cost NOK 101 @,@ 236 , which had a 20 @-@ meter ( 66 ft ) diameter . Although it was planned completed on 1 August 1921 , construction was delayed and it was taken into use one month after the station opened . Bjorli had a temporary roundhouse while the station was the terminus . Built out of wood , the building cost NOK 30 @,@ 373 .
On 1 July 1927 , a separate restaurant building with place for 700 diners opened . Open only during summer until September , it was aimed at cruise ship tourists who took the line from Åndalsnes to Bjorli . Operated by Norsk Spisevognselskap , it was highly profitable . However , during the German occupation of Norway in 1940 , the building was bombed and burnt down , and was never rebuilt .
= = Facilities = =
The station building is owned by Rom Eiendom , a subsidiary of NSB , while the tracks and infrastructure are owned and operated by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . The station building is unstaffed , but the waiting room is open from 07 : 00 to 22 : 00 . The line lacks centralized traffic control , so the station must be manned for trains to pass . The station has three tracks : two which are used for trains to pass and one which is designed for loading , and has an effective length of 75 meters ( 246 ft ) . The station has ten parking spaces but lacks ticket vending machines . The station is 575 meters ( 1 @,@ 886 ft ) above mean sea level and located 57 kilometers ( 35 mi ) from both Dombås and Åndalsnes , and 400 kilometers ( 250 mi ) from Oslo . It is located in the village of Bjorli in Lesja , that serves as an Alpine skiing center .
= = Service = =
The Norwegian State Railways operates passenger train services on the line . Using Class 93 trains , they operate four services in each direction per day . During the summer , from June through August , NSB operates the trains as tourist trains , limiting the service from Åndalsnes to Bjorli .
= Basil Hayden =
Basil Ewing Hayden ( May 19 , 1899 – January 9 , 2003 ) was an American college basketball player and coach . A Kentucky native , he began playing the sport in the sixth grade and , after a year at Transylvania University , transferred to the University of Kentucky to study chemistry and play on the school 's basketball squad . He captained the team to victory at the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association Championship and was named an All @-@ American for his efforts – the first basketball player to earn the honor at the University of Kentucky .
After graduating in 1922 Hayden took on a number of different jobs and was called to coach the University of Kentucky 's basketball team in 1926 following the departure of Ray Eklund . After a 3 – 13 record in his first year he was replaced with John Mauer and returned to his previous occupations . When he died in 2003 , at the age of 103 , he was the University of Kentucky 's oldest former athlete , and his jersey is among those
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the region or more specifically the polity that produced them . Ceramics with the snake emblem glyph found at several sites also give more evidence to identify ties or control over that site by Calakmul .
Stela 1 is associated with an altar and located by Structure 8 .
Stela 8 records the celebration of an event in AD 593 by Uneh Chan and was erected after his death .
Stela 9 is a thin slate monument dated to 662 . Its text describes the birth of king Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' and gives him his full royal title .
Stela 28 and Stela 29 were erected in 623 and are the earliest monuments to survive from Late Classic Calakmul . They depict a royal couple but the texts are too poorly preserved to reveal their names .
Stela 33 was erected by Yuknoom Che 'en II in 657 and records an event in the reign of Uneh Chan , who may have been his father . The event was celebrated in 593 .
Stela 38 stands at the base of Structure 2 .
Stela 42 is also located at the base of Structure 2 .
Stela 43 dates to AD 514 . It was set in a vaulted chamber near the base of Structure 2 . The text is damaged but carries an early spelling of the k 'uhul chatan winik non @-@ royal noble title used in Calakmul and the Mirador Basin .
Stela 50 is one of the last monuments erected during the final decline of the city . It bears a crude , clumsily executed portrait .
Stela 51 is the best preserved monument at Calakmul . It depicts Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil and dates to AD 731 .
Stela 54 dates to 731 and depicts a wife of Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil .
Stela 57 is a tall stela erected in 771 by B 'olon K 'awiil . It is paired with Stela 58 and stands to the east of Structure 13 .
Stela 58 is the second of a pair erected by B 'olon K 'awiil in 771 , the other being Stela 57 . It was erected to the east of Structure 13 .
Stela 61 is a late monument bearing the name Aj Took ' . It is a stunted stela with a badly eroded portrait and a shortened date form that is equivalent to a date either in 899 or 909 , probably the latter .
Stela 62 was unfinished . It was carved to mark the K 'atun @-@ ending ceremony of 751 and bears the damaged name of Ruler Z.
Stela 76 and Stela 78 are a pair of monuments dated to AD 633 . They are badly eroded but should date to the reign of king Yuknoom Head .
Stela 84 is one of the last monuments erected at Calakmul and bears an inscription that is an illiterate imitation of writing . It probably dates to the early 10th century AD .
Stela 88 may have been paired with Stela 62 . The monument has the image of a queen but her name is unknown . B 'olon K 'awiil also appears to be mentioned on the stela . It dates to around 751 and stands on the stairway of Structure 13 . Stela 91 is another very late monument probably dating to the early 10th century . Like Stela 84 , it bears an inscription that is a meaningless imitation of hieroglyphic writing .
Stela 114 dates to AD 435 , in the Early Classic . It was moved in antiquity to be reset into the base of Structure 2 . The stela has a long hieroglyphic text that has resisted translation but probably commemorates a royal enthronement in 411 .
Stela 115 and Stela 116 date to the reign of Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' . They were broken and buried in Structure 2 and may be associated with the royal burial in Tomb 4 .
= = = Royal burial = = =
Tomb 4 was set into the floor of Structure 2B in the 8th century AD and is the richest burial known from Calakmul . The tomb contained a male skeleton wrapped in textiles and jaguar pelts that were partially preserved with resin . The tomb contained rich offerings that included jade ear ornaments handed down from the Early Classic , a jade mosaic mask , shell and bone beads , spiny oyster shells , eccentric obsidian blades , fine ceramics and the remains of wooden objects . One of the ceramics was a plate with a hieroglyphic text that specifically named king Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' as its owner . The remains and the offering were placed in an arched wooden bier carved with elaborate decoration and hieroglyphs that was painted in a variety of colours . The bier has almost completely decayed but left an impression in the mud packed around it . Due to the plate and the possible association of Stelae 115 and 116 with the burial the tomb is believed to be that of the late 7th @-@ century king Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' .
= Mateiu Caragiale =
Mateiu Ion Caragiale ( Romanian : [ maˈtej iˈon karaˈd ͡ ʒjale ] ; also credited as Matei or Matheiu ; Mateiŭ is an antiquated version ; March 25 [ O.S. March 12 ] 1885 – January 17 , 1936 ) was a Romanian poet and prose writer , best known for his novel Craii de Curtea @-@ Veche , which portrays the milieu of boyar descendants before and after World War I. Caragiale 's style , associated with Symbolism , the Decadent movement of the fin de siècle , and early modernism , was an original element in the Romanian literature of the interwar period . In other late contributions , Caragiale pioneered detective fiction locally , but there is disagreement over whether his work in the field produced a complete narrative or just fragments . The scarcity of writings he left is contrasted by their critical acclaim and a large , mostly posthumous , following , commonly known as mateists .
Also known as an amateur heraldist and graphic artist , the young Caragiale published his works sporadically , seeking instead to impose himself in politics and pursuing a career in the civil service . He was associated with the Conservative @-@ Democratic Party , and then the People 's League , and ultimately raised controversy by supporting the Central Powers during their occupation of Romania . He afterwards focused on literature , and , during the late 1920s and early 1930s , published most of his prose texts in the magazine Gândirea .
The illegitimate and rebellious child of influential playwright Ion Luca Caragiale , he was the half @-@ brother of Luca Caragiale , an avant @-@ garde poet who died in 1921 , and the posthumous son @-@ in @-@ law of author Gheorghe Sion . Mateiu Caragiale was loosely affiliated with Romanian Symbolism , a figure noted for his dandyism , eccentricity and Bohemianism , and , for much of his life , a regular presence in the intellectual circle formed around Casa Capșa restaurant . His associates included the controversial political figure Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești , cultural animator Mărgărita Miller Verghy , and poet Ion Barbu , who was also one of his most dedicated promoters .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
A native of Bucharest , he was born out of wedlock to Ion Luca Caragiale and Maria Constantinescu , an unmarried former Town Hall employee who was 21 at the time . Living his first years at his mother 's house on Frumoasă Street , near Calea Victoriei ( until the building was sold ) , Mateiu had a half @-@ sister , his mother 's daughter from another extra @-@ conjugal affair . In 1889 , almost a year after separating from his concubine , his father married Alexandrina Burelly , bringing Mateiu into his new family . In following years , he was progressively estranged from his father , and , according to Ecaterina , the youngest of Ion Luca Caragiale and Burelly 's children , " Mateiu alone confronted [ his father ] and contradicted him systematically . "
The young Caragiale was sent to school at Anghel Demetriescu 's Sfântul Gheorghe College in Bucharest , where he discovered a passion for history and heraldry . At around that time , he was probably introduced to Demetriescu 's circle , which included the doctor Constantin Istrati , the writer Barbu Ștefănescu @-@ Delavrancea , the physicist Ștefan Hepites , the literary critic N. Petrașcu , and the architect Ion Mincu . During a 1901 summer trip to Sinaia , where he sojourned with the Bibescu family , Mateiu was acquainted with George Valentin and Alexandru Bibescu ( in a letter he wrote at the time , he described the latter as " only too crazy and a frantic maniac " ) . His favorite book at age 17 was L 'Arriviste , by the French novelist Félicien Champsaur , which , as he himself acknowledged , contributed to his vision of social climbing . In 1903 , with Ion Luca , Burelly and their children , he traveled through large portions of Western Europe , visiting Austria – Hungary , Switzerland , Italy and France ; during the trip , he recorded the impressions left on him by the various European art trends .
In 1904 , his father moved to Berlin , bringing Mateiu with him — in hopes that he could be persuaded to study law at the Frederick William University — , but Mateiu spent his time reading and exploring the Imperial German capital . He would later refer to this period using a French term , l 'école buissonière ( " the vagrant school " ) , and stressed that " [ it ] was of great use to me " . Ecaterina Caragiale indicated that one of her brother 's favorite pastimes was " admiring the secular trees in the Tiergarten " , and he is also known to have spent entire days at the National Gallery , especially fond of paintings by Jacob Isaakszoon van Ruisdael . Dissatisfied with Mateiu 's attitude , Ion Luca sent him back to Romania in 1905 , where he enrolled at the University of Bucharest Law School , but quit one year later . For a short while , Caragiale @-@ father even entrusted Ștefănescu @-@ Delavrancea with supervizing his estranged son .
= = = Father @-@ son conflict and literary debut = = =
The conflict with his father was to prolong itself for as long as the latter was alive . Psychiatrist and essayist Ion Vianu , who explored the relationship with the tools of psychoanalysis , describes Mateiu 's sentiment toward Ion Luca as " antipathy , bordering on hatred " , and proposes that this reflected maternal influences from the brief period when Maria Constantinescu had been left a single parent .
The situation most likely degenerated in 1904 , after the death of his aunt Lenci , when Ion Luca took over his son 's inheritance , and aggravated by his father 's decision to cease subsidizing him , which left the latter without a stable source of income . He was thus supposed to provide for his mother and sister , until Ion Luca transferred the inheritance resulting from the death of his other aunt Catinca Momuloaia , to his former lover . He also indicated that his father had made him attend the Frederick William University without advancing money for tuition . Some time after returning to Romania , he began attending the Symbolist literary circle formed around the poet and leftist political agitator Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești , who provided the young Caragiale with money and often invited him to supper .
In spring 1907 , despite the ongoing father @-@ son tensions , Mateiu , who was recovering from a severe form of measles , returned to Berlin , where Ion Luca 's family was still residing . He soon became the lover of a local woman , an affair which reportedly caused his father to declare himself scandalized . During the same year , Mateiu Caragiale was fascinated with rumors of the Romanian Peasants ' Revolt violence , recording various exaggerated news about its character and extent , and describing it as " a fine thing " . In 1909 , he was again enrolled at University , having decided to prepare for a graduation diploma , but again failed to complete his studies .
Mateiu Caragiale had his first thoughts on Craii de Curtea @-@ Veche in 1910 . Two years later , during a trip to Iași , he published his first 13 poems in the literary magazine Viața Românească , winning the praise of poet Panait Cerna and the ridicule of writer Tudor Arghezi . Literary critic Șerban Cioculescu stressed that these had been printed following his father 's interventions with the magazine 's staff , and , according to the contemporary account of Luca 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , philosopher Ionel Gherea , Ion Luca admired his son 's contributions , his criticism being minimal , constructive , and welcomed by Mateiu . This led Gherea to conclude that , copying in real life a Symbolist cliché , Caragiale @-@ son fabricated an unfair image of his father . In later years , Mateiu continued to write poetry , published by literary promoter Constantin Banu in his magazine , Flacăra .
His father died in June 1912 , which , according to Șerban Cioculescu ( who cited Mateiu 's correspondence ) , left him indifferent . By then , Caragiale @-@ son resented Ion Luca 's alleged exploitation of his popularity for material gains , and , later in the same year , commented that , " for a small fee " , Caragiale @-@ father could be persuaded to read his works at the fair in Obor . In a since @-@ lost piece of his diary that was commented upon by Cioculescu , he also claimed that binge drinking and tobacco abuse had made his father decay physically and mentally . Despite his love for Berlin , he was also dissatisfied with his father 's move to the city , and spread the rumor that , in the eyes of his family and friends , Ion Luca 's departure was interpreted as " insane " ( while alleging that Caragiale @-@ father was planning to author plays in German , with assistance from Mite Kremnitz , the one @-@ time lover of poet Mihai Eminescu ) . At the funeral ceremony , he reputedly shocked pianist Cella Delavrancea by coldly stating in French : Je suis venu voir feu mon père ( " I came to see my late father " ) .
= = = Entry into the civil service = = =
Caragiale returned to Bucharest : in summer 1912 , with help from journalist Rudolf Uhrinowsky , the young writer was employed by a French @-@ language gazette , L 'Indépendence Roumaine , informing his readers that he had also become the sole legitimate Caragiale family representative in Romania . In October , he became the chief of staff in the Ministry of Public Works in the second Titu Maiorescu executive , under Minister Alexandru Bădărău . He had manifested a relative interest in politics around 1908 , after his father rallied with Take Ionescu and his Conservative @-@ Democratic Party ; at the time , he criticized Ion Luca 's political choices , but nonetheless noted that it could serve as a means for his own advancement ( " From now on I 'll have political lode [ ... ] , something certain , if there ever was certainty on Earth . " ) Four years after this comment , soon after making his literary debut , he clashed with his father over having considered a cabinet appointment in Ionescu 's executive .
As Caragiale senior died , Mateiu initially planned to join the mainstream Conservative Party and demand a post from Grigore Gheorghe Cantacuzino , the Mayor of Bucharest and a close associate of Bogdan @-@ Pitești . Nevertheless , he came to define this position as " a bad solution " , and , as Maiorescu and Ionescu formed an alliance , he successfully requested appointment from Bădărău , eventually obtaining it through the means of a decree signed by King Carol I. Caragiale later commented : " [ Bădărău ] entrusted me with this golden key , which I had wanted for so long , and which , for all of this , I had not been desperate to obtain . " This contradicted another one of his accounts , in which he confessed that , initially received with indifference by Bădărău , he had claimed that him joining the Conservative @-@ Democrats had been Ion Luca 's dying request . Șerban Cioculescu would comment : " There could not have been a more complete distortion of a parent 's last wish ! "
He assumed office on November 7 , 1912 , but , as he later confessed , official records were modified to make it seem that he had been a civil servant since October 29 . His time in office is described by critic Barbu Cioculescu as a bland affair , Mateiu having " ehausted his [ political ] fantasy " with his efforts to charm Bădărău . As Caragiale later recounted , he led talks with a delegation from the Kingdom of Serbia involving the initiative to build a bridge over the Danube to link the two states . In 1913 , he became a Knight of the Romanian Order of the Crown ( Coroana României ) , received the Russian Empire 's Order of St. Anna 2nd Class . He was also awarded the Bene Merenti and Bărbăție și credință Romanian medals 1st Class . In 1913 , Caragiale wrote the story Remember , while continuing his contributions to Viața Românească . Although his office was owed to Conservative @-@ Democratic politics , Caragiale was still close to Bogdan @-@ Pitești , whose daily newspaper Seara repeatedly published articles claiming to expose Take Ionescu 's faction and often focused such attacks on Bădărău . His employment eventually ended on January 17 , 1914 , as the National Liberal cabinet of Ion I. C. Brătianu came to power . According to Ion Vianu , Caragiale was right in assuming that his marginal involvement in the political intrigues had made him a target for Bădărău 's adversity .
= = = World War I = = =
During the early stages of World War I , as Romania remained a neutral country , Caragiale 's notes record that his friend Bogdan @-@ Pitești was acting as a political agent of the Central Powers , and that money he made available had been provided by German propaganda funds . Nevertheless , the two figures were especially close to one another during and after 1915 , and , in 1916 , even visited Berlin together . At the time , Caragiale also visited the Germanophile literary circle set up by Mărgărita Miller Verghy , and borrowed a reported 10 @,@ 000 lei from Bogdan @-@ Pitești , which he never returned . Caragiale 's own Germanophile preferences and traditionalist conservatism had by then extinguished his cultural Francophilia , and rumors spread that he himself was a spy for the German Empire .
A frequenter of the renowned restaurant Casa Capșa , Mateiu Caragiale was constantly surrounded by a tight group of party @-@ goers , which included Uhrinowsky and the aristocrat Gheorghe Jurgea @-@ Negrilești . They were later joined by the Russian admiral Vessiolkin , who was allegedly the illegitimate son of Emperor Alexander III . Thanks to Uhrinowsky 's intervention , Caragiale became a press correspondent for the Ottoman press agency Asmanli , a job which he held for eight months , until , as he later wrote , " the [ company 's ] ' sweet waters ' dried out " . In mid summer 1916 , Caragiale donated money to a fund whereby the Bellu Cemetery tomb of Ștefan Luchian , a recently deceased painter and protégé of Bogdan @-@ Pitești , was to be decorated with a bust by sculptor Dimitrie Paciurea ( the world conflict and later events prevented this from happening ) .
As Romania joined the Allied Powers and the Romanian Campaign began , overlooked by conscription into the Romanian Army , Caragiale drafted the first of Craii de Curtea @-@ Veche 's three sections , titled " Întâmpinarea crailor " ( " Meeting the Rakes " ) . He would later reflect on the importance of 1916 , deeming it " end of the Ancien Régime " . He did not follow the authorities and Take Ionescu 's supporters as they redeployed in Moldavia when southern Romania fell to the Central Powers , and remained in Bucharest . He was still active within the Germanophile circles , including those who opted for collaborationism , and was held in high regard by the occupying forces : his brother Luca was employed by the new administrative apparatus , but Mateiu 's own promotion to the rank of prefect was vetoed by puppet minister Lupu Kostaki . After the government of Alexandru Marghiloman signed the May 1918 capitulation in front of the Central Powers , he made known his support for the more pro @-@ German Conservative Party : on June 29 , 1918 , he and Luca were among the signers of a letter addressed to the aging Petre P. Carp , the former Conservative leader , asking him to take over rule of the country . The political choice was highly controversial , and its exposure later contributed to the end of Caragiale 's political career . In a 1970 biographical essay critical of Mateiu Caragiale , Cioculescu attributed Mateiu authorship of the document , and claimed that Luca had agreed to join in only as a result of his brother 's pressures .
In 1919 , as Ionescu gained political influence through his alliance with the People 's League , he became head of the press bureau of the Minister of Internal Affairs , serving until 1921 . Later writings of his show that he was deeply dissatisfied with the office , which he equated with " a demotion " , and that he resented Ionescu not having assigned the diplomatic office of consul . He thus resigned and left the Conservative @-@ Democrats , an action which he later defined as " a grave error " . Caragiale was reputedly living in penury , holding temporary residence in various cheap houses on the outskirts of Bucharest , and being thrown out from at least one such location after failing to pay his rent . Ion Vianu believes that his exclusive focus on writing Craii ... had a " therapeutic effect " , in that it helped the writer deal with the situation .
Also in 1921 , a first draft of his Remember saw print in Viața Românească . The second part of Craii ... , " Cele trei hagialâcuri " ( " The Three Pilgrimages " ) , was sporadically written between 1918 and 1921 ( according to Caragiale himself : " it was written on restaurant tables , in the gambling den , in the meeting hall at the Justice of the Peace " ) . He married Marica Sion , the daughter of poet and nobleman Gheorghe Sion , in 1923 , thus becoming the owner of a plot of land named Sionu , in Fundulea ( although he resided in downtown Bucharest ) . His wife , whom he had most likely met before 1916 , while attending Miller Verghy 's soirées , was his senior by 25 years . Despite owning land in the country and living a comfortable life in the city , Caragiale confessed a nostalgia towards the houses he had been raised in , and especially for his mother 's Bucharest home .
= = = Craii de Curtea @-@ Veche and Italian sojourn = = =
Mateiu Caragiale published Remember as a volume the following year ; from 1922 , he began work on " Spovedanii " ( " Confessions " ) , the third and final section of Craii ... , which , as he recounted , coincided with " the most terrible crisis " of his life . Several of his poems were published in a 1925 collection edited by Perpessicius and Ion Pillat ( Antologia poeților de azi ) , and were accompanied by an ink portrait signed Marcel Janco ; at the time , Caragiale announced that he was going to publish a series of poems under the title Pajere ( it was to be printed only after his death ) . In the 1925 – 1933 period , Caragiale 's notes show that he was seeing his life as marked by existential cycles and crucial moments .
In March 1926 @-@ October 1928 , Tudor Vianu 's Gândirea magazine published his novel Craii de Curtea @-@ Veche as a series . He completed the last additions to the text in November 1927 , as its first sections were already in print . As the last episode was featured by Gândirea , to widespread acclaim , he noted : " From the time when the first of its parts saw print , this work was received with unprecedented fervor in Romanian literature . For the work it required , as well as for the tiresome obsession to which it had me submitted I bear it no grudge : it is truly magnificent [ ... ] . " Literary historian Eugen Lovinescu , who criticized Gândirea ' s later moves towards traditionalism and a far right ideology ( a turn which coincided with Vianu 's departure ) , argued that Caragiale had been an important gain for the literary venue . In his belief , Caragiale and other " writers of talent " helped the magazine , which had no " critic of authority " at its helm .
By 1926 , he rallied with the People 's League , and unsuccessfully asked Octavian Goga to assign him a candidature for a Parliamentary seat during the elections of that year . In January 1928 , he again became pursuing a career in the diplomatic service , and sought an appointment for himself at the Romanian Consulate in Helsinki , Finland ; he thus visited Foreign Minister Nicolae Titulescu in Italy , at Sanremo . His passage through Lombardy coincided with major floods , an event recorded with interest in his private notes . Titulescu received him at the Miramare Hotel , but talks between them were inconclusive . According to Perpessicius , the failure was generated by the adversity other politicians had towards Caragiale , while Ion Vianu argues that the ambition itself had constituted proof of " perfect utopianism " . The writer was nonetheless pleased with his visit , having been deeply impressed by the Italian landscape , and , as a result , attempted to create an atmosphere of , in his words , " profound Italian rustic quietude " on his property in Fundulea . His diary also perpetuated the rumor according to which Titulescu was a cocaine addict .
His political projects were put on hold , and Caragiale instead concentrated his energy on obtaining the French Légion d 'honneur order , eventually becoming one of its Chevaliers in December 1929 . The Romanian author himself noted that this had been made possible by the intercession of François Lebrun , the Bucharest correspondent of Le Matin newspaper , whom he considered a personal friend .
= = = Later years and death = = =
Caragiale also began work on the fragmentary writing Soborul țațelor ( " The Council of Busibodies " , 1929 ) and the detective story Sub pecetea tainei ( " Under the Seal of Secrecy " , 1930 ) , but they would remain unfinished . In its first draft , Sub pecetea tainei was published by Gândirea in April 1930 @-@ April 1933 , while Soborul țațelor was kept in three different variants . In a 1985 essay later published as a preface for Sub pecetea tainei , literary critic Nicolae Manolescu proposed that , while the story was not given a finishing touch , its plot was meant to seem ambiguous , and thus had led other commentators to wrongly assume that the text ended abruptly .
In 1931 , the writer was still hoping for a return to the political stage , this time with the Nationalist Democratic Party , which came to power under Nicolae Iorga . To this goal , he approached Internal Affairs Undersecretary Nicolae Ottescu , requesting appointment as prefect , but was refused . During the same period , Caragiale was occasionally involved in events affecting the cultural scene . In May 1930 , he was present at a banquet in honor of Italian author Filippo Tommaso Marinetti , the ideologue of Futurism . Organized by the Romanian Writers ' Society and the Italo @-@ Romanian Cultural Association , it was also attended by many other cultural figures , most of which , including artist Marcel Janco and the writers Ion Vinea , Jacques G. Costin , Ion Minulescu and Camil Petrescu , were associates of the magazine Contimporanul . In January 1934 , linguist and publisher Alexandru Rosetti signed a contract with Caragiale , through which the latter agreed to complete Sub pecetea tainei and have it published by Rosetti 's Editura Fundațiilor Regale .
He ceased most literary activities later in the year , and confessed in his diary : " My spiritual state is probably the same as that of people who feel their final hour nearing and lose all hope " . The writer was probably planning to move out of the city and into Fundulea , breaking all connections with his peers . Despite this abrupt change , Caragiale had not entirely abandoned his writing career . In 1931 , the Oradea @-@ based cultural magazine Cele Trei Crișuri published his memoir , titled Vechi impresii de spectator ( " Old Impressions of a Spectator " ) . In it , Caragiale stated having reached " a serene maturity " , and indicated : " I now placidly begin the rhythm of a new life . " He was planning to write a biography of Albrecht Joseph Reichsgraf von Hoditz , an extravagant Silesian nobleman of the 18th century , who is briefly mentioned in " Cele trei hagialâcuri " , and was also interested in the works of two French classics , Antoine Furetière and Honoré de Balzac . He was preoccupied with death , which he feared greatly . In early 1935 , soon after reading Stefan Zweig 's texts on faith healing , he recorded the effect it had on his life as " the revelation of my intellectual superiority , my intuition and my power of reflection , as well as the latent forces that I feel at the foundation of my being . " He also made a point of renouncing his hectic lifestyle , giving up alcohol and coffee .
Mateiu Caragiale died two years later in Bucharest , at the age 51 , after suffering a stroke . Despite his explicit wish and opposition from his widow , speeches were held at his funeral ceremony , including ones by Alexandru Rosetti and Adrian Maniu . Rosetti and Eugen Lovinescu later recounted an unusual incident sparked by the event : Iancu Vulturescu , a friend of Caragiale 's and frequenter of Casa Capșa , looked intensely upon the dead body as he was paying his respects ; later in the evening , he committed suicide in a hotel room .
= = Outlook and personal life = =
= = = Views and mannerisms = = =
Mateiu Caragiale 's interest in heraldry and genealogy mirrored his tastes and outlook on the world , which have been described as " snobbery " , " aestheticism " , and " dandyism " , as well as the love of history he displayed throughout his career . It was sparked during his college years , when he would fill his notebooks with sketches of blazons , and as attested by various drawings he produced throughout his life . He also developed an enduring curiosity for astronomy , magic , as well as botany and agronomy , and kept detailed notes recording the deaths of all Romanian aristocrats who were his contemporaries .
These skills , as well as his tastes and talents as a causeur , consolidated his reputation as an erudite in spite of his lack of formal studies . The cultivation of aesthetic goals had seemingly guided the writer throughout his life — the poet and mathematician Ion Barbu , who was one of Caragiale 's greatest admirers , recounted with amazement that the writer would periodically visit the Romanian Academy 's just to look over a certain page in a manual of arithmetics outlining the rule of three ( he reportedly said to Barbu : " Remembering its splendor provides me with a ceaseless drive to reread it " ) . At the same time , he was attracted by esotericism , alchemy and mystical subjects such as numerology , all of which form background elements in his prose .
A characteristic of Mateiu Caragiale 's life was his search for noble origins , contrasting his illegitimate status . According to historian Lucian Nastasă , it clashed with his father 's discreetness in relation to his Greek ancestors — Ion Luca is known to have described his own origins as uncertain , even though these had been well recorded , and to have later commented that any noble lineage in Romania relied on spurious genealogies . Caragiale @-@ father is also thought to have discouraged his son 's claims , and to have mockingly noted that their own family 's origin could not have been aristocratic . Early in his youth , Mateiu jokingly referred to himself as " Prince Bassaraba @-@ Apaffy " , mixing the title used by the early Basarab Wallachian princes and the Apaffy family of Hungarian nobility . Letters he wrote while still a student show that he was envisaging a marriage of convenience as a means to increase his wealth and status .
In his permanent search for nobility rights , occasionally ascribed to the inferiority complex of illegitimate children , he indicated that his mother 's origins were in Austria – Hungary : before his marriage to Marica Sion , he claimed that he had lost his birth certificate , and , upon completing a new one , that his mother resided in Vienna , and that he himself had been born in the Transylvanian town of Tușnad . In Tudor Vianu 's view , Caragiale 's quest for " an elective heredity " saw him joining a diverse group of writers with similar interests , among whom were Balzac , Arthur de Gobineau , and Stefan George . Commenting that " heredity has , after all , only the value of a psychological fact " , he stressed : " [ Caragiale ] thus had the right to seek his ancestry on the ascents of history and even to be ready to believe , from time to time , that he had found it . "
Between 1907 and 1911 , Caragiale studied Romanian heraldry and , to this goal , read Octav @-@ George Lecca 's Familii boierești române ( " Romanian Boyar Families " ) . Many of the comments added by him to his copy of the book are polemic , sarcastic , or mysterious , while the sketches he made on the margin include portrayals of boyars being put to death in various ways , as well as caricatures ( such as a blazon displaying a donkey 's head , which he mockingly assigned to Octav @-@ George Lecca himself ) . Several of the heraldic objects he created were destined for his own use . In June 1928 , he raised a green over yellow ensign he created for the Caragiale family at his property in Fundulea . He also hoisted other symbols , including the flag of Hungary , which , he claimed , underlined his foreign origin .
Other eccentricities Caragiale adopted included wearing a " princely gown " of his own design , developing unusual speech patterns , as well as a noted love for decorations — official honors which he tried to obtain for himself on several occasions , culminating in the Légion d 'honneur award . He took special pride in noting that , after 14 months of governmental service , he had received the Romanian Order of the Crown and the other medals . His major regret in this respect was not having received Finland 's Order of the White Rose , having earlier claimed that he had refused the Serbian Kingdom 's Order of St. Sava when it was offered to him with a rank lower than he had asked . Ion Vianu argues that , intimately aware of his genealogical claims being questionable , the writer sought to compensate by finding his way into meritocratic environments .
= = = Alleged disorders and sexuality = = =
Mateiu Caragiale 's personal life has for long attracted interest for the traces it left in his literary work . This is enhanced by his reputation for being a secretive man . In a late interview , Cella Delavrancea described him as " made up of [ ... ] small patches , so well sewn together that one never knew what he had said , what he had meant to say , what he is thinking . " While Ionel Gherea suspected that Caragiale was merely acting , Eugen Lovinescu , who described Caragiale 's personality as " bizarre " , also referred to him as " colorful and sterile . " Despite his hectic lifestyle , Caragiale feared poverty and lashed out at Bohemianism , stressing that " it kills , and many times not just figuratively " . In tandem , fragments of his writings and private records are thought by cultural historian Andrei Oișteanu to show intimate familiarity with substance abuse and the drug subculture of his age , in addition to his self admitted binge drinking . During his final years of life , he was harvesting an unspecified wild herb from the hills of Cotroceni neighborhood , and using it as a sedative . By then , essayist Ion Vartic notes , Caragiale 's obsession with death had developed into " neurosis " .
Several contemporary accounts focus on Mateiu 's unusual preferences in clothing , pointing to a studied extravagance first adopted during his stay in Berlin , and in support of which he was reportedly spending more than he could afford . Literary historian George Călinescu recalled having seen a middle @-@ aged Caragiale taking walks through downtown Bucharest : amused by the writer 's everyday clothes , which he depicted as of an archaic fashion and slightly deteriorated , compared him to " a butler on Sunday leave " . Călinescu also told that , during winter , Caragiale would only touch metal with his hand while wearing suede gloves . Rosetti and poetess Ștefana Velisar both recorded being amused by aspects of Caragiale 's clothing , such as his oversized boots and his using scissors to cut out the worn out extremities of his trouser legs . In 1926 , the writer began wearing a ring bearing the seal of Mercury , which , Vartic supposes , evidenced his trust in the psychopomp god 's powers .
Caragiale 's secrecy and eccentricity is credited with having marked his personal life and sexuality , often with dramatic consequences . In support of this , Ion Vianu cites the writer 's alleged disdain for his mother , referencing a claim made by the socialite Grigore " Grigri " Ghica . The latter , familiar with Miller Verghy and her circle , recounted that the poverty @-@ stricken but proud Caragiale had asked their common female friend to allow him use of a stable on her property , explaining that he was going to have furniture moved in . According to Ghica , the owners were shocked to discover that the stable had been used instead to accommodate Maria Constantinescu . Ion Vianu also notes that Caragiale " appears to have been in love for just one moment " , referring to his 1907 pursuit of an upper @-@ class French girl , Fernande de Bondy , who rejected his advances and complained to Caragiale @-@ father . For a while in 1908 , Caragiale had a brief affair with a reportedly unattractive Frenchwoman , Mariette Lamboley , who had been a Roman Catholic nun . In letters he sent to his close friend , Nicolae Boicescu , Caragiale bragged about his sexual exploits with Lamboley , and of having exposed her to " the most terrifying sadisms " ( which included allowing her to be raped by a stranger in the Cișmigiu Gardens ) .
Notes in his diaries show that he discreetly resented Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești , although , Ion Vianu stresses , such pronouncements appear to have become a staple of Caragiale 's private records only long after Bogdan @-@ Pitești had died . Aside from claiming to expose his patron 's alleged financing by the Central Powers before and during World War I , Caragiale discussed Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's homosexuality in disparaging terms ( calling him " a blusterer of the anti @-@ natural vice " ) , and even laying out a plan to rob his residence . The violent solution to poverty , Ion Vianu proposes , may have reflected his appreciation for Félicien Champsaur 's L 'Arriviste , in which the protagonist uses murder to affirm himself socially . Despite Caragiale 's relationships with women and his lapses into homophobia , Ion Vianu argues ( partly building on similar comments made by literary historian Matei Călinescu ) that the writer had a preference for homosociality or even homoeroticism , both in line with his narcissism . Caragiale 's diary also dealt with Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's wife , the socialite Domnica , depicting her as an immoral woman . A person known by the initials A.K. , who was probably the same as Domnica , is referred to in such notes as being in a ménage à trois situation with Bogdan @-@ Pitești and Caragiale . He confessed being thankful that the long record of sums he had borrowed from Bogdan @-@ Pitești beginning 1916 had been destroyed , probably by Domnica , at a time when his patron was on his deathbed .
Mateiu Caragiale 's final erotic pursuit was the high society lady and amateur singer Eliza " Elise " Băicoianu . He courted her for a few months in 1932 , despite being married to Marica Sion . His private notes show that he struggled with the lust for Băicoianu , which he believed was impairing his judgment , and declared himself outraged that the object of his affection had a " scandalous liaison " with another man . He ultimately decided not to persevere , basing himself on the principle that " business is business . " In his final years , Caragiale was weighing in the probability of his still fathering a male son , and , although he concluded that it was not likely , laid out a " Family Law " for his potential descendants to abide by .
= = Work = =
= = = Literary style = = =
Writing shortly after Caragiale died , Tudor Vianu defined him as " a figure , possibly a delayed one , from that aesthetic generation of around 1880 , who professed a concept of the supremacy of artistic values in life . " This allowed him to draw a parallel between Mateiu Caragiale and Alexandru Macedonski , the doyen of Romanian Symbolism , with the one essential difference provided by their level of involvement in cultural affairs . Unlike his half @-@ brother Luca , Caragiale tended to stay away from the literary movements of his age , and placed his cultural references in the relative past , being inspired by Romantic and Symbolist authors such as Edgar Allan Poe , Auguste Villiers de l 'Isle @-@ Adam , Jules Amédée Barbey d 'Aurevilly , Charles Baudelaire and José María de Heredia . Noting the manifest difference in style between the realist Ion Luca and his two sons , Vianu pointed out that the three shared , as characteristic traits , " The cultivation of fully @-@ developed forms , the view of art as a closed system resistant to the anarchic forces of reality " . According to Cioculescu , Mateiu 's work would be " minor , unless placed alongside that of Ion Luca Caragiale " . Elsewhere , Cioculescu indicated that a letter written by Mateiu Caragiale in his early youth , which featured his first pieces of social commentary , imitated his father 's calligraphy to the point where George Călinescu initially believed they were the work of Ion Luca . Literary critic Paul Cernat proposes that the clashes between father and son evidenced Mateiu 's " maternal attachment and a break with paternal authority " , and , in particular , his " Oedipus complex " , which he also sees manifested in the personality of modern Romanian writers such as the avant @-@ garde founding figure Urmuz and the co @-@ founder of Dadaism , Tristan Tzara .
Discussing Mateiu Caragiale 's originality , Călinescu saw in him " a promoter ( maybe the first ) of literary Balkanism , that greasy mix of obscene phrases , lascivious impulses , awareness of an adventurous and fuzzy genealogy , everything purified and seen from above by a superior intelligence " . In relation to Romanian literature , he believed to have discovered a common trait of " Balkan " writers of mostly Wallachian origin , citing Mateiu Caragiale in a group that also included Caragiale @-@ father , the early 19th century aphorist and printer Anton Pann
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performance in San Francisco . Best was originally intended to provide motion capture data but his offer to voice the character was accepted . On the set , to provide references for the actors , Best was clothed in a suit made of foam and latex and a headpiece . Best 's filmed performance was later replaced with the computer @-@ generated character . Best frequently improvised movements to make Jar Jar look as clumsy and comedic as possible .
Anthony Daniels voices C @-@ 3PO , a protocol droid built by Anakin . He lacks a metal covering in this film ; R2 @-@ D2 refers to it as being " naked " . A puppeteer dressed in a color closely matching the background — in a manner similar to the Japanese puppet theater Bunraku — manipulated a skeletal C @-@ 3PO figure attached to his front while Daniels read his lines off @-@ camera . The puppeteer was erased from the film during post @-@ production .
Kenny Baker as R2 @-@ D2 , an astromech droid that saves Queen Amidala 's ship when other droids fail . Before the film 's production started , fans campaigned on the Internet to retain Baker as R2 @-@ D2 ; Lucas replied that the actor would remain . Baker is used for scenes where R2 @-@ D2 bends forwards and backwards and wobbles from side to side . Robots and a digital model were used in other shots .
Terence Stamp as Supreme Chancellor Valorum , the current Chancellor who commissions Obi @-@ Wan and Qui @-@ Gon to negotiate with the Trade Federation Viceroy . Lucas described the character as a " good man but he 's beleaguered — a bit like [ Bill ] Clinton " .
Additionally , Samuel L. Jackson appears as Mace Windu , a high @-@ ranking member of the Jedi Council who also opposes the training of Anakin . Ray Park portrays Darth Maul , a Zabrak warrior and Darth Sidious ' Sith apprentice who uses a double @-@ bladed lightsaber , while Peter Serafinowicz provides Maul 's voice . Keira Knightley plays Sabé , one of Queen Amidala 's handmaidens who serves as her decoy throughout the majority of the film . Silas Carson portrays Nute Gunray , the Viceroy of the Trade Federation who leads Naboo 's invasion and tries to force Queen Amidala to sign a treaty to legitimize the occupation . Carson also portrays three minor characters : Jedi Master Ki @-@ Adi @-@ Mundi , Trade Federation Senator Lott Dod , and an ill @-@ fated pilot ( the role for which Carson originally auditioned ) . Brian Blessed , Andy Secombe , and Lewis MacLeod voice , respectively , Boss Nass , the leader of the Gungan tribe who allies with the Naboo , Watto , a junk dealer on Tatooine who owns Anakin and his mother as slaves , and Sebulba , an aggressive , scheming podracer who is Anakin 's rival . In addition , Greg Proops and Scott Capurro voice Fode and Beed , the two @-@ headed announcer of the Boonta Eve Race . Dominic West plays a Naboo guard . Also , Sofia Coppola appears as Saché , one of Amidala 's handmaidens , and Ralph Brown appears as Ric Olié , the Queen 's starship pilot . Christian Simpson appears as Lieutenant Gavyn Sykes .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
While writing the original Star Wars , Lucas realized the story was too vast in scope to be covered in one film . The original film was written to introduce a wider story arc that could be told in sequels on the chance that it became successful , so Star Wars evolved from the first film in the series to the first episode of the saga 's second trilogy . Lucas eventually negotiated a contract that allowed him to make two sequels , and over time had created an elaborate backstory to aid his writing process . While writing The Empire Strikes Back , Lucas considered directions in which to take the story . In the original trilogy , Darth Vader was revealed to have been Anakin Skywalker , a once @-@ powerful Jedi Knight , and the traitor to the Jedi Legion . With this backstory in place , Lucas decided the movies would work best as a trilogy . In the final act of the trilogy 's final episode , Return of the Jedi , Vader is ultimately redeemed through an act of sacrifice for Luke . This was in 1983 , more than six years since the release of Star Wars . Lucas admitted to being " burned out " and announced he would take a break from working on the saga .
Throughout the 80s , George Lucas remarked he had no desire to return to Star Wars and had unofficially canceled his sequel trilogy by the time of Return of the Jedi . Because Lucas had developed most of the backstory , the idea of prequels continued to fascinate him . In the early 1990s , Star Wars saw a resurgence in popularity in the wake of Dark Horse 's comic line and Timothy Zahn 's trilogy of novels . Lucas saw there was still a large audience for his idea of a prequel trilogy and with the development of special effects generated with computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) , Lucas considered returning to his saga and directing the film . In 1993 , it was announced in Variety and other sources that he would be making the prequels . Lucas began outlining the story ; Anakin Skywalker rather than Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi would be the main protagonist and the series would be a tragedy examining Darth Vader 's origins . Lucas also began to change the prequels ' timeline relative to the original series , " filling @-@ in " the history , backstory , existing parallel or tangential to the originals and beginning a long story that started with Anakin 's childhood and ended with his death . This was the final step toward turning the franchise into a saga .
George Lucas began writing the new Star Wars trilogy on November 1 , 1994 . The screenplay of Star Wars was adapted from Lucas ' 15 @-@ page outline that was written in 1976 , which he designed to help him keep track of the characters ' backstories and events that occurred before the original trilogy . Anakin was first written as a twelve @-@ year @-@ old , but Lucas reduced his age to nine because he felt the lower age would better fit the plot point of Anakin being affected by his mother 's separation from him . Eventually , Anakin 's younger age led Lucas to rewrite his participation in the movie 's major scenes . The film 's working title was The Beginning ; Lucas later revealed that its true title was The Phantom Menace ; a reference to Palpatine hiding his true identity as an evil Sith Lord behind the facade of a well @-@ intentioned public servant .
The larger budget and possibilities opened up by the use of digital effects made Lucas " think about a much grander , more epic scale — " which is what I wanted Star Wars to be " . The story ended with five simultaneous , ongoing plots , one leading to another . The central plot is Palpatine 's intent to become Chancellor , which leads to the Trade Federation 's attack on Naboo , the Jedi being sent there , Anakin being met along the way , and the rise of the Sith Lords . As with the original trilogy , Lucas intended The Phantom Menace to illustrate several themes throughout the narrative . Duality is a frequent theme ; Amidala is a queen who passes as a handmaiden , Palpatine plays on both sides of the war , among others . " Balance " is frequently suggested ; Anakin is supposedly " the one " chosen to bring balance to the Force — Lucas said , " Anakin needed to have a mother , Obi @-@ Wan needed a Master , Darth Sidious needed an apprentice " as without interaction and dialogue " you wouldn 't have drama " .
In November 2015 , Ron Howard confirmed that he , Robert Zemeckis and Steven Spielberg were approached by Lucas to direct the film .
= = = Pre @-@ production and design = = =
Before Lucas had started writing , his producing partner Rick McCallum was preparing for the film . McCallum stated that his experience with The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles led to many of his decisions on The Phantom Menace , such as long @-@ term deals with actors and soundstages , the employment of recent graduates with no film experience , and the creation of sets and landscapes with digital technology . In April 1994 , McCallum started searching for artists in art , architecture and design schools , and in mid @-@ year he began location scouting with production designer Gavin Bocquet . Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) art director Doug Chiang impressed McCallum the most and was hired as the design director .
Within three to four months of Lucas beginning the writing process , Chiang and his design team started a two @-@ year process of reviewing thousands of designs for the film . Chiang stated that Lucas intended Episode I to be stylistically different from the other Star Wars films ; it would be " richer and more like a period piece , since it was the history leading up to A New Hope " . The three planets on which the story takes place — some with varied environments such as the human and Gungan cities of Naboo and three buildings in Coruscant . With the exception of the Gungan city , which had an art nouveau @-@ inspired visual , these locations would be given distinctive looks with some basis in the real world . The concept drawings of Ralph McQuarrie for the original trilogy served as the basis for Mos Espa — which was also inspired by old Tunisian hotels and buildings and had touches such as a market place to differentiate it from A New Hope 's Mos Eisley — and Coruscant , in particular a metropolis design which became the basis for the Senate . Bocquet would later develop the work of Chiang 's team and design the interiors , translating the concepts into construction blueprints with environments and architectural styles that had some basis in reality " to give the audience something to key into " . Some elements were directly inspired by the original trilogy ; Lucas described the battle droids as predecessors to the Stormtroopers . Chiang uses that orientation to base the droids on the Imperial soldiers , only in the same style of stylized and elongated features seen in tribal African art .
Terryl Whitlatch , who had a background on zoology and anatomy , was in charge of creature design . Many of the aliens are hybrids , combining features of real animals . At times entire food chains were developed even though only a small percentage of them would appear in the film . Whitlatch also designed detailed skeletons for the major characters and facial muscles on Jar Jar Binks as a reference for ILM 's animators . Each creature would reflect its environment ; those on Naboo were more beautiful because the planet is " lush and more animal @-@ friendly " , Tatooine has rough @-@ looking creatures " with weather @-@ beaten leathery skin to protect them from the harsh desert elements " , and Coruscant has bipedal , human @-@ looking aliens .
Stunt coordinator Nick Gillard was recruited to create a new Jedi fighting style for the prequel trilogy . Gillard likened the lightsaber battles to a chess game " with every move being a check " . Because of their short @-@ range weapons , Gillard thought the Jedi would have had to develop a fighting style that merged every swordfighting style , such as kendo and other kenjutsu styles , with other swinging techniques , such as tennis swings and tree @-@ chopping . While training Liam Neeson and Ewan McGregor , Gillard wrote a sequence which lasted around 60 seconds and intended to be around five or six sequences per fight . Lucas later referred to the Jedi as " negotiators " rather than high @-@ casualty soldiers . The preference of hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat was intended to give a spiritual and intellectual role to the Jedi . Because Gillard thought the stunt jumps with the actors and stuntmen dangling from wires did not look realistic , air rams were used to propel them into the air instead .
Lucas decided to make elaborate costumes because the film 's society was more sophisticated than the one depicted in the original trilogy . Designer Trisha Biggar and her team created over 1 @,@ 000 costumes that were inspired by various cultures . Biggar worked closely with concept designer Iain McCaig to create a color palette for the inhabitants of each world : Tatooine followed A New Hope with sun @-@ bleached sand colors , Coruscant had grays , browns and blacks , and Naboo had green and gold for humans while Gungans wore " a leathery look , like their skin " . The Jedi costumes followed the tradition from the original film ; Obi @-@ Wan 's costume was inspired by the costume that was worn by Guinness . Lucas said he and Biggar would look at the conceptual art to " translat [ e ] all of these designs into cloth and fabric and materials that would actually work and not look silly " . Biggar also consulted Gillard to ensure the costumes would accommodate action scenes , and consulted the creature department to find which fabrics " wouldn 't wear too heavily " on the alien skins . A huge wardrobe department was set up at Leavesden Film Studios to create over 250 costumes for the main actors and 5 @,@ 000 for the background ones .
Nute Gunray 's Thai accent was chosen after Lucas and McCallum listened to various languages to decide how the Neimodians would speak . The character design of Watto was an amalgam of rejected ideas ; his expressions were based on video footage of Secombe 's voice acting , photographs of animation supervisor Rob Coleman imitating the character , and modeler Steve Alpin saying Watto 's lines to a mirror . Lucas described Sebulba 's design as " a spider crossed with an orangutan crossed with a sloth " , with a camel @-@ like face , and clothing inspired by medieval armor .
= = = Casting = = =
After Samuel L. Jackson expressed interest in appearing in a Star Wars film , he was approached by casting director Robin Gurland to play Windu . Ray Park , a martial arts champion with experience in gymnastics and sword fighting , was originally a member of the stunt crew . Stunt coordinator Nick Gillard filmed Park to demonstrate his conception of the lightsaber battles . Lucas and McCallum were so impressed with the test tape that they gave Park the role of Maul . His voice was considered " too squeaky " and was dubbed over in post @-@ production by Peter Serafinowicz . Keira Knightley 's parents tried to convince her not to audition , but the teenage actress still sought a role given she was a Star Wars fan . The casting was influenced by Knightley 's remarkable similarity to Natalie Portman , with the actress admitting their mothers could not tell each other apart . Knightley reported to have " cried every single day " due to finding the wardrobe uncomfortable .
Silas Carson was cast as Nute Gunray because another actor was uncomfortable with the costumes used by the Trade Federation characters , which were hot , exerted a lot of pressure on the bearer , and took about 15 minutes to apply . Hugh Quarshie considered the part of Panaka as " a good career move " and a production that would be fun to make . Brian Blessed originally auditioned for the role of Sio Bibble , the Governor of Naboo , for which he was considered " too loud " . Casting director Robin Gurland approached him to play Nass because it was a " bigger than life " character with " a kind of bravado " . Blessed described Nass as a " reluctant hero " , and a fun role to play . Sofia Coppola , daughter of Lucas ' long @-@ time friend and creative partner Francis Ford Coppola , considers Lucas as " like an uncle to me " . As she prepared the script for her directorial debut The Virgin Suicides , Sofia heard Lucas would make a new Star Wars film and asked him if she could accompany him during filming . Lucas offered Coppola a role in the royal entourage , which she accepted because it " seemed like a good vantage point to watch without getting in the way " .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began on June 26 , 1997 , and ended on September 30 of that year , primarily taking place at Leavesden Film Studios in England . Leavesden was leased for a two and a half years so the production company could leave the sets intact and return after principal photography had been completed . The forest scenes on Naboo were filmed at Cassiobury Park in Watford , Hertfordshire . Pick @-@ ups were shot between August 1998 and February 1999 after Lucas screened a rough cut of the film for friends and colleagues in May 1998 . Most of the action and stunts were filmed by Roger Christian 's second unit , which worked alongside the main unit instead of afterwards because of the high number of shots to be completed daily .
The Tunisian desert was again used for the Tatooine scenes ; Mos Espa was built outside the city of Tozeur . On the night following the third day of shooting in Tozeur , an unexpected sandstorm destroyed many of the sets and props . The production was quickly rescheduled to allow for repairs and was able to leave Tunisia on the date originally planned . The Italian Caserta Palace was used as the interior of the Theed City Naboo Palace ; it was used as a location for four days after it had been closed to visitors . Scenes with explosions were filmed on replica sets in Leavesden .
A binder with the film 's storyboards served as a reference for live @-@ action filming , shots that would be filmed in front of a chroma key blue screen , and shots that would be composed using CGI . The sets were often built with the parts that would be required on screen ; often they were built only up to the heights of the actors . Chroma key was extensively used for digital set extensions , backgrounds or scenes that required cinematographer David Tattersall to seek powerful lamps to light the sets and visual effects supervisor John Knoll to develop software that would remove the blue reflection from shiny floors . Knoll , who remained on set through most of the production , worked closely with Tatterstall to ensure that the shots were suitable to add effects later . The cameras were fitted with data capture models to provide technical data for the CGI artists .
The Phantom Menace was the final Star Wars film to be shot on 35mm film until Episode VII ( Star Wars : The Force Awakens ) . Some scenes , mostly of elements filmed by the special effects team , were shot on high definition , digital video tapes to test the performance of digital recordings , which Lucas and McCallum considered the next logical step because of the amount of digitizing — an expensive process compared to recording directly on digital media — for the compositing of computer @-@ generated effects . All future films would be shot using Sony CineAlta high @-@ definition video cameras . Greg Proops and Scott Capurro were filmed wearing makeup and blue bodysuits so their heads could be joined in a computer @-@ generated body . The visual effects crew did not like the original results and crafted Fode and Beed as an entirely computer generated alien .
Editing took two years ; Paul Martin Smith started the process in England and focused on dialogue @-@ heavy scenes . Ben Burtt — who was also the film 's sound editor — was responsible for action sequences under Lucas ' supervision . Non @-@ linear editing systems played a large part in translating Lucas ' vision ; he constantly tweaked , revised and reworked shots and scenes . The final sound mix was added in March 1999 and the following month the film was completed after the delivery of the remaining visual effects shots .
= = = Effects = = =
The film saw breakthrough in computer generated effects . About 1 @,@ 950 of the shots in The Phantom Menace have visual effects . The scene in which toxic gas is released on the Jedi is the only sequence with no digital alteration . The work was so extensive that three visual effects supervisors divided the workload among themselves — John Knoll supervised the on @-@ set production and the podrace and space battle sequences , Dennis Muren supervised the underwater sequence and the ground battle , and Scott Squires , alongside teams assigned for miniature effects and character animation , worked on the lightsaber effects .
Until the film 's production , many special effects in the film industry were achieved using miniature models , matte paintings , and on @-@ set visual effects — although other films had made extensive use of CGI . Knoll previewed 3 @,@ 500 storyboards for the film ; Lucas accompanied him to explain factors of the shots that would be practical and those which would be created through visual effects . Knoll later said that on hearing the explanations of the storyboards , he did not know how to accomplish what he had seen . The result was a mixture of original techniques and the newest digital techniques to make it difficult for the viewer to guess which technique was being used . Knoll and his visual effects team wrote new computer software , including cloth simulators to allow a realistic depiction of the digital characters ' clothing , to create certain shots . Another goal was to create computer @-@ generated characters that could act seamlessly with live @-@ action actors . While filming scenes with CGI characters , Lucas would block the characters using their corresponding voice actors on @-@ set . The voice actors were then removed and the live @-@ action actors would perform the same scene alone . A CGI character would later be added into the shot to complete the conversation . Lucas also used CGI to correct the physical presence of actors in certain scenes . Practical models were used when their visuals helped with miniature sceneries for backgrounds , set extensions , and model vehicles that would be scanned to create the digital models or filmed to represent spaceships and podraces .
Lucas , who had previously confronted problems with the props used to depict R2 @-@ D2 , allowed ILM and the production 's British special effects department to create their own versions of the robot . Nine R2 @-@ D2 models were created ; one was for actor Kenny Baker to be dropped into , seven were built by ILM and featured two wheelchair motors capable of moving 440 pounds ( 200 kg ) , enabling it to run and be mostly used in stage sets , and the British studio produced a pneumatic R2 @-@ D2 that could shift from two to three legs and was mostly used in Tunisia because its motor drive system allowed it to drive over sand .
Lucas originally planned to create many of the aliens with computer graphics , but those that would be more cost @-@ effectively realized with masks and animatronics were created by Nick Dudman 's creature effects team . These included the Neimodians , background characters in Mos Espa , the Jedi Council , and the Galactic Senate . Dudman 's team was told where the creatures would be required six months before principal photography begun , and they rushed the production . The Neimodian suits , which were originally intended as digital characters , were delivered one day before they would be required on set . Dudman traveled to Skywalker Ranch to see the original creatures that could be reused , and read the script for a breakdown of scenes with practical creatures , leaving only the more outlandish designs to be created using CGI .
To research for the podrace vehicles , the visual effects crew visited a jet aircraft junkyard outside Phoenix , Arizona and scavenged four Boeing 747 engines . Life @-@ sized replicas of the engines were built and sent to Tunisia to provide reference in the film . Except for Jake Lloyd inside a hydraulically controlled cockpit and a few practical podracer models , the entire podracing scene — which the effects crew designed to be as " out of this world " as possible — is computer @-@ generated .
= = = Music = = =
As with previous Star Wars films , Star Wars Episode I : The Phantom Menace 's score was composed and conducted by John Williams . He started composing the score in October 1998 and began recording the music with the London Voices and London Symphony Orchestra at Abbey Road Studios on February 10 , 1999 . Williams decided to use electronic instruments such as synthesizers to enhance the sound and choral pieces to " capture the magical , mystical force that a regular orchestra might not have been able to provide " , and create an atmosphere that was " more mysterious and mystical and less military " than those of the original trilogy . One of the most notable tracks is " Duel of the Fates " , which uses the chorus to give a religious , temple @-@ like feel to the epic lightsaber duel . The track was made into a music video . While composing Anakin 's theme , Williams tried to reflect the innocence of his childhood and to foreshadow his transformation into Darth Vader by using slight suggestions of " The Imperial March " in the melody .
The film 's soundtrack was released by Sony Classical Records on May 4 , 1999 . This album featured the score , which Williams restructured as a listening experience ; it is not presented in film order and omits many notable cues from the film because of the space restriction of the compact disc . A two @-@ disc " Ultimate Edition " was released on November 14 , 2000 . The set features almost the entire score as it is heard in the film , including all of the edits and loops that were made for the sound mix .
= = Themes = =
Like previous Star Wars films , The Phantom Menace makes several references to historical events and films that George Lucas watched in his youth . The Star Wars films typically mix several concepts from different mythologies together .
The Jedi practice Zen @-@ like meditation and martial arts , as did the ancient Japanese Samurai warriors . The name " Qui @-@ Gon " adapts the term Qigong , which refers to a Chinese discipline involving meditation and cultivation of the flow of the vital energy called " Chi " or " Qi " for healing , health and combat . The words Ch 'i ( Chinese ) , gi ( Korean ) , ki ( Japanese ) and the Indian term " Prana " all refer to the energy that is thought to flow through all living things , from the source of all chi ( or power ) which is " The Way " or " The Tao " in Chinese philosophy . In Taoist philosophy , from The Way , yin and yang — the opposing but complementary aspects of reality or nature — are born . Unlike Chinese philosophy , in which yin and yang are not moral qualities , the ancient Persian philosophy of Zurvanism taught that the dualism of dark and light forces are locked in an eternal battle while being two sides ( or evolutes ) of the same " Force " , the force of time itself ( Zurvan ) — the prime mover . These elements derive primarily from Eastern and Iranian religions and myths .
There are many references to Christian beliefs in the film , such as the appearance of Darth Maul , whose design draws heavily from traditional depictions of the Christian devil , complete with red skin and horns . Maul 's facial tattoos were inspired by the indigenous peoples of Brazil . The Star Wars film cycle features a similar Christian narrative involving Anakin Skywalker ; he is the " chosen one " — the individual prophesied to bring balance to the Force — who was conceived of a virgin birth and is tempted to join the Sith . Anakin 's fall from grace seemingly prevents him from fulfilling his destiny as the " chosen one " . The inspiration behind the story of the virgin birth parallels a concept developed by Joseph Campbell and his work on The Hero with a Thousand Faces , which heavily influenced Lucas ' writing of the original Star Wars trilogy 's outline .
Japanese films such as Akira Kurosawa 's The Hidden Fortress influenced the original Star Wars film ; scholars say that The Phantom Menace was likewise influenced by Korean and Japanese culture . Film historians Geoff King and Tanya Krzywinska write , " The costume and make @-@ up designs ... favour a mixture of the gothic and the oriental [ sic ] over anything very futuristic . The gothic is most strongly apparent in Darth Maul 's demonic horns and the red and black make @-@ up mask that borrows from the facial designs found in depictions of Japanese demons " . King and Krzywinska say that " Qui @-@ Gon 's pony tail and Obi @-@ Wan 's position of apprentice further encourage a reading in terms of the Samurai tradition " . They also say " Amidala , in keeping with her status and character , has a number of highly formal outfits ... to go with hair sculpted into a curve that frames make @-@ up of a Japanese cast " .
= = Release = =
The release on May 19 , 1999 of the first new Star Wars film in 16 years was accompanied by a considerable amount of attention . Few film studios released films during the same week as the release of The Phantom Menace ; DreamWorks and Universal Studios released The Love Letter on May 21 and Notting Hill on May 28 , respectively . The Love Letter was a commercial failure but Notting Hill fared better and followed The Phantom Menace closely in second place . Employment consultant firm Challenger , Gray & Christmas estimated that 2 @.@ 2 million full @-@ time employees missed work to attend the film , resulting in a US $ 293 million loss of productivity . According to The Wall Street Journal , many workers announced plans to view the premiere that many companies closed on the opening day . Queue areas formed outside cinema theaters over a month before ticket sales began .
More theater lines appeared when it was announced that cinemas were not allowed to sell tickets in advance until two weeks into the release . This was because of a fear that family theater @-@ goers would be either unable to receive tickets or would be forced to pay higher prices for them . Instead , tickets were to be sold on a first @-@ come @-@ first @-@ served basis . However , after meetings with the National Association of Theatre Owners , Lucasfilm agreed to allow advance ticket sales on May 12 , 1999 , provided there was a limit of 12 tickets per customer . As a result , some advance tickets were sold by scalpers at prices as high as US $ 100 apiece , which a distribution chief called " horrible " and said it was exactly what they wanted to avoid . Daily Variety reported that theater owners received strict instructions from Lucasfilm that the film could only play in the cinema 's largest auditorium for the first 8 – 12 weeks , no honor passes were allowed for the first eight weeks , and they were obliged to send their payments to distributor 20th Century Fox within seven days .
Despite worries about the film being finished on time , two weeks before its theatrical release Lucasfilm preponed the release date from May 21 to 19 , 1999 . At the ShoWest Convention , Lucas said the change was intended to give the fans a " head start " by allowing them to view it during the week and allowing families to view it during weekends . Foreshadowing his future conversion to digital cinematography , Lucas said the film would be released on four digital projectors on June 18 , 1999 . Eleven charity premieres were staged across the United States on May 16 , 1999 ; receipts from the Los Angeles event , where corporate packages were available for between US $ 5 @,@ 000 and US $ 25 @,@ 000 ; proceeds were donated to the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation . Other charity premieres included the Dallas premiere for the Children 's Medical Center , the Aubrey Fund for Pediatric Cancer Research at the Sloan @-@ Kettering Hospital in New York , the Big Brother / Sister Association of the Philadelphia premiere , and the Children 's National Medical Center in Washington , D.C. A statement said that tickets were sold at US $ 500 apiece and that certain sections of the theaters were set aside for disadvantaged children .
= = = Marketing = = =
Lucasfilm spent US $ 20 million on the film 's advertising campaign and made promotional licensing deals with Hasbro , Lego , Tricon Global Restaurants , and PepsiCo . Lucasfilm also helped the Star Wars fan club to organize an event called Star Wars Celebration , which was held in Denver , Colorado between April 30 and May 2 , 1999 .
The teaser trailer was released on selected screens accompanying Meet Joe Black on November 13 , 1998 , and media reported that people were paying full admission at theaters to see the trailer . To keep fans from leaving before the movie was over , some theaters played the teaser an additional time after the film finished . A second trailer was released on March 12 , 1999 , with the film Wing Commander . Again , many fans paid full theater admission to watch the new trailer . A bootlegged version of the preview was leaked to the Internet the same day . The next morning , the trailer was released on the film 's official website and shortly afterwards the servers became overloaded . The theatrical trailer caused even more media attention because it was premiered in theaters and screened at the | ShoWest Convention in Las Vegas , and was aired on Entertainment Tonight and Access Hollywood .
The teaser poster , featuring Anakin with his shadow forming Darth Vader 's silhouette , was released on November 10 , 1998 . After Lucas opted for a drawn theatrical poster , Drew Struzan , the artist responsible for the Special Edition posters , was commissioned to illustrate , and the poster was unveiled on March 11 , 1999 . Lucasfilm dictated that , contractually , Struzan 's illustration was the only art the foreign distributors could use , and other than the text , it could not be modified in any way .
Many tie @-@ in adaptations , such as a LucasArts video game for the PlayStation and PC , a pinball machine by Williams , a four @-@ part comic book adaptation by Dark Horse Comics , and a junior novelization by Scholastic were released . The film 's official novelization was written by Terry Brooks , who met with Lucas before writing the book and receiving his approval and guidance . It included information about pending developments in the following two installments of the series .
General Mills and Brisk were promotional partners in North America for the 2012 3D re @-@ release but promotion was limited . The film was extensively promoted in Japan ; promotional products were sold by 7 @-@ Eleven , Domino 's Pizza , Pepsi and Gari @-@ Gari Kun . Kellogg 's promoted the film internationally , and French restaurant Quick launched three Star Wars @-@ themed burgers . Lucasfilm also partnered with Variety , the Children 's Charity to raise funds for children through the sale of a special edition badge .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released worldwide on VHS between April 3 and 8 , 2000 . Two versions were released in North America on April 4 — a standard pan and scan version and a widescreen Collector 's Edition version . In its first two days of availability , the regular version sold 4 @.@ 5 million copies and the limited edition sold 500 @,@ 000 . It was the first Star Wars film to be officially released on DVD , on October 16 , 2001 . The special features included seven deleted scenes completed specifically for the DVD , a commentary track featuring Lucas and producer Rick McCallum , and several documentaries — including a full @-@ length documentary entitled " The Beginning : Making Episode I " . The Phantom Menace became the fastest selling DVD ever in the U.S. ; 2 @.@ 2 million copies were sold in its first week after release .
The DVD version was re @-@ released in a prequel trilogy box set on November 4 , 2008 . A Laserdisc version of The Phantom Menace was released in Japan several months before it was available on DVD in the U.S. The Star Wars films were released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on Blu @-@ ray Disc on September 16 , 2011 ; The Phantom Menace was restored to improve the picture quality and remove the magnification present on the previous DVD release , restoring approximately 8 percent of the picture to the frame . In the Blu @-@ ray release of The Phantom Menace , the Yoda puppet was replaced with a CGI model , making it consistent with the other films of the prequel trilogy .
On April 7 , 2015 , Walt Disney Studios , 20th Century Fox , and Lucasfilm jointly announced the digital releases of the six released Star Wars films . Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released The Phantom Menace through the iTunes Store , Amazon Video , Vudu , Google Play , and Disney Movies Anywhere on April 10 , 2015 .
= = = 3D re @-@ release = = =
On September 28 , 2010 , it was announced that all six films in the series would be stereo @-@ converted to 3D . These would be re @-@ released in episode order , beginning with The Phantom Menace , which was released to cinemas in February 2012 . Prime Focus Limited did the conversion under close supervision by ILM . However , the 3D re @-@ releases of Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones and Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith were postponed after Lucasfilm was bought by The Walt Disney Company , which decided to focus on the development of Star Wars : The Force Awakens .
Lucas stated the 3D re @-@ release was " just a conversion " of the film 's 2011 Blu @-@ ray release and no additional changes were made . Only a change to Anakin 's magnetic wand during the podrace scene — its tip was sharpened to more accurately fit the original 2D photography to the new 3D image — was confirmed .
= = = Novelization = = =
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 56 % " rotten " approval rating with an average score of 6 / 10 based on 212 reviews . The site 's critical consensus reads " Burdened by exposition and populated with stock characters , The Phantom Menace gets the Star Wars prequels off to a bumpy – albeit visually dazzling – start . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 51 out of 100 based on 36 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . On both sites , it is the lowest @-@ rated film in the Star Wars film series , excluding the animated feature The Clone Wars .
Many aspects of the scripting were criticized , especially that of the character Jar Jar Binks , who was regarded by many members of the older fan community as toyetic — a merchandising opportunity rather than a serious character . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times described Binks as " a major miscue , a comic @-@ relief character who 's frankly not funny . " Drew Grant of Salon.com wrote " Perhaps the absolute creative freedom director George Lucas enjoyed while dreaming up the flick 's ' comic ' relief — with no studio execs and not many an independently minded actor involved — is a path to the dark side . "
Red Letter Media produced a highly critical 70 minute video review narrated by a fictional " Harry S. Plinkett " , which went into great detail on the perceived flaws of the film that went viral and received over 5 million views . Among the many criticisms was the assertion that the film lacked basic structure , such as having a protagonist .
Conversely , Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and called it " an astonishing achievement in imaginative filmmaking " and said " Lucas tells a good story . " Ebert also wrote that " If some of the characters are less than compelling , perhaps that 's inevitable " because it is the opening film in the new trilogy . He concluded his review by saying that rather than Star Trek films , filmmakers could " [ g ] ive me transparent underwater cities and vast hollow senatorial spheres any day . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a " B " gradeand complimented Liam Neeson 's performance and the action scenes . In an Entertainment Weekly review for the DVD release , Marc Bernardin gave the film a " C- " , calling it " haplessly plotted , horribly written , and juvenile " . ReelViews ' James Berardinelli wrote :
Looking at the big picture , in spite of all its flaws , The Phantom Menace is still among the best " bang for a buck " fun that can be had in a movie theater . It isn 't as fresh as the original Star Wars nor does it have the thematic richness and narrative complexity of The Empire Strikes Back , but it is a distinct improvement over Return of the Jedi . In fact , after Return of the Jedi , I didn 't have a burning desire to return to this galaxy ' far , far away ' , but , with The Phantom Menace , Lucas has revived my interest . Now , it 's with genuine regret that I realize the next segment of the series is three long years away .
Andrew Johnston of Time Out New York wrote " Let 's face it : no film could ever match the expectations some have for Episode I – The Phantom Menace . Which isn 't to say it 's a disappointment : on the contrary , it 's awesomely entertaining , provided you accept it on its own terms ... Like the original film , it 's a Boy 's Own adventure yarn with a corny but irresistible spiritual subtext . The effects and production design are stunning , but they always serve the story , not the other way around . " Susan Wloszczyna of USA Today said the film did " plenty right " and praised the characters Darth Maul and Watto . David Cornelius of efilmcritic.com said the film 's better moments " don 't merely balance out the weaker ones — they topple them . " Colin Kennedy of Empire magazine said that despite problems with pacing and writing , " there is still much pleasure to be had watching our full @-@ blown Jedi guides in action . " He praised the visuals and Liam Neeson 's performance , and said the duel between Darth Maul and the Jedi was " the saga 's very best lightsaber battle " .
Empire magazine ranked The Phantom Menace on its list of " 500 Greatest Movies Of All Time " , while Entertainment Weekly and Comcast included the film on their lists of the worst movie sequels . James Berardinelli wrote " The Phantom Menace was probably the most overhyped motion picture of the last decade ( if not longer ) , and its reputation suffered as a result of its inability to satisfy unreasonable expectations . " William Arnold of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer agreed that the film 's massive hype caused many of the negative reactions , saying " it built expectations that can 't possibly be matched and scuttled [ the ] element of storytelling surprise . " He also said the film was " well made and entertaining " and was much better than similar box office fare released around that year , such as The Mummy and The Matrix .
The introduction of midi @-@ chlorians — microscopic organisms that mediate use of the Force — in the film has been controversial among fans . Some viewed it as a concept that negates the Force 's spiritual quality , although the film still portrays the Force as a mysterious entity using the midi @-@ chlorians to communicate with living beings . Film historian Daniel Dinello says " Anathema to Star Wars fanatics who thought they reduced the Force to a kind of viral infection , midi @-@ chlorians provide a biological interface , the link between physical bodies and spiritual energy . " Religion expert John D. Caputo writes " In the ' Gospel according to Lucas ' , a world is conjured up in which the intractable oppositions that have tormented religious thinkers for centuries are reconciled ... The gifts that the Jedi masters enjoy have a perfectly plausible scientific basis , even if its ways are mysterious : their bodily cells have a heavier than usual concentration of ' midi @-@ chlorians ' . "
After the film 's release , there was controversy over whether several alien characters reflect racial stereotypes . For example , the oafish , slow @-@ witted Jar Jar Binks had long droopy ears reminiscent of dreadlocks and spoke with what many perceived as a Caribbean patois reminiscent of Jamaican Creole . The greedy and corrupt Neimoidians of the Trade Federation spoke with East Asian accents and the unprincipled trader Watto has been interpreted as a Jewish stereotype reminiscent of Charles Dickens ' character Fagin . Lucas has denied all of these implications , instead criticizing the American media for using opinions from the Internet as a reliable source for news stories . Lucas added that it reflected more the racism of the commenters than it does the movie ; however , animator Rob Coleman said he viewed footage of Alec Guinness as Fagin in Oliver Twist to inspire his animators in the creation of Watto . One critic described Jar Jar Binks as " [ s ] ervile and cowardly ... a black minstrel @-@ ish stereotype on par with Stepin Fetchit . " Michael Eric Dyson , professor of African @-@ American studies at Georgetown University , said the entire Gungan people seem oddly suggestive of a primitive African tribe . Dyson said " The leader of Jar Jar 's tribe is a fat , bumbling buffoon with a rumbling voice , and he seems to be a caricature of a stereotypical African tribal chieftain . "
= = = Box office performance = = =
Despite its mixed critical reception , The Phantom Menace was a financial success , breaking many box office records in its debut . It broke The Lost World : Jurassic Park 's records for the largest single @-@ day gross for taking more than US $ 28 million in the opening day and fastest to gross US $ 100 million in five days . It also became the quickest film to reach the US $ 200 million and US $ 300 million marks , surpassing Independence Day ( 1996 ) and Titanic ( 1997 ) respectively . The Phantom Menace was 1999 's most successful film , earning US $ 431 @,@ 088 @,@ 295 in North America and US $ 493 @,@ 229 @,@ 263 in other territories , taking US $ 924 @,@ 317 @,@ 558 worldwide . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 84 @.@ 8 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run . At that time , the film was the third highest @-@ grossing film in North America behind Titanic and Star Wars ( 1977 ) , and the second highest @-@ grossing film worldwide behind Titanic without adjusting for inflation of ticket prices . When adjusted for ticket price inflation , it ranked as the 19th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film domestically , making it the fourth Star Wars film to be in the Inflation @-@ Adjusted Top 20 . Outside North America , the film grossed over US $ 10 million in Australia ( US $ 25 @.@ 9 million ) , Brazil ( US $ 10 @.@ 4 million ) , France and Algeria ( US $ 43 million ) , Germany ( US $ 53 @.@ 9 million ) , Italy ( US $ 12 @.@ 9 million ) , Japan ( US $ 109 @.@ 9 million ) , Mexico ( US $ 12 million ) , Spain ( US $ 25 million ) , and the United Kingdom and Ireland ( US $ 81 @.@ 9 million ) .
After its 3D re @-@ release in 2012 , the worldwide box office gross exceeded US $ 1 billion . Although in the intervening years , the film had lost some of its rankings in the lists of highest @-@ grossing films , the 3D re @-@ release returned it to the worldwide all @-@ time Top 10 for several months . In North America , its revenues overtook those of the original Star Wars as the saga 's highest @-@ grossing film when not adjusting for inflation of ticket prices , and is currently the fifth highest @-@ grossing film in North America . In North America , its ranking on the Adjusted for Ticket Price Inflation list climbed to 16th place — one place behind Return of the Jedi . The 3D re @-@ release , which premiered in February 2012 , earned US $ 43 million — US $ $ 22 @.@ 5 million of which was in North America — worldwide . As of June 2014 , the 3D re @-@ release has earned US $ 102 @,@ 727 @,@ 119 worldwide — including $ 43 @.@ 5 million in North America — and has increased the film 's overall box office takings to US $ 474 @.@ 5 million domestically , and US $ 552 @.@ 5 million in other territories . The film 's earnings exceeded US $ 1 billion worldwide on February 22 , 2012 , making it the first Star Wars film and the 11th film in history — excluding inflation — to do so .
= = = Accolades = = =
The Phantom Menace was nominated for three Academy Awards : Best Sound Editing , Best Visual Effects , and Best Sound Mixing ( Gary Rydstrom , Tom Johnson , Shawn Murphy , and John Midgley ) ; all of which went to The Matrix . The film won Saturn Awards for Best Costumes and Best Special Effects , the MTV Movie Award for Best Action Scene , and a Young Artist Award for Jake Lloyd 's performance . It was also nominated for — among others — the BAFTAs for Visual Effects and Sound , and the Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media . The film did however received seven Golden Raspberry Award ( Razzie ) nominations for Worst Picture , Worst Director , Worst Screenplay , Worst Supporting Actor ( Jake Lloyd as Anakin ) , Worst Supporting Actress ( Sofia Coppola as Saché ) , Worst Screen Couple ( Jake Lloyd and Natalie Portman ) , and Jar Jar Binks actor Ahmed Best won the Worst Supporting Actor category .
= Golden Gate Highlands National Park =
Golden Gate Highlands National Park is located in Free State , South Africa , near the Lesotho border . It covers an area of 340 km2 ( 130 sq mi ) . The park 's most notable features are its golden , ochre , and orange @-@ hued deeply eroded sandstone cliffs and outcrops , especially the Brandwag rock . Another feature of the area is the numerous caves and shelters displaying San rock paintings . Wildlife featured at the park includes mongooses , eland , zebras , and over 100 bird species . It is the Free State 's only national park , and is more famous for the beauty of its landscape than for its wildlife . Numerous paleontology finds have been made in the park including dinosaur eggs and skeletons .
= = Geography and climate = =
" Golden Gate " refers to the sandstone cliffs that are found on either side of the valley at the Golden Gate dam . In 1875 , a farmer called J.N.R. van Reenen and his wife stopped here as they travelled to their new farm in Vuurland . He named the location " Golden Gate " when he saw the last rays of the setting sun fall on the cliffs .
In 1963 , 47 @.@ 92 square kilometres ( 11 @,@ 840 acres ) were proclaimed as a national park , specifically to preserve the scenic beauty of the area . In 1981 the park was enlarged to 62 @.@ 41 km2 ( 15 @,@ 420 acres ) and in 1988 it was enlarged to 116 @.@ 33 km2 ( 28 @,@ 750 acres ) . In 2004 it was announced that the park would be joined with the neighbouring QwaQwa National Park . The amalgamation of QwaQwa National Park was completed in 2007 , increasing the park 's area to 340 km2 ( 84 @,@ 000 acres ) .
The park is 320 km ( 200 mi ) from Johannesburg and is close to the villages of Clarens and Kestell , in the upper regions of the Little Caledon River . The park is situated in the Rooiberge of the eastern Free State , in the foothills of the Maluti Mountains . The Caledon River forms the southern boundary of the park as well as the border between the Free State and Lesotho . The highest peak in the park ( and also in the Free State ) is Ribbokkop at 2 @,@ 829 m ( 9 @,@ 281 ft ) .
The park is located in the eastern highveld region of South Africa , and experiences a dry sunny climate from June to August . It has showers , hails and thunderstorms between October and April . It has thick snowfalls in the winter . The park has a relatively high rainfall of 800 mm ( 31 in ) per year .
= = Vegetation = =
The park is an area of rich highveld and montane grassland flora . It has more than sixty grass species and a large variety of bulbs and herbs . Each of these species has its own flowering time , meaning that veld flowers can be seen throughout the summer . The park also has Afromontane forests and high @-@ altitude Austro @-@ Afro alpine grassland , which is scarce in South Africa . The ouhout ( Leucosidea sericea ) , an evergreen species , is the most common tree in the park . Ouhout is a favourite habitat of beetles and 117 species occur on these trees in the park . The Lombardi poplars and weeping willows in the park are introduced species , but are kept because of their cultural and historic connection with the eastern Free State . Other exotic species in the park , for example wattle and bluegum , are systematically eradicated .
= = Wildlife = =
Instead of reintroducing one of the " big five " into the park , the sungazer lizard and water mongoose were reintroduced . Twelve species of mice , ten species of carnivores and ten antelope species have been recorded in the park . The grey rhebuck and the mountain reedbuck were present when the park was established .
= = = Mammals = = =
= = = Birds = = =
Over 210 bird species have been observed in the park , including the rare bearded vulture and the endangered Cape vulture and bald ibis .
= = = Snakes and fishes = = =
Seven snake species , including the puff adder , mountain adder , and rinkhals are found in the park .
= = Geology and palaeontology = =
The geology of the park provides very visual " textbook " examples of Southern Africa 's geological history . The sandstone formations in the park form the upper part of the Karoo Supergroup . These formations were deposited during a period of aeolian deposition towards the end of the Triassic Period . At the time of deposition the climate of the area the park covers was becoming progressively drier until arid desert conditions set in , resulting in a land of dunes and sandy desert , with occasional scattered oases . The deposition of the sandstones ended when lava flowed out over the desert 190 million years ago .
The following sequence of geological formations are visible in the park ( starting from the bottom ) : the Molteno Formation , Elliott Formation , Clarens Formation , and the Drakensberg Formation . The yellow @-@ brown Golden Gate and Brandwag cliffs are made up of the Clarens formation . The layers in this formation are 140 to 160 metres ( 460 to 520 ft ) thick . The Drakensberg formation comprises the basaltic lava that flowed over the desert . It forms the mountain summits in the park . On Ribbokkop it is 600 meters ( 2 @,@ 000 feet ) thick . The Elliot Formation is a red mudstone where many dinosaur fossils have been found .
The oldest dinosaur embryos ever discovered were found in the park in 1978 . The eggs were from the Triassic Period ( 220 to 195 million years ago ) and had fossilised foetal skeletons of Massospondylus , a prosauropod dinosaur . More examples of these eggs have since been found in the park . Other fossils found in the park include those of advanced cynodontia ( canine toothed animals ) , small thecodontia ( animals with teeth set firmly in the jaw ) , bird @-@ like and crocodile @-@ like dinosaurs .
= = Accommodation = =
Accommodation in the park is available at Glen Reenen and Brandwag Rest camps . Caravaning and camping sites with all amenities are available at Glen Reenen camp . The hotel was formerly part of Brandwag camp , but since its recent refurbishment it is managed separately by SANParks as Golden Gate Hotel . The nearest town to Golden Gate Highlands National Park is Clarens ( 17 km to the west ) , but Phuthaditjhaba is also easily reached via a good tar road , driving through the access gate to the east of the park .
= Agent Carter ( season 2 ) =
The second season of the American television series Agent Carter , which is inspired by the 2011 film Captain America : The First Avenger and the 2013 Marvel One @-@ Shot short film of the same name , features the Marvel Comics character Peggy Carter as she moves to Los Angeles to deal with the threats of the new atomic age in the wake of World War II , gaining new friends , a new home , and potential new love . It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , sharing continuity with the films of the franchise . The season , which aired on ABC from January 19 to March 1 , 2016 , over 10 episodes , was produced by ABC Studios , Marvel Television , and F & B Fazekas & Butters , with Tara Butters , Michele Fazekas , and Chris Dingess serving as showrunners .
In May 2015 , a second season of Agent Carter was ordered , with Hayley Atwell , who reprises her role from the film series and One @-@ Shot as Carter , returning to star . Alongside her , James D 'Arcy , Chad Michael Murray , and Enver Gjokaj also return from the first season . Filming took place in Los Angeles in late 2015 , with the season contrasting the lives of Carter and the Hedy Lamarr @-@ inspired Whitney Frost , portrayed by recurring guest star Wynn Everett . Visual and practical effects were mixed to realize the setting and more fantastical elements of the series , while David Zippel and Louis van Amstel provided a musical dream sequence for the season . Other characters from previous MCU media also appear , as well as elements shared with the films and the television series Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.
The season aired during the season three mid @-@ season break of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , receiving generally positive reviews , with critics praising the performances , particularly those of Atwell and D 'Arcy , as well as the setting and the character development of Whitney Frost . However , some elements , such as the season 's ending and humor , were criticized , and viewership for the season was low . ABC canceled Agent Carter on May 12 , 2016 .
= = Episodes = =
= = Cast and characters = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In January 2015 , showrunners Michele Fazekas and Tara Butters confirmed that Agent Carter was not intended to be a miniseries , and that a possible second season would not necessarily be limited to eight episodes like the first . The series was renewed for a second season on May 7 , 2015 , intended to debut in 2016 of the 2015 – 16 season during the midseason break of the third season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Later in May , Hayley Atwell stated the season would consist of 10 episodes . Butters explained that this would probably not allow for any standalone episodes , " but I definitely think it allows for more character , because we can have more personal stories built into the framework of the overall arching mystery " .
= = = Writing = = =
Before the second season was announced , Fazekas said that " We 've certainly been talking about what a second season would look like ... what 's great about the structure of this show is , you can tell so many different stories and go so many different directions . " Thus , Butters said of the first season storyline featuring Leviathan , " we wrapped up that story " already , with Toby Jones ' cameo as Arnim Zola in the first season finale just " a fun tie @-@ in " rather than something that would be followed up on in the second season . Series creators Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely revealed they " had a really nice story about who Peggy is and where she came from " that did not make it into the first season , but they hoped could be explored in a second , while Fazekas and Butters also revealed that there had been a story about Carter having " a night out with the girls " to explore her personal life , as well as more material for the character Angie , that they felt would both be easier to tell in a second season .
Season two is set in 1947 , approximately six months to a year following the events of the first , with the time jump made to show " people are in a little bit different positions , and things have happened between these seasons that we maybe don 't know about . " Fazekas noted that " the challenge " for the season was to find a way to reunite Carter with Edwin Jarvis since he is " not an agent .... that 's a really important relationship , how do we keep them together ? ... The nice thing about Peggy this season is she 's not having to hide her agenda from the SSR . [ Jarvis ] is helping her out , just in a different way . " Elaborating on the SSR 's role in the season , Fazekas explained that when Markus and McFeely created the organisation for Captain America : The First Avenger it was inspired by the Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) , which was " somewhat disbanded after the war , because it was created because of World War II . So now that the war is over , things are changing . And in real history , the OSS sort of became the CIA and some of its other functions went under other departments . There 's a little bit of change going on within SSR and so Thompson [ is now the New York SSR chief , but he ] has a boss [ in Vernon Masters ] that 's going to be saying , " Look , things are changing , and you need to look out for yourself . " " The season also sees Daniel Sousa promoted to the chief of the Los Angeles SSR office .
The fictional company Isodyne Energy , who is involved with nuclear testing in the desert , was influenced by the real life 1940s companies such as Radiodyne , General Atomic or the beginnings of the Jet Propulsion Lab , " all of which were in L.A. in the ' 40s , and were developing the space program and were developing nukes . " Additionally , the season avoids depicting real life Hollywood stars from the 1940s because " the focus would shift from story to : does that person look or sound like an actor ? " Instead , the character Whitney Frost is depicted as an actress " who will have a part to play in our larger storyline . " The season introduces the Council of Nine , based on the Secret Empire , who " meet at the Arena Club , which is like this social club of white guys . They 're just the guys who sort of run the world . They have orchestrated assassinations . We insinuate that they orchestrated the 1929 Stock Market crash . " Members of the Council include powerful businessmen Calvin Chadwick and Hugh Jones , and their influence extends to " high levels of the government " as seen with War Department veteran Vernon Masters . Despite close similarities between the ' A ' symbol of the Arena Club and a Hydra symbol introduced in the third season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , Fazekas stated that she " would not say " there was a connection between the Council and Hydra .
With the introduction of Jason Wilkes and Frost , both considered " outsiders " as Carter was in the first season , co @-@ showrunner Chris Dingess noted how their arcs in the season would be similar , yet different to Carter 's , saying " I think everyone , to get to that place of getting respect , has a different road to get there . Everyone makes different choices along the way that define that road and I think with these three characters , everyone has a distinct , separate path . " Atwell spoke specifically about the season 's approach to diversity and prejudice , and noted that the series ' crew had expanded to include African American and Asian writers as well as a female director . " Since the first season heavily focused on a woman in a man 's world , " Atwell said , " we 're now going into more diversity and we 're investigating different prejudices within this time and one of them absolutely would have been race , as we all know .... if you have a staunchly white male cast then it might be more accurate of the time , but it becomes less relatable to our audiences , especially when the Marvel world 's so diverse . " On the racism issue , Butters stated , " We didn 't want to just have an African @-@ American character and not talk about that . That would have been very inauthentic . " As for the sexism Frost faces , Gina McIntrye and Andrea Towers of Entertainment Weekly saw similarities with Marvel 's Jessica Jones when Frost is asked to smile by two different men in her flashbacks in " Smoke & Mirrors " . Towers said , " The talent agent [ who asks Frost to smile ] may not be the Purple Man , but Whitney is certainly being ushered into a brainwashed mindset that will set her on a path she can 't deviate from easily . "
At the conclusion of the season
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, Fazekas recalled the potential story revolving around Carter having a girls night out , saying that they realized that " once Peggy is on the mission , it starts to become difficult for her to have a social life ... we kept sort of punting that scene because every time we tried to do it , it was like , ' She 's not going to stop to go out to dinner . She has the world to save . ' " Also , they felt they were not properly servicing Angie 's character , instead " just sticking her in scenes just to be there , " resulting in the decision to ultimately not bring Angie back for the season as planned . In her place , the characters of Ana Jarvis and Rose Roberts are featured as confidante 's for Carter , " both people who are 100 % in on Peggy 's secret . Angie sort of figures it out at the end of the first season but Ana and Rose — there is no need to hide the truth from them . So it makes it a lot easier for her to confide in them . "
= = = Casting = = =
Atwell , James D 'Arcy , Chad Michael Murray , and Enver Gjokaj return from the first season to star as Peggy Carter , Edwin Jarvis , Jack Thompson , and Daniel Sousa , respectively . By July 2015 , Bridget Regan ( Dottie Underwood ) and Lyndsy Fonseca ( Angie Martinelli ) were negotiating contracts to also return for the season . At Fan Expo Canada the next month , Atwell confirmed that Regan would return for the season , with Dominic Cooper and Lesley Boone later also confirmed to be reprising their roles , respectively as Howard Stark and Rose Roberts . In December 2015 , Fonseca was confirmed to return for a dream sequence in " A Little Song and Dance " . Also returning for the second season is Ray Wise as Hugh Jones .
In August 2015 , it was revealed that the character Whitney Frost would appear in the season , and Currie Graham was cast as her husband , Calvin Chadwick , the owner of Isodyne Energy . In October , Wynn Everett was revealed to be cast as Frost ; Reggie Austin was cast as physicist Jason Wilkes ; Lotte Verbeek was cast in the role of Ana Jarvis , the wife of Edwin Jarvis ; and Kurtwood Smith was revealed to be recurring as Vernon Masters , a veteran of the War Department . The next month , Ken Marino was cast as Joseph Manfredi , leader of the Maggia crime syndicate . Additionally , Matt Braunger was cast as SSR lab tech Aloysius Samberly , and Rey Valentin was cast as SSR Agent Vega .
The dream sequence in " A Little Song and Dance " , dubbed an informal crossover with Dancing with the Stars , features many of the professional dancers from that series , including Louis van Amstel , Dmitry Chaplin , Karina Smirnoff , Anna Trebunskaya , Sasha Farber , and Damian Whitewood . Dancers Robert Roldan , Malene Ostergaard , Amanda Balen , Serge Onik , Jenya Shatilova , Lacey Escabar , Alla Kocherga , and Paul Kirkland are also featured in the sequence .
= = = Design = = =
Series costume designer Giovanna Ottobre @-@ Melton took inspiration from the films LA Confidential , Chinatown , and Who Framed Roger Rabbit to " represent the West Coast " , and the " sunshine noir " feel of the era for the season . The then @-@ just introduced " Dior New Look " is also referenced " with longer hemlines on supporting players . " The dream sequence at the beginning of " A Little Song and Dance " was choreographed by van Amstel and begins in black and white , before transitioning to color . Head of make @-@ up Debra LaMia Denaver explained that for the Zero Matter " wound " on Frost 's face , the " guidelines were for it to be like a cracked porcelain doll and then the black matter would come from inside out . From there , Jay [ Wejebe , makeup artist ] designed the prosthetics that we use and Robin [ Beauchesne , key makeup artist ] created all the different avenues the dark matter takes . " Using reference photographs and pre @-@ made prosthetics , the make @-@ up team were ultimately able to apply the effect to Everett in 30 minutes .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming for the season began on August 31 , and ended on December 19 , 2015 , with Edward J. Pei serving as director of photography . Unlike the first season , episodes were filmed concurrently , two at a time . Discussing the series ' location move , Head of Marvel Television Jeph Loeb explained that " Agent Carter season one took place in New York in 1946 . It wasn 't like we could go to New York and find 1946 , so we shot in L.A. But that 's part of the reason that when we talked about it , we said , ' You know what ? This season let 's stay in L.A. ' Because so much of L.A. still looks like it did in 1946 . " Butters expanded by saying the move to L.A. " was something we had talked about in the middle of the first season ... [ and ] we realized that not only was it a good idea for the storytelling , but also ... it 's much easier for us to shoot L.A. for L.A. than try to shoot L.A. for New York . " She added the season hoped to film at Musso & Frank Grill , the Formosa Cafe , the Griffith Observatory , racetracks , piers , and other locations in Downtown Los Angeles .
The Universal Studios backlot serves as the backlot for the film studio Stark starts , Stark Pictures , with filming also taking place at the Los Angeles River . The Dunbar Hotel , a famous jazz club where both African @-@ Americans and Caucasians would attend , is portrayed in the season . The showrunners looked to the films LA Confidential , Chinatown , The Big Heat , and The Lady from Shanghai when shaping the visuals for the season , with additional research provided by Pei . Butters said , " it doesn 't feel like a different show . It just feels like an evolution of the show . "
= = = Visual effects = = =
DNeg TV provided the visual effects for the season , with Sheena Duggal returning as visual effects supervisor . Effects created for the season included the Zero Matter and its related properties , such as people being frozen and shattered by it , the dimensional rifts and the levitated objects that get sucked into them , and Wilkes becoming intangible . Frost 's Zero Matter " crack " on her face was also augmented with visual effects , to add depth , sentience , and an " infinite black " by color @-@ correcting the image , with the effects animators studying " cracking glass to better capture the animation effect . " 20 cast members were digitally scanned and modeled for interaction with Zero Matter , while many other instances required facial tracking markers on actors . For the Zero Matter itself , the design was described as a cross between " liquid spiders " and magnetic ferrofluid , the latter being used as an on set reference for the actors by Duggal . The main dimensional rifts were designed as black holes , based on the work of theoretical physicist Kip Thorne , which also inspired Double Negative 's visual effects for Interstellar ; the software developed for the film was reused for the series . DNeg TV also worked on Howard Stark 's Hover car , using the original computer asset for the version seen in Captain America : The First Avenger . Despite the original car from the film being only a shell and destroyed after the picture , an identical Cadillac was found for DNeg to laser scan and incorporate into the episode along with the real car when it is parked on the ground .
= = = Music = = =
The dance number used in the dream sequence from " A Little Song and Dance " was an original song from lyricist David Zippel and series composer Christopher Lennertz , in conjunction with Butters and Fazekas . Titled " Whatcha Gonna Do ( It 's Up to You ) " , the single was performed by Atwell and Gjokaj along with the Hollywood Studio Symphony , and was released on iTunes on March 18 , 2016 .
= = = Marvel Cinematic Universe tie @-@ ins = = =
In July 2015 , Butters revealed that the season would feature the Darkforce , which ties to the characters Doctor Strange and Marcus Daniels , the latter having appeared in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. In January 2016 , Fazekas elaborated , saying that the Darkforce , known as Zero Matter in the series , is the result of a nuclear test gone wrong by Isodyne Energy . Looking to the history of the Darkforce in the comics , Fazekas and Butters " were able to select what we liked and sort of make our own rules as to what it does , how it operates , and who it affects in our world . " The producers tried to take a scientific approach to the explanation of the Zero Matter , consulting with theoretical physicist Clifford Johnson to help ground it in science . Johnson provided the science equations seen on blackboards throughout the season , as well as real world reference for the Zero Matter containment systems . The showrunners also conversed with Eric Carroll at Marvel Studios to ensure anything they were doing with the Darkforce would not contradict the Doctor Strange script , and to see if they could destroy Howard Stark 's hover car , which was originally seen as a prototype in Captain America : The First Avenger . The mention in the season finale of the land Stark owns in Malibu is a reference to what will become the location for the home of his son , Tony , in the MCU films .
= = Release = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
Season two of Agent Carter premiered on January 19 , 2016 on ABC with a two @-@ hour premiere , during the midseason break of the third season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. It was originally scheduled to premiere on January 5 , 2016 , but was delayed due to an " earlier than usual " 2016 State of the Union Address . The season aired until March 1 , 2016 .
= = = Marketing = = =
Footage from the first episode was screened at New York Comic Con in October 2015 , while the first trailer for the season was released in November . Alice Walker of Screen Rant felt that " this promo highlights the best parts of the show . Fast paced and slick , Atwell is still incredibly charming .... There is a long way to go before we see if they can build on the momentum from the previous season , but so far it looks like a fun adventure . " Conversely , Kaitlin Thomas at TV.com called the promo " weird " , asking , " Why is ABC marketing Agent Carter like it 's one of the network 's casually daft melodramas instead of a well @-@ written drama [ ? ] ... From a tonal and thematic standpoint , the series depicted in that trailer feels like the polar opposite of what it actually is .... cutting together a bunch of scenes of Peggy punching people or holding a gun does not make her a badass when its framed in this way , and frankly , it 's no wonder people aren 't tuning in if that 's the type of show they think this is . " In March 2016 , Maureen Ryan , writing for Variety , described the season 's promotion as " lackluster " , and blamed it , as well as other factors that included " the botched rollout of Season 2 " , on the season 's ultimately poor viewership .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 80 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 @.@ 9 / 10 based on 15 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " A move from New York to Hollywood gives Agent Carter new territory to explore , as the series continues to search for a storyline as dynamic as its heroine . " Mitchell Broussard at We Got This Covered graded the season premiere 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , calling it " Fantastic " and positively comparing it to Marvel 's Ant @-@ Man by saying " Agent Carter finds a way to make the smaller stakes of Peggy 's noir sandbox as tense , credible , and addictively watchable as any other addition to the MCU . " Broussard highlighted the performances of Atwell and D 'Arcy as well as the new casting additions , and called the season 's pacing , due to the small episode order , " exciting " . He noted that " some may be disappointed in the more restrained adultness of the show releasing so soon after Jessica Jones , but I think that ’ s the greatest thing about this world : each show feels different and its own thing , despite their close proximity . " Variety 's Brian Lowry was less positive , praising the casting and performances but saying , " Agent Carter feels too slavishly locked into the S.H.I.E.L.D. formula ... it 's sort of a shame Agent Carter isn ’ t more compelling , since the impeccable period trappings and costumes make the series a nice change of pace , at least visually . "
Eric Goldman of IGN gave the season an 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 , praising Atwell 's performance , as well as the return of Dottie in the season and the additions of Ana Jarvis and Whitney Frost . Conversely , he felt Reggie Austin as Jason Wilkes was likable , but ultimately the " character felt a bit bland " and that the humor in the season was pushed " a bit too far " . He concluded , " I don 't think [ the season ] was quite as tightly @-@ constructed as Season 1 and tonally , it sometimes wrestled with finding the right balance between the cool spy @-@ action elements and the likable comedic aspect ... But overall , it was another fun season filled with compelling characters — including a strong villain — and 1940s , Marvel @-@ flavored spy heroics , which benefitted from the new visuals the Los Angeles setting gave it . " Molly Freeman , reviewing the season finale for Screen Rant , called the season as a whole " Excellent " , particularly praising the character development given to the character of Whitney Frost , but criticized the way that the season ended that character 's storyline , stating that the finale " does a disservice to all the character development of Whitney throughout season 2 .... for the sake of sweeping her aside as easily as possible and giving the other cast members more development and screen time . After watching Agent Carter develop Whitney as such a powerful and sympathetic villain earlier this season , the way the show wrapped up her storyline is a disappointment . "
= = = Accolades = = =
For the season , the series was nominated for Best Superhero Adaptation Series at the 42nd Saturn Awards .
= The Sea Urchin ( 1913 film ) =
The Sea Urchin is a 1913 American silent short romantic drama film directed by Edwin August and starring Jeanie MacPherson and Lon Chaney . The film was the earliest known character role by Lon Chaney and the first screenplay by MacPherson . The story follows a hunchback fisherman , who finds a young girl and raised her into womanhood with the intention of marrying her . A handsome boy soon gains her affections and the hunchback threatens him with a knife . The next day , the boat tips over during an argument and the hunchback saves the girl . As the young lovers reunite , he sees how happy they are together and he takes his leave . The film was released on August 22 , 1913 and was played across the United States . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
A hunchback fisherman finds a young girl tied to a mast , the sole survivor of a shipwreck , and raises her into womanhood with the intention of making her his wife . Ten years pass and the woman , out of gratitude , promises to marry him . The hunchback hires a handsome stranger , the boy . The boy and the girl fall in love , but the girl refuses to marry him . The hunchback sees the two embrace and threatens the boy with a knife . The next day , the three go fishing in the boat and an argument breaks out . During the argument the boat tips over and the girl is washed away . The hunchback and the boy search for her , until the boy becomes exhausted and collapses on the shore . The hunchback finds the girl on a rock and brings her ashore . As the two reunite , he sees how happy they are together and takes his leave .
= = Cast = =
Jeanie MacPherson as The Girl
Lon Chaney as Barnacle Bill / Barnacle Ben
Robert Z. Leonard as The Boy / Bob
= = Production = =
The film was a Powers Picture Plays directed by Edwin August and distributed by the Universal Film Manufacturing Company . The film 's production number was 0101 . The screen play was written by Jeanie MacPherson who also played the role of The Girl . Simon Louvish , author of Cecil B. DeMille : A Life in Art , states this uncredited screenplay was the first one to be authored by MacPherson . Louvish also refers to this film as a two @-@ reeler . Lon Chaney and Robert Z. Leonard had previously worked together for the Ferris Hartman Troupe . Three years prior to the release of the film , the two were involved in the production of musical comedies for the Troupe . In 1918 , Leonard would later direct his wife , Mae Murry , and Lon Chaney in Danger , Go Slow .
= = Release and legacy = =
The film was released on August 22 , 1913 . The Moving Picture World said the film was a memorable offering that contained vivid scenes along a picturesque coast . In an advertisement in Rushville , Indiana the film as billed as the " story of a Hunchback 's Love and Renunciation " . The film was also advertised , perhaps alternatively or erroneously , as Sea Urchins . Advertisements for the film included theaters in Pennsylvania , Texas , Kansas , Louisiana , Indiana , Utah , and New York .
The film is important as the first known character role by Lon Chaney . Martin F. Norden , author of The Cinema of Isolation : A History of Physical Disability in the Movies , describes the plot as following the prevailing industry standards of disabled characters , where the figure " nobly " withdraws from the relationship after plotting revenge and then saving his beloved . Norden cites a quote from Chaney , saying this film made Chaney realize that " the screen was more interesting than the stage " . The film is now considered lost . It is unknown when the film was lost , but if it was in Universal 's vaults it would have been deliberately destroyed along with the remaining copies of Universal 's silent era films in 1948 .
= Mujaddid Ahmed Ijaz =
Mujaddid Ahmed Ijaz , Ph.D. ( Urdu : مجدد احمد اعجا ز ; June 12 , 1937 — July 9 , 1992 ) , was a Pakistani @-@ American experimental physicist noted for his role in discovering new isotopes that expanded the neutron @-@ deficient side of the atomic chart . Some of the isotopes he discovered enabled significant advances in medical research , particularly in the treatment of cancer , and further advanced the experimental understanding of nuclear structures . Ijaz conducted his research work at Oak Ridge National Laboratories ( ORNL ) . He and his ORNL colleagues published more than 60 papers in physics journals announcing isotope discoveries and other results of their accelerator experiments from 1968 until 1983 .
Ijaz participated in the U.S. Atoms for Peace initiative during the 1970s . The program provided a number of third @-@ world countries , including Pakistan , with civilian nuclear reactor technology to develop energy for peaceful purposes . As a tenured professor of Physics at Virginia Tech , he acted as thesis adviser to graduate students from around the world in experimental physics disciplines . Ijaz made extensive trips abroad during his career , including sabbaticals as a visiting professor at Saudi Arabia 's King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals. in the early 1980s and as a visiting faculty member at the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics in Trieste , Italy in 1985 . He retired Professor Emeritus of Physics from Virginia Tech in December 1991 after a 27 @-@ year career in teaching and research . Ijaz and his wife emigrated to the United States and settled in Virginia , where had five children . He died in 1992 after a battle with cancer .
= = Early life and education = =
Mujaddid Ijaz was born on June 12 , 1937 in Baddomalhi , British Indian Empire . His father was a medical student who died in his mid @-@ 20s of brain cancer . His mother , a homemaker , remarried . He was the third of ten children in his family . Ijaz 's early education was made at rural village schools near Baddomalhi . He attended Islamia High School in Lahore . His early interest in science and physics was attributed to his step @-@ father 's work in the local meteorology department .
After graduating from high school and finishing college entrance exam requirements , Ijaz was admitted to Government College in Lahore . There , he majored in physics and graduated with a B.Sc. in 1957 . He continued advanced studies under the tutelage of Prof. Rafi Muhammad Chaudhry , widely considered a pioneer in Pakistani experimental physics , until 1959 when he met Razia Begum Nazir . They later married and emigrated to the United States in 1960 .
Ijaz and his wife arrived in Tallahassee , Florida in August 1960 , where they settled as incoming graduate students at Florida State University . He developed an early interest in particle physics and accelerator experiments while at Florida State , from where he graduated in June 1962 with a master 's degree in Physics . His thesis was titled Study of Angular Distributions of Elastically Scattered 8 to 19 Mev Alpha Particles from Al27 and from Ohio University in May 1964 with a Ph.D. in Nuclear Physics with a thesis titled Proton @-@ Proton Collisions at 2 @.@ 0 BeV .
= = Academic and scientific research career = =
= = = Virginia Polytechnic Institute = = =
Mujaddid Ijaz joined the faculty of the Virginia Tech Physics department in September 1964 as an Assistant Professor of Physics . In his early years as a faculty member , Ijaz devoted much of his time to his teaching responsibilities , including acting as adviser to the university 's roster of graduate students and doctoral candidates . He conducted his early research at the Physics department 's newly installed nuclear reactor , which at the time was equipped with a neutron activation analysis laboratory . Ijaz 's early experimental results earned him an appointment as research collaborator at the Oak Ridge National Laboratories in 1966 under a University Isotope Separator at Oak Ridge ( UNISOR ) grant funded by the U.S. Energy Department .
In 1974 , Ijaz launched a Distinguished Visitors Colloquium Series under the Physics department 's sponsorship that brought world @-@ renowned physicists to the Blacksburg campus for nearly a decade . Visiting scholars included Salam , Sheldon Glashow , and Nobel physics laureates Hans Bethe , Robert Hofstadter , Eugene Wigner and Richard Feynman . Noted Chinese physicist Luke W. Mo ( whose group at the Stanford Linear Accelerator had won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1990 ) also lectured at Virginia Tech .
Ijaz attained the rank of Full Professor of Physics in 1977 , and during the same year served as acting head of the Physics department . After several foreign sabbaticals in the 1980s , the first at U.P.M. in Dhahran , Saudi Arabia from 1979 until 1981 and another at I.C.T.P. in 1985 , he continued his teaching duties at Virginia Tech until retirement in December 1991 as Professor Emeritus of Physics . During the latter part of his career , Ijaz published papers that focused on methods and results in teaching , religion and science and other aspects of physics that did not form part of his technical research in earlier years . Also a physicist and teaching researcher at Virginia Tech , Lubna Razia Ijaz established a scholarship in 1996 that is awarded to students involved in physics education .
= = = Oak Ridge National Laboratories = = =
Mujaddid Ijaz began his research work at the Oak Ridge National Laboratories ( ORNL ) in 1966 under Virginia Tech funding contributed to the UNISOR program . UNISOR was a consortium at that time of 13 institutions whose research scientists were collaborating at Oak Ridge supported by U.S. Energy Department grants together with Oak Ridge Associated Universities , of which Virginia Tech was one . Ijaz 's research focused on the discovery of new isotopes using ORNL 's High Flux Isotope Reactor . The reactor was built in 1965 with the highest neutron flux of any reactor at the time . It produced more medical isotopes while allowing higher fidelity of materials research than any other reactor available in the U.S. Energy Department 's science and energy laboratory system during the 1970s . Ijaz and his colleagues at Oak Ridge , led by Kenneth S. Toth , used the High Flux Reactor to discover new isotopes and map characteristics of existing isotopes , including isotopes of Erbium , Ytterbium , Thulium , Osmium , Hafnium , Tungsten , Mercury , Titanium , and Lead . In December 1982 , physicists at the University of Arizona used the mercury isotopes discovered by Toth , Ijaz et al. to successfully model behavior expected of heavier particles than traditional accelerator experiments could produce at the time due to energy limitations .
During the 1970s , Ijaz participated in the Atoms for Peace initiative created by President Eisenhower in 1953 to help the post @-@ World War II international community cope with nuclear power . Pakistan 's first facility , a 5 MW PARR @-@ I pool @-@ type facility , was provided by the United States in 1965 . The reactor began operations on December 21 , 1965 under the supervision of Pakistani scientists led by Abdus Salam .
= = = Notable collaborations = = =
Mujaddid Ijaz collaborated with notable physicists and mathematicians throughout his 27 @-@ year career . Most notable among these were his collaborations with Abdus Salam whose groundbreaking work in electroweak interactions together with American physicists Steven Weinberg and Sheldon Glashow earned them the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 .
In 1976 , Salam recommended creating an international forum for the advancement of science and technology to be hosted by Pakistan in the Hazara region while serving as Science Advisor to the Prime Minister of Pakistan . Since then , the Nathiagali Physics Conferences has gathered notable scientists from around the world during summer breaks to break the intellectual isolation faced by Pakistani scientists . Ijaz participated in these conferences several times during the mid @-@ 1970s under National Science Foundation grants . He was also a member of the National Academy of Sciences and a fellow of the American Physical Society .
= = Personal life = =
Mujaddid Ijaz married Razia Begum ( nee Nazir ) in June 1960 prior to emigrating to the United States . Razia later took her husband 's chosen name , Lubna , when they both became naturalized American citizens on January 5 , 1970 . They had five children : Mansoor , Farouk , Atif and Mujeeb . Neelam , their only daughter , was born in Pakistan .
The Ijazes initially settled in Blacksburg , where Virginia Tech was situated , and lived there from 1964 until 1969 . After several years of living in the rural community of Floyd , Virginia , they returned to Christiansburg , a township near Virginia Tech , in 1973 , building a home in the Appalachian Mountains that today remains the family 's homestead .
Mujaddid Ijaz died on July 9 , 1992 at his home in Shawsville , Virginia of complications arising from a protracted battle with brain and lung cancer . He was buried in traditional Muslim rituals at the site of his most favored farm in Alum Ridge , surrounded by a large gathering of his family from around the United States and his physics colleagues and friends from southwestern Virginia . President George H. W. Bush consoled Ijaz 's widow in a letter dated July 24 , 1992 .
= = Selected publications = =
J. E. Campbell ; M. A. Ijaz ( 1969 ) . " A study of resonance production in six @-@ pronged Pi @-@ P interactions at 7 @.@ 0 GeV / c " . Nuclear Physics B , vol . 12 , pp. 549 @-@ 560 .
M. A. Ijaz ; J. E. Campbell ( 1969 ) . " Distribution of transverse and longitudinal momentum in π − p interactions at 7 @.@ 0 GeV / c " . Nuovo Cimento Della Societa Italiana Di Fisica A , vol . 61 , no . 2 , pp. 307 @-@ 319 .
M. A. Ijaz ; J. E. Campbell ; A. Naeem ( 1968 ) . " Transverse momentum distribution of pions in two and six prong events from pi--p collisions at 7 @.@ 0 GeV / c " . Canadian Journal of Physics , vol . 46 .
M. A. Ijaz ; J. Campbell ( 1968 ) . " Some characteristic features of six prong pi @-@ p interactions at 7 @.@ 0 GeV / c " . Nuclear Physics B , vol . 7 , pp. 175 @-@ 182 .
= Princes Street , Dunedin =
Princes Street ( often misspelt as " Princess Street " ) is a major street in Dunedin , the second largest city in the South Island of New Zealand . It runs south @-@ southwest for two kilometres from The Octagon in the city centre to the Oval sports ground , close to the city 's Southern Cemetery . North of The Octagon , George Street continues the line of Princes Street north @-@ northeast for two and a half kilometres . Princes Street is straight and undulates as it skirts the edge of the City Rise to its northwest . The part of the street immediately below The Octagon is the steepest section , as the road traverses an old cutting through Bell Hill .
Princes Street was developed during Dunedin 's 1860s boom from the Central Otago gold rush , and consequently is one of New Zealand 's most historic streets , with about 70 buildings in close proximity listed on the New Zealand Historic Places Trust Register . Originally the site of the city 's wharf , a substantial area of land to the east of the street was formerly part of Otago Harbour , much of it reclaimed via rock removed during the lowering of Bell Hill which separated Princes Street from northern Dunedin in the early years of settlement . In the years following the gold rush , Princes Street was the heart of Dunedin 's central business district , but much of the city 's main retail area has now shifted north to George Street .
= = History = =
In the early years of Dunedin 's settlement , much of the city 's growth was on two areas of reasonably flat land close to the harbour , separated by the large Bell Hill and an area of low swampy land . The northern of these two flat areas surrounded the floodplain of the Water of Leith , a small river that runs through Dunedin . As the city grew the swamp was drained to become the new city 's centre , and the hill was lowered by excavation to allow access between the two areas of settlement . A street grid was set up with the main road split in two by the city centre ( now The Octagon ) - Princes Street to the south and George Street to the north . As with many of the city 's other place names , both these names and that of the Water of Leith reflect the names of places in Edinburgh .
In the settlement 's early days , Bell Hill proved a major obstacle to travel south of the city centre , and major excavation work was carried out to provide access to the south . A cutting was made in the hill in 1858 , and during the 1860s the hill was lowered by some 14 metres ( 46 ft ) . The cutting allowed for the passage of transport between the two parts of the town . The southern flank of the hill was also completely removed ( that area now being occupied by Queen 's Gardens ) . The stone removed from the hill was used as construction material for many of the city 's first permanent buildings , and also as fill to reclaim the northern end of the Southern Endowment along the edge of the harbour . This reclamation work added a considerable area to the central city ; the original docks , close to the Exchange area of Princes Street , are now several hundred metres inland .
The area of Princes Street between the Exchange and Market Reserve was a frequent source of dispute in the early years of European settlement . This area , at that time on the foreshore of Otago Harbour was a traditional landing site for Māori waka . Captain Cargill , the founder of the new city , wished to follow the British practice of keeping the foreshore as public land . As the town spread , the area around the landing site became populated by settlers , and visiting Maori relied on the coastal strip as a place to set up their encampments . The southern Commissioner for Crown Lands , Walter Mantell noted the problem and proposed to his superiors in Wellington that a site be found at which the Māori could erect permanent structures , naming the Princes Street foreshore as the preferred site . Mantell and Cargill , who had been bitter political opponents for the control of the early settlement , quickly found themselves at loggerheads over the proposal , and disputes over the ownership and allocation of the land dragged on for over two decades , finally being settled in the courts in 1877 .
In the years following the Central Otago Gold Rush of the 1860s Dunedin grew rapidly , with much of the growth being centred on Princes Street . In the city 's early years this road was notorious for its unformed rough nature , a consequence of the work on Bell Hill , and led to Dunedin 's early nickname of " Mud @-@ edin " . The prosperity brought by the gold rush led to a boom in construction , and within a handful of years , the area around lower Princes Street became the most prosperous in the country . Many of the prominent grand buildings of this part of Dunedin date from this period , and numerous structures in the area have New Zealand Historic Places Trust classification as a result .
There is a considerable photographic record of early Princes Street , largely thanks to the presence in the street of the studios of the Burton Brothers , pioneering New Zealand photographers . Many of their images , and those of other early Dunedin photographers , were collated and published in a series of books by photographic historian Hardwicke Knight , one of which — a collection of photographic works by Daniel Louis Mundy — was entitled Princes Street by gaslight ( 1977 ) .
Several notable companies have either been founded or had their headquarters in Princes Street . Notable among these were The Drapery and General Importing Company of New Zealand , later simply known as The D.I.C. , Hallenstein 's , and H.E. Shacklock . The first New Zealand headquarters of Briscoes were also located on Princes Street .
= = Route = =
= = = The " Top 100 " = = =
From the Octagon , Princes Street initially rises as it passes through a commercial district formerly commonly known as the Top 100 , crossing the outer Octagon of Moray Place before descending through the original cutting of Bell Hill towards the Exchange . The Top 100 theoretically takes its name from the 100 retail businesses which line Princes Street from the Octagon to the Exchange , although the actual number of businesses is not one hundred . This part of the city is sometimes seen as the creative heart of Dunedin , with numerous art galleries , video production companies , and the city 's professional theatre ( the Fortune Theatre ) all being based in the area from Moray Place to Rattray Street .
Some parts of the Bell Hill cutting are still visible from Princes Street , though the most obvious escarpment of the hill is found between Moray Place and Queen 's Gardens , close to First Church . From Princes Street , the most notable part of the cutting is at Dowling Street , 300 metres south of the Octagon . Dowling Street narrows significantly above this intersection . The Dowling Street Steps , a 1926 structure listed by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust , rise from close to the Princes Street @-@ Dowling Street intersection , ascending a cliff that was formed as a result of the original work on Bell Hill .
= = = The Exchange = = =
The Exchange , on Princes Street 400 metres south of The Octagon , was the original financial heart of the city , but the CBD has drifted north to its current location on George Street . Princes Street still contains many of the city 's older and more stately business properties , particularly in the few blocks from The Exchange south . This area is also the lowest part of the street , as it descends from the remains of Bell Hill . This area , now several hundred metres inland from the edge of the Otago Harbour , was the site of the original landing place of settlers from the two ships which brought the Otago Association 's settlers to Dunedin . The two ships , the John Wickliffe and the Philip Laing , arrived in early 1848 . As they could not negotiate the harbour , they set anchor at the Otago Heads . Settlers from the ships travelled by smaller rowing boat from there to Dunedin . Massive reclamation of the area led to the creation of a wide strip of land , since occupied by commercial premises , warehousing , and the main rail line . The original nature of the site is reflected in the names of Jetty Street and Water Street , both of which cross Princes Street close to the Exchange . This part of Princes Street was at one point the location of a bridge across a small stream , the Toitu Stream , now diverted underground . A spring which fed the stream is still used as the source of water for Speight 's Brewery , which is located 200 metres to the northwest on Rattray Street .
The former Exchange Building , from which The Exchange takes its name , was an impressive structure , designed by William Mason as a Post Office and later occupied by the University of Otago and the Otago Museum . Next to this was the 1863 Customhouse building , and outside the two was an open space known as Customhouse Square . The Exchange building was pulled down in 1969 , and it was largely the destruction of this building that led to changes in attitudes by Dunedinites regarding the change of their cityscape . Since this time , changes to the city 's old buildings have been met with vociferous protests . The Customhouse building is also long since gone . Today , the site of the buildings is the location of Dunedin 's biggest office block , John Wickliffe House , and the nearby John Wickliffe Plaza . Both are named for the John Wickliffe , the first of the two ships which brought the Otago Association 's settlers to Dunedin ( a nearby building , Philip Laing House , is named for the other of these two ships ) . Despite this , the area is the site of several prominent Victorian buildings , notably former bank buildings at the northern end of the area . Other imposing buildings in the area include the Chief Post Office building , the proposed site of a hotel , and - one block to the east - Consultancy House , a seven @-@ storey 1908 building regarded ( by dint of its construction methods ) as Dunedin 's first skyscraper . John Wickliffe Plaza is also the site of one of Dunedin 's more notable public monuments , dedicated to city founder Captain William Cargill . This monument , designed by Charles Robert Swyer and built in 1863 @-@ 4 , was originally sited in the Octagon , but was moved to the Exchange in 1872 .
The Exchange was at one time a complex intersection with two busy streets , Rattray Street and High Street . These lead from State Highway 1 at Queen 's Gardens ( an open park containing the city 's main war memorial , Dunedin Cenotaph , close to which lies the Otago Settlers ' Museum and the Dunedin Chinese Garden ) 200 metres to the east of Princes Street , to the older hill suburbs to the west . Though these streets originally both crossed Princes Street , civic planning has reduced High Street at the intersection to a minor road , and John Wickliffe Plaza now covers part of the original intersection . Apart from the Cargill Monument , the Plaza contains several other items of public sculpture , notably a series of three small brass penguins called " We are not alone " , sculpted by Parry Jones and unveiled in 1999 . A Historic Places Trust blue plaque at the foot of the Cargill Monument marks the location of the first Salvation Army meeting in New Zealand , held at the site in April 1883 .
= = = Below the Exchange = = =
The lower Exchange and area immediately to the south of it contains some other notable buildings , including several of Dunedin 's more notable former and current public houses . Among these are Wain 's Hotel , the Provincial Hotel ( at the foot of Stafford Street ) , the Empire Tavern , and the former Prince of Wales Hotel . Wain 's Hotel , immediately opposite the former Post Office building , is an imposing Italianate structure built in 1878 from designs by Mason and Wales . The Empire Tavern also has a long history , and claims to be Dunedin 's oldest pub , having been continuously licensed since 1858 . Its recent past is closely tied with the Dunedin Sound music scene of the 1980s , of which it was a principal venue . Prior to its gutting by fire in the 1980s , the Prince of Wales Hotel , a block further down Princes Street , was noted for an unusual gimmick , in that the upstairs restaurant facilities were extensively themed on old railway carriages , and included in their decor several original vintage pieces of rolling stock . The Prince of Wales was later ( 1992 – 2010 ) the location of one of the city 's top restaurants , Bell Pepper Blues .
Lower Princes Street rises slightly from the Exchange before dropping down , becoming flat for the final kilometre of its length . Here , there is a mix of commercial , wholesale , and light industrial properties , with only occasional retail shops . The street itself widens from thee crest below the Exchange , becoming a dual carriageway from this point south to the major junction at the southern end of the Oval . Several notable buildings are still found in the lower Princes Street area , among them the former H.E. Shacklock building and the Crown Roller Mills Building ; the latter in particular is a notable landmark .
The Crown Roller Mills building is not in Princes Street itself , but rather lies at the foot of Manor Place , close to its intersection with Princes Street . It stands at the edge of a small area of parkland called the Market Reserve , at the opposite edge of which is the city 's main bus depot . This area was swampland when the first European settlers arrived in Dunedin , but was reclaimed and did host a regular market for a few years from the 1870s . The market was not well @-@ supported , however , and eventually folded . The bus depot is located on the site of the city 's 1902 Tram workshops . The Market Reserve also contains a children 's playground and , at the edge closes to the Crown Roller Mills Building , a small monument dedicated to Otago workers who have lost their lives while at work . This simple bluestone memorial was erected in 2003 by the New Zealand Council of Trade Unions on a site donated by the Dunedin City Council .
At the bottom end of Princes Street is the former Dunedin Metropolitan Club building , now home to Natural History New Zealand , one of the country 's leading television production companies . Opposite this lies a large recreation reserve , which — despite its roughly triangular shape — is called the Oval , or more correctly , Kensington Oval . Kensington Oval contains mainly cricket and association football pitches , and also caters for rugby , hockey , and softball . The Oval also contains one of the city 's main war memorials , dedicated to the fallen of the Boer War campaign . This lies close to the Oval 's northernmost point . Close to the Oval are two major road junctions . At the north end , a link road connects Princes Street with the city 's one @-@ way street system ( part of State Highway 1 ) and with Anderson 's Bay Road , a major arterial route to South Dunedin and Otago Peninsula . The part of Princes Street close to the Oval , as well as several other nearby streets , is used annually as part of the Dunedin Street Circuit , a temporary inner city motor @-@ racing circuit used during the week @-@ long Southern Festival of Speed .
At the southern end of the Oval is a further junction , with Princes Street terminating in a link road to South Dunedin 's main street , King Edward Street , and a further road skirting the edge of a hilly spur to join South Road at the northern end of the suburb of Caversham . This latter road passes Dunedin 's Southern Cemetery , the oldest and arguably most historic of the city 's main cemeteries . The Southern Cemetery 's earliest graves are from 1858 , and it contains the remains of many of the city 's founding fathers , including Captain William Cargill , Thomas Burns , and Johnny Jones . The cemetery is notable for its large Chinese and Jewish sections .
= = Transport links = =
The top section of Princes Street , from the Octagon to the Exchange , has long been the hub of Dunedin 's public transport system . Buses from the north of the city largely pass along George Street and into the Octagon , those from the south pass into the southern end of Princes Street , and those from the hill suburbs arrive at the Octagon via Stuart Street or at the Exchange via High and Rattray Streets . Almost all of these use upper Princes Street between the Exchange and the Octagon as part of their route .
In the city 's early years trams followed many of these same routes . Until the demise of the system in the 1950s , this area was also at the heart of the Dunedin cable tramway system , with the longer lines running up the slopes of City Rise via High , Rattray , or Stuart Streets .
= = Heritage New Zealand listed buildings = =
Few , if any , streets in New Zealand contain as many New Zealand Historic Places Trust Category I or Category II protected buildings as Princes Street . These buildings include the following :
The Haynes ' Building , 42 @-@ 72 Princes St ( cnr . Princes St and Moray Place ) ( Category I ) . Often now known as the Savoy Building after the restaurant which is its main tenant , this four @-@ storey building was designed by Edmund Anscombe and completed in 1914 . The building , with its distinctive cupola , is a major landmark of upper Princes Street , lying one block south of the Octagon .
The Queen 's Building , 109 Princes St ( Category II ) . An early , if small , skyscraper , the five @-@ storey Queen 's Building was completed in 1929 on the site of the former Queen 's Theatre , to a design of J. Louis Salmond .
Excelsior Apartments , 33 Dowling Street ( cnr. of Dowling and Princes Sts ) ( Category II ) . Standing at the heart of Dunedin 's 19th century Central Business District , the Excelsior Apartments are an 1888 structure originally built as a tavern and hotel . The building was designed by Robert Forrest .
The National Bank Building , 193 Princes St ( Category I ) . Designed by William Dunning , an Australian architect , and Charles Fleming MacDonald , this building is reminiscent of many of the grander buildings in Melbourne and Sydney . Constructed in a neo @-@ Baroque style , it uses Tasmanian sandstone and trachyte as a major feature in its façade , and was completed in 1913 . Continuing the history of the building be tenanted by financial institutions , the building was for many years home to MTF , a vehicle finance company .
The Façade of the old Woolworth 's Building , 194 Princes St ( Category II ) .
The Bank of New Zealand Building , 205 Princes St ( cnr . Princes and High Sts ) ( Category I ) . Designed in Venetian Renaissance styling , the 1882 BNZ building stands just two doors along from the National Bank building . The William Armson @-@ designed building is notable for the richly carved exterior work by Louis Godfrey and moulded ceilings in its interior . The façade combines Doric , Ionic and Corinthian styles , and makes good use of Port Chalmers bluestone and Oamaru stone , a compact , cream @-@ coloured limestone .
The Southern Cross Hotel , 118 High St ( cnr . High and Princes Sts ) ( Category I ) . One of Dunedin 's principal hotels , the Southern Cross is housed in an impressive 1883 building designed by Louis Boldini . It occupies a prominent corner site in the heart of the Exchange . Formerly the Grand Hotel , the building has been extended considerably on several occasions in its history , and was considerably renovated in the 1980s , though most of its original features remain . The Southern Cross Hotel Building is home to Dunedin Casino .
The Clarion Building , 282 @-@ 292 Princes St ( Category II ) . This 1878 William Mason building was originally a major drapery store in the heart of what was then Dunedin 's retail district . The exterior is of Venetian Gothic style , though the interior has been largely redeveloped in recent years .
The Chief Post Office Building , 283 Princes St ( Category II ) . The Chief Post Office Building has not had an easy history . Designed by John Mair and the Governments Architects Office , construction was severely delayed by the Great Depression . Originally intended to be built in the early 1930s , it was not completed until 1937 . A sturdy and impressive structure , possibly modelled on some of the government architecture in vogue in the United Kingdom during this era , the building held Dunedin 's main post office branch until the late 1980s . Since this time it has lain largely empty ; many plans had been put forward for its use , including a hotel , a new site for the city 's public library , and offices for either the Dunedin City Council or Otago Regional Council . In 2013 , an extensive renovation of the lower few floors began , with Silver Fern Farms moving in on the ground and first floors as anchor tenant in February 2014 . Subsequently , other tenancies have been taken up by a gym and dance studio , and long @-@ term executive and hotel accommodation is planned for the remaining floors .
Wain 's Hotel , 310 Princes St ( Category I ) . Built in 1879 to a design by Mason & Wales , Wain 's Hotel remains Dunedin 's grandest hotel building , and reflects the opulence which followed the Central Otago Gold Rush of the 1860s . The interior has been substantially remodelled , but the exterior 's Italianate Renaissance façade remains largely intact . This latter features much intricate work by mason George Munro , notably the figures found carved within the panelled spandrels and supporting the façade 's oriel windows .
The ANZ Bank Building , Dunedin , 319 Princes St ( Category II ) . Robert Lawson 's 1874 Union Bank of Australasia building is the only classical temple form structure in Dunedin . It is a partner to the architect 's work on bank buildings in Oamaru , and features carved Corinthian columns by Godfrey . The building continued to be used as a bank until 1992 , and now houses a night club .
The H.E. Shacklock Building , 595 @-@ 625 Princes St ( Category II ) . The only listed manufacturing building in Princes Street , the Shacklock building covers a large site at the southern end of Princes Street opposite the Market Reserve .
The Cargill Monument at John Wickliffe Plaza is also listed ( Category I ) , as are numerous buildings and structures which lie close to the intersection of side roads with Princes Street ( e.g. , the Category I Crown Roller Mills Building in Manor Place and the Category II Dowling Street Steps ) .
= Tropical Depression Nine ( 2001 ) =
Tropical Depression Nine caused minor flooding in Central America in September 2001 . The ninth tropical cyclone of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season , the depression developed from a tropical wave in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on September 19 . Without significant intensification , the depression made landfall in Puerto Cabezas , Nicaragua early on September 20 , which was about six hours after becoming a tropical cyclone . Once inland over Central America , the depression significant deteriorated and dissipated later that day , after lasting for less than 24 hours . The remnants emerged into the Pacific Ocean and later developed into Hurricane Juliette . Impact from the depression was rather minor . Although sustained winds on land did not exceed 30 mph ( 55 km / h ) , a fallen tree injured three children in El Salvador . In addition , heavy rainfall flooded at least 200 homes in San Salvador and inundated 15 farms . The depression did not result in fatalities and damage caused by it is unknown .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean on September
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11 . After tracking westward for five days , the wave entered the Caribbean Sea on September 16 . Convection steadily increased in both coverage and intensity , and by September 19 , the system reached the southwestern Caribbean Sea . Satellite imagery and surface observations indicated that Tropical Depression Nine formed at 1800 UTC on September 19 , while located 50 miles ( 80 km ) north @-@ northwest of San Andres Island .
Initially , the depression had two centers of circulation , one east of Costa Rica and one east of Puerto Cabezas , Nicaragua . Because the thunderstorm activity was more intense and persistent at the northern circulation , advisories were initiated using the latter . Computer forecast models predicted that the depression would make landfall in Nicaragua and then enter the eastern Pacific Ocean within 36 hours . Other computer forecast models separated it into two systems , with the northern center going into the Bay of Campeche and the southern center going westward through Costa Rica and into the Pacific while strengthening into a " significant tropical cyclone " . Although only a tropical depression , upper level outflow was circular and was indicative of a more " mature " tropical cyclone .
At 0000 UTC on September 20 , the depression made landfall near Punta Cabezas , Nicaragua with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and weakening was immediately forecast . Three hours later , the National Hurricane Center issued its final advisory , as the lower level center became poorly defined because of interaction with the mountains of Central America and deep thunderstorm activity had significantly diminished . The National Hurricane Center noted the possibility of regeneration , if the circulation entered into the Pacific Ocean within a few days . Although the depression never redeveloped , the remnant tropical wave emerged into the Pacific Ocean and contributed to the development of Hurricane Juliette on September 21 .
= = Preparations and Impact = =
Upon development of the tropical depression , a tropical storm watch was issued from Bluefields , Nicaragua to Dangriga , Belize . When the depression made landfall , this warning was discontinued . Residents in El Salvador were advised to avoid rivers due to possible flooding but no mandatory evacuations were put in place . A green alert was issued in Nicaragua due to the threat of heavy rains and high winds . This alert remained in effect until September 21 . Three children were injured by a fallen tree in the country . The highest sustained winds on land from the depression were reported at Punta Cabezas , Nicaragua with winds of 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . A total of 1 @.@ 8 inches ( 46 mm ) of rain was recorded in Bluefields while up to 5 @.@ 9 inches ( 150 mm ) was estimated to have fallen in mountainous areas .
In El Salvador , heavy rains from the depression helped alleviate drought conditions ; however , flooding also inundated 200 homes in San Salvador along the Acelhuate River . Fifteen farms were inundated by flooding , five of which were destroyed . Seventy people evacuated to shelters set up after the storm by the local Red Cross and armed forces . Military crews were quickly deployed to help clean up the damages on September 22 . Although it passed over Central America , there are no reports of damage or deaths in the region due to the tropical depression .
= Madonna ( entertainer ) =
Madonna Louise Ciccone ( / tʃɪˈkoʊni / ) ( born August 16 , 1958 ) is an American singer , songwriter , dancer , actress , and businesswoman . She achieved popularity by pushing the boundaries of lyrical content in mainstream popular music and imagery in her music videos , which became a fixture on MTV . Madonna is known for reinventing both her music and image , and for maintaining her autonomy within the recording industry . Music critics have acclaimed her musical productions , which have generated some controversy . Referred to as the " Queen of Pop " , Madonna is often cited as an influence by other artists .
Born in Bay City , Michigan , Madonna moved to New York City in 1977 to pursue a career in modern dance . After performing in the music groups Breakfast Club and Emmy , she signed with Sire Records ( an auxiliary label of Warner Bros. Records ) in 1982 and released her self @-@ titled debut album the following year . She followed it with a series of commercially and critically successful albums , including the Grammy Award winners Ray of Light ( 1998 ) and Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) . Throughout her career , Madonna has written and produced most of her songs , with many of them reaching number one on the record charts , including " Like a Virgin " , " Papa Don 't Preach " , " Like a Prayer " , " Vogue " , " Take a Bow " , " Frozen " , " Music " , " Hung Up " , and " 4 Minutes " .
Madonna 's popularity was further enhanced by her film roles , including Desperately Seeking Susan ( 1985 ) , Dick Tracy ( 1990 ) , and Evita ( 1996 ) ; the latter earned her a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress . However , most of her other films have been panned by critics . Her other ventures include fashion design , writing children 's books , and filmmaking . She has been acclaimed as a businesswoman , particularly after she founded entertainment company Maverick ( including the label Maverick Records ) . In 2007 she signed an unprecedented US $ 120 million 360 deal with Live Nation , which led to a record deal with Interscope Records .
Having sold more than 300 million records worldwide , Madonna is recognized as the best @-@ selling female recording artist of all time by Guinness World Records . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) listed her as the best @-@ selling female rock artist of the 20th century and the second highest @-@ certified female artist in the United States , with 64 @.@ 5 million album units . Madonna is the highest @-@ grossing solo touring artist of all time , earning US $ 1 @.@ 31 billion from her concerts since 1990 . Madonna became one of the five founding members of the UK Music Hall of Fame and was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in her first year of eligibility . She was ranked at number one on VH1 's list of 100 Greatest Women in Music and number two ( behind only The Beatles ) on Billboard 's list of Greatest Hot 100 Artists of All Time .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1958 – 81 : Early life and career beginnings = = =
Madonna was born to Catholic parents Silvio Anthony " Tony " Ciccone ( b . 1931 ) and Madonna Louise Fortin ( c . 1933 – December 1 , 1963 ) in Bay City , Michigan , on August 16 , 1958 . Her father 's parents were immigrants from Pacentro , Italy , while her mother was of French @-@ Canadian ancestry . Tony worked as an engineer designer for Chrysler and General Motors . Since Madonna had the same name as her mother , family members called her " Little Nonni " . She has two elder brothers , Anthony ( born 1956 ) and Martin ( born 1957 ) , and three younger siblings , Paula ( born 1959 ) , Christopher ( born 1960 ) , and Melanie ( born 1962 ) .
Upon being confirmed in 1966 , she adopted Veronica as a confirmation name . She was raised in the Detroit suburbs of Pontiac and Avon Township ( now Rochester Hills ) . Months before her mother died of breast cancer , Madonna noticed changes in her behavior and personality , although she did not understand the reason . Her mother was at a loss to explain her medical condition , and often began to cry when Madonna questioned her about it . Madonna later acknowledged that she had not grasped the concept of her mother dying .
Madonna turned to her paternal grandmother for solace . The Ciccone siblings resented housekeepers and invariably rebelled against anyone brought into their home ostensibly to take the place of their beloved mother . Madonna later told Vanity Fair that she saw herself in her youth as a " lonely girl who was searching for something . I wasn 't rebellious in a certain way . I cared about being good at something . I didn 't shave my underarms and I didn 't wear make @-@ up like normal girls do . But I studied and I got good grades .... I wanted to be somebody . " Terrified that her father Tony could be taken from her as well , Madonna was often unable to sleep unless she was near him .
In 1966 , Tony married the family 's housekeeper Joan Gustafson ; they had two children , Jennifer ( born 1967 ) and Mario ( born 1968 ) . At this point , Madonna started to resent him for decades , and developed a rebellious attitude . She attended St. Frederick 's and St. Andrew 's Catholic Elementary Schools , and West Middle School . Madonna was known for her high grade point average , and achieved notoriety for her unconventional behavior . She would perform cartwheels and handstands in the hallways between classes , dangle by her knees from the monkey bars during recess , and pull up her skirt during class — all so that the boys could see her underwear .
Madonna later attended Rochester Adams High School where she became a straight @-@ A student and a member of the cheerleading squad . After graduating , she received a dance scholarship to the University of Michigan School of Music , Theatre & Dance , and attended the American Dance Festival over the summer . She convinced her father to allow her to take ballet lessons and was persuaded by Christopher Flynn , her ballet teacher , to pursue a career in dance .
In 1978 , she dropped out of college and relocated to New York City . She had little money and worked as a waitress at Dunkin ' Donuts and with modern dance troupes , taking classes at the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater and eventually performing with Pear Lang Dance Theater . Madonna said of her move to New York , " It was the first time I 'd ever taken a plane , the first time I 'd ever gotten a taxi cab . I came here with $ 35 in my pocket . It was the bravest thing I 'd ever done . " She started to work as a backup dancer for other established artists . Madonna claimed that during a late night she was returning from a rehearsal , when a pair of men held her at knifepoint and forced her to perform fellatio . Madonna later commented that " the episode was a taste of my weakness , it showed me that I still could not save myself in spite of all the strong @-@ girl show . I could never forget it . "
While performing as a backup singer and dancer for the French disco artist Patrick Hernandez on his 1979 world tour , Madonna became romantically involved with musician Dan Gilroy . Together , they formed her first rock band , the Breakfast Club , for which Madonna sang and played drums and guitar . In 1980 or 1981 she left Breakfast Club and , with her former boyfriend Stephen Bray as drummer , formed the band Emmy . The two began writing songs together , and Madonna later decided to market herself as a solo act . Their music impressed DJ and record producer Mark Kamins who arranged a meeting between Madonna and Sire Records founder Seymour Stein .
= = = 1982 – 85 : Career breakthrough and first marriage = = =
After Madonna signed a singles deal with Sire , her debut single , " Everybody " , was released in October 1982 , and the second , " Burning Up " , in March 1983 . Both became big club hits in the United States , reaching number three on Hot Dance Club Songs chart compiled by Billboard magazine . After this success , she started developing her debut album , Madonna , which was primarily produced by Reggie Lucas of Warner Bros. However , she was not happy with the completed tracks and disagreed with Lucas ' production techniques , so decided to seek additional help .
Madonna moved in with boyfriend John " Jellybean " Benitez , asking his help for finishing the album 's production . Benitez remixed most of the tracks and produced " Holiday " , which was her third single and her first international top @-@ ten hit . The overall sound of Madonna was dissonant and in the form of upbeat synthetic disco , using some of the new technology of the time , like the Linn drum machine , Moog bass and the OB @-@ X synthesizer . The album was released in July 1983 and peaked at number eight on the Billboard 200 six months later , in 1984 . It yielded two more top @-@ ten singles on the Billboard Hot 100 , " Borderline " and " Lucky Star " .
Madonna 's look and style of dressing , her performances , and her music videos influenced young girls and women . Her style became one of the female fashion trends of the 1980s . Created by stylist and jewelry designer Maripol , the look consisted of lace tops , skirts over capri pants , fishnet stockings , jewelry bearing the crucifix , bracelets , and bleached hair . Madonna achieved global recognition after the release of her second studio album , Like a Virgin , in November 1984 . It topped the charts in several countries and became her first number @-@ one album on the Billboard 200 . The title track , " Like a Virgin " , topped the Hot 100 chart for six consecutive weeks . It attracted the attention of organizations who complained that the song and its accompanying video promoted premarital sex and undermined family values , and moralists sought to have the song and video banned .
Madonna was criticized for her performance of " Like a Virgin " at the first 1984 MTV Video Music Awards ( VMA ) . She appeared on stage atop a giant wedding cake , wearing a wedding dress and white gloves . The performance is noted by MTV as an iconic moment in VMA history . In later years , Madonna commented that she was terrified of the performance . The next hit was " Material Girl " promoted by her video , a mimicry of Marilyn Monroe 's performance of the song " Diamonds Are a Girl 's Best Friend " from the 1953 film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes . While filming this video , Madonna started dating actor Sean Penn . They married on her birthday in 1985 . Like a Virgin was certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America and sold more than 21 million copies worldwide . In February 1984 , according to the film director Sir Richard Attenborough , Madonna auditioned at the Royale Theatre on Broadway for a dance role in his movie version of A Chorus Line using her birth @-@ name of Ciccone , but he rejected her .
Madonna entered mainstream films in February 1985 , beginning with a brief appearance as a club singer in Vision Quest , a romantic drama film . Its soundtrack contained two new singles , her U.S. number @-@ one single , " Crazy for You " and " Gambler " . She also played the title role in the 1985 comedy Desperately Seeking Susan , a film which introduced the song " Into the Groove " , her first number @-@ one single in the UK . Although Madonna was not the lead actress for the film , her profile was such that the movie widely became considered ( and marketed ) as a Madonna vehicle . The New York Times film critic Vincent Canby named it one of the ten best films of 1985 .
Beginning in April 1985 , Madonna embarked on her first concert tour in North America , The Virgin Tour , with the Beastie Boys as her opening act . She progressed from playing CBGB and the Mudd Club to playing large sporting arenas . At that time she released two more hit singles from the album , " Angel " and " Dress You Up " . In July , Penthouse and Playboy magazines published a number of nude photos of Madonna , taken in New York in 1978 . She had posed for the photographs as she needed money at the time , and was paid as little as $ 25 a session . The publication of the photos caused a media uproar , but Madonna remained " unapologetic and defiant " . The photographs were ultimately sold for up to $ 100 @,@ 000 . She referred to these events at the 1985 outdoor Live Aid charity concert , saying that she would not take her jacket off because " [ the media ] might hold it against me ten years from now . "
= = = 1986 – 91 : True Blue , Who 's That Girl , and Like a Prayer = = =
In June 1986 , Madonna released her third studio album , True Blue , which was inspired by and dedicated to Sean Penn . Rolling Stone magazine was generally impressed with the effort , writing that the album " sound [ s ] as if it comes from the heart " . It resulted in three singles making it to number @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 : " Live to Tell " , " Papa Don 't Preach " and " Open Your Heart " , and two more top @-@ five singles : " True Blue " and " La Isla Bonita " . The album topped the charts in over 28 countries worldwide , an unprecedented achievement at the time , and became her best @-@ selling studio album of her career to this date with sales of 25 million . In the same year , Madonna starred in the critically panned film Shanghai Surprise , for which she received her first Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress . She made her theatrical debut in a production of David Rabe 's Goose and Tom @-@ Tom ; the film and play both co @-@ starred Penn . The next year , Madonna was featured in the film Who 's That Girl . She contributed four songs to its soundtrack , including the title track and " Causing a Commotion " .
Madonna embarked on the Who 's That Girl World Tour in July 1987 , which continued until September . It broke several attendance records , including over 130 @,@ 000 audience in a concert near Paris , which remains her biggest concert attendance ever . Later that year , she released a remix album of past hits , titled You Can Dance , which reached number 14 on the Billboard 200 . After an annulment in December 1987 , Madonna filed for divorce from Penn in January 1989 , citing irreconcilable differences .
In January 1989 , Madonna signed an endorsement deal with soft @-@ drink manufacturer , Pepsi . In one of her Pepsi commercials , she debuted her song " Like a Prayer " . The corresponding music video featured many Catholic symbols such as stigmata and cross burning , and a dream of making love to a saint , leading the Vatican to condemn the video . Religious groups sought to ban the commercial and boycott Pepsi products . Pepsi revoked the commercial and canceled her sponsorship contract . The song was included on Madonna 's fourth studio album , Like a Prayer , which was co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Patrick Leonard and Stephen Bray . Madonna received positive feedback for the album , with Rolling Stone writing that it was " as close to art as pop music gets " . Like a Prayer peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 and sold 15 million copies worldwide , with 4 million copies sold in the U.S. alone . Six singles were released from the album , including " Like a Prayer " , which reached number one , and " Express Yourself " and " Cherish " , both peaking at number two . By the end of the 1980s , Madonna was named as the " Artist of the Decade " by MTV , Billboard and Musician magazine .
Madonna starred as Breathless Mahoney in the film Dick Tracy ( 1990 ) , with Warren Beatty playing the title role . Her performance led to a Saturn Award nomination for Best Actress . To accompany the film , she released the soundtrack album , I 'm Breathless , which included songs inspired by the film 's 1930s setting . It also featured the US number @-@ one hit " Vogue " and " Sooner or Later " , which earned songwriter Stephen Sondheim an Academy Award for Best Original Song in 1991 . While shooting the film , Madonna began a relationship with Beatty , which dissolved by the end of 1990 . In April 1990 , Madonna began her Blond Ambition World Tour , which was held until August . Rolling Stone called it an " elaborately choreographed , sexually provocative extravaganza " and proclaimed it " the best tour of 1990 " . The tour generated strong negative reaction from religious groups for her performance of " Like a Virgin " , during which two male dancers caressed her body before she simulated masturbation . In response , Madonna said , " The tour in no way hurts anybody 's sentiments . It 's for open minds and gets them to see sexuality in a different way . Their own and others " . The Laserdisc release of the tour won Madonna a Grammy Award in 1992 for Best Long Form Music Video .
The Immaculate Collection , Madonna 's first greatest @-@ hits compilation album , was released in November 1990 . It included two new songs , " Justify My Love " and " Rescue Me " . The album was certified diamond by RIAA and sold over 30 million copies worldwide , becoming the best @-@ selling compilation album by a solo artist in history . " Justify My Love " reached number one in the U.S. and top ten worldwide . Its music video featured scenes of sadomasochism , bondage , same @-@ sex kissing , and brief nudity . The video was deemed too sexually explicit for MTV and was banned from the network . Madonna responded to the banning : " Why is it that people are willing to go and watch a movie about someone getting blown to bits for no reason at all , and nobody wants to see two girls kissing and two men snuggling ? "
In December 1990 Madonna decided to leave Jennifer Lynch 's film , Boxing Helena , which she had previously agreed to star in , without any explanation to the producers . Around this time , Madonna had an eight @-@ month relationship with rapper Vanilla Ice ; he ended their relationship because of Madonna 's Sex book . Her first documentary film Truth or Dare ( known as In Bed with Madonna outside North America ) was released in May 1991 . The documentary chronicled her Blond Ambition World Tour .
= = = 1992 – 97 : Maverick , Erotica , Sex , Evita , and motherhood = = =
In 1992 , Madonna had a role in A League of Their Own as Mae Mordabito , a baseball player on an all @-@ women 's team . She recorded the film 's theme song , " This Used to Be My Playground " , which became a Hot 100 number @-@ one hit . The same year , she founded her own entertainment company , Maverick , consisting of a record company ( Maverick Records ) , a film production company ( Maverick Films ) , and associated music publishing , television broadcasting , book publishing and merchandising divisions . The deal was a joint venture with Time Warner and paid Madonna an advance of $ 60 million . It gave her 20 % royalties from the music proceedings , the highest rate in the industry at the time , equaled only by Michael Jackson 's royalty rate established a year earlier with Sony . The first release from the venture was Madonna 's book , titled Sex . It consisted of sexually provocative and explicit images , photographed by Steven Meisel . The book received strong negative reaction from the media and the general public , but sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies at $ 50 each in a matter of days . At the same time she released her fifth studio album , Erotica , which debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 . Its title track peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 . Erotica also produced five singles : " Deeper and Deeper " , " Bad Girl " , " Fever " , " Rain " and " Bye Bye Baby " .
Madonna had provocative imagery featured in the 1993 erotic thriller , Body of Evidence , a film which contained scenes of sadomasochism and bondage . It was poorly received by critics . She also starred in the film Dangerous Game , which was released straight to video in North America . The New York Times described the film as " angry and painful , and the pain feels real . " In September 1993 , Madonna embarked on The Girlie Show World Tour , in which she dressed as a whip @-@ cracking dominatrix surrounded by topless dancers . In Puerto Rico she rubbed the island 's flag between her legs on stage , resulting in outrage among the audience . In March 1994 , she appeared as a guest on the Late Show with David Letterman , using profanity that required censorship on television , and handing Letterman a pair of her panties and asking him to smell it . The releases of her sexually explicit films , albums and book , and the aggressive appearance on Letterman all made critics question Madonna as a sexual renegade . Critics and fans reacted negatively , who commented that " she had gone too far " and that her career was over .
Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli described her ballad " I 'll Remember " ( 1994 ) as an attempt to tone down her provocative image . The song was recorded for Alek Keshishian 's film With Honors . She made a subdued appearance with Letterman at an awards show and appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno after realizing that she needed to change her musical direction in order to sustain her popularity . With her sixth studio album , Bedtime Stories ( 1994 ) , Madonna employed a softer image to try to improve the public perception . The album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 and generated two U.S. top @-@ five hits , " Secret " and " Take a Bow " , the latter topping the Hot 100 for seven weeks , the longest period of any Madonna single . At the same time , she became romantically involved with fitness trainer Carlos Leon . Something to Remember , a collection of ballads , was released in November 1995 . The album featured three new songs : " You 'll See " , " One More Chance " , and a cover of Marvin Gaye 's " I Want You " .
In Evita ( 1996 ) , Madonna played the title role of Eva Perón . For a long time , Madonna had desired to play Perón and wrote to director Alan Parker to explain why she would be perfect for the part . She said later , " This is the role I was born to play . I put everything of me into this because it was much more than a role in a movie . It was exhilarating and intimidating at the same time ..... And I am prouder of Evita than anything else I have done . " After securing the role , she had vocal training and learned about the history of Argentina and Perón . During shooting she became ill several times due to the intense emotional effort required . However , as she told Oprah , she was also pregnant during the filming : " I was winded after every take . I had to lie on the couch every ten minutes so I could recover from dizzy spells , I was worried that I was shaking the baby around too much and that would injure it in some way . " Madonna wrote in her personal diary at the time : " Ironically , this feeling of vulnerability and weakness is helping me in the movie . I 'm sure Evita felt this way every day of her life once she discovered she was ill . "
After its release , Evita garnered critical appreciation . Zach Conner from Time magazine commented , " It 's a relief to say that Evita is pretty damn fine , well cast and handsomely visualized . Madonna once again confounds our expectations . She plays Evita with a poignant weariness and has more than just a bit of star quality . Love or hate Madonna @-@ Eva , she is a magnet for all eyes . " Madonna won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for the role . She released three singles from the Evita soundtrack album , including " You Must Love Me " ( which won an Academy Award for Best Original Song in 1997 ) and " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " . Madonna was later presented with the Artist Achievement Award by Tony Bennett at the 1996 Billboard Music Awards . On October 14 , 1996 , Madonna gave birth to Lourdes Maria Ciccone Leon , her daughter with Leon . Biographer Mary Cross writes that although Madonna was often ill during the filming and worried that her pregnancy would harm the film , she reached some important personal goals : " Now 38 years old , Madonna had at last triumphed on screen and achieved her dream of having a child , both in the same year . She had reached another turning point in her career , reinventing herself and her image with the public . " Her relationship with Carlos Leon ended in May 1997 ; she declared that they were " better off as best friends . " After Lourdes 's birth , Madonna became involved in Eastern mysticism and Kabbalah . She was introduced to Jewish mysticism by actress Sandra Bernhard in 1997 .
= = = 1998 – 2002 : Ray of Light , Music , and second marriage = = =
Madonna 's seventh studio album , Ray of Light , ( 1998 ) reflected a change in her image . She collaborated with electronica producer William Orbit and wanted to create a sound that could blend dance music with pop and British rock . American music critic Ann Powers explained that what Madonna searched for with Orbit " was a kind of a lushness that she wanted for this record . Techno and rave was happening in the 90 's and had a lot of different forms . There was very experimental , more hard stuff like Aphex Twin . There was party stuff like Fatboy Slim . That 's not what Madonna wanted for this . She wanted something more like a singer @-@ songwriter , really . And William Orbit provided her with that . "
The album garnered critical acclaim , with Slant Magazine calling it " one of the great pop masterpieces of the ' 90s " Ray of Light was honored with four Grammy Awards — including Best Pop Album and Best Dance Recording — and was nominated for both Album of the Year and Record of the Year . Rolling Stone listed it among " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . Commercially , the album peaked at number @-@ one in numerous countries and sold more than 16 million copies worldwide . The album 's first single , " Frozen " , became Madonna 's first single to debut at number one in the UK , while in the U.S. it became her sixth number @-@ two single , setting another record for Madonna as the artist with the most number two hits . The second single , " Ray of Light " , debuted at number five on the Billboard Hot 100 . The 1998 edition of Guinness Book of World Records documented that " no female artist has sold more records than Madonna around the world " .
In 1999 , Madonna signed to play a violin teacher in the film Music of the Heart but left the project , citing " creative differences " with director Wes Craven . She recorded the single " Beautiful Stranger " for the 1999 film Austin Powers : The Spy Who Shagged Me , which earned her a Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media . Madonna starred in the 2000 film The Next Best Thing , and contributed two songs to the film 's soundtrack ; " Time Stood Still " and a cover of Don McLean 's 1971 song " American Pie " .
Madonna released her eighth studio album , Music , in September 2000 . It featured elements from the electronica @-@ inspired Ray of Light era , and like its predecessor , received acclaim from critics . Collaborating with French producer Mirwais Ahmadzaï , Madonna commented : " I love to work with the weirdos that no one knows about — the people who have raw talent and who are making music unlike anyone else out there . Music is the future of sound . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic felt that " Music blows by in a kaleidoscopic rush of color , technique , style and substance . It has so many depth and layers that it 's easily as self @-@ aware and earnest as Ray of Light . " The album took the number @-@ one position in more than 20 countries worldwide and sold four million copies in the first ten days . In the U.S. , Music debuted at the top , and became her first number @-@ one album in eleven years since Like a Prayer . It produced three singles : the Hot 100 number @-@ one " Music " , " Don 't Tell Me " , and " What It Feels Like for a Girl " . The music video of " What It Feels Like for a Girl " depicted Madonna committing acts of crime and vandalism , and was banned by MTV and VH1 .
She met director Guy Ritchie , who would become her second husband , in November 1998 and gave birth to their son Rocco John Ritchie on August 11 , 2000 in Los Angeles . Rocco and Madonna suffered complications from the birth due to her experiencing placenta praevia . He was christened at Dornoch Cathedral in Dornoch , Scotland , on December 21 , 2000 . Madonna married Ritchie the following day at nearby Skibo Castle . Her fifth concert tour , titled Drowned World Tour , started in June 2001 . The tour visited cities in the U.S. and Europe and was the highest @-@ grossing concert tour of the year by a solo artist , earning $ 75 million from 47 sold @-@ out shows . She also released her second greatest @-@ hits collection , titled GHV2 , to coincide with the home video release of the tour . GHV2 debuted at number seven on the Billboard 200 .
Madonna starred in the film Swept Away , directed by Ritchie . Released direct @-@ to @-@ video in the UK , the film was a commercial and critical failure . In May 2002 she appeared in London in the West End play Up For Grabs at the Wyndhams Theatre ( billed as ' Madonna Ritchie ' ) , to universally bad reviews and was described as " the evening 's biggest disappointment " by one . That October , she released " Die Another Day " , the title song of the James Bond film Die Another Day , in which she had a cameo role , described by The Guardian film reviewer as " incredibly wooden " . The song reached number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 and was nominated for both a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and a Golden Raspberry for Worst Song .
= = = 2003 – 06 : American Life and Confessions on a Dance Floor = = =
Following Die Another Day , Madonna collaborated with fashion photographer Steven Klein in 2003 for an exhibition installation named X @-@ STaTIC Pro = CeSS . It included photography from a photo shoot in W magazine , and seven video segments . The installation ran from March to May in New York 's Deitch Projects gallery . It traveled the world in an edited form . The same year , Madonna released her ninth studio album , American Life , which was based on her observations of American society ; it received mixed reviews . She commented , " [ American Life ] was like a trip down memory lane , looking back at everything I 've accomplished and all the things I once valued and all the things that were important to me . " Larry Flick from The Advocate felt that " American Life is an album that is among her most adventurous and lyrically intelligent " while condemning it as " a lazy , half @-@ arsed effort to sound and take her seriously . " The title song peaked at number 37 on the Hot 100 . Its original music video was canceled as Madonna thought that the video , featuring violence and war imagery , would be deemed unpatriotic since America was then at war with Iraq . With four million copies sold worldwide , American Life was the lowest @-@ selling album of her career at that point .
Madonna gave another provocative performance later that year at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , while singing " Hollywood " with Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera , and Missy Elliott . Madonna sparked controversy for kissing Spears and Aguilera suggestively during the performance . In October 2003 , Madonna provided guest vocals on Spears ' single " Me Against the Music " . It was followed with the release of Remixed & Revisited . The EP contained remixed versions of songs from American Life and included " Your Honesty " , a previously unreleased track from the Bedtime Stories recording sessions . Madonna also signed a contract with Callaway Arts & Entertainment to be the author of five children 's books . The first of these books , titled The English Roses , was published in September 2003 . The story was about four English schoolgirls and their envy and jealousy of each other . Kate Kellway from The Guardian commented , " [ Madonna ] is an actress playing at what she can never be — a JK Rowling , an English rose . " The book debuted at the top of The New York Times Best Seller list and became the fastest @-@ selling children 's picture book of all time .
The next year Madonna and Maverick sued Warner Music Group and its former parent company Time Warner , claiming that mismanagement of resources and poor bookkeeping had cost the company millions of dollars . In return , Warner filed a countersuit alleging that Maverick had lost tens of millions of dollars on its own . The dispute was resolved when the Maverick shares , owned by Madonna and Ronnie Dashev , were purchased by Warner . Madonna and Dashev 's company became a wholly owned subsidiary of Warner Music , but Madonna was still signed to Warner under a separate recording contract .
In mid @-@ 2004 Madonna embarked on the Re @-@ Invention World Tour in the U.S. , Canada , and Europe . It became the highest @-@ grossing tour of 2004 , earning around $ 120 million and became the subject of her documentary I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret . In November 2004 , she was inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame as one of its five founding members , along with The Beatles , Elvis Presley , Bob Marley , and U2 . In January 2005 , Madonna performed a cover version of the John Lennon song " Imagine " at Tsunami Aid . She also performed at the Live 8 benefit concert in London in July 2005 .
Her tenth studio album , Confessions on a Dance Floor , was released in November 2005 . Musically the album was structured like a club set composed by a DJ . It was acclaimed by critics , with Keith Caulfield from Billboard commenting that the album was a " welcome return to form for the Queen of Pop . " The album won a Grammy Award for Best Electronic / Dance Album . Confessions on a Dance Floor and its lead single , " Hung Up " , went on to reach number one in 40 and 41 countries respectively , earning a place in Guinness World Records . The song contained a sample of ABBA 's " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! ( A Man After Midnight ) " , only the second time that ABBA has allowed their work to be used . ABBA songwriter Björn Ulvaeus remarked " It is a wonderful track — 100 per cent solid pop music . " " Sorry " , the second single , became Madonna 's twelfth number @-@ one single in the UK .
Madonna embarked on the Confessions Tour in May 2006 , which had a global audience of 1 @.@ 2 million and grossed over $ 193 @.@ 7 million , becoming the highest @-@ grossing tour to that date for a female artist . Madonna used religious symbols , such as the crucifix and Crown of Thorns , in the performance of " Live to Tell " . It caused the Russian Orthodox Church and the Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia to urge all their members to boycott her concert . At the same time , the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) announced officially that Madonna had sold over 200 million copies for her albums alone worldwide .
While on tour Madonna participated in the Raising Malawi initiative by partially funding an orphanage in and traveling to that country . While there , she decided to adopt a boy named David Banda in October 2006 . The adoption raised strong public reaction , because Malawian law requires would @-@ be parents to reside in Malawi for one year before adopting , which Madonna did not do . She addressed this on The Oprah Winfrey Show , saying that there were no written adoption laws in Malawi that regulated foreign adoption . She described how Banda had been suffering from pneumonia after surviving malaria and tuberculosis when she first met him . Banda 's biological father , Yohane , commented , " These so @-@ called human rights activists are harassing me every day , threatening me that I am not aware of what I am doing ..... They want me to support their court case , a thing I cannot do for I know what I agreed with Madonna and her husband . " The adoption was finalized in May 2008 .
A clothing line titled M by Madonna , in collaboration with Swedish clothing retailer H & M , was launched internationally in 2006 . The collection consisted of leather trench coats , sequined shift dresses , cream @-@ colored calf @-@ length pants , and matching cropped jackets . H & M said the collection reflected Madonna 's " timeless , unique and always glamorous style . "
= = = 2007 – 10 : Filmmaking , Hard Candy and business venture = = =
Madonna released the song " Hey You " for the Live Earth series of concerts . The song was available as a free download during its first week of release . She also performed it at the London Live Earth concert . Madonna announced her departure from Warner Bros. Records , and a new $ 120 million , ten @-@ year 360 deal with Live Nation . She produced and wrote I Am Because We Are , a documentary on the problems faced by Malawians . The documentary was directed by Nathan Rissman , who worked as Madonna 's gardener . She also directed her first film Filth and Wisdom . The plot of the film revolved around three friends and their aspirations . The Times said she had " done herself proud " while The Daily Telegraph described the film as " not an entirely unpromising first effort [ but ] Madonna would do well to hang on to her day job . " On March 10 , 2008 , Madonna was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in her first year of eligibility . Madonna did not sing at the ceremony but asked fellow Hall of Fame inductees and Michigan natives The Stooges to perform her songs " Burning Up " and " Ray of Light " . She thanked Christopher Flynn , her dance teacher from 35 years earlier , for his encouragement to follow her dreams .
Madonna released her eleventh studio album , Hard Candy , in April 2008 . Containing R & B and urban pop influences , the songs on Hard Candy were autobiographical in nature and saw Madonna collaborating with Justin Timberlake , Timbaland , Pharrell Williams and Nate " Danja " Hills . The album debuted at number one in 37 countries and on the Billboard 200 . Don Shewey from Rolling Stone complimented it as an " impressive taste of her upcoming tour . " It received generally positive reviews worldwide though some critics panned it as " an attempt to harness the urban market " .
" 4 Minutes " was released as the album 's lead single and peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was Madonna 's 37th top @-@ ten hit on the chart — it pushed Madonna past Elvis Presley as the artist with the most top @-@ ten hits . In the UK she retained her record for the most number @-@ one singles for a female artist ; " 4 Minutes " becoming her thirteenth . At the 23rd Japan Gold Disc Awards , Madonna received her fifth Artist of the Year trophy from Recording Industry Association of Japan , the most for any artist . To further promote the album , Madonna embarked on the Sticky & Sweet Tour ; her first major venture with Live Nation . With a gross of $ 280 million , it became the highest @-@ grossing tour by a solo artist then , surpassing the previous record Madonna set with the Confessions Tour ; it was later surpassed by Roger Waters ' The Wall Live . It was extended to the next year , adding new European dates , and after it ended , the total gross was $ 408 million .
Life with My Sister Madonna , a book by Madonna 's brother Christopher , debuted at number two on The New York Times bestseller list . The book caused some friction between Madonna and her brother , because of the unsolicited publication . Problems also arose between Madonna and Ritchie , with the media reporting that they were on the verge of separation . Ultimately , Madonna filed for divorce from Ritchie , citing irreconcilable differences , which was finalized in December 2008 . She decided to adopt from Malawi . The country 's High Court initially approved the adoption of Chifundo " Mercy " James ; however , the application was rejected because Madonna was not a resident of the country . Madonna appealed , and on June 12 , 2009 , the Supreme Court of Malawi granted Madonna the right to adopt Mercy James .
Madonna concluded her contract with Warner by releasing her third greatest @-@ hits album , Celebration , in September 2009 . It contained the new songs " Celebration " and " Revolver " along with 34 hits spanning her career with the label . Celebration reached number one in several countries , including Canada , Germany , Italy , and the United Kingdom . She appeared at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards on September 13 , 2009 , to speak in tribute to deceased pop star Michael Jackson . Madonna ended the 2000s as the best @-@ selling single artist of the decade in the U.S. and the most @-@ played artist of the decade in the UK . Billboard also announced her as the third top @-@ touring artist of the decade — behind only The Rolling Stones and U2 — with a gross of over $ 801 million , 6 @.@ 3 million attendance and 244 sell @-@ outs of 248 shows .
Madonna performed at the Hope for Haiti Now : A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief concert in January 2010 . Her third live album , Sticky & Sweet Tour , was released in April , debuting at number ten on the Billboard 200 . It also became her 20th top @-@ ten album on the Oricon Albums Chart , breaking The Beatles ' record for the most top @-@ ten album by an international act in Japan . Madonna granted American TV show Glee the rights to her entire catalogue of music , and the producers planned an episode featuring Madonna songs exclusively . Glee : The Music , The Power of Madonna , an EP containing eight cover versions of Madonna songs featured in the episode , was released afterward and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 . Madonna released the Material Girl clothing line , which she designed with her daughter , Lourdes . The 1980s inspired clothing line , borrowed from Madonna 's punk @-@ girl style when she rose to fame in the 1980s , was released under the Macy 's label . In October , Madonna opened a series of fitness centers around the world named Hard Candy Fitness . Madonna and MG Icon also released the second fashion brand called Truth or Dare by Madonna to include footwear , underclothing , and accessories .
= = = 2011 – 13 : W.E. , Super Bowl XLVI and MDNA = = =
Madonna directed her second feature film , W.E. , a biographic about the affair between King Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson . Co @-@ written with Alek Keshishian , the film was premiered at the 68th Venice International Film Festival in September 2011 . Critical and commercial response to the film was negative . Madonna contributed the ballad " Masterpiece " for the film 's soundtrack , which won her a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song . In February 2012 , Madonna performed at Super Bowl XLVI halftime show , visualized by Cirque Du Soleil and Jamie King and featured special guests LMFAO , Nicki Minaj , M.I.A. and Cee Lo Green . It became the then most @-@ watched Super Bowl halftime show in history with 114 million viewers , higher than the game itself . Following her 360 deal with Live Nation , Madonna signed a three @-@ album deal with Interscope Records , since Live Nation was not a record company .
Her twelfth studio album , MDNA , was released in March 2012 and saw collaboration with various producers , most notably with William Orbit again and Martin Solveig . The album was well received by music critics , with Priya Elan from NME calling it " a ridiculously enjoyable romp " , citing its " psychotic , soul @-@ bearing stuff " as " some of the most visceral stuff she 's ever done . " MDNA became Madonna 's fifth consecutive studio album to debut at the top of the Billboard 200 . She also became the solo artist with the most number @-@ one albums in the UK and Australia , breaking the record previously held by Elvis Presley in the UK and Jimmy Barnes in Australia . The lead single " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " , featuring guest vocals from Minaj and M.I.A. , became Madonna 's record @-@ extending 38th top @-@ ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100 .
The MDNA Tour , which further promoted the album , began in May 2012 in Tel Aviv , Israel . The tour has received positive critical reception , but featured controversial subjects such as violence , firearms , human rights , nudity and politics . Lawsuits threatened against Madonna have also been engaged from the tour . It was a box office success with a gross of $ 305 @.@ 2 million from 88 sold @-@ out shows , and became the highest @-@ grossing tour of 2012 and the tenth highest @-@ grossing tour of all time . At the 2013 Billboard Music Awards , Madonna won three trophies for Top Touring Artist , Top Dance Artist and Top Dance Album . Madonna was named the top @-@ earning celebrity of the year by Forbes , earning an estimated $ 125 million , due to the success of the tour . Madonna 's fourth live album , MDNA World Tour , was released in September 2013 . It debuted at number one on the US Top Music Videos chart , becoming her tenth release to top the chart — the most for any artist .
By 2013 , Madonna 's Raising Malawi organization built ten schools to educate 4 @,@ 000 children in Malawi at a value of $ 400 @,@ 000 . When Madonna visited the schools in April 2013 , President of Malawi Joyce Banda expressed criticism of the star and her charity , accusing her of exaggerating her charity 's contribution . Madonna responded by releasing a statement saying she was saddened that Banda had chosen to act negatively about her endeavors . " I have no intention of being distracted by these ridiculous allegations , " she added . Later , it was confirmed that Banda had not approved the statement released written by her press team and was " incandescent with anger " over the mix @-@ up .
Working with photographer Steven Klein , Madonna completed a 17 @-@ minute film called secretprojectrevolution . The BitTorrent company was selected by Madonna to release the film as part of a Madonna bundle . It was released on September 24 , 2013 , and consisted of the 17 @-@ minute film , its stills , a Vice interview , and a message from Madonna . With the film she launched the Art for Freedom initiative , which helped to promote " art and free speech as a means to address persecution and injustice across the globe " . The website for the project has had over 3 @,@ 000 art related submissions since its inception , with Madonna regularly monitoring and enlisting the help of other artists like David Blaine and Katy Perry as guest curators .
= = = 2014 – present : Rebel Heart = = =
Madonna extended her business ventures and in February 2014 the singer premiered MDNA Skin , a range of skin care products , in Tokyo , Japan . After visiting her hometown of Detroit during May 2014 , Madonna decided to contribute funds to three of the city 's organizations , to help eliminate poverty from there . The singer released a statement saying that she was inspired by their work , adding that " it was obvious to me that I had to get involved and be part of the solution to help Detroit recover " . Madonna began work on her thirteenth studio album , with collaborators including Avicii , Diplo and Kanye West . In December 2014 , thirteen demos recorded for the album leaked onto the Internet . She posted in response that half of the tracks would not be used on the final release , while the other half had " changed and evolved " . Titled Rebel Heart , the album was released in March 2015 . Music critics responded positively towards the album , calling it her best effort in a decade . Rebel Heart became Madonna 's first album to miss the top position of the Billboard 200 since 1998 , but it reached number one in other major music markets , including Australia , Canada , Germany and Italy .
From September 2015 , she embarked on the Rebel Heart Tour to promote the album ; the tour ended in March 2016 and traveled throughout North America , Europe and Asia and was the singer 's first visit to Australia in 23 years , where she also performed a one @-@ off show for her fans . It grossed a total of $ 169 @.@ 8 million from the 82 shows , with over 1 @.@ 045 million ticket sales . While on tour Madonna became embroiled in a legal battle with Ritchie , over the custody of her son Rocco . The dispute started when Rocco decided to continue living in England with Ritchie when the Rebel Heart Tour had visited there , while Madonna wanted him to return with her . Court hearings took place in both New York and London , and after multiple deliberations , Madonna decided to withdraw her application for custody , and appealed for a mutual discussion between herself and Ritchie about Rocco .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style and songwriting = = =
Madonna 's music has been the subject of much analysis and scrutiny . Robert M. Grant , author of Contemporary Strategy Analysis ( 2005 ) , commented that what has brought Madonna success is " certainly not outstanding natural talent . As a vocalist , musician , dancer , songwriter , or actress , Madonna 's talents seem modest . " He asserts Madonna 's success is in relying on the talents of others , and that her personal relationships have served as cornerstones to the numerous reinventions in the longevity of her career . Madonna 's approach was far from the music industry wisdom of " Find a winning formula and stick to it . " Her musical career has been a continuous experimentation with new musical ideas and new images and a constant quest for new heights of fame and acclaim . Grant concluded that " having established herself as the queen of popular music , Madonna did not stop there , but continued re @-@ inventing . " Musicologist Susan McClary wrote that " Madonna 's art itself repeatedly deconstructs the traditional notion of the unified subject with finite ego boundaries . Her pieces explore various ways of constituting identities that refuse stability , that remain fluid , that resist definition . " Critics noted that Madonna has " pushed the boundaries " in her music and image .
Throughout her career Madonna has been involved in writing and producing most of her own music . Madonna 's early songwriting skill was developed during her time with the Breakfast Club in 1979 . According to author Carol Gnojewski , her first attempts at songwriting are perceived as an important self @-@ revelation , as Madonna said : " I don 't know where [ the songs ] came from . It was like magic . I 'd write a song every day . I said ' Wow , I was meant to do this ' . " Madonna later became the sole writer of five songs on her debut album , including " Lucky Star " which she composed on synthesizer . Rolling Stone has named her " an exemplary songwriter with a gift for hooks and indelible lyrics . " According to Freya Jarman @-@ Ivens , Madonna 's talent for developing " incredible " hooks for her songs allows the lyrics to capture the attention of the audience , even without the influence of the music . As an example , Jarman @-@ Ivens cites the 1985 single " Into the Groove " and its line " Live out your fantasy here with me , just let the music set you free ; Touch my body , and move in time , now I know you 're mine . " Though Madonna has worked with producers across many genres , her songs have been consistently stamped with her own sensibility and inflected with autobiographical detail . Some of her lyrics contain innuendos and double entendre , which led to multiple interpretations among music critics and scholars . Madonna has been nominated for being inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame twice , for 2014 and 2016 ceremony . Rolling Stone listed Madonna at number 56 on the " 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time " .
Before emerging as a pop star , Madonna has spent her early years in rock music alongside her bands , Breakfast Club and Emmy . While performing with Emmy , Madonna recorded about 12 @-@ 14 songs which resemble the punk rock of that period . Her early rock roots also can be found on the demo album Pre @-@ Madonna . Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted that with her self @-@ titled debut album , Madonna began her career as a disco diva , in an era that did not have any such divas to speak of . In the beginning of the ' 80 's , disco was an anathema to the mainstream pop , and according to Erlewine , Madonna had a huge role in popularizing dance music as mainstream music . The album 's songs reveal several key trends that have continued to define her success , including a strong dance @-@ based idiom , catchy hooks , highly polished arrangements and Madonna 's own vocal style . Her second album , Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) , foreshadowed several trends in her later works . It contained references to classical works ( pizzicato synthesizer line that opens " Angel " ) ; potential negative reaction from social groups ( " Dress You Up " was blacklisted by the Parents
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Music Resource Center ) ; and retro styles ( " Shoo @-@ Bee @-@ Doo " , Madonna 's homage to Motown ) .
Her mature artistic statement was visible in True Blue ( 1986 ) and Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) . In True Blue , she incorporated classical music in order to engage an older audience who had been skeptical of her music . Like a Prayer introduced live recorded songs and incorporated different genres of music , including dance , funk , R & B and gospel music . Her versatility was further shown on I 'm Breathless , which consists predominantly of the 1940s Broadway showtune @-@ flavoured jazz , swing and big band tracks . Madonna continued to compose ballads and uptempo dance songs for Erotica ( 1992 ) and Bedtime Stories ( 1994 ) . Both albums explored element of new jack swing , with Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly saying that " she could actually be viewed as new jack swing 's godmother . " She tried to remain contemporary by incorporating samples , drum loops and hip hop into her music . With Ray of Light , Madonna brought electronic music from its underground status into massive popularity in mainstream music scene .
Madonna experimented with more folk and acoustic music in Music ( 2000 ) and American Life ( 2003 ) . A change was noted in the content of the songs in Music , with most of them being simple love songs , but with an underlying tone of melancholy . According to Q magazine , American Life was characterized by " a thumping techno rhythm , liquid keyboard lines , an acoustic chorus and a bizarre Madonna rap . " The " conventional rock songs " of the album were suffused with dramatic lyrics about patriotism and composition , including the appearance of a gospel choir in the song " Nothing Fails " . Madonna returned to pure dance songs with Confessions on a Dance Floor , infusing club beats and retro music with the lyrics about paradoxical metaphors and reference to her earlier works . Madonna moved to urban direction with Hard Candy ( 2008 ) , mixing R & B and hip hop music with dance tunes . MDNA ( 2012 ) largely focused in electronic dance music , which she has embraced since Ray of Light .
= = = Voice and instruments = = =
Possessing a mezzo @-@ soprano vocal range , Madonna has always been self @-@ conscious about her voice , especially in comparison to her vocal idols such as Ella Fitzgerald , Prince , and Chaka Khan . Mark Bego , author of Madonna : Blonde Ambition , called her " the perfect vocalist for lighter @-@ than @-@ air songs " , despite not being a " heavyweight talent . " According to MSNBC critic Tony Sclafani , " Madonna 's vocals are the key to her rock roots . Pop vocalists usually sing songs " straight , " but Madonna employs subtext , irony , aggression and all sorts of vocal idiosyncrasies in the ways John Lennon and Bob Dylan did . " Madonna used a bright , girlish vocal timbre in her early albums which became passé in her later works . The change was deliberate since she was constantly reminded of how the critics had once labelled her as " Minnie Mouse on helium " . During the filming of Evita , Madonna had to take vocal lessons , which increased her range further . Of this experience she commented , " I studied with a vocal coach for Evita and I realized there was a whole piece of my voice I wasn 't using . Before , I just believed I had a really limited range and was going to make the most of it . "
Besides singing Madonna has the ability to play several musical instruments . She learned to play drum and guitar from her then @-@ boyfriend Dan Gilroy in the late 1970s before joining the Breakfast Club line @-@ up as the drummer . This helped her to form the band Emmy , where she performed as the guitarist and lead vocalist . Madonna later played guitar on her demo recordings . On the liner notes of Pre @-@ Madonna , Stephen Bray wrote : " I 've always thought she passed up a brilliant career as a rhythm guitarist . " After her career breakthrough , Madonna focused mainly in singing but was also credited for playing cowbell on Madonna ( 1983 ) and synthesizer on Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) . In 1999 , Madonna had studied for three months to play the violin for the role as a violin teacher in the film Music of the Heart , before eventually leaving the project . After two decades , Madonna decided to perform with guitar again during the promotion of Music ( 2000 ) . She took further lessons from guitarist Monte Pittman to improve her guitar skill . Since then Madonna has played guitar on every tour , as well as her studio albums . At the 2002 Orville H. Gibson Guitar Awards , she received nomination for Les Paul Horizon Award , which honors the most promising up @-@ and @-@ coming guitarist .
= = = Influences = = =
According to Taraborrelli , the defining moment of Madonna 's childhood was the tragic and untimely death of her beloved mother . Psychiatrist Keith Ablow suggests her mother 's death would have had an immeasurable impact on the young Madonna at a time when her personality was still forming . According to Ablow , the younger a child is at the time of a serious loss , the more profound the influence and the longer lasting the impact . He concludes that " some people never reconcile themselves to such a loss at an early age , Madonna is not different than them . " Conversely , author Lucy O 'Brien feels the impact of the rape she suffered is , in fact , the motivating factor behind everything Madonna has done , more important even than the death of her mother : " It 's not so much grief at her mother 's death that drives her , as the sense of abandonment that left her unprotected . She encountered her own worst possible scenario , becoming a victim of male violence , and thereafter turned that full @-@ tilt into her work , reversing the equation at every opportunity . "
As they grew older Madonna and her sisters would feel deep sadness as the vivid memory of their mother began drifting farther from them . They would study pictures of her and come to think that she resembled poet Anne Sexton and Hollywood actresses . This would later raise Madonna 's interest in poetry , with Sylvia Plath being her favourite . Later , Madonna commented : " We were all wounded in one way or another by [ her death ] , and then we spent the rest of our lives reacting to it or dealing with it or trying to turn into something else . The anguish of losing my mom left me with a certain kind of loneliness and an incredible longing for something . If I hadn 't had that emptiness , I wouldn 't have been so driven . Her death had a lot to do with me saying — after I got over my heartache — I 'm going to be really strong if I can 't have my mother . I 'm going to take care of myself . " Taraborrelli felt that in time , no doubt because of the devastation she felt , Madonna would never again allow herself , or even her daughter , to feel as abandoned as she had felt when her mother died . " Her death had taught [ Madonna ] a valuable lesson , that she would have to remain strong for herself because , she feared weakness — particularly her own — and wanted to be the queen of her own castle . "
In 1985 , Madonna commented that the first song to ever make a strong impression on her was " These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' " by Nancy Sinatra ; she said it summed up her own " take @-@ charge attitude " . As a young woman , she attempted to broaden her taste in literature , art , and music , and during this time became interested in classical music . She noted that her favorite style was baroque , and loved Mozart and Chopin because she liked their " feminine quality " . Madonna 's major influences include Karen Carpenter , The Supremes and Led Zeppelin , as well as dancers Martha Graham and Rudolf Nureyev . She also grew up listening to David Bowie , whose show was the first rock concert she ever attended .
Madonna 's Italian @-@ Catholic background and her relationship with her parents are reflected in the album Like a Prayer . It was an evocation of the impact religion had on her career . Her video for the title track contains Catholic symbolism , such as the stigmata . During The Virgin Tour , she wore a rosary and prayed with it in the music video for " La Isla Bonita " . The " Open Your Heart " video sees her boss scolding her in the Italian language . On the Who 's That Girl World Tour , she dedicated the song " Papa Don 't Preach " to Pope John Paul II .
During her childhood , Madonna was inspired by actors , later saying , " I loved Carole Lombard and Judy Holliday and Marilyn Monroe . They were all incredibly funny ... and I saw myself in them ... my girlishness , my knowingness and my innocence . " Her " Material Girl " music video recreated Monroe 's look in the song " Diamonds Are a Girl 's Best Friend " , from the film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes ( 1953 ) . She studied the screwball comedies of the 1930s , particularly those of Lombard , in preparation for the film Who 's That Girl . The video for " Express Yourself " ( 1989 ) was inspired by Fritz Lang 's silent film Metropolis ( 1927 ) . The video for " Vogue " recreated the style of Hollywood glamour photographs , in particular those by Horst P. Horst , and imitated the poses of Marlene Dietrich , Carole Lombard , and Rita Hayworth , while the lyrics referred to many of the stars who had inspired her , including Bette Davis , described by Madonna as an idol . However , Madonna 's film career has been largely received negatively by the film critic community . Stephanie Zacharek , critic for Time magazine , stated that , " [ Madonna ] seems wooden and unnatural as an actress , and it 's tough to watch , because she 's clearly trying her damnedest . " According to biographer Andrew Morton , " Madonna puts a brave face on the criticism , but privately she is deeply hurt . " After the box office bomb Swept Away ( 2002 ) , Madonna vowed that she would never again act in a film , hoping her repertoire as a bad actress would never be discussed again .
Influences also came to her from the art world , most notably through the works of Mexican artist Frida Kahlo . The music video of the song " Bedtime Story " featured images inspired by the paintings of Kahlo and Remedios Varo . Madonna is also a collector of Tamara de Lempicka 's Art Deco paintings and has included them in her music videos and tours . Her video for " Hollywood " ( 2003 ) was an homage to the work of photographer Guy Bourdin ; Bourdin 's son subsequently filed a lawsuit for unauthorised use of his father 's work . Pop artist Andy Warhol 's use of sadomasochistic imagery in his underground films were reflected in the music videos for " Erotica " and " Deeper and Deeper " .
Madonna is dedicated to Kabbalah , and in 2004 she adopted the name Esther which in Persian means " star " . She has donated millions of dollars to New York and London schools teaching the subject . She faced opposition from rabbis who felt Madonna 's adoption of the Kabbalah was sacrilegious and a case of celebrity dilettantism . Madonna defended her studies , saying : " It would be less controversial if I joined the Nazi Party " , and that her involvement with the Kabbalah is " not hurting anybody " . The influence of the Kabbalah was subsequently observed in Madonna 's music , especially albums like Ray of Light and Music . During the Re @-@ Invention World Tour , at one point in the show , Madonna and her dancers wore T @-@ shirts that read " Kabbalists Do It Better " . Her 2012 MDNA album has also drawn many influences from her Catholic upbringing , and since 2011 she has been attending meetings and services at an Opus Dei center , a Catholic institution that encourages spirituality through every day life .
= = = Music videos and performances = = =
In The Madonna Companion biographers Allen Metz and Carol Benson noted that more than any other recent pop artist , Madonna had used MTV and music videos to establish her popularity and enhance her recorded work . According to them , many of her songs have the imagery of the music video in strong context , while referring to the music . Cultural critic Mark C. Taylor in his book Nots ( 1993 ) felt that the postmodern art form par excellence is video and the reigning " queen of video " is Madonna . He further asserted that " the most remarkable creation of MTV is Madonna . The responses to Madonna 's excessively provocative videos have been predictably contradictory . " The media and public reaction towards her most @-@ discussed songs such as " Papa Don 't Preach " , " Like a Prayer " , or " Justify My Love " had to do with the music videos created to promote the songs and their impact , rather than the songs themselves . Morton felt that " artistically , Madonna 's songwriting is often overshadowed by her striking pop videos . "
Madonna 's initial music videos reflected her American and Hispanic mixed street style combined with a flamboyant glamor . She was able to transmit her avant @-@ garde downtown New York fashion sense to the American audience . The imagery and incorporation of Hispanic culture and Catholic symbolism continued with the music videos from the True Blue era . Author Douglas Kellner noted , " such ' multiculturalism ' and her culturally transgressive moves turned out to be highly successful moves that endeared her to large and varied youth audiences . " Madonna 's Spanish look in the videos became the fashion trend of that time , in the form of boleros and layered skirts , accessorizing with rosary beads and a crucifix as in the video of " La Isla Bonita " .
Academics noted that with her videos , Madonna was subtly reversing the usual role of male as the dominant sex . This symbolism and imagery was probably the most prevalent in the music video for " Like a Prayer " . The video included scenes of an African @-@ American church choir , Madonna being attracted to a statue of a black saint , and singing in front of burning crosses . This mix of the sacred and the profane upset the Vatican and resulted in the Pepsi commercial withdrawal . In 2003 , MTV named her " The Greatest Music Video Star Ever " and said that " Madonna 's innovation , creativity and contribution to the music video art form is what won her the award . "
Madonna 's emergence occurred during the advent of MTV ; Chris Nelson from The New York Times spoke of pop artists like Madonna saying , " MTV , with its almost exclusively lip @-@ synched videos , ushered in an era in which average music fans might happily spend hours a day , every day , watching singers just mouth the words . " The symbiotic relationship between the music video and lip @-@ syncing led to a desire for the spectacle and imagery of the music video to be transferred to live stage shows . He added , " Artists like Madonna and Janet Jackson set new standards for showmanship , with concerts that included not only elaborate costumes and precision @-@ timed pyrotechnics but also highly athletic dancing . These effects came at the expense of live singing . " Thor Christensen of The Dallas Morning News commented that while Madonna earned a reputation for lip @-@ syncing during her 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour , she has subsequently reorganized her performances by " stay [ ing ] mostly still during her toughest singing parts and [ leaves ] the dance routines to her backup troupe ... [ r ] ather than try to croon and dance up a storm at the same time . "
To allow for greater movement while dancing and singing , Madonna was one of the earliest adopters of hands @-@ free radio @-@ frequency headset microphones , with the headset fastened over the ears or the top of the head , and the microphone capsule on a boom arm that extended to the mouth . Because of her prominent usage , the microphone design came to be known as the " Madonna mic " . Metz noted that Madonna represents a paradox as she is often perceived as living her whole life as a performance . While her big @-@ screen performances are panned , her live performances are critical successes . Madonna was the first artist to have her concert tours as reenactment of her music videos . Author Elin Diamond explained that reciprocally , the fact that images from Madonna 's videos can be recreated in a live setting enhances the realism of the original videos . Thus her live performances have become the means by which mediatized representations are naturalized . Taraborrelli said that encompassing multimedia , latest technology and sound systems , Madonna 's concerts and live performances are deemed as " extravagant show piece , a walking art show . "
= = Legacy = =
Various music journalists , critical theorists , and authors have deemed Madonna the most influential female recording artist of all time . Author Carol Clerk wrote that " during her career , Madonna has transcended the term ' pop star ' to become a global cultural icon . " Rolling Stone of Spain wrote that " She became the first viral Master of Pop in history , years before the Internet was massively used . Madonna was everywhere ; in the almighty music television channels , ' radio formulas ' , magazine covers and even in bookshops . A pop dialectic , never seen since The Beatles 's reign , which allowed her to keep on the edge of tendency and commerciality . " Laura Barcella in her book Madonna and Me : Women Writers on the Queen of Pop ( 2012 ) wrote that " really , Madonna changed everything the musical landscape , the ' 80s look du jour , and most significantly , what a mainstream female pop star could ( and couldn 't ) say , do , or accomplish in the public eye . " William Langley from The Daily Telegraph felt that " Madonna has changed the world 's social history , has done more things as more different people than anyone else is ever likely to . " Alan McGee from The Guardian felt that Madonna is a post @-@ modern art , the likes of which we will never see again . He further asserted that Madonna and Michael Jackson invented the terms Queen and King of Pop .
According to Tony Sclafani from MSNBC , " It 's worth noting that before Madonna , most music mega @-@ stars were guy rockers ; after her , almost all would be female singers ... When The Beatles hit America , they changed the paradigm of performer from solo act to band . Madonna changed it back — with an emphasis on the female . " Howard Kramer , curatorial director of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum , asserted that " Madonna and the career she carved out for herself made possible virtually every other female pop singer to follow ... She certainly raised the standards of all of them ... She redefined what the parameters were for female performers . " According to Fouz @-@ Hernández , subsequent female singers such as Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera , Kylie Minogue , the Spice Girls , Destiny 's Child , Jennifer Lopez , and Pink were like her " daughters in the very direct sense that they grew up listening to and admiring Madonna , and decided they wanted to be like her . " Time magazine included her in the list of the " 25 Most Powerful Women of the Past Century " , where she became one of only two singers to be included , alongside Aretha Franklin . She also topped VH1 's lists of " 100 Greatest Women in Music " and " 50 Greatest Women of the Video Era " .
Madonna 's use of sexual imagery has benefited her career and catalyzed public discourse on sexuality and feminism . As Roger Chapman documents in Culture Wars : An Encyclopedia of Issues , Viewpoints , and Voices , Volume 1 ( 2010 ) , she has drawn frequent condemnation from religious organizations , social conservatives and parental watchdog groups for her use of explicit , sexual imagery and lyrics , religious symbolism , and otherwise " irreverent " behavior in her live performances . The Times wrote that she had " started a revolution amongst women in music ... Her attitudes and opinions on sex , nudity , style and sexuality forced the public to sit up and take notice . " Professor John Fiske noted that the sense of empowerment that Madonna offers is inextricably connected with the pleasure of exerting some control over the meanings of self , of sexuality , and of one 's social relations . In Doing Gender in Media , Art and Culture ( 2009 ) , the authors noted that Madonna , as a female celebrity , performer , and pop icon , is able to unsettle standing feminist reflections and debates . According to lesbian feminist Sheila Jeffreys , Madonna represents woman 's occupancy of what Monique Wittig calls the category of sex , as powerful , and appears to gleefully embrace the performance of the sexual corvée allotted to women . Professor Sut Jhally has referred to Madonna as " an almost sacred feminist icon . "
Madonna has received acclaim as a role model for businesswomen in her industry , " achieving the kind of financial control that women had long fought for within the industry " , and generating over $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in sales within the first decade of her career . Professor Colin Barrow from Cranfield School of Management described Madonna as " America 's smartest businesswoman ... who has moved to the top of her industry and stayed there by constantly reinventing herself . " London Business School academics called her a " dynamic entrepreneur " worth copying ; they identified her vision of success , her understanding of the music industry , her ability to recognize her own performance limits ( and thus bring in help ) , her willingness to work hard and her ability to adapt as the keys to her commercial success . Morton wrote that " Madonna is opportunistic , manipulative , and ruthless — somebody who won 't stop until she gets what she wants — and that 's something you can get at the expense of maybe losing your close ones . But that hardly mattered to her . " Hazel Blackmore and Rafael Fernández de Castro in the book ¿ Qué es Estados Unidos ? from the Fondo de Cultura Económica , noted : " Madonna has been undoubtedly the most important woman in the history of popular music and a great businesswoman in herself ; creating fashion , breaking taboos and provoking controversies . " According to Forbes , Madonna is the wealthiest woman in the music business .
= = Achievements = =
Madonna has sold more than 300 million records worldwide . The Guinness World Records acknowledged her as the best @-@ selling female recording artist and the fourth best @-@ selling act of all time , behind The Beatles , Elvis Presley , and Michael Jackson . According to the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , she is the best @-@ selling female rock artist of the 20th century and the second top @-@ selling female albums artist in the United States , with 64 @.@ 5 million certified albums . Madonna is the most certified artist of all time in United Kingdom , with 45 awards from the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) as of April 2013 . Billboard named Madonna as the top touring female artist of all time . She is also the highest grossing solo touring artist , with over $ 1 @.@ 31 billion in concert gross , starting from the Blond Ambition World Tour ; she first crossed a billion gross with The MDNA Tour . Overall , Madonna ranks third on all @-@ time top @-@ grossing Billboard Boxscore list , with just The Rolling Stones ( $ 1 @.@ 84 billion ) and U2 ( $ 1 @.@ 67 billion ) ahead of her . Madonna has been honored with 20 MTV Video Music Awards — the most for any artist — including the lifetime achievement Video Vanguard Award in 1986 .
Madonna holds the record for the most number @-@ ones on all combined Billboard charts , including twelve number @-@ one songs on the Billboard Hot 100 and eight number @-@ one albums on the Billboard 200 . With 45 songs topping the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , Madonna became the artist with the most number @-@ one songs on an active Billboard chart , pulling ahead of George Strait with 44 number @-@ one songs on the Hot Country Songs chart . She has also scored 38 top @-@ ten singles on the Hot 100 , more than any other artist in history . In 2008 , Billboard magazine ranked her at number two , behind The Beatles , on the Billboard Hot 100 All @-@ Time Top Artists , making her the most successful solo artist in the history of American singles chart .
= = Discography = =
Madonna ( 1983 )
Like a Virgin ( 1984 )
True Blue ( 1986 )
Like a Prayer ( 1989 )
Erotica ( 1992 )
Bedtime Stories ( 1994 )
Ray of Light ( 1998 )
Music ( 2000 )
American Life ( 2003 )
Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 )
Hard Candy ( 2008 )
MDNA ( 2012 )
Rebel Heart ( 2015 )
= = Filmography = =
= = Tours = =
The Virgin Tour ( 1985 )
Who 's That Girl World Tour ( 1987 )
Blond Ambition World Tour ( 1990 )
The Girlie Show World Tour ( 1993 )
Drowned World Tour ( 2001 )
Re @-@ Invention World Tour ( 2004 )
Confessions Tour ( 2006 )
Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2008 – 09 )
The MDNA Tour ( 2012 )
Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 )
= = Enterprises = =
Boy Toy , Inc
Webo Girl Publishing , Inc ( 1992 )
Maverick ( 1992 )
Semtex Girls ( 2006 )
Hard Candy Fitness ( 2010 )
Truth or Dare by Madonna ( 2011 )
= 2008 – 09 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season =
The 2008 – 09 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season marked the continuation of the annual tradition of competitive basketball among Big Ten Conference members that began in 1904 . It was the 104th season of Big Ten Conference basketball play . Although during the 2008 @-@ 09 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season there were no Big Ten players named to any All @-@ American teams , no coaches given any national coaching honors , and no teams that won any major preconference tournament , the season was successful for other reasons . The conference had an overall 14 – 8 record in postseason play with one team reaching for the 2009 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament championship game and another winning the championship of the 2009 National Invitation Tournament ( NIT ) .
The season marked the second year that all regular season and Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament games were nationally televised . It was the first season that eight member teams achieved 20 wins . During the season , the conference achieved a .781 winning percentage against non @-@ conference opponents , which is the highest percentage since 1998 – 99 .
Michigan State was the regular season champion winning the league four games . Purdue and Illinois tied for second place . Michigan State 's Kalin Lucas was named Big Ten Player of the Year . Michigan State 's Tom Izzo was named Coach of the Year by the coaches while Penn State 's Ed Dechellis was named Coach of the Year by the media .
Purdue won the Big Ten Tournament by defeating Ohio State in the championship . As a result of its win , Purdue received the conference 's automatic bid to the NCAA Tournament . In total , seven teams received bids to the NCAA Tournament : Michigan State , Purdue , Illinois , Ohio State , Michigan , Minnesota , and Wisconsin . By placing 7 of its 11 teams in the tournament , it had 64 % of its teams in the tournament , which outpaced all other conferences . Both Michigan State and Purdue advanced to the second weekend 's Sweet Sixteen round , where Purdue lost to Connecticut . Michigan State advanced to the championship game where it lost to North Carolina 89 – 72 .
The Big Ten also had two entrants in the 2009 NIT : Penn State and Northwestern with Penn State winning the tournament .
= = Preseason = =
= = = All @-@ Big Ten players = = =
On October 26 , the Big Ten media selected Purdue as the preseason top team . It selected Michigan State and Wisconsin as second and third respectively . However , the November 10 national AP Poll and Coaches ' Poll ranked Michigan State as the highest among Big Ten teams with Purdue second and Wisconsin third in their respective preseason 2008 – 09 NCAA Division I men 's basketball rankings .
The media also made preseason All @-@ Big Ten player selections : Manny Harris , sophomore guard from Michigan , Raymar Morgan , junior forward from Michigan State , Marcus Landry , senior forward from Wisconsin , E 'Twaun Moore , sophomore guard from Purdue , and Robbie Hummel , sophomore forward from Purdue , who was named Preseason Player of the Year .
The Los Angeles Athletic Club released its annual preseason John R. Wooden Award watch list on November 13 . The list was composed of 50 student athletes who , based on 2007 – 08 's individual performance and team records , were the early frontrunners for college basketball 's most coveted trophy . These top 50 candidates were returning players . Transfers , freshmen , and medical red @-@ shirts were not eligible for this preseason list , but were evaluated and considered for both the Midseason Top 30 list and the National Ballot . The Big Ten was represented by Purdue 's Hummel , Wisconsin 's Landry and Michigan State 's Morgan .
On December 18 , the Atlanta Tipoff Club released its annual early season Naismith College Player of the Year award watch list . The top @-@ 50 list included Hummel , Moore and Morgan . The watch list does not include incoming freshmen , although those student @-@ athletes were considered in the February 2009 mid season vote .
= = Regular season = =
November
The Big Ten began the season anticipating competitive schedules since the conference had scheduled appearances against thirteen of the teams appearing in both of the major pre @-@ season rankings . The conference opened its first week with a 14 – 0 record , while holding all 14 opponents to 65 points or less . By the end of the second week of the season the Big Ten found itself with the best non @-@ conference record in the nation at 35 – 1 . They became the first power conference ( ACC , Big 12 , Big East , Big Ten , Pac @-@ 10 or SEC ) to have a road win against another of the conferences when Illinois bested Vanderbilt on November 20 . On the same date , Michigan achieved the conference 's first victory against a top five opponent since Michigan State upended Texas on December 22 , 2007 . Big Ten teams did not win any of the larger preconference tournaments : Purdue lost in overtime of the November 28 championship game of the 16 @-@ team 2008 NIT Season Tip @-@ Off tournament , Michigan placed second in the 16 @-@ team 2K Sports Classic benefiting Coaches vs. Cancer tournament on November 21 , and Wisconsin was runner up in the 8 @-@ team Paradise Jam Tournament on November 24 . Minnesota , was successful in the 4 @-@ team National Association of Basketball Coaches Classic with a win over Georgia State Panthers in the championship game .
December
On Wednesday , December 3 , The Big Ten lost to the Atlantic Coast Conference for the 10th consecutive year in the ACC – Big Ten Challenge . The final margin was 6 – 5 . By the end of the fourth week of the season in early December , the Big Ten had the highest percentage of teams receiving votes in the Associated Press National Rankings and had the highest non @-@ conference strength of schedule in the Ratings Percentage Index ( RPI ) . Minnesota 's 8 – 0 start was Tubby Smith 's first . After five weeks , the Big Ten had the maintained its AP rankings leadership , but also took over the overall leadership in the RPI ratings . The conference 's 82 – 19 record included only losses to teams that had advanced to the post @-@ season the year before . Michigan State 's win against Texas gave the Big Ten half of the nation 's first six victories over top five teams . National Invitation Tournament defending champion , Ohio State 's eighth victory gave them the nation 's longest win streak at thirteen . Entering conference play , at 12 – 0 Minnesota remained one of the nine unbeaten teams in the nation , which was its best start since 1948 – 49 . The conference had one of three winning conference records on the road against non @-@ conference opponents at 10 – 8 and with 5 of its 11 teams ranked in the AP poll , it had the highest percentage of its teams ranked .
January
For the first time since freshmen became eligible in 1974 , Indiana started four freshmen in a conference opener on January 3 against Iowa . On January 11 , Minnesota tied a NCAA record and set a conference record by making all nine of its three @-@ point field goals . Illinois ' January 14 victory over Michigan made it the thirteenth team in NCAA Division I history and second ( after Indiana ) in the Big Ten to achieve 1600 wins . On January 21 , Northwestern snapped the third @-@ longest home @-@ court winning streak in the nation when it stopped Michigan State from earning its 29th straight home victory . John Beilein recorded his 500th win as head coach of a four @-@ year school and 575th win overall on January 24 against Northwestern . As January ended , the conference enjoyed its fourth consecutive week as the leader in the RPI strength of schedule . On January 31 , Matt Roth became the first Indiana Hoosier , first Big Ten freshman and third Big Ten player to record nine three @-@ point shots in a single game .
February
At the midpoint of the conference schedule at the beginning of February , the Big Ten had the highest Sagarin Rating central mean score . Previously , Michigan State had never won its first five conference road games since joining the Big Ten for the 1950 – 51 season , but during the season , they were one of the last two teams to be undefeated on the road at 7 – 0 . Tubby Smith became the third coach in NCAA history to record 20 wins during 16 consecutive seasons . Through its 166th contest , the Big Ten , which had led the nation in average attendance for the prior 32 years , surpassed two million in attendance for the sixteenth consecutive season and eighteenth overall .
= = = Attendance = = =
The big ten concluded the season with the highest attendance in the nation for the 33rd straight season with an average attendance of 12 @,@ 519 fans per game / session , including regular @-@ season games and conference tournament sessions . This surpassed the SEC , which was second with an 11 @,@ 625 average . The Big Ten held seven of the top 25 places among individual institutions , while no other conference had more than four individual schools among the top 25 .
= = = Rankings = = =
^ Final Poll = ESPN / USA Today Coaches Poll
= = = Preconference schedules = = =
= = = = Tournaments = = = =
No Big Ten teams won any major early conference tournaments .
= = = = ACC – Big Ten Challenge = = = =
= = = In @-@ season honors = = =
Players of the week
Throughout the conference regular season , the Big Ten offices named a player of the week each Monday .
Midseason watch lists
On February 5 , the Big Ten became one of six conferences to have multiple players selected as John R. Wooden Award 2008 – 09 Midseason Top 30 Candidates . Both Manny Harris and Kalin Lucas were chosen . On February 24 , Hummel became the only Big Ten player included in the Naismith midseason Top 30 . On February 26 , Turner became the only Big Ten player selected by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association as a Top 15 finalist for the Oscar Robertson Trophy .
= = = Conference honors = = =
Two sets of conference award winners were recognized by the Big Ten - one selected by league coaches and one selected by the media .
= = = All @-@ Big Ten Academic team = = =
The Big Ten Conference had 40 men 's basketball letterwinners who were in at least their second academic year at their institution and who maintained a cumulative grade point average ( GPA ) of 3 @.@ 0 or higher during the winter semester to earn Big Ten Academic All @-@ Conference honors . Northwestern ’ s Sterling Williams who was a graduate student with a Communication Studies major had a perfect Winter GPA . These student @-@ athletes were eligible to be named Distinguished Scholar Awardees if they maintained a 3 @.@ 7 GPA for the entire academic year .
= = National awards & honors = =
= = = National awards = = =
On March 22 , the Big Ten had no players among the four finalists named for the Naismith award to be announced on April 5 . On March 12 , Lucas was among the 25 finalists for the Wooden Award to be named on April 10 .
= = = NABC = = =
The National Association of Basketball Coaches announced their Division I All ‐ District teams on March 5 , recognizing the nation ’ s best men ’ s collegiate basketball student @-@ athletes . Selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , 240 student @-@ athletes , from 24 districts were chosen . The selection on this list were then eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America teams announced at the 2009 NABC Convention in Detroit . The following list represented the Big Ten players chosen to the list . All Big Ten schools are within District 7 for the 2008 – 09 season .
= = = USBWA = = =
On March 10 , the U.S. Basketball Writers Association released its 2008 – 09 Men 's All @-@ District Teams , based on voting from its national membership . There were nine regions from coast to coast and a player and coach of the year were selected in each . The following enumerates all the Big Ten players selected within their respective regions .
= = = Academic honors = = =
= = = = CoSIDA = = = =
On February 5 , 2009 , the College Sports Information Directors of America ( CoSIDA ) and ESPN the Magazine selected their Academic All @-@ Americans from throughout college basketball . CoSIDA has selected Academic All American teams since 1952 . To be nominated , a student @-@ athlete must be a starter or important reserve with at least a 3 @.@ 30 cumulative grade point average ( on a 4 @.@ 0 scale ) at his / her current institution . Nominated athletes must have participated in at least 50 percent of the team ’ s games at the position listed on the nomination form ( where applicable ) . No student @-@ athlete is eligible until he has completed one full calendar year at his current institution and has reached sophomore athletic eligibility . In the cases of transfers , graduate students and two @-@ year college graduates , the student @-@ athlete must have completed one full calendar year at the nominating institution to be eligible . Nominees in graduate school must have a cumulative GPA of 3 @.@ 30 or better both as an undergrad and in grad school . Penn State 's Danny Morrissey was a District 2 first @-@ team 2009 Academic All @-@ District Men ’ s Basketball Team selection . On February 25 , 2009 , the Big Ten had no Academic All America Men 's Basketball Team selections .
= = = = Big Ten Distinguished Scholar Award = = = =
At the conclusion of the 2008 – 09 academic year , the inaugural class of Big Ten Distinguished Scholars were recognized for having attained a 3 @.@ 7 GPA for the academic year while earning varsity letters . Brett Finkelmeier , IND , Jamal Abu @-@ Shamala , MINN , Sterling Williams , NU , and Mark Wohlford , PUR represented men 's basketball as awardees .
= = = All @-@ American = = =
Lucas and Turner were Associated Press All @-@ American honorable mentions .
= = = Summer play = = =
Battle , Hummel , and Turner were selected to represent the United States in the 2009 World University Games July 2 – 11 in Belgrade , Serbia . John Shurna was named to the United States ' team for the 2009 FIBA Under @-@ 19 World Championship held July 2 – 12 in Auckland , New Zealand .
= = = NBA Draft = = =
During the 2009 NBA Draft , Mullens was chosen in the first round with the 24th overall selection by the Dallas Mavericks and Suton was selected by the Utah Jazz in the second round with the 50th overall selection .
= = = Coaching honors = = =
Wisconsin head basketball coach , Bo Ryan , was chosen to be the head coach for the 2009 World University Games Team by USA Basketball . Purdue head basketball coach , Matt Painter , was chosen to be one of two assistant coaches for the 2009 FIBA Under @-@ 19 World Championship Team by USA Basketball . Painter was one of ten finalists for the 2009 Henry Iba Award as named by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association . Forbes named Ryan and Tom Izzo as two of the top ten coaches .
= = Statistical leaders = =
Eight of the eleven member Big Ten institutions will return at least 75 percent of their offensive production during the 2009 – 10 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season , unless underclassmen declare for the 2009 NBA Draft . Indiana , Iowa , Michigan , Minnesota and Ohio State will return 90 percent of their total offensive production . The Buckeyes could return 100 percent of their scoring contingent next season . All five first @-@ team All @-@ Conference honorees were sophomores and are all projected to return as juniors . Overall , the Big Ten could return 80 @.@ 5 percent of its offensive production from 2008 to 2009 , and no team should lose more than half of its total scoring unit next year .
Players must have played in 75 % of team 's games to be eligible . ( NCAA @-@ wide ranking ) in parenthesis for top 40 performers
= = = Team statistics = = =
Source : Fox Sports
= = Postseason = =
= = = Big Ten Tournament = = =
# 3 Purdue defeated # 5 Ohio State in the 2009 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament championship game by a 65 – 61 margin . The All @-@ Big Ten Tournament team honorees were Boilermakers Robbie Hummel ( Most Outstanding Player ) , JaJuan Johnson and E 'Twaun Moore , Buckeye Evan Turner and Mike Davis of Illinois .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
= = = NCAA Tournament = = =
Goran Suton was the Midwest regional most outstanding player . He was joined by teammates Kalin Lucas and Travis Walton on the NCAA Tournament All @-@ Midwest Regional team . Michigan State became the first team to play in the Final Four in their home state since Duke in 1994 and the first Big Ten team since Purdue in 1980 . They were also the team with the second shortest trip ( 92 miles ( 148 km ) ) to the Final Four since it was bracketed in 1985 .
= = = National Invitation Tournament = = =
Jamelle Cornley was the most outstanding player of the tournament .
= = = Other tournaments = = =
The Big Ten did not have any entrants in the other post season tournaments .
= = = 2009 NBA Draft = = =
Several All Big Ten players who completed their eligibility were not drafted . Among those , Marcus Landry made it to the NBA the following season nonetheless . The following players were selected in the 2009 NBA Draft
^ a : Goran Suton was born in Bosnia and Herzegovina and became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 2006 .
= = = = Pre @-@ draft trades = = = =
1 On June 24 , 2009 , Portland acquired the 22nd pick from Dallas in exchange for the 24th pick , 56th pick and a 2010 second @-@ round draft pick . Portland used the 22nd pick to draft Víctor Claver and Dallas used the 24th and 56th pick to draft Byron Mullens and Ahmad Nivins respectively .
= = = = Draft @-@ day trades = = = =
The following trades involving drafted players were made on the day of the draft .
A 1 2 Oklahoma City acquired the draft rights to 24th pick Byron Mullens from Dallas in exchange for the draft rights to 25th pick Rodrigue Beaubois and a future second @-@ round draft pick .
= Richard Hakluyt =
Richard Hakluyt ( / ˈhæklʊt / , / ˈhæ
|
Long
|
wikitext-103-excerpt
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Lake Road near the Lake Ontario shoreline .
= = History = =
The portion of modern NY 350 that overlaps with NY 31F was originally designated as part of Route 20 , an unsigned legislative route , by the New York State Legislature in 1908 . Route 20 continued east from here on what is now NY 31 and west on current NY 31F . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 20 was altered to follow modern NY 31 and NY 250 between Macedon and Fairport , bypassing current NY 350 entirely . Even though it was no longer part of a legislative route , the Macedon – Cator Corners highway was taken over by the state of New York by 1926 . At the time , it was the only portion of what is now NY 350 that was state @-@ maintained .
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the segment of current NY 350 between Atlantic Avenue and Ridge Road became part of an extended NY 35 , which had ended at a junction west of the village of Avon in Livingston County prior to 1930 . The extension took NY 35 northeastward through Monroe and Wayne Counties to a new terminus in the town of Ontario . NY 35 entered Wayne County on modern NY 286 ( Atlantic Avenue ) and followed Atlantic Avenue and Ontario Center Road north to NY 3 ( Ridge Road ; later U.S. Route 104 or US 104 ) . By the following year , the portion of Ontario Center Road from Cator Corners to NY 33 ( Walworth – Penfield Road ; now NY 441 ) was designated as part of NY 33B . The Macedon – Cator Corners segment of former legislative Route 20 was designated as NY 350 c . 1932 .
NY 35 was split up into two routes in the early 1940s . The portion of old NY 35 west of Ontario Center Road became NY 383 while the Ontario Center Road section became part of an extended NY 350 . The extension created an overlap between NY 350 and NY 33B from Cator Corners to NY 33 . NY 33 was truncated on its east end to downtown Rochester on January 1 , 1949 . As a result , NY 33B was redesignated as NY 31F . The easternmost leg of the route still overlapped NY 350 ; however , it now followed NY 350 south to NY 31 in Macedon . NY 350 was extended a short distance northward in the mid @-@ 1940s to meet the new super two highway carrying US 104 between Union Hill and Sodus .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Wayne County .
= Honest services fraud =
Honest services fraud is a crime defined in a 28 @-@ word sentence of 18 U.S.C. § 1346 ( the federal mail and wire fraud statute ) , added by the United States Congress in 1988 , which states : " For the purposes of this chapter , the term scheme or artifice to defraud includes a scheme or artifice to deprive another of the intangible right of honest services . "
The statute has been applied by federal prosecutors in cases of public corruption as well as in cases in which private individuals breached a fiduciary duty to another . In the former , the courts have been divided on the question of whether a state law violation is necessary for honest services fraud to have occurred . In the latter , the courts have taken differing approaches to determining whether a private individual has committed honest services fraud — a test based on reasonably foreseeable economic harm and a test based on materiality . The statute , which has been a target of criticism , was given a narrow construction by the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Skilling v. United States ( 2010 ) . In order to avoid finding the statute to be unconstitutionally vague , the Court interpreted the statute to only cover " fraudulent schemes to deprive another of honest services through bribes or kickbacks supplied by a third party who ha [ s ] not been deceived " .
= = History and case law = =
Since at least 1941 , particularly in the 1970s and 1980s , and prior to 1987 , the courts had interpreted the mail fraud and wire fraud statutes as criminalizing not only schemes to defraud victims of money and property , but also schemes to defraud victims of intangible rights such as the " honest services " of a public official . In 1987 , the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in McNally v. United States that the mail fraud and wire fraud statutes pertained strictly to schemes to defraud victims of tangible property , including money . In 1988 , Congress enacted a new law that specifically criminalized schemes to defraud victims of " the intangible right of honest services . "
= = = Meaning of " honest services " in public corruption = = =
Honest services fraud is generally more easily proven in the public sphere than in the private , because honest services fraud by public officials can include most unethical conduct , whereas honest services fraud by private individuals only includes some unethical conduct . Federal courts have generally recognized two main areas of public @-@ sector honest service fraud : bribery ( direct or indirect ) , where a public official was paid in some way for a particular decision or action , and failure to disclose a conflict of interest , resulting in personal gain .
= = = = Necessity , or lack thereof , of state law violations = = = =
In 1997 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit decided in United States v. Brumley that in order for a state official to have committed honest services fraud , he or she must have violated the state statute defining the services which were owed to the employer ( the state ) .
We find nothing to suggest that Congress was attempting in § 1346 to garner to the federal government the right to impose upon states a federal vision of appropriate services — to establish , in other words , an ethical regime for state employees . Such a taking of power would sorely tax separation of powers and erode our federalist structure . Under the most natural reading of the statute , a federal prosecutor must prove that conduct of a state official breached a duty respecting the provision of services owed to the official 's employer under state law . Stated directly , the official must act or fail to act contrary to the requirements of his job under state law . This means that if the official does all that is required under state law , alleging that the services were not otherwise done " honestly " does not charge a violation of the mail fraud statute .
However , the First , Fourth , Ninth , and Eleventh Circuit Courts have all held that the federal statute does not limit the meaning of " honest services " to violations of state law . As the Ninth Circuit decided in United States v. Weyhrauch in 2008 :
Because laws governing official conduct differ from state to state , conditioning mail fraud convictions on state law means that conduct in one state might violate the mail fraud statute , whereas identical conduct in a neighboring state would not . Congress has given no indication it intended the criminality of official conduct under federal law to depend on geography .
The defendant in that case , Bruce Weyhrauch , is currently appealing that decision to the United States Supreme Court , which granted certiorari .
= = = = Intent to defraud and personal benefit = = = =
In 1997 , the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit set a key limit on honest services fraud in United States v. Czubinski , ruling that a mere workplace violation does not constitute fraud without evidence of depriving the employer of property in some way . Richard Czubinski was employed in Massachusetts by the Internal Revenue Service when , in 1992 , he violated IRS rules by carrying out several unauthorized searches of the IRS database and accessing files outside of the course of his official duties . In 1995 , he was convicted of wire fraud ( defrauding the IRS of property and the public of his honest services ) and computer fraud . The appellate court reversed the honest services fraud conviction on the basis that Czubinski 's actions did not amount to anything more than a workplace violation , warranting no more than a dismissal :
Czubinski was not bribed or otherwise influenced in any public decisionmaking capacity . Nor did he embezzle funds . He did not receive , nor can it be found that he intended to receive , any tangible benefit . ... The conclusive consideration is that the government simply did not prove that Czubinski deprived , or intended to deprive , the public or his employer of their right to his honest services . Although he clearly committed wrongdoing in searching confidential information , there is no suggestion that he failed to carry out his official tasks adequately , or intended to do so .
Czubinski 's other convictions were also reversed .
= = = Meaning of " honest services " in private fiduciary relationships = = =
Although the law is most often applied to corrupt public officials , several federal courts have upheld honest services fraud convictions of private individuals who breached a fiduciary duty to another , such as an employer .
Generally , the federal circuit courts have adhered to one of two approaches when dealing with honest services fraud cases . One , the " reasonably foreseeable economic harm " test , requires that the defendant intentionally breached his fiduciary duty and " foresaw or reasonably should have foreseen " that his actions could cause economic harm to his victim . The other , the " materiality " test , requires that the defendant possessed a fraudulent intent and made " any misrepresentation that has the natural tendency to influence or is capable of influencing " the victim to change his behavior .
= = = = " Reasonably foreseeable economic harm " test = = = =
In 1997 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit held in United States v. Frost that private individuals could be also convicted of honest services fraud . Two professors at the University of Tennessee Space Institute , Walter Frost and Robert Eugene Turner , were also president and vice president , respectively , of FWG Associates , a private atmospheric science research firm . Frost and Turner gave FWG reports to two of their students , one a doctoral candidate employed by the Department of the Army and one a master 's degree candidate employed by NASA , allowing them to plagiarize an overwhelming majority of the reports for their respective dissertations . They also allowed another doctoral candidate , employed by NASA , to submit a dissertation which was mostly written by one of their employees at FWG . Their aim was to secure federal contracts with the agencies employing these students . All three students received their degrees , facilitated by Frost and Turner . In addition to many other charges , Frost and Turner were convicted of three counts of mail fraud for defrauding the University of Tennessee of their honest services as employees . On appeal , Frost and Turner argued that § 1346 did not apply to them because they were not public servants . The court disagreed , ruling that " private individuals , such as Frost and Turner , may commit mail fraud by breaching a fiduciary duty and thereby depriving the person or entity to which the duty is owed of the intangible right to the honest services of that individual . "
In 1998 , the United States Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit upheld the wire fraud conviction of Sun @-@ Diamond Growers of California for defrauding its hired public relations firm of the honest services of one of its agents , James H. Lake , in order to curry favor with the United States Secretary of Agriculture , Mike Espy . The corporation 's vice president for corporate affairs , Richard Douglas , had acted in the scheme in such a manner that potentially could have caused economic harm to the public relations firm ( tarnishing its reputation by engaging Lake in illegal activity ) – he and Lake had illegally funneled contributions to a congressional candidate , Espy 's brother . Sun @-@ Diamond argued that those actions could not be criminal because there was no intent to do economic harm to the firm . However , the court ruled that an intent to do economic harm was not necessary to have committed wire fraud , affirming a pre @-@ McNally decision in light of the 1988 statute :
In the private sector context , § 1346 poses special risks . Every material act of dishonesty by an employee deprives the employer of that worker 's " honest services , " yet not every such act is converted into a federal crime by the mere use of the mails or interstate phone system . Aware of the risk that federal criminal liability could metastasize , we held in Lemire that " not every breach of a fiduciary duty works a criminal fraud . " ... Rather , " [ t ] here must be a failure to disclose something which in the knowledge or contemplation of the employee poses an independent business risk to the employer . " ... Sun @-@ Diamond appears to confuse the requirement of an intent to defraud ... with a requirement of intent to cause economic harm .
In 1999 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit adopted a similar interpretation in United States v. deVegter . Michael deVegter , a financial advisor hired by Fulton County , Georgia , to craft a professional recommendation of the best underwriter for the county to hire. deVegter accepted a payment of about $ 42 @,@ 000 from Richard Poirier in exchange for manipulating the report to influence Fulton County into hiring Poirier 's investment banking firm for the underwriter job. deVegter and Poirier were both indicted for conspiracy and wire fraud , with the latter including charges under the honest services statute . The district court dismissed the honest services charges for lack of evidence before the trial began ; the government appealed . The court agreed with the government that there was sufficient evidence alleged in the indictment for the defendants to be charged with honest services fraud , because the allegations showed a breach of fiduciary duty and an intent to defraud in such a manner that " reasonably foreseeable economic harm to Fulton County " was a consequence of the scheme .
In 2001 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit recognized that there were two different tests that other circuit courts had generally used to determine whether honest services fraud had been committed ; in United States v. Vinyard , it concluded that the " reasonably foreseeable economic harm " test was superior ( because it was based on employee intent and not employer response ) and applied that test to the case at hand . The defendant in the case , Michael Vinyard , had been convicted in the United States District Court for the District of South Carolina of fourteen counts of mail fraud and twelve counts of money laundering . His brother , James Vinyard , was an employee of the Sunoco Products Corporation who was charged with finding an independent broker to research recycled resins for their manufacture of plastic bags . The brothers instead created their own brokerage , " Charles Stewart Enterprises , " incorporated in the state of Iowa , and misrepresented it to Sunoco as an legitimate , independent firm that was supplying recycled resins at the lowest possible price . They purchased recycled resins from plastic vendors and , marking up the price , sold them to Sunoco , which eventually yielded $ 2 @.@ 8 million in profits . The brothers funneled these profits from CSE to themselves through another entity in order to conceal their involvement with CSE on their tax returns . When the brothers were eventually indicted for mail fraud and money laundering , James Vinyard pleaded guilty and testified against his brother . Michael Vinyard appealed , arguing that his conviction of honest services fraud ( defrauding Sunoco of the honest services of his brother , their employee ) was wrongful because he did not cause harm nor did he intend to cause economic harm to the victim , Sunoco . Upholding his conviction , the court rejected this argument :
The reasonably foreseeable harm test is met whenever , at the time of the fraud scheme , the employee could foresee that the scheme potentially might be detrimental to the employer 's economic well @-@ being . Furthermore , the concept of " economic risk " embraces the idea of risk to future opportunities for savings or profit ; the focus on the employer 's wellbeing encompasses both the long @-@ term and the short @-@ term health of the business . Whether the risk materializes or not is irrelevant ; the point is that the employee has no right to endanger the employer 's financial health or jeopardize the employer 's long @-@ term prospects through self @-@ dealing . Therefore , so long as the employee could have reasonably foreseen the risk to which he was exposing the employer , the requirements of § 1346 will have been met .
In 2006 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit treated the issue of whether private defendants could be prosecuted under § 1346 as settled law , citing the numerous other circuits which had affirmed the practice . In the case United States v. Williams , the defendant , John Anthony Williams , was an Oregon insurance salesman who had sold several annuities to an elderly rancher named Loyd Stubbs . When Stubbs liquidated his annuities , Williams deposited the resulting funds in a joint bank account he had opened in his and Stubbs ' names . Williams proceeded to make massive cash withdrawals from the account , depositing the money in his own personal account and spending much of it ; he also wired money to personal bank accounts he had in Belize and Louisiana . Williams was convicted of four counts of wire fraud , three counts of mail fraud , three counts of money laundering , and one count of foreign transportation of stolen money ; the fraud charges stemmed from schemes to defraud Stubbs of money and of Williams ' honest services as his financial advisor . On appeal , Williams argued that § 1346 did not apply to private commerce . The court disagreed , and , citing previous case law , ruled that within a fiduciary relationship the statute applied .
= = = = " Materiality " test = = = =
In 1996 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit laid out the " materiality " test in its decision in United States v. Gray . Kevin Gray , Gary Thomas , and Troy Drummond were three members of the men 's basketball coaching staff at Baylor University in Texas . These coaches helped five players , recruited from two @-@ year colleges , to obtain the credits required for eligibility and possibly scholarships by providing these students with written course work or answers to correspondence exams , which were then sent to the sponsoring schools as the students ' work . They were convicted of conspiracy , mail fraud , and wire fraud ; the fraud charges stemmed from schemes to deprive Baylor University of both property ( in the form of scholarships ) and the coaches ' honest services as Baylor employees . The court upheld the convictions , affirming the honest services fraud convictions on the basis that the coaches made " material " misrepresentations :
A breach of fiduciary duty can constitute illegal fraud ... only when there is some detriment to the employer . ... The detriment can be a deprivation of an employee 's faithful and honest services if a violation of the employee 's duty to disclose material information is involved . ... Materiality exists whenever " an employee has reason to believe the information would lead a reasonable employer to change its business conduct . " ... The information withheld , i.e. the " coaches ' cheating scheme " , was material because Baylor did not get the quality student it expected . Further , appellants failure to disclose the scheme to Baylor was material as Baylor might have been able to recruit other qualified , eligible students to play basketball . Instead , once the scheme was suspected , Baylor was forced to institute a costly investigation and the players under suspicion were withheld from competition . It is quite reasonable to believe that Baylor would have changed its business conduct had it known of the " cheating scheme . "
In 1997 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit also applied the " materiality " test in its decision in United States v. Cochran . Robert M. Cochran was a bond underwriter in Oklahoma who was convicted of five counts of wire fraud , two counts of money laundering , and one count of interstate transportation of stolen property . Three of wire fraud counts for which Cochran was convicted were honest services fraud . Cochran 's firm , Stifel , Nicolaus & Company , served as managing underwriter when the SSM Healthcare System , a non @-@ profit corporation operating several hospitals and nursing homes , issued more than $ 265 million of tax @-@ exempt bonds ; Sakura Global Capital bid $ 400 @,@ 000 to provide SSM with a forward supply contract . However , SGC subsequently made a secret payment of $ 100 @,@ 000 to Cochran 's firm over the course of three wire transmissions ; thus , Cochran supposedly deprived SSM and its bondholders of his honest services . The appellate court reversed his conviction , deciding that the government did not provide sufficient evidence that Cochran had actually defrauded SSM or its bondholders of his honest services , applying the " materiality " test :
Though Stifel misrepresented that SGC would not pay an additional fee to Stifel for the forward supply contract , this information resulted in no actual or potential harm to SSM . ... No evidence independent of the alleged scheme suggests in any way that Mr. Cochran sought to harm SSM or its bondholders . Moreover , we know not from this record how SSM would have changed its conduct had the disclosure been made .
In 1999 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit diverged from the D.C. Circuit 's Sun @-@ Diamond ruling in its decision in United States v. Pennington . Donald B. Pennington was the president of Harvest Foods , a grocery store chain in eastern Arkansas , when that company contracted with a food broker and a consultant , John Oldner , to negotiate deals between it and its suppliers . The broker and consultant both funneled a portion of their money from Harvest Foods and its supplier to Pennington – through a sham corporation , Capitol City Marketing – as kickbacks . Pennington was convicted of money laundering and mail fraud ; in his appeal he contended that there was insufficient evidence to convict him because the government had failed to show that he had an intent to defraud Harvest Foods of his honest services as its president . The court upheld the conviction , stating that there was sufficient evidence that his actions were a breach of his duty as a fiduciary of Harvest Foods to disclose his material interest in their contracts with Oldner and the broker . However , the court also went further and required ( and found ) intent to economically harm :
Pennington and Oldner correctly assert that , when dealing with business transactions in the private sector , a mere breach of fiduciary or employee duty may not be sufficient to deprive a client or corporation of " honest services " for purposes of § 1346 — to be guilty of mail fraud , defendants must also cause or intend to cause actual harm or injury , and in most business contexts , that means financial or economic harm . ... However , proof of intent to harm may be inferred from the willful non @-@ disclosure by a fiduciary , such as a corporate officer , of material information he has a duty to disclose .
In 2003 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit , like the Fourth Circuit in Vinyard , noted the existence of the two tests , but unlike the Fourth Circuit , it opted to use the " materiality " test ( describing it as " arising out of fundamental principles of the law of fraud " and critiquing the alternative as " designed simply to limit the scope " of the law ) . It applied this test to the case at hand , United States v. Rybicki . The defendants were two personal injury lawyers , Thomas Rybicki and Fredric Grae , in the state of New York ; both were convicted of twenty counts of mail fraud , two counts of wire fraud , and one count of conspiracy . The fraud charges pertained to a scheme to make illegal payments to insurance claims adjusters with the intent of inducing the adjusters to expedite the settlement of certain claims ; Rybicki and Grae made such payments in at least twenty cases . As the acceptance of such payments by the adjusters was against the insurance companies ' policies , Rybicki and Grae had defrauded those insurance companies of the honest services of their employees . Such was the basis for the successful fraud prosecution . The court affirmed the conviction , determining that all of the necessary elements for the crime of honest services fraud to have occurred were present , including material misrepresentation . The court defined the crime thus :
The phrase " scheme or artifice [ to defraud ] by depriv [ ing ] another of the intangible right of honest services , " in the private sector context , means a scheme or artifice to use the mails or wires to enable an officer or employee of a private entity ( or a person in a relationship that gives rise to a duty of loyalty comparable to that owed by employees to employers ) purporting to act for and in the interests of his or her employer ( or of the other person to whom the duty of loyalty is owed ) secretly to act in his or her or the defendant 's own interests instead , accompanied by a material misrepresentation made or omission of information disclosed to the employer or other person .
= = Usage and criticism = =
The statute grants jurisdiction to the federal government to prosecute local , state and federal officials . It is frequently used to fight public corruption because it is easier to prove than bribery or extortion . The term " honest services " is broad and open to jury interpretation , according to several legal experts . Prosecutions under the 1970 Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act ( RICO ) frequently use violations of the honest services statute , as mail and wire fraud are predicate acts of racketeering ; therefore , two mailings or wire transmissions in the execution of honest services fraud can form " a pattern of racketeering activity . "
Prosecutions for honest services fraud that do not involve public corruption generally involve corporate crime , although the line between torts and crimes in such cases is considered murky and unclear .
The law is reportedly a favorite of federal prosecutors because the language of statute is vague enough to be applied to corrupt political officials ' unethical or criminal activities when they do not fall into a specific category , such as bribery or extortion . For similar reasons , defense attorneys dislike the law , viewing it as a poorly defined law that can be used by prosecutors to convert any kind of unethical behavior into a federal crime .
Nevertheless , prosecutors must still prove all the elements of mail fraud or wire fraud in a case regarding a scheme to defraud of honest services .
U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia has criticized the statute , stating that the clause was so poorly defined that it could be the basis for prosecuting " a mayor for using the prestige of his office to get a table at a restaurant without a reservation . "
In The Perfect Villain : John McCain and the Demonization of Lobbyist Jack Abramoff , investigative journalist Gary S. Chafetz argued that honest @-@ services fraud is so vague as to be unconstitutional , and that prosecutors abused it as a tool to increase their conviction rates . Bennett L. Gershmann , a professor at Pace University Law School , similarly has contended that the law " is not only subject to abuse ... but has been abused . " The case of former Alabama Governor Don Siegelman is often cited as an example of possible prosecutorial misconduct and abuse of the honest services law .
Many interest groups oppose the usage of the honest services law , including the conservative United States Chamber of Commerce and Washington Legal Foundation , as well as the more liberal National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers . One notable proponent of the law is the Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington .
= = Recent notable prosecutions = =
Several notable figures have been charged with or convicted of honest services fraud . Washington lobbyist Jack Abramoff pleaded guilty in 2006 to honest services fraud in addition to conspiracy and tax evasion ; he was convicted in 2008 of further charges of honest services fraud in addition to further charges of conspiracy and tax evasion . Former Enron CEO Jeffrey Skilling was convicted in 2006 of honest services fraud , in addition to securities fraud . Former Illinois governor George Ryan was convicted in 2006 of honest services fraud , in addition to racketeering , tax fraud , obstruction of justice , and making false statements to federal agents . Former Alabama Governor Don Siegelman was convicted in 2006 of honest services fraud , in addition to conspiracy , bribery , and obstruction of justice . Duke Cunningham , a former Congressman from California , was convicted of corruption charges including honest services fraud . Bob Ney , a former congressman from Ohio , was convicted of corruption charges including honest services fraud . Newspaper magnate Conrad Black was convicted in 2007 of honest services fraud , in addition to obstruction of justice . Former Alaska state legislator Bruce Weyhrauch was convicted in 2007 of honest services fraud in addition to bribery and extortion . Former New York Senate Majority Leader Joseph Bruno was convicted in 2009 on two counts of honest services fraud . Mary McCarty , a former Palm Beach County Commissioner , is currently serving a federal prison sentence for honest services fraud . New Jersey political boss Joe Ferriero was convicted in 2009 of conspiracy and two counts of mail fraud . Former Illinois governor Rod Blagojevich was indicted in 2009 for allegedly conspiring to commit honest services fraud , as well as for allegedly soliciting bribes . Former Alabama state legislator Sue Schmitz was convicted in 2009 of three counts of mail fraud and four counts of fraud involving a program receiving federal funds . Judges Mark Ciavarella and Michael Conahan originally pleaded guilty to honest services fraud and conspiracy in the Kids for cash scandal . The pleas were later withdrawn . Former Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell and wife Maureen were convicted of multiple counts , including conspiring to defraud the public and honest services violations in September 2014 .
= = Supreme Court cases = =
In its 2009 @-@ 2010 term , there were three appeals against the statute at the United States Supreme Court , all challenging its constitutionality . All three appellants were convicted of honest services fraud in 2006 or 2007 .
Weyhrauch v. United States , by former Alaska state legislator Bruce Weyhrauch , deals with whether a public official can be charged with honest services fraud without violating his duty under state law .
Black v. United States , by newspaper magnate Conrad Black , deals with whether there must be proof that the defendant knew his actions would cause economic harm to the company .
Skilling v. United States , by former Enron CEO Jeffrey Skilling , deals with whether the honest services statute requires proof of personal gain . He is also contending that the statute is unconstitutionally vague and unfair .
In December 2009 , the Associated Press reported that the Justices of the Court " seemed to be in broad agreement that the law is vague and has been used to make a crime out of mistakes , minor transgressions and mere ethical violations . " Both liberal and conservative justices have criticized the law . Richard Thornburgh , a former United States Attorney General , has remarked that he expects the court to issue " something fairly sweeping ... without doing violence to proper law enforcement . "
On June 24 , 2010 , the Supreme Court ruled unanimously in the cases of Black and Skilling that the law against " honest services " fraud is too vague to constitute a crime unless a bribe or kickback was involved .
= M @-@ 15 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 15 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The southern terminus is a junction with US Highway 24 ( US 24 ) just south of Clarkston on the northwestern edge of the Detroit metropolitan area . The trunkline is a recreational route running north and northwest to the Tri @-@ Cities area . The northern terminus is the junction with M @-@ 25 on the east side of Bay City . The total length is about 73 2 ⁄ 3 miles ( 118 @.@ 6 km ) between the two regions .
The original M @-@ 15 designation was used in the northern half of the state in 1919 . This designation was wholly replaced by the US 41 on November 11 , 1926 . This previous designation contained the section of highway in Marquette County that is home to the first painted highway centerline in the nation . Another section in western Marquette County included the first bridge built by the state of Michigan . Within the next year after M @-@ 15 was replaced by US 41 , the designation was reused for a new highway routing along the current highway . This current highway was extended northerly to eventually end at I @-@ 75 in Bay City , before it was scaled back slightly to end in southeast Bay City . A proposed , but unbuilt , extension around the west side of Metro Detroit later became part of the I @-@ 275 corridor .
This highway is now a part of the Pure Michigan Byway System , but none of it is located on the National Highway System . A section of the two @-@ lane highway has the local moniker , " Death Alley " , where the local sheriff says the highway is poorly designed . The stretch of highway in Genesee County has been the location of 14 traffic fatalities between 2004 and 2009 as reported by The Flint Journal , including that of a 14 @-@ year @-@ old local girl .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 15 runs through mostly rural agricultural communities of The Thumb connecting the northern edge of Metro Detroit with the Tri @-@ Cities area . It starts at a junction south of the village of Clarkston in northern Oakland County . The highway runs north along Ortonville Road from the intersection with US 24 ( Dixie Highway ) near Deer and Middle lakes through Clarkston . Continuing through town on Main Street near Parke Lake , it comes to an interchange with Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) north of the village next to Little Walters Lake . South of Ortonville near Lake Louise and Bald Eagle Lake , M @-@ 15 turns northwest between the two lakes . The trunkline becomes State Road at the county line and turns north again near Shinanguag Lake near the Ortonville State Recreation Area outside Goodrich in southeastern Genesee County . South of Davison , M @-@ 15 intersects I @-@ 69 near the Davison Country Club before running through town . In Otisville , State Road curves around to the west of some small lakes and through town .
State Road turns northwesterly again in Millington in southwestern Tuscola County , heading up to Vassar . In Vassar , M @-@ 15 intersects and turns northwest along Huron Avenue , a historical routing of M @-@ 24 , crossing the Cass River in town . Outside Vassar , Huron Avenue becomes Saginaw Road . In western Tuscola County , M @-@ 15 intersects M @-@ 46 in the community of Richville . The name of the road changes in Saginaw County to Vassar Road , and the trunkline continues northwesterly through the Blumfield Township communities of Blumfield Corners and Arthur . Arthur is located along the highway between the M @-@ 83 and M @-@ 81 junctions .
In Bay County , M @-@ 15 follows Tuscola Road where it meets the western terminus of M @-@ 138 which runs along Munger Road in Munger . As the highway enters Bay City on the southeast side of town , Tuscola Road leaves the farmlands for residential areas of Bay City . The roadway runs northerwesterly near the St. Stanislaus , St. Patrick and Elm Lawn cemeteries , before turning north on Trumbull Street at 10th Street . The highway follows Trumbull Street for five blocks , where the highway designation ends at a four @-@ way intersection with M @-@ 25 / Center Avenue . Trumbull Street continues north through this residential section of the city .
= = History = =
= = = Original designation = = =
On July 1 , 1919 , the original routing of M @-@ 15 was located in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) . It ran from the state line along the Menominee River in Menominee , connecting with STH @-@ 15 in Wisconsin , running north through the UP to Escanaba , Marquette and Houghton . Between Powers and Escanaba , M @-@ 15 ran concurrently with M @-@ 12 . The northern terminus of the highway was at Fort Wilkins in Copper Harbor . The first highway centerline in the nation was painted along a section of the highway in 1917 , along the Marquette – Negaunee Road , now a part of Marquette County Road 492 .
The Peshekee River Bridge , carried M @-@ 15 over the Peshekee River in western Marquette County 's Michigamme Township . The bridge was built in 1914 in response to the 1913 State Trunk Line Act passed by the Michigan Legislature . This act designated a state trunkline highway network of nearly 3 @,@ 000 miles ( 4 @,@ 828 km ) . The act further said that the Michigan State Highway Department would design , build and maintain trunkline bridges spanning 30 feet ( 9 m ) or more so long as the local governments improved an adjacent 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of roads . Marquette County built a mainline road from Marquette west to Michigamme near the county line , this road generally followed what is now known as County Road 492 ( CR 492 ) . About 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Marquette on CR 492 is a historical marker at the site of the first center line painted in 1917 along Dead Man 's Curve . M @-@ 15 continued through Morgan Meadows and crossing the Carp River into the town of Negaunee and connecting with Ishpeming . This road in now known as East Division or " County Road " also former Business M @-@ 28 . West of Ishpeming in Ishpeming Township , M @-@ 15 followed Randal Drive and Westward to North Lake Junction . M @-@ 15 made its way along what is now CR 496 and several abandoned sections through Clarksburg and Humboldt Locations and the village of Champion . West of Champion M @-@ 15 continued to Michigamme crossing the Peshekee River , Marquette County improved a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) section in 1913 to encourage the state to build the bridge . The bridge was designed by C.V. Dewart for the department and built by the local firm of Powell and Mitchell in Marquette . The bridge was designated Trunk Line Bridge No. 1 as the first state @-@ built bridge on the trunkline highway system .
The 1925 draft plan for the establishment of the US Highway System would have replaced M @-@ 15 with three different US Highways . Between Menominee and Powers , M @-@ 15 was to be replaced by US 41 . East of Powers to Rapid River , the trunkline would have been US 2 . The next segment between Rapid River and Covington was planned as US 102 while the remainder north to Copper Harbor was planned as US 41 In between Powers and Covington , US 41 was planned to follow US 2 west to Iron Mountain and then route of the modern US 141 between Powers and Covington . When the system was announced on November 11 , 1926 , US 41 was the only US Highway routed along the alignment of M @-@ 15 . The original map showed US 41 following an unbuilt alignment between Powers and Marquette , but the US 41 designation was instead routed to follow the former M @-@ 15 .
= = = Current designation = = =
The current routing of M @-@ 15 was designated after 1926 . The southern end was located at US 10 in Clarkston running north to M @-@ 38 and M @-@ 24 in Vassar . By the end of 1936 , M @-@ 15 was extended concurrently along M @-@ 24 from Vassar into Bay City . By June 1942 , the M @-@ 24 concurrency was removed as M @-@ 24 was realigned to replace M @-@ 85 between Vassar and Caro . By July 1 , 1960 , the northern end was extended to run concurrently with M @-@ 25 and BUS US 23 to US 23 on the west side of Bay City . This M @-@ 15 / M @-@ 25 routing was extended again in the next year to end at the new I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 freeway . These two northerly extensions were both reversed and scaled back in 1970 . M @-@ 15 's northern end is moved back to M @-@ 25 / Center Avenue in Bay City , its current location . At some time after the 1993 beginning of the program , M @-@ 15 was named the " Pathway to Family Fun " Recreational Heritage Route in what is now the Pure Michigan Byway System . Running roughly parallel to I @-@ 75 , the route has not been added to the National Highway System , a system of roadways considered important to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility .
The state highway map in 1933 showed a proposed southern extension from Clarkston through southern Oakland County , Wayne County into Monroe County . This proposed highway would have bypassed Metro Detroit to the west through Farmington , Northville , Plymouth and Belleville . The full highway was never built , and M @-@ 15 was never extended south of Clarkston , but part of this proposal was completed . Much of it later became Haggerty Highway , and part of the I @-@ 275 and M @-@ 5 corridors .
= = = " Death Alley " = = =
M @-@ 15 between the Oakland County line and I @-@ 69 has been nicknamed by locals as " Death Alley " . On April 17 , 2009 , The Flint Journal reported that between 2004 and April 2009 , 14 people died on the stretch of road in car accidents . When Genesee County Sheriff Robert J. Pickell was asked about the stretch , he said the road suffers from a bad design , including a lack of turn lanes . He was quoted as saying , " It 's a death trap " . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) looks at roadways after every fatal crash to determine what improvements could be made . Other local government officials have called for solutions to safety issues on the roadway .
= = Major intersections = =
= Boeing 757 =
The Boeing 757 is a mid @-@ size , narrow @-@ body twin @-@ engine jet airliner that was designed and built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes . It is the manufacturer 's largest single @-@ aisle passenger aircraft and was produced from 1981 to 2004 . The twinjet has a two @-@ crew member glass cockpit , turbofan engines of sufficient power to allow takeoffs from relatively short runways and higher altitudes , a conventional tail and , for reduced aerodynamic drag , a supercritical wing design . Intended to replace the smaller three @-@ engine 727 on short and medium routes , the 757 can carry 200 to 295 passengers for a maximum of 3 @,@ 150 to 4 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 830 to 7 @,@ 590 km ) , depending on variant . The 757 was designed concurrently with a wide @-@ body twinjet , the 767 , and owing to shared features pilots can obtain a common type rating that allows them to operate both aircraft .
The 757 was produced in two fuselage lengths . The original 757 @-@ 200 entered service in 1983 ; the 757 @-@ 200PF , a package freighter ( PF ) variant , and the 757 @-@ 200M , a passenger @-@ freighter combi model , debuted in the late 1980s . The stretched 757 @-@ 300 , the longest narrow @-@ body twinjet ever produced , began service in 1999 . Passenger 757 @-@ 200s have been modified to special freighter ( SF ) specification for cargo use , while military derivatives include the C @-@ 32 transport , VIP carriers , and other multi @-@ purpose aircraft . Private and government operators have also customized the 757 for research and transport roles . All 757s are powered by Rolls @-@ Royce RB211 or Pratt & Whitney PW2000 series turbofans .
Eastern Air Lines and British Airways placed the 757 in commercial service in 1983 . The narrow @-@ body twinjet succeeded earlier single @-@ aisle airliners , and became commonly used for short and mid @-@ range domestic routes , shuttle services , and transcontinental U.S. flights . After regulators granted approval for extended flights over water ( ETOPS ) in 1986 , airlines also began using the aircraft for intercontinental routes . Major customers for the 757 included U.S. mainline carriers , European charter airlines , and cargo companies . The airliner has recorded eight hull @-@ loss accidents , including seven fatal crashes , as of September 2015 .
Production of the 757 ended in October 2004 , after 1 @,@ 050 had been built for 54 customers . The 757 @-@ 200 was by far the most popular model , with 913 built . Diminished sales amid an airline industry trend toward smaller jetliners led Boeing to end production without a direct replacement , in favor of the 737 family . The last 757 was delivered to Shanghai Airlines in November 2005 . In July 2015 , 738 of the narrow @-@ body twinjets were in airline service ; Delta Air Lines is the largest operator with 138 aircraft .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
In the early 1970s , following the launch of the wide @-@ body 747 , Boeing began considering further developments of its narrow @-@ body 727 trijet . Designed for short and medium length routes , the three @-@ engined 727 was the best @-@ selling commercial jetliner of the 1960s and a mainstay of the U.S. domestic airline market . Studies focused on improving the 189 @-@ seat 727 @-@ 200 , the most successful 727 variant . Two approaches were considered : a stretched 727 @-@ 300 , and an all @-@ new aircraft code @-@ named 7N7 . The former was a cheaper derivative using the 727 's existing technology and tail @-@ mounted engine configuration , while the latter was a twin @-@ engine aircraft which made use of new materials and improvements to propulsion technology which had become available in the civil aerospace industry .
United Airlines provided input for the proposed 727 @-@ 300 , which Boeing was poised to launch in late 1975 , but lost interest after examining development studies for the 7N7 . Although the 727 @-@ 300 was offered to Braniff International Airways and other carriers , customer interest remained insufficient for further development . Instead , airlines were drawn to the high @-@ bypass @-@ ratio turbofan engines , new flight deck technologies , lower weight , improved aerodynamics , and reduced operating cost promised by the 7N7 . These features were also included in a parallel development effort for a new mid @-@ size wide @-@ body airliner , code @-@ named 7X7 , which became the 767 . Work on both proposals accelerated as a result of the airline industry upturn in the late 1970s .
By 1978 , development studies focused on two variants : a 7N7 @-@ 100 with seating for 160 , and a 7N7 @-@ 200 with room for over 180 seats . New features included a redesigned wing , under @-@ wing engines , and lighter materials , while the forward fuselage , cockpit layout , and T @-@ tail configuration were retained from the 727 . Boeing planned for the aircraft to offer the lowest fuel burn per passenger @-@ kilometer of any narrow @-@ body airliner . On August 31 , 1978 , Eastern Air Lines and British Airways became the first carriers to publicly commit to the 7N7 when they announced launch orders totaling 40 aircraft for the 7N7 @-@ 200 version . These orders were signed in March 1979 , when Boeing officially designated the aircraft as the 757 . The shorter 757 @-@ 100 did not receive any orders and was dropped ; 737s later fulfilled its envisioned role .
= = = Design effort = = =
The 757 was intended to be more capable and more efficient than the preceding 727 . The focus on fuel efficiency reflected airline concerns over operating costs , which had grown amid rising oil prices during the Yom Kippur War of 1973 . Design targets included a 20 percent reduction in fuel consumption from new engines , plus an additional 10 percent from aerodynamic improvements , versus preceding aircraft . Lighter materials and new wings were also expected to improve efficiency . The maximum take @-@ off weight ( MTOW ) was set at 220 @,@ 000 pounds ( 99 @,@ 800 kg ) , which was 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 540 kg ) more than the 727 . The 757 's higher power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio allowed it to take off from short runways and serve airports in hot and high climates , offering better takeoff performance than that offered by competing aircraft . Competitors needed longer takeoff runs at airports at higher elevations , with higher ambient temperatures and thinner air . Boeing also offered options for higher payload capability .
The twin @-@ engine configuration was chosen for greater fuel efficiency versus three- and four @-@ engine designs . Launch customers Eastern Air Lines and British Airways selected the RB211 @-@ 535C turbofan built by Rolls @-@ Royce , which was capable of 37 @,@ 400 pounds @-@ force ( 166 kN ) of thrust . This marked the first time that a Boeing airliner was launched with engines produced outside the U.S. Domestic manufacturer Pratt & Whitney subsequently offered the 38 @,@ 200 pounds @-@ force ( 170 kN ) thrust PW2037 , which Delta Air Lines launched with an order for 60 aircraft in November 1980 . General Electric also offered its CF6 @-@ 32 engine early in the program , but eventually abandoned its involvement due to insufficient demand .
As development progressed , the 757 increasingly departed from its 727 origins and adopted elements from the 767 , which was several months ahead in development . To reduce risk and cost , Boeing combined design work on both twinjets , resulting in shared features such as interior fittings and handling characteristics . Computer @-@ aided design , first applied on the 767 , was used for over one @-@ third of the 757 's design drawings . In early 1979 , a common two @-@ crew member glass cockpit was adopted for the two aircraft , including shared instrumentation , avionics , and flight management systems . Cathode @-@ ray tube ( CRT ) color displays replaced conventional electromechanical instruments , with increased automation eliminating the flight engineer position common to three @-@ person cockpits . After completing a short conversion course , pilots rated on the 757 could be qualified to fly the 767 and vice versa , owing to their design similarities .
A new aft @-@ loaded shape which produced lift across most of the upper wing surface , instead of a narrow band as in previous airfoil designs , was used for the 757 's wings . The more efficient wings had less drag and greater fuel capacity , and were similar in configuration to those on the 767 . A wider wingspan than the 727 's produced less lift @-@ induced drag , while larger wing roots increased undercarriage storage space and provided room for future stretched versions of the aircraft .
One of the last 727 vestiges , the T @-@ tail , was dropped in mid @-@ 1979 in favor of a conventional tail . This avoided the risk of an aerodynamic condition known as a deep stall , and allowed for more passengers to be carried in a less tapered rear fuselage . At 155 @.@ 3 feet ( 47 @.@ 3 m ) in length , the 757 @-@ 200 was 2 @.@ 1 feet ( 0 @.@ 640 m ) longer than the 727 @-@ 200 , and with a greater proportion of its internal volume devoted to cabin space , seating was available for 239 passengers , or 50 more than its predecessor . The fuselage cross @-@ section , whose upper lobe was common to the 707 and 737 , was the only major structural feature to be retained from the 727 . This was mainly to reduce drag , and while a wider fuselage had been considered , Boeing 's market research found low cargo capacity needs and reduced passenger preference for wide @-@ body aircraft on short @-@ haul routes .
= = = Production and testing = = =
Boeing built a final assembly line in Washington at its Renton factory , home of 707 , 727 , and 737 production , to produce the 757 . Early in the development program , Boeing , British Airways , and Rolls @-@ Royce unsuccessfully lobbied the British aircraft industry to manufacture 757 wings . Ultimately , about half of the aircraft 's components , including the wings , nose section , and empennage , were produced in @-@ house at Boeing facilities , and the remainder subcontracted to primarily U.S.-based companies . Fairchild Aircraft made the leading edge slats , Grumman supplied the flaps , and Rockwell International produced the main fuselage . Production ramp @-@ up for the new narrow @-@ body airliner coincided with the winding @-@ down of the 727 program , and final assembly of the first aircraft began in January 1981 .
The prototype 757 rolled out of the Renton factory on January 13 , 1982 . The aircraft , equipped with RB211 @-@ 535C engines , completed its maiden flight one week ahead of schedule on February 19 , 1982 . The first flight was affected by an engine stall , following indications of low oil pressure . After checking system diagnostics , company test pilot John Armstrong and co @-@ pilot Lew Wallick were able to restart the affected engine , and the flight proceeded normally thereafter . Subsequently , the 757 embarked on a seven @-@ day weekly flight test schedule . By this time , the aircraft had received 136 orders from seven carriers , namely Air Florida , American Airlines , British Airways , Delta Air Lines , Eastern Air Lines , Monarch Airlines , and Transbrasil .
The seven @-@ month 757 flight test program used the first five aircraft built . Tasks included flight systems and propulsion tests , hot and cold weather trials , and route @-@ proving flights . Data from the 767 program helped expedite the process . After design issues were identified , the 757 's exit doors received dual @-@ spring mechanisms for easier operation , and the fuselage was strengthened for greater bird strike resistance . The production aircraft was 3 @,@ 600 pounds ( 1 @,@ 630 kg ) lighter than originally specified , and recorded a three percent better @-@ than @-@ expected rate of fuel burn . This resulted in a range increase of 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) , and prompted Boeing to tout the aircraft 's fuel efficiency characteristics . After 1 @,@ 380 flight test hours , the RB211 @-@ powered 757 received U.S. Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) certification on December 21 , 1982 , followed by U.K. Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) certification on January 14 , 1983 . The first delivery to launch customer Eastern Air Lines occurred on December 22 , 1982 , about four months after the first 767 deliveries . The first 757 with PW2037 engines rolled out about one year later , and was delivered to Delta Air Lines on November 5 , 1984 .
= = = Service entry and operations = = =
Eastern Air Lines operated the first commercial 757 flight on January 1 , 1983 , on the Atlanta @-@ to @-@ Tampa route . On February 9 , 1983 , British Airways began using the aircraft for London @-@ to @-@ Belfast shuttle services , where it replaced Hawker Siddeley Trident 3B trijets . Charter carriers Monarch Airlines and Air Europe also began 757 operations later that year . Early operators noted improved reliability and quieter performance compared with previous jetliners . Transition courses eased pilots ' introduction to the new CRT @-@ based cockpit , and no major technical issues arose . Eastern Air Lines , the first 727 operator to take delivery of 757s , confirmed that the aircraft had greater payload capability than its predecessor , along with lower operating costs through improved fuel burn and the use of a two @-@ crew member flight deck . Compared with the 707 and 727 , the new twinjet consumed 42 and 40 percent less fuel per seat , respectively , on typical medium @-@ haul flights .
Despite the successful debut , 757 sales remained stagnant for most of the 1980s , a consequence of declining fuel prices and a shift to smaller aircraft in the post @-@ deregulation U.S. market . Although no direct competitor existed , 150 @-@ seat narrow @-@ bodies such as the McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 80 were cheaper to acquire and carried nearly as many passengers as some airlines ' 757s . A three @-@ year sales drought abated in November 1983 when Northwest Airlines placed orders for 20 aircraft , which averted a costly production rate decrease . In December 1985 , a freighter model , the 757 @-@ 200PF , was announced following a launch order for 20 aircraft from UPS Airlines , and in February 1986 , a freighter @-@ passenger combi model , the 757 @-@ 200M , was launched with an order for one aircraft from Royal Nepal Airlines . The freighter model included a main deck cargo hold and entered service with UPS in September 1987 . The combi model could carry both cargo and passengers on its main deck and entered service with Royal Nepal Airlines in September 1988 .
In the late 1980s , increasing airline hub congestion and the onset of U.S. airport noise regulations fueled a turnaround in 757 sales . From 1988 to 1989 , airlines placed 322 orders , including a combined 160 orders from American Airlines and United Airlines . By this time , the 757 had become commonplace on short @-@ haul domestic flights and transcontinental services in the U.S. , and had replaced aging 707s , 727s , Douglas DC @-@ 8s , and McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 9s . The 757 @-@ 200 's maximum range of 3 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 220 km ) , which was over one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half times the 727 's , allowed airlines to use the aircraft on longer nonstop routes . The 757 was also flown out of airports with stringent noise regulations , such as John Wayne Airport in Orange County , California , and airports with aircraft size restrictions , such as Washington National Airport near downtown Washington , D.C. The largest U.S. operators , Delta Air Lines and American Airlines , would ultimately operate fleets of over 100 aircraft each .
In Europe , British Airways , Iberia , and Icelandair were the 757 's largest mainline customers , while other carriers such as Lufthansa rejected the type as too large for their narrow @-@ body aircraft needs . Many European charter airlines , including Air 2000 , Air Holland , and LTU International , also acquired the twinjet for holiday and tour package flights in the late 1980s . In Asia , where even bigger aircraft were commonly preferred because of large passenger volumes , the 757 found fewer orders . A 1982 sales demonstration was unable to attract a purchase from potential customer Japan Airlines , and the first Asian customer , Singapore Airlines , sold its four 757s in 1989 in favor of standardizing on the 240 @-@ seat wide @-@ body Airbus A310 , just five years after debuting the type on Indonesian and Malaysian routes . The 757 fared better in China , where following an initial purchase by the Civil Aviation Administration of China ( CAAC ) in 1987 , orders grew to 59 aircraft , making it the largest Asian market . Operators such as China Southern , China Southwest , Shanghai Airlines , Xiamen Airlines , and Xinjiang Airlines used the 757 on medium length domestic routes .
In 1986 , the FAA approved RB211 @-@ powered 757s for extended @-@ range twin @-@ engine operational performance standards ( ETOPS ) operations over the North Atlantic , following precedents set by the 767 . Under ETOPS regulations , a set of safety standards governing twinjet flights over oceans and other areas without nearby suitable landing sites , airlines began using the aircraft for mid @-@ range intercontinental routes . Although the 757 was not originally intended for transoceanic flights , regulators based their decision on its reliable performance record on extended transcontinental U.S. services . ETOPS certification for 757s equipped with PW2000 series engines was granted in 1992 .
In the early 1990s , the FAA and other U.S. government agencies , including the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) and the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) , began studying the 757 's wake turbulence characteristics . This followed several incidents , including two fatal crashes , in which small private aircraft experienced loss of control when flying close behind the twinjet . Smaller airliners had also suffered unexpected rolling movements when flying behind 757s . Investigators focused on the aircraft 's aft @-@ loaded wing design , which at certain points during takeoff or landing could produce wingtip vortices that were stronger than those emanating from larger 767s and 747s . Other tests were inconclusive , leading to debate among government agencies , and in 1994 and 1996 the FAA updated air traffic control regulations to require greater separation behind the 757 than other large @-@ category jets . The 757 became the only sub @-@ 300 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 136 @,@ 000 kg ) airliner to be classified as a " heavy " jet , alongside wide @-@ body aircraft , under FAA separation rules .
= = = Stretched variant = = =
Production of the 757 peaked at an annual rate of 100 aircraft in the early 1990s , during which time upgraded models came under consideration . For over a decade , the narrow @-@ body twinjet had been its manufacturer 's only single @-@ aisle airliner without a stretched variant , and while rumors of a long @-@ range 757 @-@ 200X and stretched 757 @-@ 300X persisted , no formal announcements had been made . European charter carriers were particularly interested in a higher @-@ capacity version which could take better advantage of the 757 's range . Besides meeting the needs of charter customers , a larger model would enable Boeing to match the passenger lift capabilities of the 767 @-@ 200 with lower operating costs , and counter longer @-@ range versions of the 185 @-@ seat Airbus A321 , a new stretched variant of the A320 narrow @-@ body airliner .
In September 1996 , following a launch order for 12 aircraft from charter carrier Condor , Boeing announced the stretched 757 @-@ 300 at the Farnborough Airshow . The new model was a 23 @.@ 4 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 13 m ) stretch of the 757 @-@ 200 , resulting in room for 50 more passengers and nearly 50 percent more cargo . The type 's design phase was intended to be the shortest in its manufacturer 's history , with 27 months from launch to certification . Due to development and cost concerns , radical upgrades such as a Next Generation 737 @-@ style advanced cockpit were not implemented . Instead , the stretched derivative received upgraded engines , enhanced avionics , and a redesigned interior . The first 757 @-@ 300 rolled out on May 31 , 1998 , and completed its maiden flight on August 2 , 1998 . Following regulatory certification in January 1999 , the type entered service with Condor on March 19 , 1999 .
The 757 @-@ 300 was also ordered by American Trans Air , Arkia Israel Airlines , Continental Airlines , Icelandair , and Northwest Airlines . Sales for the type remained slow , and ultimately totaled 55 aircraft . Boeing had targeted the 757 @-@ 300 as a potential 767 @-@ 200 replacement for two of its largest customers , American Airlines and United Airlines , but neither were in a financial position to commit to new aircraft . Overtures to other charter airlines also did not result in further orders . By November 1999 , faced with diminishing sales and a reduced backlog despite the launch of the 757 @-@ 300 , Boeing began studying a decrease in 757 production rates .
= = = Further developments = = =
While the 757 program had been financially successful , declining sales in the early 2000s threatened its continued viability . Airlines were again gravitating toward smaller aircraft , now mainly the 737 and A320 , because of their reduced financial risk . An airline industry downturn and the large number of relatively young 757s already in service also reduced customer demand . In 2000 , spurred by interest from Air 2000 and Continental Airlines , Boeing reexamined the possibility of building a longer @-@ range 757 @-@ 200X . The proposed derivative would have featured auxiliary fuel tanks , plus wing and landing gear upgrades from the 757 @-@ 300 , resulting in a higher MTOW and a potential range increase to over 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 260 km ) . However , the proposal failed to garner any orders . In March 2001 , Boeing delivered the first 757 @-@ 200SF , a second @-@ hand 757 @-@ 200 converted for freighter use , to DHL Aviation . The 757 @-@ 200SF marked the manufacturer 's first foray into passenger @-@ to @-@ freighter conversions .
Customer interest in new 757s continued to decline , and in 2003 , a renewed sales campaign centered on the 757 @-@ 300 and 757 @-@ 200PF yielded only five new orders . In October 2003 , following Continental Airlines ' decision to switch its remaining 757 @-@ 300 orders to the 7
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1936 World Series , and he also was bodyguard for Queen Marie of Romania and King Albert of Belgium .
= = Allegations of misconduct = =
Throughout his career , beginning with his days in the Industrial Squad , Broderick was a subject of allegations of misconduct , and the Industrial Squad under his command was accused of violence toward strikers and corruption . He sometimes beat up people who were totally innocent , and lawsuits and complaints of brutality were futile because of his public image , honed by favorable media coverage , and connections .
In a column on Broderick 's brief demotion to patrolman in 1934 , Westbrook Pegler said that the demotion would do him some good , that he " was excessively tough at times and there were occasions when , pining for action , he bounced round people who were in not particular need of bouncing around . " Pegler said that Broderick was selective in whom he would harass , that " there were many low characters in the city , notorious for their activity in the rackets , who were walking right past Detective Broderick on the street and in the lobby of [ Madison Square ] Garden , whom he did not find any occasion to bounce around . " Pegler said he found that " strange . "
In July 1926 , Broderick and the Industrial Squad were accused by the American Civil Liberties Union of clubbing and beating striking Interborough Rapid Transit Company workers , injuring 20 . Broderick denied the charges , saying the police were acting in self @-@ defense . The squad was accused by the Teamsters Union of beating striking drivers , and it was accused of brutality against striking paper @-@ box makers in 1926 . The following year , Broderick 's squad was accused of attacking fur industry strikers . In 1928 , Broderick and officers from his squad were accused of beating two spectators at a Madison Square Garden bicycle race , sending them to the hospital with broken jaws and internal injuries . In this incident Broderick 's career was rescued by favorable press coverage .
In 1927 , a furriers union official , Isidor Shapiro , told a special committee of the American Federation of Labor that his union paid the police $ 3800 a week in bribes for protection during a 1926 strike . Union officials claimed that non @-@ union workers were beaten while police officers " stood idly by . " Shapiro claimed that the " Industrial Squad chief " was paid $ 100 a week and that ten men in the squad were paid $ 50 a week . Broderick and the other officers were clearly after an inquiry by a judge . The charges were revived in 1939 , when a former Communist , Maurice L. Malkin , accused Broderick and other officers of corruption in testimony before the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . Malkin testified that the furriers union , which was controlled by Communists in the 1920s , borrowed $ 1 @.@ 75 million from racketeer Arnold Rothstein to finance the 1926 strike , and that $ 110 @,@ 000 of that went to Broderick and other members of the Industrial Squad , including Barney Ruditsky . The amount that Broderick received was said to be $ 45 @,@ 000 and $ 50 @,@ 000 . No action was taken against Broderick or the other detectives .
As a mayoral candidate in 1929 , Fiorello LaGuardia accused the Industrial Squad of extorting payoffs from labor and management , and that " instead of preserving order , this agency has done more to create disorder than anything else . " The squad was disbanded in 1933 .
In 1937 , a justice of the New York State Supreme Court freed a prisoner who had been arrested for parole violation and beaten by Broderick , saying that " the police of the City of New York beat him so badly that he will be a cripple for life . I think this man has more than expiated his crime . " The prisoner sustained fractures to the knee and ribs , his jaw was dislocated , and he was not given medical attention while in police custody . Broderick 's superiors found no reason to discipline the detective .
= = Retirement controversy = =
In September 1946 , Broderick was assigned to the office of Mayor William O 'Dwyer in an unannounced confidential capacity , a move that many in city government found surprising . After a few months he was abruptly transferred to the Main Office Division , and in July 1947 , he retired from the police department .
In 1949 , he sought to become a Democratic leader in the Broadway district on Manhattan 's west side . One of the two incumbent district leaders Broderick was challenging , Gerald V. Murphy , accused him of having been forced out of the department for associating with gangsters . The charge was confirmed by Manhattan 's District Attorney , Frank Hogan , who disclosed that Broderick was forced to retire by Mayor William O 'Dwyer after Hogan 's office learned that in November 1946 he had accompanied a gambler and ex @-@ convict , Ben Kaye , to Hot Springs , Arkansas , where he " associated with " mobster Owney Madden . Broderick denied the charge , conceding that he was on the same plane as Kaye but that it was a " coincidence . " He admitted that he knew Madden and " every gangster in New York . That was my job . " His bid to become a district leader failed in the September 1949 primary elections .
In an editorial , the New York Herald Tribune pointed out that the circumstances of Broderick 's forced retirement only came to light because he was seeking a new career in politics , and that " voters may wonder how much they are really told about city government , when the Broderick incident demonstrates how discreetly a little embarrassment can be obliterated . "
= = Personal life = =
In 1931 Broderick was 5 feet 10 inches tall , weighed 170 pounds , and " dresses like Beau Brummel . " He neither smoked nor drank , worked out at a gymnasium every day , and kept in top physical condition .
At the time of his demotion in 1934 he was described as having an affluent lifestyle . Though drawing a salary of $ 4 @,@ 000 a year , cut to $ 3 @,@ 000 as a result of the demotion , he drove a Cadillac , dressed expensively and owned a home in Jackson Heights , Queens .
Broderick was a devoted prizefighting fan , rarely missing a fight at Madison Square Garden . During his days as a detective , Broderick enjoyed listening to his wife play the piano and was described by his New York Times obituary as fond of " monogrammed , cream @-@ colored silk underwear " and that off @-@ duty he was " the gentlest of men . " He was said to be upset by his portrayal by Robinson in Bullets or Ballots because Robinson was shown drinking and smoking .
After his retirement he sold his life story to RKO Pictures for $ 75 @,@ 000 , to be made into a motion picture titled " Broadway 's One @-@ Man Riot Squad . " A 1948 report said that the screenplay was to be by Herman J. Mankiewicz , who knew Broderick from his days as a newspaper reporter . The film , which was to star Robert Ryan , was never made , and plans to have a television series or musical made about his life persisted through 1959 , but did not come to pass .
He died of heart disease on his birthday at his farmhouse outside Middletown , New York , where he raised horses and dogs . He was survived by his wife , the former Marion McShea , his daughter , Marion Farinon , three sisters and nine grandchildren . He was buried in Pine Lawn Cemetery in Massapequa , Long Island . In 1933 it was reported that he had been married for 14 years at the time , and that he had two daughters , Margaret and Marion .
= = Legacy = =
The brutal methods used by Broderick and other officers were sanctioned by the police department during their era , and praised as " fearless . " Beginning in the 1960s , however , New York police sought to curb that kind of conduct . Training programs were established teaching officers to observe the civil rights of suspects and the public . By the 1980s , it was feared that the pendulum had shifted back toward brutality , as complaints of assaults by police climbed . Broderick was cited by The New York Times in 1985 as an exemplar of the old methods of policing .
At the time of his death in 1966 , Walter Henning , an assistant chief inspector and a colleague of Broderick 's , called him a " man of his time , " and said that " under restrictions today , he 'd have a difficult time doing the things he did . " But during Prohibition , he said , " when these people [ gangsters ] went in and out of court it was like a revolving door , they had rather be locked up than to meet Johnny . "
In his 2011 book American Police a History , 1845 – 1945 , Thomas A. Reppetto , a former Chicago detective commander and ex @-@ president of the Citizens Crime Commission of New York City , said that despite his fearsome reputation Broderick was actually beaten up on several occasions . Broderick 's image , he says , " rested to a great extent that Broadway show business figures relied upon him for informal protection , " as well as on " rave accounts " of his career by Ed Sullivan , Gene Fowler , Toots Shor and others .
Reppetto observed that the " real strength " of Broderick and Cordes was that they " had what the gangster did not , the legal right to use deadly force and the practical power to slug hoods on sight . "
= Victoria Brown ( water polo ) =
Victoria Jayne Brown ( born 27 July 1985 ) is an Australian water polo goalkeeper . Both of her parents represented their countries at the highest level in fencing . As a youngster , they believed Brown would compete in the Olympics in an equestrian event . She is currently a small business owner . She plays water polo for the Victorian Tigers of National Water Polo League . She has represented Australia as a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team on both the junior and senior level . She was a member of the Australian side that won a bronze medal at the 2005 FINA World League Super Finals and the 2010 FINA Women 's Water Polo World Cup . She was part of the Australian team that won the bronze medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics . She has earned several honours including being named the 2010 Australian Water Polo Female Player of the Year .
= = Personal = =
The 183 cm ( 6 ft 0 in ) tall 76 kilograms ( 168 lb ) Brown , born on 27 July 1985 in Melbourne , Victoria , currently resides in Melbourne . One of her parents won a bronze medal for Australia at the Commonwealth Games . Her mother was the captain of Great Britain 's fencing team and her father was the captain of Australia 's fencing team . Her parents believed that she would win an Olympic gold medal in an equestrian event , as she competed in the sport until she was sixteen years old . At that age , she then switched sports to water polo . On 31 December 2010 , she broke her leg in a New Year 's Eve accident . During her recovery , she had to deal with a post @-@ surgery infection .
She lived in the United States from 2006 to 2008 , with the goal of improving the quality of her water polo play so she could qualify for the Olympics . In late 2010 , she injured her arm and it took time to recover .
Brown attended the University of Melbourne , where she earned a bachelor 's in property and construction . She currently works as a business owner and consultant . In 2011 , she co @-@ founded the firm Elite Mentors , which provides guidance to elite athletes .
= = Water polo = =
Brown is a goalkeeper . She took up the sport in high school , while in Year 7 , with the first team she competed for being the U17 Kawana Waters side . In 2010 , she had a water polo scholarship from the Victoria Institute of Sport . She has a water polo scholarship from the Australian Institute of Sport . When actively training , she will have ten to twelve training sessions , including gym work , a week . Her home training pool is the Melbourne Sports and Aquatic Centre . Before every game she plays , she brushes her teeth .
= = = Club team = = =
Brown is a member of the Monash water polo club and currently plays her water polo for the Victorian Tigers in the National Water Polo League . In 2005 , she played for the Lauriston club in Armadale . She played for the Brisbane Barracudas in 2008 . The annual match between Breakers and Barracudas is considered is one the Courier Mail considers a grudge match . She participated in the 2008 edition with her team . She played for the Victorian Tigers in 2007 and 2009 . She was with the Tigers in 2010 , when Cronulla played in the finals tournament ; in the tournament , she was named in the league final 's All Star team . She was with the Tigers again for their 2011 campaign . She briefly played with the Tigers in 2012 before taking a break following their 18 February 2012 game against the Cronulla to attend the national team training camp .
= = = Junior national team = = =
Brown has represented Australia on the junior national level . In 2002 , her first year as a junior national team member , she competed with the national youth girls team that toured the United States in June and competed in an international series in Sydney in August . In 2004 , she was a member of the team that toured Europe in July and August , and was the only Victorian woman on the team . In January 2005 , she was on the junior side that competed in the VI FINA World Junior Championships in Perth .
= = = Senior national team = = =
Brown is a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team . She made her national debut in Montreal at the 2005 FINA World Championships in Australia 's 15 – 2 victory over Germany . In 2005 , she was a member of the team that competed in the international series with New Zealand held in Canberra in July , the FINA World League Finals in the United States in July , the XIFINA World Championships in Montreal in July , and the II FINA World League Super Finals in Russia in August . In 2005 , she was part of the side that won a bronze medal at the FINA World League Super Finals in Kirishi , Russia . In the 2007 FINA World League Asia @-@ Oceania qualifiers , in Australia 's 16 – 8 defeat of New Zealand , she made eight saves . She was named in the team that competed in the preliminary round at the 2008 FINA World League in Tianjin , China . In preparation for the Games , her coach Greg McFadden , instructed Brown and every player on the team to sit down for dinner and eat everything on their plate . She was the last player cut before the 2008 Summer Olympics squad was finalised , right before the team left for Beijing , China . She used this to motivate herself to become one of the best goalkeepers in Australia . In May 2010 , she was a member of the team that competed at the FINA World League Asia @-@ Oceania zone held in Osaka , Japan and Tianjin , China . She represented Australia at the 2010 FINA Women 's Water Polo World Cup in Christchurch , New Zealand . She was a member of the Australian team that competed at the Pan Pacific Championships in 2010 , the year she was named the Australian Stinger 's Player of the Year . She also secured her position as the team 's number one goalkeeper .
In 2011 , Brown missed most of the national team season because of a broken leg and an injured arm . Nevertheless , in April 2011 , she attended a training camp at the Australian Institute of Sport ( AIS ) where the coach was " selecting a team for the major championships over winter . " In February 2012 , she was named in the final training squad for the 2012 Summer Olympics , and thus attended a training camp starting on 20 February 2012 at the AIS . The team of seventeen players will be cut to thirteen before the team departs for the Olympic games , with the announcement being made on 13 June . She was part of the Stingers squad that competed in a five @-@ game test against Great Britain at the AIS in late February 2012 . This was the team 's first matches against Great Britain 's national team in six years .
= = Recognition = =
In June 2004 , Brown was named the Stonnington Leader Senior Sports Star of the Week . In 2006 and 2010 , she was named to the National Water Polo League All Star Team . In 2007 , she was named the Goalkeeper of the Tournament at the World League Finals . In 2009 , she was named the Goalkeeper of the Tournament at the Holiday Cup held in Los Angeles , California . In 2010 , she was named the Australian team Most Valuable Player . That year , Australian Water Polo named her the Female Player of the Year .
= Jaco Van Dormael =
Jaco Van Dormael ( born 9 February 1957 ) is a Belgian film director , screenwriter and playwright . His complex and critically acclaimed films are especially noted for their respectful and sympathetic portrayal of people with mental and physical disabilities .
Van Dormael spent his childhood travelling around Europe , before going on to study filmmaking at the INSAS in Brussels , where he wrote and directed his first short film , Maedeli la brèche ( 1981 ) , which received the Honorary Foreign Film Award at the Student Academy Awards . Van Dormael 's feature debut , Toto le héros ( 1991 ) , was an immediate hit and won the Caméra d 'Or at the Cannes Film Festival .
Five years later Van Dormael was among the prizes again at Cannes with Le huitième jour ( 1996 ) , when his two leading actors , Daniel Auteuil and Pascal Duquenne , were jointly awarded the prize for Best Actor . His third feature film , Mr. Nobody ( 2009 ) , received further critical acclaim and many accolades , winning six Magritte Awards , including Best Film and Best Director .
= = Early life = =
Jaco Van Dormael was born in Ixelles . Belgium , on 9 February 1957 to a Belgian couple . Van Dormael was raised in Germany until age seven , when his family returned to Belgium . At his birth , he had nearly been strangled by the umbilical cord and received an insufficient supply of oxygen . It was feared that he may end up mentally impaired . This trauma accounts for the recurring themes in his films , which explore the worlds of people with mental and physical disabilities .
He delighted in working with children and for a while pursued a career as a circus clown . He became a producer of children 's entertainment with the Theatre de Galafronie , Theatre Isocele and Theatre de la Guimbarde . After developing an interest in filmmaking , he enrolled at the INSAS in Brussels and later the Louis Lumière College in Paris . As a children 's entertainer , childhood and innocence would become strong themes throughout his work .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
In the 1980s , Van Dormael produced a number of short films that aroused considerable critical interest . While he was a student at the INSAS , he wrote and directed the children 's story Maedeli la brèche . The short film was praised by critics and received the Honorary Foreign Film Award at the 1981 Student Academy Awards presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . The following year Van Dormael directed Stade 81 , a documentary short film about the Paralympic Games . He later directed the award @-@ winning short films Les voisins ( 1981 ) , L 'imitateur ( 1982 ) , Sortie de secours ( 1983 ) , and De boot ( 1985 ) . His most famous short of the period is È pericoloso sporgersi ( 1984 ) which won the Grand Prix in international competition at the Clermont @-@ Ferrand International Short Film Festival .
= = = Mainstream breakthrough = = =
Van Dormael made his feature @-@ length debut in 1991 with Toto le héros ( Toto the hero ) , a tale about a man who believes his life was " stolen " from him when he was switched at birth , told in a complex mosaic of flashbacks and dream sequences , sometimes with almost a stream of consciousness effect . Toto le héros was ten years in the making as Van Dormael rewrote the script at least eight times . In 1985 , two Belgian producers read a version of the script , and over the next five years they raised about $ 3 @.@ 5 million , a huge amount for a Belgian production , all in public money from Belgium , the European Community and state television in France and Germany . Van Dormael premiered Toto le héros at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival , where it won the Camera d 'Or . The film was released to the public later that year to critical acclaim and was a financial success . It won five Joseph Plateau Awards , the César Award for Best Foreign Film , four European Film Awards , the André Cavens Award , and received a BAFTA nomination . Pierre Van Dormael 's soundtrack for the film was also well @-@ regarded , and since their first collaboration in 1980 , he has composed the music to every film of his brother . Toto le héros propelled Van Dormael into the international spotlight as both a writer and director .
In the wake of this success , Van Dormael participated in the 1995 critically acclaimed project Lumière et compagnie ( Lumière and Company ) . This work is actually an anthology of very short works ( on average 50 – 60 seconds ) contributed by international film directors in which each used the original Auguste and Louis Lumière 's motion picture camera to make his film . The Kiss is the 52 @-@ second film made by director Jaco Van Dormael featuring actor Pascal Duquenne . At the same time , Van Dormael was at work writing his next major work .
He wanted to make a more linear film than Toto le héros , one which explored the world through the eyes of a man with Down syndrome . Van Dormael 's next film , Le huitieme jour ( The Eighth Day ) , accomplishes this with the chance meeting and friendship between Georges , played by Pascal Duquenne , and Harry , an unhappy divorced businessman portrayed by Daniel Auteuil . Van Dormael 's interest in people with mental and physical disabilities stems from an interest in their " talent for life , for loving life , that we often lack . " He sought to explore the concept of two worlds ( that of Georges and that of Harry ) existing simultaneously and yet separately . Le huitième jour premiered at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival , where it was nominated for the Palme d 'Or . It did win the Best Actor award at the festival , which was given to both Pascal Duquenne and Daniel Auteuil . This was the first time in the festival 's history that two actors had shared the award . The film was acclaimed by film critics and received four Joseph Plateau Awards . It was also nominated for a César Award and the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film . Le huitième jour grossed $ 33 @,@ 031 @,@ 984 worldwide on a budget of $ 5 million making it Van Dormael 's highest grossing film to that point .
In 1998 , Van Dormael participated in the project Spotlights on a Massacre : 10 Films Against 100 Million Antipersonnel Land Mines , a collection of short films that works as an anti @-@ land mine campaign . The same year he was also a member of the jury at the 51st Cannes Film Festival . In 1999 , Toto le héros received the Best Belgian Screenplay 1984 – 1999 Award at the 13th Joseph Plateau Awards .
= = = Mr. Nobody and after = = =
Van Dormael began seeking to film Mr. Nobody in 2001 , an attempt that lasted six years before the director was able to make his English @-@ language feature debut in 2007 . This project differed from other Belgian productions in being filmed in English instead of in one of Belgium 's main languages . The director explained , " The story came to me in English . It 's a story set over very long distances and time frames . One of the strands of the plot is about a kid who must choose between living with his mother in Canada or his father in England . There are also some incredible English @-@ speaking actors I wanted to work with . " The production budget for Mr. Nobody was € 37 million , ranking it the most expensive Belgian film to date . The budget was approved before casting was done , based on the prominence of the director 's name and the strength of his script . The film utilizes nonlinear narrative and the many @-@ worlds interpretation to tell the life story of the last mortal on Earth , Nemo Nobody , portrayed by Jared Leto .
Mr. Nobody had its world premiere at the 66th Venice International Film Festival on 12 September 2009 , where it won the Biografilm Award and the Golden Osella for Outstanding Technical Contribution . It has received high praise from film critics and was named by many one of the best films of that year . It received seven Magritte Award nominations , winning Best Film , Best Director , Best Screenplay , Best Cinematography , Best Original Score and Best Editing . It also won the André Cavens Award and the People 's Choice Award for Best European Film at the 23rd European Film Awards . Since its original release , Mr. Nobody has become a cult film , noted for its philosophy and soundtrack , personal characters and Christophe Beaucarne 's cinematography .
In August 2014 , Van Dormael began filming his fourth feature film , Le Tout Nouveau Testament ( The Brand New Testament ) , with Catherine Deneuve , Yolande Moreau and Benoît Poelvoorde , a comedy in which God ( Poelvoorde ) is alive and lives in Brussels with his daughter . It premiered at the 68th Cannes Film Festival on 17 May 2015 to critical acclaim .
= = Themes = =
Van Dormael 's films , while few , have strong common themes between them . They make distinctive use of naive voiceover and examine the world from an innocent perspective ( the young Thomas in Toto le héros , the mentally handicapped protagonist of Le huitième jour , and the unborn child of Mr. Nobody ) . These characters views are often colorful , imaginative , and somewhat removed from reality , with slight elements of surreal imagery used to illustrate their active imaginations .
His films also typically end with a death , which is portrayed not as a tragedy , but as a happy moving on where the deceased looks down happily at the world below . Between Heaven and Earth ends with a birth , but it is similarly handled the passing of a character into a new world . This pattern is continued in Mr. Nobody , where two deaths open the film and a unique twist on death at the end of the film conveys a wistful sense of happiness .
Van Dormael makes prominent use of nostalgic standards music , as well , featuring " Boum ! " by Charles Trenet in Toto le héros and " Mexico " by Luis Mariano in Le huitième jour as recurring themes . Mr. Nobody used " Mr. Sandman " as its recurring musical theme .
All of Van Dormael 's films contain surreal elements . In his first two films , these moments were few , like dancing flowers in Toto le héros or Georges flying around the room in Le huitième jour . Mr. Nobody makes much more extensive use of surreal imagery throughout the film .
Both Toto le héros and Le huitième jour prominently featured characters with Down Syndrome , and portrayed these characters lovingly , emphasizing their childlike characteristics .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Feature films = = =
= = = Short films = = =
Maedeli la brèche ( 1980 )
Stade 81 ( 1981 )
Les voisins ( 1981 )
L 'imitateur ( 1982 )
Sortie de secours ( 1983 )
È pericoloso sporgersi ( 1984 )
De boot ( 1985 )
The Kiss ( 1995 )
Eole ( 2010 )
= Adolf Anderssen =
Karl Ernst Adolf Anderssen ( July 6 , 1818 – March 13 , 1879 ) was a German chess master . He is considered to have been the world 's leading chess player for much of the 1850s and 1860s . He was quite soundly defeated by Paul Morphy who toured Europe in 1858 , but Morphy retired from chess soon after and Anderssen was again considered the leading player .
After his defeat by Steinitz in 1866 , Anderssen became the most successful tournament player in Europe , winning over half the events he entered — including the Baden @-@ Baden 1870 chess tournament , one of the strongest tournaments of the era . He achieved most of these successes when he was over the age of 50 .
Anderssen is famous even today for his brilliant sacrificial attacking play , particularly in the " Immortal Game " ( 1851 ) and the " Evergreen Game " ( 1852 ) . He was a very important figure in the development of chess problems , driving forward the transition from the " Old School " of problem composition to the elegance and complexity of modern compositions .
He was also one of the most likeable of chess masters and became an " elder statesman " of the game , to whom others turned for advice or arbitration .
= = Background and early life = =
Anderssen was born in Breslau ( now called Wrocław ) , in the Prussian Province of Silesia , in 1818 . He lived there for most of his life , sharing a house with and supporting his widowed mother and his unmarried sister . Anderssen never married . He graduated from the public gymnasium ( high school ) in Breslau and then attended university , where he studied mathematics and philosophy . After graduating in 1847 at the age of 29 , he took a position at the Friedrichs @-@ Gymnasium as an instructor and later as Professor of Mathematics . Anderssen lived a quiet , stable , responsible , respectable middle @-@ class life . His career was teaching mathematics , while his hobby and passion was playing chess .
When Anderssen was nine years old , his father taught him how to play chess . Anderssen said that as a boy , he learned the strategy of the game from a copy of William Lewis ' book Fifty Games between Labourdonnais and McDonnell ( 1835 ) .
= = Chess career = =
= = = First steps = = =
Anderssen first came to the attention of the chess world when he published Aufgabe für Schachspieler ( " Task for chess players " ) , a collection of 60 chess problems , in 1842 . He continued to publish problems for many years , both in magazines and as a second collection in 1852 . These brought him to the attention of the " Berlin Pleiades " group , which included some of the strongest players of the time , and he played matches against some of them . Anderssen 's development as a player was relatively slow , largely because he could spare neither the time nor the money to play many matches against strong players . Nevertheless , by 1846 he was able to put up a good fight against another Pleiades member , Tassilo von Heydebrand und der Lasa , who may have been the world 's strongest player at the time . In 1846 , he became the editor of the magazine Schachzeitung der Berliner Schachgesellschaft ( later called Deutsche Schachzeitung ) when its founder Ludwig Bledow , one of the " Berlin Pleiades " , died . Anderssen held this post until 1865 .
= = = London 1851 = = =
In 1848 Anderssen drew a match with the professional player Daniel Harrwitz . On the basis of this match and his general chess reputation , he was invited to represent German chess at the first international chess tournament , to be held in London in 1851 . Anderssen was reluctant to accept the invitation , as he was deterred by the travel costs . However the tournament 's principal organizer , Howard Staunton , offered to pay Anderssen 's travel expenses out of his own pocket if necessary , should Anderssen fail to win a tournament prize . Anderssen accepted this generous offer .
Anderssen 's preparations for the 1851 London International Tournament produced a surge in his playing strength : he played over 100 games in early 1851 against strong opponents including Carl Mayet , Ernst Falkbeer , Max Lange and Jean Dufresne . The 1851 International Tournament was a knock @-@ out event in which pairs of competitors played short matches , and Anderssen won it by beating Lionel Kieseritzky , József Szén , Staunton , and Marmaduke Wyvill – by margins of at least two games in every case . His prize was two @-@ thirds of the total prize fund of £ 500 , i.e. about £ 335 ; that is equivalent to about £ 240 @,@ 000 ( $ 370 @,@ 200 ) in 2006 's money . When Anderssen and Szén found they were to play each other , they agreed that , if either won the tournament , the other would receive one @-@ third of the prize ; this does not appear to have been considered in any way unethical .
Although most chess books regard Wilhelm Steinitz as the first true world champion , one of the organizers of the 1851 London International tournament had said the contest was for " the baton of the World ’ s Chess Champion " . In fact Anderssen was not described as " the world champion " , but the tournament established Anderssen as the world 's leading chess player , at the time it had same meaning . The London Chess Club , which had fallen out with Staunton and his colleagues , organized a tournament that was played a month later and included several players who had competed in the International Tournament . The result was the same – Anderssen won .
= = = Morphy match , 1858 = = =
Opportunities for tournament play remained rare , and Anderssen was reluctant to travel far because of the expense . In his one recorded tournament between 1851 and 1862 , a one @-@ game @-@ per @-@ round knock @-@ out tournament at Manchester in 1857 , he was eliminated in the second round . Then in late 1858 he was beaten 8 – 3 by the American champion Paul Morphy in a famous match held in Paris , France ( two wins , two draws , seven losses ) . Although Anderssen knew as well as anyone how to attack , Morphy understood much better when to attack and how to prepare an attack . Morphy had recently scored equally convincing wins in matches against other top @-@ class players : Johann Löwenthal , the Rev. John Owen and Daniel Harrwitz . However Morphy returned to the USA in 1859 and soon afterwards announced his retirement from serious chess . Hence Anderssen was once again the strongest active player .
Anderssen played the curious opening move 1 @.@ a3 in three games of his match against Morphy , and broke even with it ( one loss , one draw , one win ) . This opening move , now referred to as " Anderssen 's Opening " , has never been popular in serious competition .
= = = Other games 1851 – 62 = = =
Shortly after the 1851 London International tournament , Anderssen played his two most famous games , both casual encounters which he won by combinations that involved several sacrifices . In the first , as Black , but moving first , against Lionel Kieseritzky in London just after the International tournament ( 1851 ) and now called the " Immortal Game " , he sacrificed a bishop , both rooks and finally his queen . In the second , played in Berlin in 1852 as white against Jean Dufresne and now called the " Evergreen Game " , the total sacrifice was more modest , but still exceeded a queen and a minor piece .
After the match with Morphy , Anderssen played two matches against Ignác Kolisch , one of the leading players of the time , who later became a wealthy banker and patron of chess . Anderssen drew their match in 1860 and narrowly won in 1861 ( 5 / 9 ; won four , drew two , lost three ; Kolisch was ahead at the half @-@ way stage ) .
= = = London 1862 = = =
Anderssen won the London 1862 chess tournament , the first international round @-@ robin tournament ( in which each participant plays a game against each of the others ) with a score of twelve wins out of thirteen games . He lost only one game , to the Rev. John Owen and finished two points ahead of Louis Paulsen , who had the best playing record in the early 1860s . Morphy had retired from chess at this time , so Anderssen was again generally regarded as the world 's leading active player .
Anderssen 's only known competitive chess between 1862 and 1866 was a drawn match ( three wins , three losses , and two draws ) in 1864 against Berthold Suhle , who was a strong player and respected chess writer .
= = = Steinitz match , 1866 = = =
In 1866 Anderssen lost a close match with 30 @-@ year @-@ old Wilhelm Steinitz ( six wins , eight losses , and no draws ; Steinitz won the last two games ) . Although Steinitz is now known for inventing the positional approach to chess and demonstrating its superiority , the 1866 match was played in the attack @-@ at @-@ all @-@ costs style of the 1850s and 1860s . This is generally seen as the point at which Steinitz succeeded Anderssen as the world 's leading active player . Although ideas of a contest for the world championship had been floating around since the 1840s , the 1866 Anderssen – Steinitz match was not defined as being for the world championship , and many were opposed to the claim of such a title while Morphy was retired from chess and still alive . Furthermore , Anderssen remained dominant both in top tournaments & in personal matches against Zukertort until 1871 .
= = = 1866 – 79 = = =
By this time tournaments were becoming more frequent , and the round @-@ robin format was adopted . At the same time , Anderssen , after losing the match to Morphy in 1858 and to Steinitz in 1866 , re @-@ dedicated himself to chess , particularly studying both endgames and positional play . The result was that Anderssen , in his early fifties , was playing the finest chess of his career . As a result , Anderssen compiled a very successful tournament record in the late stages of his career : five first places , two second places , two third places ; and a sixth place in the final year of his life , when his health was failing . One of his first places was ahead of Steinitz , Gustav Neumann , Joseph Henry Blackburne , Louis Paulsen and several other very strong players at the Baden @-@ Baden 1870 chess tournament . This is regarded as one of the top 20 strongest tournaments ever despite the proliferation of " super tournaments " since 1990 . One of Anderssen 's third places was at the strong Vienna 1873 tournament , when he was 55 . About half of Anderssen 's tournament successes came at championships of the different regional German Chess Federations ; but these were open to all nationalities , and most of them had a few " top ten " or even " top five " competitors . Anderssen usually beat Zukertort in matches but his dominance came to an end came 1871 .
The Leipzig 1877 tournament , in which Anderssen came second behind Louis Paulsen , was organized to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Anderssen 's learning the chess moves . The initiative sprang from the Central German Chess Federation . It is the only tournament ever organized to commemorate a competitor .
Still at Leipzig , Anderssen lost a match against tournament winner Louis Paulsen ( three wins , one draw , and five losses ) . Matches were Anderssen 's relative weakness ; his only match win in this period was in 1868 , against the 26 @-@ year @-@ old Johann Zukertort ( eight wins , one draw , and three losses ) .
= = Assessment = =
= = = Playing strength and style = = =
Anderssen was very successful in European tournaments from 1851 to early 1878 , taking first prize in over half of the events in which he played . His only recorded tournament failures were a one @-@ game @-@ per @-@ round knock @-@ out event in 1857 and sixth place at Paris 1878 when his health was failing and he had only about a year to live . His match record was much weaker : out of the 12 that he played , he won only two , drew four and lost six .
Arpad Elo , inventor of the Elo rating system , retroactively calculated ratings through history , and estimated that Anderssen was the first player with a rating over 2600 . Chessmetrics ranks Anderssen as one of the top five players for most of the period from 1851 to shortly before his death in 1879 .
Steinitz rated Anderssen as one of the two greatest attacking players of his time : " We all may learn from Morphy and Anderssen how to conduct a king ’ s @-@ side attack , and perhaps I myself may not have learnt enough . " Although Anderssen is regarded as a member of the " heroic " attacking school , he was not in favor of mindless aggression , for example he said : " Move that one of your pieces , which is in the worst plight , unless you can satisfy yourself that you can derive immediate advantage by an attack " , a principle more recently labelled " Makogonov 's rule " . According to Fine , his approach to development was haphazard and he totally failed to understand why Morphy won .
Anderssen 's home town was so proud of him that in 1865 Breslau University awarded him an honorary doctorate .
= = = Influence on chess = = =
The " heroic " attacking school of play to which Anderssen belonged was eclipsed by Steinitz ' positional approach – by 1894 it was generally acknowledged that the only way to beat Steinitz was to apply Steinitz ' principles .
Anderssen has had a more enduring influence on chess problem composition . He started composing in the last years of the " Old School " , whose compositions were fairly similar to realistic over @-@ the @-@ board positions and featured spectacular " key " moves , multiple sacrifices and few variations . He was one of the most skilful composers of his time , and his work forms an early stage of the " Transition Period " , between the mid @-@ 1840s and the early 1860s , when many of the basic problem ideas were discovered , the requirement for game @-@ like positions was abandoned and the introduction of composing competitions ( the first of which was in 1854 ) forced judges to decide on what features were the most desirable in a problem .
Outside the field of chess problems Anderssen was not a prolific author . However he edited the magazine Schachzeitung der Berliner Schachgesellschaft ( later called Deutsche Schachzeitung ) from 1846 to 1865 , and was co @-@ editor with Gustav Neumann of Neue Berliner Schachzeitung from 1864 to 1867 .
= = = Personality = = =
Steinitz wrote : " Anderssen was honest and honourable to the core . Without fear or favour he straightforwardly gave his opinion , and his sincere disinterestedness became so patent .... that his word alone was usually sufficient to quell disputes ... for he had often given his decision in favour of a rival ... " On the other hand , Reuben Fine , a 20th @-@ century player , wrote , " There is a curious contrast between his over @-@ the @-@ board brilliance and his uninspired safety @-@ first attitude in everyday affairs . "
= = Death = =
Anderssen died on March 13 , 1879 in his hometown . The Deutsche Schachzeitung noted his death in 1879 with a nineteen @-@ page obituary . Bombing raids during World War II damaged his grave in Breslau . After the war , the city became part of Poland and is now known under its Polish name Wrocław . In 1957 , the Polish Chess Federation decided to re @-@ bury Anderssen in a new grave at the Osobowicki Cemetery .
= = Notable games = =
Adolf Anderssen vs Lionel Kieseritsky , 1851 , King 's Gambit : Accepted . Bishop 's Gambit Bryan Countergambit ( C33 ) , 1 – 0 The " Immortal Game " . Anderssen sacrifices his queen and both rooks in order to win
Adolf Anderssen vs Jean Dufresne , Berlin 1852 , Italian Game : Evans Gambit . Pierce Defense ( C52 ) , 1 – 0 The " Evergreen Game " . Another short game full of sacrifices and ending with a nice two @-@ bishops checkmate
Adolf Anderssen vs Paul Morphy , Match , Paris 1858 , Anderssen Opening . 1 – 0 Anderssen beats Morphy after opening 1 @.@ a3
Adolf Anderssen vs Johannes Zukertort , Barmen 1869 , Italian Game : Evans Gambit . Paulsen Variation ( C51 ) , 1 – 0 Black resigned before allowing Anderssen to finish the combination : 29 . Qxh7 + Kxh7 30 @.@ f6 + Kg8 31 . Bh7 + Kxh7 32 @.@ g8Q + Rxg8 33 . Rh3 #
= = Tournament results = =
Sources :
= = Match results = =
Sources :
= Cleveland Street scandal =
The Cleveland Street scandal occurred in 1889 , when a homosexual male brothel in Cleveland Street , Fitzrovia , London , was discovered by police . The government was accused of covering up the scandal to protect the names of aristocratic and other prominent patrons . At the time , sexual acts between men were illegal in Britain , and the brothel 's clients faced possible prosecution and certain social ostracism if discovered . It was rumoured that Prince Albert Victor , the eldest son of the Prince of Wales and second @-@ in @-@ line to the British throne had visited , though this has never been substantiated . Sir Charles Russell QC was retained to watch the proceedings in the case on Albert Victor 's behalf . Unlike overseas and Welsh newspapers , the English press never named the Prince , but the allegation influenced the handling of the case by the authorities , and has coloured biographers ' perceptions of him since .
The police acquired testimonies that Lord Arthur Somerset , an equerry to the Prince of Wales , was a patron . Both he and the brothel keeper , Charles Hammond , managed to flee abroad before a prosecution could be brought . The male prostitutes , who also worked as telegraph messenger boys for the Post Office , were given light sentences and no clients were prosecuted . After Henry James FitzRoy , Earl of Euston , was named in the press as a client , he successfully sued for libel .
The scandal fuelled the attitude that male homosexuality was an aristocratic vice that corrupted lower @-@ class youths . Such perceptions were still prevalent in 1895 when the Marquess of Queensberry accused Oscar Wilde of being an active homosexual .
= = Male brothel = =
In July 1889 , Police Constable Luke Hanks was investigating a theft from the London Central Telegraph Office . During the investigation , a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old telegraph boy named Charles Thomas Swinscow was discovered to be in possession of fourteen shillings , equivalent to several weeks of his wages . At the time , messenger boys were not permitted to carry any personal cash in the course of their duties , to prevent their own money being mixed with that of the customers . Suspecting the boy 's involvement in the theft , Constable Hanks brought him in for questioning . After hesitating , Swinscow admitted that he earned the money working as a prostitute for a man named Charles Hammond , who operated a male brothel at 19 Cleveland Street . According to Swinscow , he was introduced to Hammond by a General Post Office clerk , eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Henry Newlove . In addition , he named two seventeen @-@ year @-@ old telegraph boys who also worked for Hammond : George Alma Wright and Charles Ernest Thickbroom . Constable Hanks obtained corroborating statements from Wright and Thickbroom and , armed with these , a confession from Newlove .
Constable Hanks reported the matter to his superiors and the case was given to Detective Inspector Frederick Abberline . Inspector Abberline went to the brothel on 6 July with a warrant to arrest Hammond and Newlove for violation of Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 . The Act made all homosexual acts between men , as well as procurement or attempted procurement of such acts , punishable by up to two years ' imprisonment with or without hard labour . He found the house locked and Hammond gone , but Abberline was able to apprehend Newlove at his mother 's house in Camden Town . In the time between his statement to Hanks and his arrest , Newlove had gone to Cleveland Street and warned Hammond , who had consequently escaped to his brother 's house in Gravesend .
= = Notable clients = =
On the way to the police station , Newlove named Lord Arthur Somerset and Henry FitzRoy , Earl of Euston , as well as an army colonel by the name of Jervois , as visitors to Cleveland Street . Somerset was the head of the Prince of Wales 's stables . Although Somerset was interviewed by police , no immediate action was taken against him , and the authorities were slow to act on the allegations of Somerset 's involvement . A watch was placed on the now @-@ empty house and details of the case shuffled between government departments .
On 19 August , an arrest warrant was issued in the name of George Veck , an acquaintance of Hammond 's who pretended to be a clergyman . Veck had actually worked at the Telegraph Office , but had been sacked for " improper conduct " with the messenger boys . A seventeen @-@ year @-@ old youth found in Veck 's London lodgings revealed to the police that Veck had gone to Portsmouth and was returning shortly by train . The police arrested Veck at London Waterloo railway station . In his pockets they discovered letters from Algernon Allies . Abberline sent Constable Hanks to interview Allies at his parents ' home in Sudbury , Suffolk . Allies admitted to receiving money from Somerset , having a sexual relationship with him , and working at Cleveland Street for Hammond . On 22 August , police interviewed Somerset for a second time , after which Somerset left for Bad Homburg , where the Prince of Wales was taking his summer holiday .
On 11 September , Newlove and Veck were committed for trial . Their defence was handled by Somerset 's solicitor , Arthur Newton , with Willie Mathews appearing for Newlove , and Charles Gill for Veck . Somerset paid the legal fees . By this time , Somerset had moved on to Hanover , to inspect some horses for the Prince of Wales , and the press was referring to " noble lords " implicated in the trial . Newlove and Veck pleaded guilty to indecency on 18 September and the judge , Sir Thomas Chambers , a former Liberal Member of Parliament who had a reputation for leniency , sentenced them to four and nine months ' hard labour respectively . The boys were also given sentences that were considered at the time to be very lenient . Hammond escaped to France , but the French authorities expelled him after pressure from the British . Hammond moved on to Belgium from where he emigrated to the United States . Newton , acting for Somerset , paid for Hammond 's passage . On the advice of the Prime Minister , Lord Salisbury , no extradition proceedings were attempted , and the case against Hammond was quietly dropped .
Somerset returned to Britain in late September to attend horse sales at Newmarket but suddenly left for Dieppe on 26 September , probably after being told by Newton that he was in danger of being arrested . He returned again on 30 September . A few days later , his grandmother , Emily Somerset , Dowager Duchess of Beaufort , died and he attended her funeral . The Hon. Hamilton Cuffe , Assistant Treasury Solicitor , and James Monro , Commissioner of Police , pressed for action to be taken against Somerset , but the Lord Chancellor , Lord Halsbury , blocked any prosecution . Rumours of Somerset 's involvement were circulating , and on 19 October Somerset fled back to France . Lord Salisbury was later accused of warning Somerset through Sir Dighton Probyn , who had met Lord Salisbury the evening before , that a warrant for his arrest was imminent . This was denied by Lord Salisbury and the Attorney General , Sir Richard Webster . The Prince of Wales wrote to Lord Salisbury , expressing satisfaction that Somerset had been allowed to leave the country and asking that if Somerset should " ever dare to show his face in England again " , he would remain unmolested by the authorities , but Lord Salisbury was also being pressured by the police to prosecute Somerset . On 12 November , a warrant for Somerset 's arrest was finally issued . By this time , Somerset was already safely abroad , and the warrant caught little public attention . After an unsuccessful search for employment in Turkey and Austria @-@ Hungary , Somerset lived the rest of his life in self @-@ imposed and comfortable exile in the south of France . Other names mentioned by the press were Lord Ronald Gower and Lord Errol . Also implicated was the prominent social figure Alexander Meyrick Broadley , who fled abroad for four years . The Paris Figaro even alleged that Broadley took General Georges Boulanger and Henri Rochefort to the house . The allegation against Boulanger was later challenged by his supporters . In December 1889 it was reported that both the Prince and Princess of Wales were being " daily assailed with anonymous letters of the most outrageous character " bearing upon the scandal . By January 1890 sixty suspects had been identified , twenty @-@ two of whom had fled the country .
= = Public revelations = =
Because the press barely covered the story , the affair would have faded quickly from public memory if not for journalist Ernest Parke . The editor of the obscure politically radical weekly The North London Press , Parke got wind of the affair when one of his reporters brought him the story of Newlove 's conviction . Parke began to question why the prostitutes had been given such light sentences relative to their offence ( the usual penalty for " gross indecency " was two years ) and how Hammond had been able to evade arrest . His curiosity aroused , Parke found out that the boys had named prominent aristocrats . He subsequently ran a story on 28 September hinting at their involvement but without detailing specific names . It was only on 16 November that he published a follow up story specifically naming Henry Fitzroy , Earl of Euston , in " an indescribably loathsome scandal in Cleveland Street " . He further alleged that Euston may have gone to Peru and that he had been allowed to escape to cover up the involvement of a more highly placed person , who was not named but was believed by some to be Prince Albert Victor , the son of the Prince of Wales .
Euston was in fact still in England and immediately filed a case against Parke for libel . At the trial , Euston admitted that when walking along Piccadilly a tout had given him a card which read " Poses plastiques . C. Hammond , 19 Cleveland Street " . Euston testified that he went to the house believing Poses plastiques meant a display of female nudes . He paid a sovereign to get in but upon entering Euston said he was appalled to discover the " improper " nature of the place and immediately left . The defence witnesses contradicted each other , and could not describe Euston accurately . The final defence witness , John Saul , was a male prostitute who had earlier been involved in a homosexual scandal at Dublin Castle , and featured in a clandestinely published erotic novel The Sins of the Cities of the Plain which was cast as his autobiography . Delivering his testimony in a manner described as " brazen effrontery " , Saul admitted to earning his living by leading an " immoral life " and " practising criminality " , and detailed his alleged sexual encounters with Euston at the house . The defence did not call either Newlove or Veck as witnesses , and could not produce any evidence that Euston had left the country . On 16 January 1890 , the jury found Parke guilty and the judge sentenced him to twelve months in prison . One historian considers Euston was telling the truth and only visited Cleveland Street once because he was misled by the card . However , another has alleged Euston was a well @-@ known figure in the homosexual underworld , and was extorted so often by the notorious blackmailer Robert Cliburn , that Oscar Wilde had quipped Cliburn deserved the Victoria Cross for his tenacity . Saul stated that he told the police his story in August , which provoked the judge to rhetorically enquire why the authorities had not taken action .
The judge , Sir Henry Hawkins , had a distinguished career , although after his death a former Solicitor General for England and Wales Sir Edward Clarke wrote : " Sir Henry Hawkins was the worst judge I ever knew or heard of . He had no notion whatever of what justice meant , or of the obligations of truth or fairness . " The prosecuting counsels , Charles Russell and Willie Mathews , went on to become Lord Chief Justice and Director of Public Prosecutions , respectively . The defence counsel , Frank Lockwood , later became Solicitor General , and he was assisted by H. H. Asquith , who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom twenty years later .
While Parke 's conviction cleared Euston , another trial began on 16 December 1889 when Newlove 's and Somerset 's solicitor , Arthur Newton , was charged with obstruction of justice . It was alleged that he conspired to prevent Hammond and the boys from testifying by offering or giving them passage and money to go abroad . Newton was defended by Charles Russell , who had prosecuted Ernest Parke , and the prosecutor was Sir Richard Webster , the Attorney General . Newton pleaded guilty to one of the six charges against him , claiming that he had assisted Hammond to flee merely to protect his clients , who were not at that time charged with any offence or under arrest , from potential blackmail . The Attorney General accepted Newton 's pleas and did not present any evidence on the other five charges . On 20 May , the judge , Sir Lewis Cave , sentenced Newton to six weeks in prison , which was widely considered by members of the legal profession to be harsh . A petition signed by 250 London law firms was sent to the Home Secretary , Henry Matthews , protesting at Newton 's treatment .
During Newton 's trial , a motion in Parliament sought to investigate Parke 's allegations of a cover @-@ up . Henry Labouchère , a Member of Parliament from the Radical wing of the Liberal Party , was staunchly against homosexuality and had campaigned successfully to add the " gross indecency " amendment ( known as the " Labouchère Amendment " ) to the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 . He was convinced that the conspiracy to cover up the scandal went further up the government than assumed . Labouchère made his suspicions known in Parliament on 28 February 1890 . He denied that " a gentleman of very high position " — presumably Prince Albert Victor — was in any way involved with the scandal , but accused the government of conspiracy to pervert the course of justice . He suggested that a triumvirate of the Prime Minister Lord Salisbury , the Lord Chancellor of England and the Attorney @-@ General colluded to hamper the investigation , allowing Somerset and Hammond to escape , delaying the trials and failing to prosecute the case with vigour . Labouchère 's accusations were rebutted by the Attorney General , Sir Richard Webster , who was also the prosecutor in the Newton case . Charles Russell , who had prosecuted Parke and was defending Newton , sat on the Liberal benches with Labouchère but refused to be drawn into the debate . After an often passionate debate over seven hours , during which Labouchère was expelled from Parliament after saying " I do not believe Lord Salisbury " and refusing to withdraw his remark , the motion was defeated by a wide margin , 206 – 66 . In a subsequent speech to the House of Lords , Salisbury bore witness against himself by suggesting his memory of his handling of the affair was defective .
= = Aftermath = =
Public interest in the scandal eventually faded . Nevertheless , newspaper coverage reinforced negative attitudes about male homosexuality as an aristocratic vice , presenting the telegraph boys as corrupted and exploited by members of the upper class . This attitude reached its climax a few years later when Oscar Wilde was tried for gross indecency as the result of his affair with Lord Alfred Douglas .
Oscar Wilde alluded to the scandal in The Picture of Dorian Gray , first published in 1890 . Reviews of the novel were hostile ; in a clear reference to the Cleveland Street scandal , one reviewer called it suitable for " none but outlawed noblemen and perverted telegraph boys " . Wilde 's 1891 revision of the novel omitted certain key passages , which were considered too homoerotic . In 1895 , Wilde unsuccessfully sued Lord Alfred 's father , the Marquess of Queensberry , for libel . Sir Edward Carson , Lord Queensberry 's counsel , used quotes from the novel against Wilde and questioned him about his associations with young working men . After the failure of his suit , Wilde was charged with gross indecency , found guilty and subsequently sentenced to two years ' hard labour . He was prosecuted by Charles Gill , who had defended Veck in the Cleveland Street case .
Prince Albert Victor died in 1892 , but society gossip about his sex life continued . Sixty years after the scandal the official biographer of King George V , Harold Nicolson , was told by Lord Goddard , who was a twelve @-@ year @-@ old schoolboy at the time of the scandal , that Prince Albert Victor " had been involved in a male brothel scene , and that a solicitor had to commit perjury to clear him . The solicitor was struck off the rolls for his offence , but was thereafter reinstated . " In fact , none of the lawyers involved in the case was convicted of perjury or struck off at the time , indeed most had very distinguished careers . However , Arthur Newton was struck off for 12 months for professional misconduct in 1910 after falsifying letters from another of his clients — the notorious murderer Harvey Crippen . In 1913 , he was struck off indefinitely and sentenced to three years ' imprisonment for obtaining money by false pretences . Newton may have invented and spread the rumours about Prince Albert Victor in an attempt to protect his clients from prosecution by forcing a cover @-@ up . State papers on the case in the Public Record Office , released to the public in the 1970s , provide no information on the prince 's involvement other than Newton 's threat to implicate him . Hamilton Cuffe wrote to the Director of Public Prosecutions , Sir Augustus Stephenson , " I am told that Newton has boasted that if we go on a very distinguished person will be involved ( PAV ) . I don 't mean to say that I for one instant credit it — but in such circumstances as this one never knows what may be said , be concocted or be true . " Surviving private letters from Somerset to his friend Lord Esher , confirm that Somerset knew of the rumours but did not know if they were true . He writes , " I can quite understand the Prince of Wales being much annoyed at his son 's name being coupled with the thing ... we were both accused of going to this place but not together ... I wonder if it is really a fact or only an invention . " In his correspondence , Sir Dighton Probyn refers to " cruel and unjust rumours with regard to PAV " and " false reports dragging PAV 's name into the sad story " . When Prince Albert Victor 's name appeared in the American press , the New York Herald published an anonymous letter , almost certainly written by Charles Hall , saying " there is not , and never was , the slightest excuse for mentioning the name of Prince Albert Victor . " Biographers who believe the rumours suppose that Prince Albert Victor was bisexual , but this is strongly contested by others who refer to him as " ardently heterosexual " and his involvement in the rumours as " somewhat unfair " .
= = House = =
The site of the brothel at 19 Cleveland Street , Marylebone , and its historical context within the homosexual and other transgressive communities of London 's Fitzrovia and neighbouring Soho and Bloomsbury , has become the subject of academic study and general interest . In Parliament , Labouchère indignantly described 19 Cleveland Street as " in no obscure thoroughfare , but nearly opposite the Middlesex Hospital " . The house , which was located on the western side of Cleveland Street , no longer survives : it was demolished in the 1890s for an extension of the Hospital , which itself was bulldozed in 2
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Since 1990 the drainage board has been charged with looking at the rhynes , cleaning them out and keeping them clear , with the Environment Agency overseeing the work . With rising sea levels the work required to maintain the current sea defences is likely to become more expensive and it has been proposed by Ian Liddell @-@ Grainger ( Bridgwater @-@ MP ) , that two inland seas are created .
= = Climate charts = =
= HMS Ajax ( 1880 ) =
HMS Ajax was the name ship of her class of ironclad battleships built for the Royal Navy during the 1870s . Completed in 1883 , she was immediately placed in reserve until 1885 when the ship was commissioned for the first time . Later that year , Ajax was assigned as a coast guard ship in Scotland and remained there for the next six years . She was reduced to reserve again in 1891 and was taken out of service a decade later . The ship was sold for scrap in 1904 and subsequently broken up .
= = Design and description = =
The Ajax class was designed as a shallow @-@ draught version of the preceding Inflexible that was also smaller and cheaper ; unfortunately the need , imposed by budgetary constraints , to produce a smaller ship produced a vessel with all of the shortcomings of Inflexible but with none of her virtues . The ships had a length between perpendiculars of 280 feet ( 85 @.@ 3 m ) and were 300 feet 9 inches ( 91 @.@ 7 m ) long overall , some 44 feet ( 13 @.@ 4 m ) shorter than Inflexible . They had a beam of 66 feet ( 20 @.@ 1 m ) , and a draught of 23 feet 6 inches ( 7 @.@ 2 m ) and displaced 8 @,@ 510 long tons ( 8 @,@ 650 t ) . Their crew consisted of 345 officers and ratings , over 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 048 t ) less than Inflexible . The Ajax @-@ class ships were bad seaboats and steered very erratically , especially at high speed . More deadwood was added to their sterns in 1886 in a partially successful attempt to rectify the problem .
The Ajax class was powered by a pair of inverted , vertical , compound @-@ expansion steam engines . These were built by John Penn and Sons and each drove a single propeller using steam provided by 10 cylindrical boilers . The engines were designed to produce a total of 6 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) for a speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . The ships carried a maximum of 970 long tons ( 986 t ) of coal , enough to steam 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) .
They copied the main armament layout of Inflexible with their turrets arranged en echelon so that both turrets could directly ahead and to each side , although this was more theoretical than practical due to damage from muzzle blast . Each turret mounted a pair of rifled muzzle @-@ loading RML 12 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 318 mm ) guns . Their shells weighed 809 pounds ( 367 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 38 long tons ( 39 t ) . The guns had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 575 ft / s ( 480 m / s ) and were credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 18 @.@ 4 inches ( 470 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . To attack the unarmoured portion of their opponents , the Ajax class was fitted with a pair of rifled breech @-@ loading BL 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) , 80 @-@ pounder guns . For defence against torpedo boats , they carried six quick @-@ firing QF 6 @-@ pdr ( 2 @.@ 2 in ( 57 mm ) ) Nordenfelt guns . The ships also mounted a pair of above @-@ water 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo launchers and could carry a 60 @-@ foot ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) torpedo boat .
The Ajax class copied Inflexible 's armour scheme of a heavily armoured citadel with unamoured ends and sides . But unlike their predecessor , they lacked enough buoyancy to remain afloat if their ends were flooded . The citadel was 104 feet ( 32 m ) and the armour was composed of wrought iron plates 10 inches ( 254 mm ) and 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick , separated and backed by 10 inches of teak at the waterline , reducing above and below the waterline to an armoured thickness of 15 inches ( 381 @.@ 0 mm ) in a similar sandwich . The citadel was closed off by fore and aft transverse bulkheads that were 16 @.@ 5 inches ( 419 mm ) thick above water and 13 @.@ 5 inches ( 343 mm ) below . The armoured deck was 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick from bow to stern . The turrets were protected by compound armour plates 16 to 14 inches ( 406 to 356 mm ) thick and 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) plates defended the conning tower .
= = Construction and career = =
Ajax , the fourth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy , was named for the mythological hero . The ship was laid down on 21 March 1876 in No. 4 Slipway , Pembroke Dockyard , Wales , and was launched on 10 March 1880 by Mrs. George Parkin , wife of the dockyard 's Captain @-@ Superintendent . She was completed on 30 March 1883 at a cost of £ 548 @,@ 393 .
Ajax was not commissioned until 30 April 1885 and was assigned to the Particular Service Squadron commanded by Admiral Geoffrey Hornby . That summer , the squadron evaluated the weapons and defences of a fortified harbour , Berehaven ( now Castletownbere ) , Ireland , against torpedo boats and other threats . In August 1885 , when tensions with Russia had subsided , she was posted as guard ship at Greenock . Ajax accidentally collided with the turret ship Devastation in 1887 off Portland . The latter had one compartment below water holed , but Ajax only received two holes in her bow . The ship participated in the annual manoeuvres in August 1889 and a shell exploded in one of her 12 @.@ 5 @-@ inch gun barrels on 2 September , wounding one man . The ship was reduced to reserve at Chatham Dockyard in 1891 . Her BL six @-@ inch , 80 @-@ pounder guns were replaced by QF six @-@ inch guns in 1897 . She was further reduced to Dockyard Reserve in November 1901 , and was sold to Castles for scrap in March 1904 and subsequently broken up at Charlton .
= Atlantic torpedo =
Tetronarce nobiliana also known as the Atlantic torpedo is a species of electric ray in the family Torpedinidae . It is found in the Atlantic Ocean , from Nova Scotia to Brazil in the west and from Scotland to West Africa and off southern Africa in the east , occurring at depths of up to 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) . Younger individuals generally inhabit shallower , sandy or muddy habitats , whereas adults are more pelagic in nature and frequent open water . Up to 1 @.@ 8 m ( 6 ft ) long and weighing 90 kg ( 200 lb ) , the Atlantic torpedo is the largest known electric ray . Like other members of its genus , it has an almost circular pectoral fin disk with a nearly straight leading margin , and a robust tail with a large triangular caudal fin . Distinctive characteristics include its uniform dark color , smooth @-@ rimmed spiracles ( paired respiratory openings behind the eyes ) , and two dorsal fins of unequal size .
Solitary and nocturnal , the Atlantic torpedo is capable of generating up to 220 volts of electricity to subdue its prey or defend itself against predators . Its diet consists mainly of bony fishes , though it also feeds on small sharks and crustaceans . It is an aplacental viviparous species , wherein the developing embryos are nourished by yolk and later maternally provided histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . Females give birth to up to 60 young following a gestation period of one year . The electric shock of this species can be quite severe and painful , though it is not fatal . Because of its electrogenic properties , the Atlantic torpedo was used in medicine by the Ancient Greeks and Romans and became the namesake of the naval weapon . Prior to the 19th century , its liver oil was used as lamp fuel , but it is no longer of any economic value . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species as Data Deficient ; it is caught unintentionally by commercial and recreational fishers , but the impact of these activities on its population is unknown .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first scientific description of the Atlantic torpedo was published in 1835 by French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte , in his principal work Iconografia della Fauna Italica . Sixteen specimens were designated as the syntypes . The assignment of the southern African " great torpedo " to this species is provisional . Another type of electric ray found in the Indian Ocean off Mozambique may also belong to T. nobiliana . The Atlantic torpedo is placed in the subgenus Tetronarce , which differs from the other Torpedo subgenus Torpedo in having generally plain coloration and smooth @-@ margined spiracles . Other common names include Atlantic electric ray , Atlantic New British torpedo , black torpedo , crampfish , electric ray , numbfish , or torpedo . This species is placed in the genus Tetronarce .
= = Description = =
The Atlantic torpedo has a nearly circular pectoral fin disc 1 @.@ 2 times as wide as it is long , with a thick and nearly straight front margin . The eyes are small and are followed by much larger spiracles , which do not have papillae on their inner rims . The nostrils are close to the mouth ; there is a flap of skin between them three times as wide as long , with a sinuous rear margin . The mouth is wide and arched , with prominent furrows at the corners . The teeth are pointed and increase in number with age , ranging from 38 rows in juveniles to 66 rows in adults ; the first several series of teeth are functional . The gill slits are small , with the first and fifth pairs shorter than the others .
The pelvic fins are rounded and slightly overlapped by the disc at the front . The first dorsal fin is triangular with a rounded apex , originating in front of the pelvic fin insertions . The second dorsal fin is only one @-@ half to two @-@ thirds as large as the first ; the distance between the dorsal fins is less than the length of the first dorsal fin base . The stout tail comprises about one @-@ third of the total length , terminating in a caudal fin shaped like an equilateral triangle with slightly convex margins . The skin is soft and completely devoid of dermal denticles ( scales ) . The dorsal coloration is a plain dark brown to gray , sometimes with a few diffuse spots , and darkening at the fin margins . The underside is white , with dark fin margins . The largest of the electric rays , the Atlantic torpedo can measure 1 @.@ 8 m ( 6 ft ) long and weigh 90 kg ( 200 lb ) . However , a length of 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 2 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) and weight of 30 lb ( 14 kg ) is more typical . Females attain a larger size than males .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Atlantic torpedo is widely distributed in cool waters on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean . In the east , it is found from northern Scotland to the Gulf of Guinea , including the entire Mediterranean Sea ( but not the Black Sea ) , the Azores , and Madeira , as well as from Namibia to western South Africa . In the west , it occurs from southern Nova Scotia to Venezuela and Brazil . It is rare in the North Sea and the Mediterranean and south of North Carolina .
Juvenile Atlantic torpedoes are primarily bottom @-@ dwelling and usually found at depths of 10 – 50 m ( 33 – 164 ft ) over sandy or muddy flats , or near coral reefs . As they mature , they become more pelagic in habits , and adults are often encountered swimming in the open ocean . This species has been recorded from the surface to a depth of 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) ; in the Mediterranean , it is most common at depths of 200 – 500 m ( 660 – 1 @,@ 640 ft ) . It is said to make long migratory movements .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Like other members of its family , the Atlantic torpedo is capable of generating a powerful electric shock from a pair of kidney @-@ shaped electric organs in its disc , for both attack and defense . These organs comprise one @-@ sixth of the ray 's total weight and contain around half a million jelly @-@ filled " electric plates " arranged in an average of 1 @,@ 025 – 1 @,@ 083 vertical hexagonal columns ( visible beneath the skin ) . These columns essentially act as batteries connected in parallel , enabling a large Atlantic torpedo to produce up to a kilowatt of electricity at 170 – 220 volts , provided that it is well @-@ fed and rested . The discharges from the electric organ occur in a series , or train , of closely spaced pulses each lasting around 0 @.@ 03 seconds . Trains contain on average 12 pulses , but trains of over 100 pulses have been recorded . The ray regularly emits pulses even without an obvious external stimulus .
Solitary in nature , the Atlantic torpedo is often seen resting on or half @-@ buried in the substrate during the day , becoming more active at night . Large and well @-@ defended from attack , it seldom falls prey to other animals . Known parasites of the Atlantic torpedo include the tapeworms Calyptrobothrium occidentale and C. minus , Grillotia microthrix , Monorygma sp . , and Phyllobothrium gracile , the monogeneans Amphibdella flabolineata and Amphibdelloides maccallumi , and the copepod Eudactylina rachelae . Some accounts suggest that this ray may be able to survive out of water for up to a day .
= = = Feeding = = =
The diet of the Atlantic torpedo consists mainly of bony fishes , including flatfishes , salmon , eels , and mullet , though it has also been known to take small catsharks and crustaceans . Captive rays have been observed lying still on the bottom and " pouncing " on fish that pass in front of them . At the moment of contact , the ray traps the prey against its body or the bottom by curling its pectoral fin disc around it , while delivering strong electric shocks . This strategy allows the sluggish ray to capture relatively fast @-@ moving fish . Once subdued , the prey is maneuvered to the mouth with rippling motions of the disc and swallowed whole , head @-@ first . The ray 's highly distensible jaws allow surprisingly large prey to be ingested : an intact salmon weighing 2 kg ( 4 lb ) has been found in the stomach of one individual , and another contained a summer flounder ( Paralichthys dentatus ) 37 cm ( 15 in ) long . This ray has been known to kill fish much larger than it can eat .
= = = Life history = = =
The Atlantic torpedo is aplacental viviparous : the developing embryos are sustained by yolk , which is later supplemented by protein and fat @-@ enriched histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Females have two functional ovaries and uteruses , and a possibly biennial reproductive cycle . After a year @-@ long gestation period , females bear up to 60 pups during the summer ; the litter size increases with the size of the female . When the embryo is 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long , it has a pair of deep notches at the front of the disc marking the origin of the pectoral fins , and the curtain of skin between the nostrils has not yet developed ; on the other hand , the eyes , spiracles , dorsal fins , and tail have reached adult proportions . Newborn rays measure 17 – 25 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) long , and still have the anterior notches in the disc . Males and females reach sexual maturity at lengths of 55 cm ( 22 in ) and 90 cm ( 35 in ) respectively .
= = Human interactions = =
Though seldom life @-@ threatening , the electric discharge of an Atlantic torpedo is quite severe and may be enough to knock a person unconscious . However , a greater danger to divers is the disorientation that follows the shock . The Atlantic torpedo is of no commercial value , as its meat is flabby and tasteless . It is caught incidentally by commercial and recreational fisheries in bottom trawls and on hook @-@ and @-@ line . When caught at sea , it is generally discarded or cut up for bait . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) does not yet have enough data to assess the Atlantic torpedo beyond Data Deficient ; it could be negatively affected by fishing mortality , though specific data on catch rates and population trends are lacking , as well as by the degradation of coral reefs that are important to juveniles . Its slow reproductive rate would limit its capacity to recover from population depletion .
Various electric fishes , including the Atlantic torpedo , were used in medicine during the classical era . In the 1st century , Roman physician Scribonius Largus wrote of the application of live " dark torpedo " to patients afflicted with gout or chronic headaches . In 1800 , the Atlantic torpedo became the namesake for the naval weapon when American inventor Robert Fulton began using the word " torpedo " to describe bombs that submarines could attach to ships ( although these early devices were more akin to modern @-@ day mines ) . Before the widespread introduction of kerosene in the 19th century , the liver oil of this species was regarded as of equal quality to sperm whale ( Physeter macrocephalus ) oil for use in lamps . Before the 1950s , its oil was also used in small quantities by fishermen in the United States as a treatment for muscle and stomach cramps , as well as to lubricate farm machinery . Along with several other species of electric rays , the Atlantic torpedo is used as a model organism in biomedical research because its electric organs are rich in acetylcholine receptor proteins . These proteins play an important role in mediating many neurological processes , such as those involved in the functioning of anesthesia .
= Afrasia djijidae =
Afrasia djijidae is a fossil primate that lived in Myanmar approximately 37 million years ago , during the late middle Eocene . The only species in the genus Afrasia , it was a small primate , estimated to weigh around 100 grams ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) . Despite the significant geographic distance between them , Afrasia is thought to be closely related to Afrotarsius , an enigmatic fossil found in Libya and Egypt that dates to 38 – 39 million years ago . If this relationship is correct , it suggests that early simians ( a related group or clade consisting of monkeys , apes , and humans ) dispersed from Asia to Africa during the middle Eocene and would add further support to the hypothesis that the first simians evolved in Asia , not Africa . Neither Afrasia nor Afrotarsius , which together form the family Afrotarsiidae , is considered ancestral to living simians , but they are part of a side branch or stem group known as eosimiiforms . Because they did not give rise to the stem simians that are known from the same deposits in Africa , early Asian simians are thought to have dispersed from Asia to Africa more than once prior to the late middle Eocene . Such dispersals from Asia to Africa also were seen around the same time in other mammalian groups , including hystricognathous rodents and anthracotheres .
Afrasia is known from four isolated molar teeth found in the Pondaung Formation of Myanmar . These teeth are similar to those of Afrotarsius and Eosimiidae , and differ only in details of the chewing surface . For example , the back part of the third lower molar is relatively well @-@ developed . In the Pondaung Formation , Afrasia was part of a diverse primate community that also includes the eosimiid Bahinia and members of the families Amphipithecidae and Sivaladapidae .
= = Etymology = =
The name Afrasia derives from the continental names " Africa " and " Asia " , and refers to the occurrence of eosimiiform primates on both continents . The species , A. djijidae , was named in memory of a young girl from Mogaung village in central Myanmar .
= = Evolutionary history = =
Afrasia djijidae was first described in 2012 on the basis of isolated teeth from the 37 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Pondaung Formation , which is close to the village of Nyaungpinle in Myanmar . Prior to the discovery of A. djijidae , early Asian simians were typically classified in two families , Eosimiidae and Amphipithecidae . While eosimiids are generally considered the most basal simian clade ( a stem group of simians ) , the phylogenetic placement of amphipithecids is more disputed . Amphipithecids are usually considered to share affinities with either eosimiids or crown simians ( those simians that are part of the smallest clade that contains the living simians ) ; the latter view is favored .
Eosimiids were first described from findings in China in 1994 and are still best known there ( two genera are now known , Eosimias and Phenacopithecus ) , but have also been recorded in Pakistan ( Phileosimias ) and Myanmar ( Bahinia ) . All species had a small body size and a mix of primitive ( ancestral ) and derived traits ( . The largest eosimiid , Bahinia , is from the Pondaung Formation , the same stratum as Afrasia , and the morphology of its molars bridges the gap between the more primitive molars of Eosimias and the more derived molars of the later Eocene African simians . Afrasia , on the other hand , is more comparable in size to the eosimiids from China .
The upper molars of Afrasia are nearly identical in morphology and size to those of Afrotarsius , an animal known from 38- to 39 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old deposits in Libya ( species Afrotarsius libycus ) and about 30 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old deposits in Egypt ( A. chatrathi ) . Afrotarsius was originally described as a tarsier , but later suggested to be related to primitive simians . Because of their close similarities , Afrasia and Afrotarsius are together placed in the family Afrotarsiidae . A phylogenetic analysis placed Afrasia as a sister group to Afrotarsius , forming the family Afrotarsiidae . Afrotarsiidae was found to be most closely related to Eosimiidae , and unrelated to tarsiers . The clade formed by Afrotarsiidae and Eosimiidae was designated as the infraorder Eosimiiformes by Chaimanee et al. in 2012 . Eosimiiformes are the sister group of crown simians . However , the classification of Afrotarsius as a stem simian is not accepted by all researchers , and the phylogenetic claims and their implications rest on only the four molars of Afrasia initially discovered .
= = = Biogeography = = =
Several hypotheses compete to explain the geographic origins of simians . Of the two most popular views , one hypothesis states that simians originated in Asia , while the other favors Africa as their place of origin . Both their ancient origins and the sparse fossil record in Africa and Asia complicate the debate . Convergent evolution also makes it difficult for researchers to determine the relationships between fossils . Also , the earliest fossils , which do not match up with molecular clock estimates for simian origins , have been found in both Afro @-@ Arabia and Asia . At the time , both land masses would have been separated by the Tethys Sea .
The oldest undisputed simians from Africa also date to the late middle Eocene . Afrotarsius was found in the Dur At @-@ Talah escarpment in Libya , which dates to 38 – 39 million years ago and also contains the parapithecid Biretia and the oligopithecid Talahpithecus . Although diverse , these primates were all very small in size , much like eosimiids . Simian classification for older fossils from Africa are more contested . Altiatlasius , the oldest suspected fossil primate known from the late Paleocene of Morocco , is too fragmentary to ascertain its true affinities . Algeripithecus was popularly considered an early middle Eocene simian ; however , less fragmentary remains uncovered between 2003 and 2009 suggest it was a type of azibiid , a group of strepsirrhine primates likely related to lemuriform primates ( lemurs and lorisoids ) .
According to the team who discovered Afrasia , headed by Jean @-@ Jacques Jaeger , the similarities in tooth morphology , body size and age suggest a phylogenetic relationship with Afrotarsius despite the geographic separation . They suggested that afrotarsiid simians from Asia dispersed across the Tethys Sea to Africa around the middle Eocene , giving rise to Afrotarsius . A reverse migration — as suggested by the African origins hypothesis for simians — is not favored due to the close phylogenetic relationship between the older Asian eosimiids and Afrasia . However , to explain the origins of Proteopithecidae , Parapithecidae , and crown simians from the African fossil record , a higher simian clade also needed to disperse from Asia to Africa before the late middle Eocene since neither Afrasia nor Afrotarsius could have given rise to this group . Such dispersals from Asia to Africa were not uncommon , since hystricognathous rodents , anthracotheres , and possibly other mammalian fauna from Asia arrived around the same time .
= = Anatomy = =
Afrasia is known from four isolated teeth : a first upper molar ( M1 ) , with a length of 2 @.@ 13 mm and width of 3 @.@ 06 mm ; a second upper molar ( M2 ) , the holotype , of 2 @.@ 27 mm by 3 @.@ 35 mm ; a second lower molar ( m2 ) of 2 @.@ 09 mm by 1 @.@ 41 mm ; and a third lower molar ( m3 ) of 2 @.@ 05 mm by 1 @.@ 27 mm . Like other eosimiiforms , it was a small primate that weighed around 94 or 108 g ( 3 @.@ 3 or 3 @.@ 8 oz ) , which is estimated based on the measurements of its m2 and M1 , respectively . It is generally similar to other eosimiiforms in general and Afrotarsius in particular ; some distinguishing features are the well @-@ developed small cusps ( conules ) on the upper molars , the variable development of the lingual cingulum ( a shelf on the inner , or lingual , side of the tooth ) of the upper molars , and the unreduced talonid ( posterior portion ) on the m3 . Its teeth are smaller than those of the eosimiids Phenacopithecus , Bahinia , and Phileosimias .
The M2 is similar to that of eosimiids and almost identical to that of Afrotarsius libycus . It shows well @-@ developed small accessory cusps ( the paraconule and metaconule ) that are connected to equally well @-@ developed crests . The conules are stronger than in Eosimias and Bahinia , but weaker than in Phileosimias . The stylar shelf , the outer area of the tooth , is broad , particularly at the metacone cusp . However , the shelf is better developed near the paracone cusp in Afrasia than in Afrotarsius , which makes the ectoflexus ( an invagination in the outer wall of the tooth ) more symmetrical in the former . The parastyle , a small cusp in the outer front corner of the tooth , is located more buccally ( towards the outer side of the tooth ) than in Afrotarsius and is larger . The stylar shelf is larger than that of Bahinia and Phileosimias , but smaller than that of Eosimias . The parastyle is also less developed than in Eosimias , but the protocone , the main cusp on the lingual side of the tooth , is more expansive . The lingual cingulum is incomplete ; it is stronger in Phenacopithecus .
M1 is similar to M2 , but somewhat smaller . The ectoflexus is less apparent , the stylar shelf is narrower , there is no crest behind the metaconule , and the lingual cingulum is continuous . The condition of the parastyle more closely resembles that in Afrotarsius .
In m2 , the trigonid ( the front portion of the tooth ) consists of three very distinct cusps : the paraconid at the front , and behind it the paired protoconid ( on the buccal side ) and metaconid ( on the lingual side ) . These three cusps are less discrete in Afrotarsius . The paraconid is distinct from the paracristid , the crest that connects it to the protoconid , and is located more lingually than in Afrotarsius . Between this cusp and the metaconid behind it , the central basin of the trigonid is open towards the lingual margin of the tooth . The protoconid has a V shape , with one arm reaching towards the metaconid and the other towards the paraconid . The back portion of the tooth , the talonid , is broader ; Eosimias has a narrower talonid . The main cusps , the buccal hypoconid and lingual entoconid , are opposite each other on the margins of the tooth ( the entoconid is further to the front in Phenacopithecus ) . A crest , the cristid obliqua , connects the front side of the hypoconid to the protoconid . It is nearly in line with the main axis of the tooth , contrasting with its more diagonal position in Eosimias and Phenacopithecus . A crest , the postcristid , descends from the hypoconid along the back margin of the tooth and almost reaches the entoconid , which is separated by a notch . It incorporates the third talonid cusp , the hypoconulid , which is indistinct in Afrasia . In Afrotarsius and eosimiids ( except the Pakistani Phileosimias ) , this crest reaches the entoconid . There is a cingulum , or shelf , on the buccal side of m2 .
The last lower molar , m3 , is smaller and has a longer talonid , with a well @-@ developed hypoconulid lobe at the back , and generally resembles that of Phenacopithecus , but the trigonid is smaller . The paraconid is distinct . The hypoconulid lobe is longer than in Afrotarsius and the entoconid is located further to the front . Unlike on m2 , there is no notch between the hypoconulid and entoconid , though a shallow valley is present .
= = Range and ecology = =
Afrasia has only been found in the Eocene Pondaung Formation of central Myanmar , a rock unit which has been dated to about 37 million years ago using magnetostratigraphy and fission track dating . This places it at the end of the Bartonian stage , near the Middle – Late Eocene boundary . Although many tons of sediments in the area have been screened for fossils , Afrasia is still known only from four teeth , suggesting that it was a rare species .
Since fossils were first discovered there in 1916 , a rich fossil fauna has been recovered in the Pondaung Formation . In addition to Afrasia , primates found there include the eosimiid Bahinia ; the amphipithecids Pondaungia , Ganlea , and Myanmarpithecus ; and the sivaladapids Paukkaungia and Kyitchaungia .
= Philitas of Cos =
Philitas of Cos ( / fɪˈlaɪtəs / ; Greek : Φιλίτας , Philītas ; c . 340 – c . 285 BC ) , sometimes spelled Philetas ( / faɪˈliːtəs / ; Φιλήτας , Philētas ; see Bibliography below ) , was a scholar and poet during the early Hellenistic period of ancient Greece . A Greek associated with Alexandria , he flourished in the second half of the 4th century BC and was appointed tutor to the heir to the throne of Ptolemaic Egypt . He was thin and frail ; Athenaeus later caricatured him as an academic so consumed by his studies that he wasted away and died .
Philitas was the first major Greek writer who was both a scholar and a poet . His reputation continued for centuries , based on both his pioneering study of words and his verse in elegiac meter . His vocabulary Disorderly Words described the meanings of rare literary words , including those used by Homer . His poetry , notably his elegiac poem Demeter , was highly respected by later ancient poets . However , almost all his work has since been lost .
= = Life = =
Little is known of Philitas ' life . Ancient sources refer to him as a Coan , a native or long @-@ time inhabitant of Cos , one of the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea just off the coast of Asia . His student Theocritus wrote that Philetas ' father was Telephos ( Τήλεφος , Tḗlephos ) and his mother , assuming the manuscript is supplemented correctly , Euctione ( Εὐκτιόνη , Euktiónē ) . From a comment about Philitas in the Suda , a 10th @-@ century AD historical encyclopedia , it is estimated he was born c . 340 BC , and that he might have established a reputation in Cos by c . 309 / 8 BC . During the Wars of the Diadochi that followed the death of Alexander the Great and divided Alexander 's empire , Ptolemy had captured Cos from his rival successor , Antigonus , in 310 BC ; his son , Ptolemy II Philadelphus , was born there in 308 BC . It was a favorite retreat for men of letters weary of Alexandria .
Philetas was appointed Philadelphus ' tutor , which suggests he moved to Alexandria c . 297 / 6 BC and moved back to Cos in the later 290s BC . He may also have tutored Arsinoe II , Philadelphus ' older sister and eventual wife . Later tutors of royal offspring in Ptolemaic Egypt generally headed the Library of Alexandria , but it is unknown whether Philitas held that position . Philitas also taught the poets Hermesianax and Theocritus and the grammarian Zenodotus , and after he returned to Cos he seems to have spent at least ten years leading a brotherhood of intellectuals and poets that included Aratus , Hermesianax , and Theocritus .
Hermesianax wrote of " Philitas , singing of nimble Bittis " , and Ovid twice calls her " Battis " . It is commonly thought that Bittis or Battis was Philitas ' mistress , and that Hermesianax referred to love poetry ; another possibility is that her name connoted " chatterbox " , and that she was a humorous personification of Philitas ' passion for words .
Philitas was thin and frail , and may have suffered and died from a wasting disease . He seems to have died in Cos sometime in the 280s BC . His pupil Hermesianax wrote that a statue of him was erected under a plane tree by the people of Cos , depicting him as " frail with all the glosses " . His contemporary Posidippus wrote that Philadelphus commissioned a bronze of Philitas in old age from the sculptor Hecataeus , which " included nothing from the physique of heroes . No , ... he cast the old man full of cares . " The 3rd century AD Roman author Aelian skeptically passed along a story that Philitas was so thin that he put lead weights in the soles of his shoes to avoid being blown away by a stiff wind . A 2nd century AD Greek author ,
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KAS was fitted in a ventral hatch . Up to 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 409 lb ) of bombs could be carried in the bomb bay and two 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 102 lb ) bombs could be carried externally . Up to 4 @,@ 600 kg ( 10 @,@ 141 lb ) of fuel could be carried . The DB @-@ 240 had been designed to use the experimental Klimov M @-@ 106 V12 engines , but the less @-@ powerful Klimov M @-@ 105 engine had to be substituted because the M @-@ 106 was not available .
The DB @-@ 240 prototype flew for the first time on 14 May 1940 and began its State acceptance tests on 27 September 1940 . The weaker engines prevented the DB @-@ 240 from reaching its designed performance . It could only attain 445 km / h ( 277 mph ) at 4 @,@ 250 m ( 13 @,@ 944 ft ) instead of the expected 500 km / h ( 311 mph ) at 6 @,@ 000 meters ( 19 @,@ 685 ft ) . Its defensive armament was deemed inadequate and other problems included an excessively long take @-@ off run and engine defects . However , these did not offset its virtues of a heavy bomb load and long @-@ range ( 4 @,@ 100 kilometers ( 2 @,@ 548 mi ) carrying 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 205 lb ) of bombs ) . It was ordered into production at Factory No. 18 , in Voronezh , as the Yermolayev Yer @-@ 2 .
Manufacture began in March 1941 , with approximately 50 aircraft delivered by 22 June 1941 . These aircraft were about 5 – 8 km / h ( 3 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 0 mph ) slower than the prototype and their normal weight increased 1 @,@ 220 kg ( 2 @,@ 690 lb ) to 12 @,@ 520 kg ( 27 @,@ 602 lb ) . Production was terminated in August after 128 had been completed to allow the factory to concentrate on the higher @-@ priority Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 ground @-@ attack aircraft .
A Yer @-@ 2 was modified with experimental Mikulin AM @-@ 37 engines , a reinforced undercarriage , armored seats for the navigator and gunner , and 12 @.@ 7 mm UBT machine guns in place of its original ShKAS weapons . It first flew in July 1941 and was able to reach 505 km / h ( 314 mph ) at 6 @,@ 000 m ( 19 @,@ 685 ft ) , but the range was reduced to ( 3 @,@ 500 km ( 2 @,@ 175 mi ) carrying 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 205 lb ) of bombs . One significant problem with this version was the excessive takeoff roll which hindered operations from grass airstrips . The engine was unreliable , however , and had cooling problems that the Mikulin OKB did not have the resources to resolve so it was cancelled in October when the factory was forced to evacuate from Moscow by the German advance .
The Charomskiy M @-@ 40F Diesel engine was also evaluated in a Yer @-@ 2 in 1941 . This engine , like all Diesels , offered a greatly reduced fuel consumption compared to a standard gasoline @-@ powered engine , but at a great penalty in weight . These engines increased the gross takeoff weight to 13 @,@ 500 kg ( 29 @,@ 762 lb ) which required the undercarriage to be reinforced and the wing area increased to keep the same wing loading . The M @-@ 40F @-@ powered aircraft reached a maximum speed of 430 km / h ( 267 mph ) at 6 @,@ 050 m ( 19 @,@ 849 ft ) . However , the M @-@ 40 was not yet ready for service use and the project was cancelled .
The aircraft / engine combination did have enough potential that development work continued using the closely related , but more mature , Charomskiy ACh @-@ 30B Diesel engine . The cockpit was modified to accommodate two pilots side @-@ by @-@ side and the wing and tailplane areas were increased . The 12 @.@ 7 mm UBT machine gun in the dorsal turret was replaced by a 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) ShVAK cannon and the nose and ventral ShKAS machine guns were exchanged for 12 @.@ 7 mm UBT machine guns . Up to 5 @,@ 460 kg ( 12 @,@ 037 lb ) of fuel could be carried . The Yer @-@ 2 / ACh @-@ 30B was placed into production at Factory No. 39 in Irkutsk at the end of 1943 and the first production aircraft was submitted to its State acceptance trials the following month . Some excess aircraft were converted as Yer @-@ 2ON VIP transports .
= = Operational history = =
The Yer @-@ 2 was not in squadron service when Germany invaded on 22 June 1941 , but the 420th and 421st Long @-@ Range Bomber Regiments ( Russian : Dahl 'niy Bombardirovchnyy Aviapolk — DBAP ) were formed shortly afterwards . However neither regiment flew any operational missions until later in the summer . On the evening of 10 August Yer @-@ 2s of the 420th DBAP , accompanied by Petlyakov Pe @-@ 8s of the 432nd DBAP , attempted to bomb Berlin from Pushkino Airfield near Leningrad . The airfield was too short to accommodate a fully loaded Yer @-@ 2 , but three bombers did manage to take off regardless . Two managed to bomb Berlin , or its outskirts , but only one successfully returned ; the other was shot down by ' friendly ' Polikarpov I @-@ 16s when it reentered Soviet airspace and the third aircraft went missing . Three crews from the 420th DBAP bombed Königsberg during the nights of 28 – 29 August and 30 August – 1 September from Ramenskoye Airport , southeast of Moscow .
On 1 October 1941 63 Yer @-@ 2s were in service , but only 34 were operational . The 420th DBAP had flown 154 sorties by the beginning of November ( 6 in August , 81 in September , 67 in October ) and had lost 30 of its 40 aircraft . Over half of these ( 19 ) were due to non @-@ combat losses . Losses were extremely high over the autumn and winter as they were inappropriately committed against German tactical frontline targets during the Battle of Moscow at low altitudes and only 12 were in service on 18 March 1942 . On 4 August 1942 the 747th DBAP had only ten Yer @-@ 2s on hand and it was briefly committed during the Battle of Stalingrad . The survivors were flown , in ever dwindling numbers , until August 1943 when the last few aircraft were transferred to schools by the 2nd Guards DBAP and the 747th DBAP .
The Yer @-@ 2 was placed back into production at the end of 1943 , but none of the new bombers had been issued to combat units by 1 June 1944 . However 42 were in service on 1 January 1945 and 101 on 10 May 1945 after the war ended . The first combat mission undertaken by Yer @-@ 2s after they returned to production was a raid on Königsberg on 7 April 1945 by the 327th and 329th Bomber Aviation Regiments ( Russian : Bombardirovchnyy Aviatsionyy Polk ) . It remained in service with Long @-@ Range Aviation units until replaced by four @-@ engined bombers like the Tupolev Tu @-@ 4 in the late 1940s .
= = Variants = =
DB @-@ 240
Two prototypes of the Yer @-@ 2 series with two 1 @,@ 050 hp M @-@ 105 engines .
Yer @-@ 2
Production version with two M @-@ 105 engines , 128 built .
Yer @-@ 2 / AM @-@ 37
One aircraft re @-@ engined with two prototype 1 @,@ 380 hp Mikulin AM @-@ 37 engines , the fastest of all Yer @-@ 2s .
Yer @-@ 2 / M @-@ 40F
The first diesel @-@ powered Yer @-@ 2 , with modified wings . One converted with two 1 @,@ 500 hp Charomskiy M @-@ 40F diesel engines .
Yer @-@ 2 / ACh @-@ 30B
Production model of the diesel @-@ engined version . Performance was excellent despite the poor reliability and rough running of the Charomskiy ACh @-@ 30B diesel engines . Range increased 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) from the version with M @-@ 105 engines .
Yer @-@ 2ON
( Russian : Osobogo Naznachyeniya – Special Assignment ) Two aircraft from the Yer @-@ 2 / ACh @-@ 30B production line were modified with a 12 @-@ seat VIP cabin , military equipment removed and long @-@ range fuel tanks in the bomb @-@ bay . A third aircraft was converted from a Yer @-@ 2 ( 1941 production ) and used for shuttle flights between Irkutsk and Moscow .
Yer @-@ 2N
( Russian : Nositel — Carrier ) One aircraft was modified as an engine testbed for captured Argus As 014 pulse jet engines .
Yer @-@ 2 / MB @-@ 100
One production aircraft used as a testbed for the 2 @,@ 200 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 600 kW ) Dobrotvorskii MB @-@ 100 engine in 1945 .
Yer @-@ 4
The final iteration of the Yer @-@ 2 series was a 1941 production aircraft re @-@ engined with ACh @-@ 30BF engines and redesignated as the Yer @-@ 4 . It had a slightly larger wingspan , increased takeoff weight and improved armament . The prototype was tested in December 1943 , but did not enter production .
= = Operators = =
Soviet Union
VVS ( Russian : Voyenno @-@ Vozdooshnyye Seely — Soviet Air Forces )
ADD ( Russian : Aviahtsiya Dahl 'nevo Deystviya — Long Range Aviation )
420th Long @-@ Range Bomber Aviation Regiment , later the 748th Long @-@ Range Bomber Aviation Regiment
421st Long @-@ Range Bomber Aviation Regiment , later the 747th Long @-@ Range Bomber Aviation Regiment
747th Long @-@ Range Bomber Aviation Regiment
748th Long @-@ Range Bomber Aviation Regiment , later the 2nd Guards Long @-@ Range Aviation Regiment
327th Long @-@ Range Bomber Aviation Regiment
329th Long @-@ Range Bomber Aviation Regiment
= = Specifications ( Yer @-@ 2 / ACh @-@ 30B ) = =
Data from Gunston , Bill . Encyclopedia of Russian Aircraft 1875 – 1995 , p . 503
General characteristics
Crew : four
Length : 16 @.@ 42 m ( 53 ft 10 ½ in )
Wingspan : 23 m ( 75 ft 5 ½ in )
Height : 4 @.@ 82 m ( 15 ft 10 in )
Wing area : 79 m2 ( 850 ft2 )
Empty weight : 10 @,@ 455 kg ( 23 @,@ 049 lb )
Gross weight : 18 @,@ 580 kg ( 40 @,@ 961 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Charomskiy ACh @-@ 30B V12 diesel engines , 1 @,@ 118 kW ( 1 @,@ 500 hp ) each each
Performance
Maximum speed : 420 km / h ( 261 mph )
Range : 5 @,@ 500 km ( 3 @,@ 418 miles )
Service ceiling : 7 @,@ 200 m ( 23 @,@ 620 ft )
Armament
1 x 12 @.@ 7 mm UBT machine @-@ gun in nose flexible mount .
1 x 12 @.@ 7 mm UBT machine @-@ gun in ventral flexible mount .
1 x 20 mm ShVAK cannon in a TUM @-@ 5 dorsal turret .
Up to 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 023 lb ) of bombs in the internal bomb @-@ bay .
= 10th Combat Aviation Brigade ( United States ) =
The Combat Aviation Brigade , 10th Mountain Division is a combat aviation brigade of the United States Army based at Fort Drum , New York . It is a subordinate unit of the 10th Mountain Division .
Reactivated in 1988 , the 10th Mountain Division 's Combat Aviation Brigade supported the division as it undertook numerous operations and overseas contingencies in the 1990s , including Operation Restore Hope , Operation Uphold Democracy , and Task Force Eagle , as well as disaster relief following Hurricane Andrew . The brigade has since become involved in the War on Terrorism , seeing four deployments to Afghanistan to support Operation Enduring Freedom and a deployment to Iraq to support Operation Iraqi Freedom . The brigade is currently on its fourth deployment to Afghanistan and is serving in Regional Command - East under Combined Joint Task Force 101 in support of Operation Enduring Freedom .
= = Organization = =
The Combat Aviation Brigade , 10th Mountain Division comprises five principal battalions under the command of its Headquarters and Headquarters Company . The brigade commands 1st , 2nd , 3rd Battalions , 10th Aviation Regiment , and 6th Squadron , 6th Cavalry Regiment , which operate a number of aircraft including UH @-@ 60 Black Hawks , AH @-@ 64 Apaches , CH @-@ 47 Chinooks , and OH @-@ 58 Kiowas . In addition , the 277th Aviation Support Battalion provides supporting services to the combat battalions when they are deployed , making the brigade capable of operating independently of higher command headquarters , and capable of taking on additional battalions and other , smaller units when deployed , as necessary .
= = History = =
The brigade HHC was constituted on 1 April 1988 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , Aviation Brigade , 10th Mountain Division , and activated at Fort Drum , New York . The brigade was activated at Griffiss Air Force Base in Rome , NY as part of the 10th Mountain Division ( Light Infantry ) on 2 July 1988 . The brigade remained based at Griffiss until 1992 ( August ? ) . It appears that initially the brigade was made up of 3 @-@ 17 CAV , and the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the 25th Aviation Regiment ( 2 @-@ 25 and 3 @-@ 25 AVN ) .
The brigade has played a key role in all Division missions , including support for Hurricane Andrew relief in south Florida , in Somalia , Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti , SFOR and KFOR missions in Bosnia and Kosovo and most recently Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom . In each instance , the Brigade has demonstrated its capability to rapidly deploy and conduct aviation missions upon arrival . The 10th Combat Aviation Brigade has 12 CH @-@ 47s , 24 AH @-@ 64s , 30 OH @-@ 58s , and 50 UH @-@ 60s to assist the 10th Mountain Division to fight and win in any environment .
In Somalia from 1993 ( ' Operation Restore Hope and Operation Continue Hope ' ) the 10th Mountain Division brought an aviation task force to support them in their UNOSOM II missions . Task Force Raven , built around 2nd Battalion , 25th Aviation Regiment , was a task organized aviation unit with a total of 52 attack , scout , lift , and medical evacuation aircraft . They flew over 6000 missions over the streets of Mogadishu . Twelve AH @-@ 1 Cobras made up the attack helicopter force . The lessons learned by this aviation task force are particularly useful for the rest of the conventional aviation units in the U.S. Army . Fortunately , LTC R. Lee Gore , commander of Task Force Raven ordered a detailed after action review upon the unit 's return . " During the Battle of Mogadishu on 3 – 4 October 1993 , UH @-@ 1V and MH @-@ 60s moved casualties from the airfield to the 46th Combat Support Hospital at the U.S. Embassy compound . The battalion returned home in December 1993 @-@ January 1994 , relieved by the 4th Battalion , 4th Aviation Regiment , from Fort Carson . ( Casper , 128 )
= = = Haiti 1994 = = =
The division formed the nucleus of the Multinational Force Haiti and Joint Task Force 190 ( JTF 190 ) in Haiti during Operation Uphold Democracy . More than 8 @,@ 600 of the division 's troops deployed during this operation . On 19 September 1994 , the 1st Brigade conducted the Army ’ s first air assault from an aircraft carrier . This force consisted of 54 helicopters and almost 2 @,@ 000 soldiers . They occupied the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince International Airport . This was the largest Army air operation conducted from a carrier since the Doolittle Raid in World War II .
= = = Afghanistan Deployments = = =
In 2003 and into 2004 , the brigade deployed for the first time to Afghanistan as part of Operation Enduring Freedom . As the only aviation brigade in the theater , the brigade provided air support for all U.S. Army units operating in the country . The brigade 's mission at that time focused on close air support , medevac missions , and other duties involving combat with Taliban and Al @-@ Qaeda forces in the country . The brigade returned to Fort Drum in 2004 .
In winter 2006 the brigade was deployed again to Afghanistan to support Operation Enduring Freedom as the only aviation brigade in the theater , stationed at Bagram Air Base , Afghanistan . Named " Task Force Falcon , " the brigade 's mission was to conduct aviation operations to destroy insurgents and anti @-@ coalition militia in an effort to help build the Afghan National Security Force 's capability and allow the Afghan government to increase its capabilities . In addition , the Task Force provided logistical and aviation support for ISAF forces throughout the country , conducted tactical maneuvers and performed security and attack operations when needed .
Prior to the modular force structure reorganization , the 10th Aviation Brigade consisted of a Headquarters Company , 10th Aviation Brigade ; 3rd Squadron , 17th Cavalry Regiment , 1st Battalion , 10th Aviation Regiment ( United States ) ( formerly 2nd Battalion , 25th Aviation Regiment ) , 2nd Battalion ( Assault ) , 10th Aviation Regiment ( formerly 3rd Battalion , 25th Aviation Regiment ) ; 3rd Battalion , 10th Aviation ( General Support ) , and C Company ( Aviation Intermediate Maintenance ) , 10th Aviation Regiment .
After the transformation , the reorganized brigade retained the 3 – 17th Cavalry and 1- and 2 – 10th Aviation . 3 – 10th Aviation and C @-@ 10th Aviation were inactivated . Also reactivated as part of the reorganized unit were 6th Squadron , 6th Cavalry Regiment and the 277th Aviation Support Battalion . During the transition elements of the 10th Aviation continued to be deployed as part of Task Forces part of Operation Iraqi Freedom , with units returning to Fort Drum for reorganization after their tours were complete . Elements of the 10th Aviation Brigade were deployed to Iraq in 2008 as part of continued operations in that country .
= = Honors = =
The brigade has been awarded two Meritorious Unit Commendation ( Army ) for Somalia , and service in ' Afghanistan 2003 – 2004 ' . As of 6 February 2009 , the Army 's official lineage and honors website says that Campaign Participation Credit for the war on terrorism has ' yet to be determined.'
= Naayak =
Naayak ( English : Leader ) is a 2013 Indian Telugu @-@ language masala film written by Akula Siva and directed by V. V. Vinayak . The film was jointly produced by DVV Danayya and S. Radhakrishna under the banner Universal Media . The film features Ram Charan , Kajal Aggarwal and Amala Paul in the lead roles . S. Thaman composed the film 's soundtrack and background score . Chota K. Naidu undertook the cinematography and Gautham Raju was the film 's editor .
The film features Ram Charan in dual roles : Cherry , a software engineer in Hyderabad , and Siddharth Naayak , an inspiring young leader in Kolkata fighting against an evil politician named Rawat . The film revolves around Cherry assisting Siddharth in the triumph of good over evil after their paths cross .
Production began on 9 November 2011 , and principal photography began on 7 February 2012 . The film was extensively shot in Hyderabad and Kolkata , while a couple of the songs were shot in Dubai , Iceland , and Slovenia , making Naayak the first Indian film to be shot in Slovenia . Filming ended on 29 December 2012 .
Released during the season of the Makar Sankranti festival on 9 January 2013 , on 1600 screens worldwide , the film received generally positive reviews from critics and was commercially successful . The film was dubbed into Tamil and Malayalam with the same title . The film was loosely remade into Bengali as Hero : The Superstar in 2014 . It was also dubbed in Hindi under the title Double Attack by Goldmines Telefilms in the same year .
= = Plot = =
Siddharth Naayak kills Central Minister Rawat 's brother , Taxi Seth , and his henchmen to save three men . Rawat orders a CBI Officer to catch the criminal so that he may be executed . In CgTrix , Hyderabad there works a software engineer , Cherry , who is a dead ringer for Siddharth . Cherry 's uncle Jilebi , the CEO of CgTrix , unexpectedly runs into trouble , angering the local Don , Babji . Cherry saves Jilebi from Babji by manipulation , but in the process becomes romantically interested in Babji 's sister , Madhu . After Cherry saves several children from a mafia don , Madhu reciprocates his love . This angers Babji and he goes to kill Cherry , but is shocked when he sees what he thinks is Cherry assassinating the DGP of West Bengal . The CBI Officer also misunderstands , believing that Cherry is responsible for the two murders , although Siddharth is the real murderer . With Jilebi , the CBI Officer goes to Kumbh Mela at Varanasi in pursuit of Cherry . As Rawat is offering holy rituals , the CBI Officer catches Cherry and holds him , however Siddharth rises from the Ganges and stabs Rawat with a trident , after which he fights with all of Rawat 's guards . As he is about to kill Rawat , the CBI Officer attacks him with a taser and arrests him , thereby exonerating Cherry .
Cherry comes to know the story of his look – alike . Siddharth visits his sister 's house in Kolkata to pursue higher education . He shares a strong bond of love and affection with his sister , her husband , and his sister @-@ in @-@ law Nandini . Siddharth and Nandini are about to be married . Meanwhile , his brother @-@ in @-@ law , who is a doctor , attends a case of a minor who was injected with steroids by Rawat 's second Brother Badvel , and then forced into prostitution . When he complains to the police , he is unaware that the police officer is friends with Badvel , and is betrayed to Badvel , who kills him to keep him quiet . Siddharth is unable to bear this and kills Badvel , becoming a public sensation overnight .
Shortly after , Siddharth seizes all of Rawat 's property and distributes it to the public . Rawat kills the Minister , and puts the blame on Siddharth , who he stabs and throws into the Ganges . Rawat becomes the Minister within a week , while Siddharth survives , planning to kill Rawat . Cherry , after reading about his story , decides to help him . He , along with Jilebi , goes to the CBI Jail where Siddharth is in custody . He introduces himself , and hatches a plan to get Siddharth exonerated . In court , since Siddharth admits that he committed the crime , the Judge orders that he be put to death .
Cherry enters the court , stating that he is Siddharth Naayak and the one standing there is his fan . Siddharth tells exactly the same story , which causes some confusion . The Judge orders the CBI to find out the real identities of the two persons within ten days . During that time , Siddharth manages to bring Madhu and her family , including Babji and his paternal uncle , to Kolkata , uniting Cherry and Madhu . The next day , Rawat makes a call to Siddarth to come to his place to save the kidnapped school children .
But Cherry eavesdrops on the conversation , and goes to Rawat 's place ahead of Siddharth , where he is severely attacked by Rawat . Siddharth reaches the place after watching a MMS sent by Rawat , saves Cherry and the two kill Rawat . The case is dismissed due to lack of evidence , and Siddharth is freed . In the end , both Siddharth and Cherry unite with their respective lovers .
= = Cast = =
Ram Charan as Charan ( Cherry ) / Siddharth Naayak .
Kajal Aggarwal as Madhu .
Amala Paul as Nandini .
Pradeep Rawat as Rawat .
Brahmanandam as Jilebi .
Rahul Dev as Babji .
Jaya Prakash Reddy as Babji 's paternal uncle .
Ashish Vidyarthi as the CBI officer , who is appointed to find the culprit in the murder case of Rawat 's brother , Taxi Seth .
Posani Krishna Murali as Shukla Bhai .
Cameo Appearances
Dev Gill as Badvel , Rawat 's younger brother .
Surekha Vani as Siddharth 's sister .
Rajiv Kanakala as Siddharth 's brother @-@ in @-@ law .
M. S. Narayana as drunkard CBI officer .
Raghu Babu as Babji 's henchman .
Ajaz Khan as Taxi Seth , Rawat 's first brother .
Vineet Kumar as Dassu , a mafia don in Hyderabad .
Venu Madhav as Nandini 's friend .
Tanikella Bharani as judge .
Satyam Rajesh as Dassu 's henchman .
Sudha as Cherry 's mother .
Charmee Kaur in a special appearance in the item number Nellorae .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
At the end of April 2011 , V. V. Vinayak held story discussions for his next film , featuring Ram Charan as the protagonist and written by Akula Siva . By then , Vinayak was busy in giving final touches to his film Badrinath ( 2011 ) , and Ram Charan was participating in the shooting of Racha ( 2012 ) , directed by Sampath Nandi . After completing all of the promotional activities for Badrinath , Vinayak and Siva started working on the film 's script in early July 2011 . DVV Danayya was confirmed to produce the film under the banner Universal Media , and pre @-@ production on the film was expected to be launched in August , followed by filming starting in September 2011 . The film 's script was approved by Ram Charan 's father , and it was announced that actor Chiranjeevi would be part of the cast ; Kona Venkat was brought in to assist with the film 's screenplay . The project was confirmed in late October 2011 . The film was officially launched on 9 November 2011 , at Annapurna Studios in Hyderabad .
S. Thaman was announced as the music director , marking his first collaboration with both Vinayak and Charan ; Chota K. Naidu and Gautham Raju were announced as the film 's cinematographer and editor , respectively . The film 's title was announced as Naayak , with the caption " The Leader " , on 13 August 2012 . Weeks before the film 's release , a few Girijan students protested that the term " Naayak " referred to a certain tribal group , and they demanded a change of the title . While censoring the film , the Central Board of Film Certification looked into the group 's objection about the title . They found that there was no derogatory reference to either the name Naayak or the caste of tribes , either visually or in the audio part of the film , and cleared the use of the title .
= = = Casting = = =
Kajal Aggarwal was considered for one of the two female leads in the film in early October 2011 , later signing on to the film , which marked her second collaboration with Ram Charan after Magadheera ( 2009 ) . Ram Charan confirmed that he would be seen in a dual role in the film . Hansika Motwani was rumoured as the second female lead , however this was denied by Danayya , who added that she was never considered for that role , and Kajal was the only actress who had been signed up until that point . In late February 2012 , Amala Paul was selected as the second female lead , which she confirmed to Sify saying " Mynaa meets Magadheera " .
It was reported that Shruti Haasan would perform an item number in the film , which she later denied . Chiranjeevi and N. T. Rama Rao Jr. were rumoured to make cameo appearance in the film . Charmee Kaur confirmed in late December 2012 that she would perform an item number along with Ram Charan . Posani Krishna Murali and Jaya Prakash Reddy were seen in comic roles .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 7 February 2012 . By April 2012 , the film was shot at various locales in Hyderabad . A few action sequences were shot at night , for which Ram Charan trained for several days ; he performed several of the stunt sequences himself without using a body double . Filming was suspended for almost three weeks when Ram Charan was injured during filming Racha ( 2012 ) . Vinayak intended to complete shooting Ram Charan 's solo portions and then start the schedule with Kajal ; Ram Charan and Amala Paul would take part in the final part of the planned schedule .
The next portion of the schedule started in Dubai , where a song , " Laila O Laila " , with Ram Charan and Kajal was shot . Ram Charan later said " It was a week before my wedding and I had just returned from my bachelor 's party . I landed directly in Dubai to shoot the song . I had to wear shades to hide the fatigue " and added " I was told that I wouldn 't need much rehearsals , but was zapped when I saw the choreographer take me through the routine . I was like ' can we please slow the beat or something ? ' I couldn 't settle for anything less than the best and went ahead and completed the song in seven days . " After its completion , some key scenes and songs were shot in Europe involving the three leads .
Subsequent to the marriage ceremony , Ram Charan resumed his work on Naayak in late June 2012 , after shooting for a Tata DoCoMo commercial . The song " Subhalekha Raasukunna " was shot in Iceland on 22 August 2012 . It was originally planned to be shot using Ram Charan and Kajal , but it was filmed using Amala Paul instead , as Kajal had a scheduling conflict . After the completion of that song , two more songs were shot using Ram Charan and Kajal . After returning from Iceland , filming continued in the Old City in Hyderabad . On 7 October 2012 , scenes featuring Ram Charan and Amala Paul were shot at the Cineplanet Multiplex near Kompally .
The next part of the schedule started in Kolkata from 12 October 2012 . Some action episodes involving Ram Charan , Dev Gill , and others , and a few continuity scenes were shot . An entire day was spent shooting a few action episodes with Ram Charan at Chhotelal Ghat near the Mullickghat flower market , since Vinayak insisted on perfection . This portion of the schedule ended on 22 October 2012 . The team returned to Hyderabad and filming continued in a set erected at Sarathi Studios . By mid November 2012 , a majority of the filming was complete , with final completion expected in December 2012 .
The last portion of the schedule began on 4 December 2012 , during which the remaining climax action episodes scenes and a song were planned to be shot until 18 December 2012 . Amala Paul joined the filming of the climax on 7 December 2012 , after returning from the sets of Thalaivaa ( 2013 ) . The song " Nellorae " was shot using Ram Charan and Charmee at Ramoji Film City on 24 December 2012 , and after its completion , filming came to an end on 29 December 2012 . The filming phase lasted for approximately 9 months , and the film was the first Indian film to be shot in Slovenia . Ram Charan completed his part of dubbing in late December 2012 .
= = Themes and influences = =
The film features a protagonist in a dual role , revolving around their lifestyles and the circumstances when they meet . A reviewer from Sify felt that the film 's script was inspired from V. V. Vinayak 's previous works like Tagore ( 2003 ) , Lakshmi ( 2006 ) , Krishna ( 2008 ) and Adhurs ( 2009 ) , as well as from S. S. Rajamouli 's past works like Simhadri ( 2003 ) and Chhatrapati ( 2005 ) and S. Shankar 's Tamil film Sivaji ( 2007 ) .
Akula Siva said that the dialogue in the film had a philosophical touch despite being humorous and added , " The hero is elevated on par with divinity in the introduction ; such glorification is imperative , if the hero doesn 't have that power and courage he cannot fight so many people " .
= = Music = =
S. Thaman composed the film 's soundtrack and background music , marking his first collaboration with both V. V. Vinayak and Ram Charan . In April 2012 , it was reported that Thaman was composing the film 's songs with a focus on romantic songs featuring the two female leads . The song " Subhalekha Rasukunna " , originally composed by Ilaiyaraaja for the soundtrack of the 1990 Telugu film Kondaveeti Donga , was remixed for this film in mid @-@ July 2012 without any alterations in the tune and lyrics written by Veturi Sundararama Murthy . The lyrics of the remaining five songs were penned by Chandrabose , Bhaskarabhatla , and Sahithi . All the songs were arranged by Thaman and were recorded at Studio N.Y.S.A. in Mumbai and Studio T.A.A.L. in Hyderabad .
Aditya Music acquired the audio rights for an undisclosed high price . The audio teasers were unveiled in mid @-@ December 2014 , and the official track list featuring six songs was unveiled on 14 December 2012 . The film 's soundtrack was launched on 17 December 2012 , during a promotional event at Ramanaidu Studios . Pawan Kalyan attended the function as the chief guest along with the film 's principal cast & crew . Oneindia Entertainment placed " Nellorae " in fourth place on the list of top 10 item numbers of the year in 2013 .
Telugu version
Tamil version
= = Release = =
Naayak was planned to be released on 14 January , the eve of Sankranthi . Later the film 's release was rumoured to be delayed due to Danayya 's financial hardships , although he later confirmed the release date as 9 January 2013 , denying the previous reports as rumours . The film was awarded an ' A ' certificate by the Central Board of Film Certification on 4 January 2013 . Six cuts were suggested by the board to delete politically charged dialogue , and few other lines that included the names of the Andhra Pradesh Governors , A. P. J. Abdul Kalam and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan . The board also requested a few words being altered in the song " Nellorae " , and the display of a statutory warning on drinking and smoking wherever they occur in the film .
The film was shown on 110 screens in Hyderabad , breaking the previous records set by Cameraman Gangatho Rambabu ( 2012 ) and Businessman ( 2012 ) , which were released in 105 and 103 theatres , respectively . Universal Media , in association with Praneeth Media , released the film on more than 100 screens in the United States , including 70 digital prints and sixteen 35 mm prints , which was a first for a Telugu film in an overseas market . The makers said that the film would be released in more than 1200 theatres in Andhra Pradesh .
= = = Marketing = = =
On the eve of Valentine 's Day , first look stills of the film were released to the media . A few stills featuring Ram Charan were unveiled on 18 August 2012 , which featured him sporting a new look . Two first look posters , confirming the film 's title and its spelling , were unveiled on 26 November 2012 . The film 's first teaser was unveiled on 14 December 2012 . Allu Arjun and S. S. Rajamouli unveiled the trailers at Shilpakala Vedika during the soundtrack launch .
= = = Distribution = = =
By early November 2012 , the film 's trade came to an end in all areas except Guntur . Bharath Pictures acquired the film 's Nellore distribution rights , while Shobu acquired the rights for the ceded ( Rayalaseema ) area . Shakti Films acquired the theatrical rights for the Krishna District , and Siri Media obtained the film 's Nizam region rights . V. Rao , Challa Shankar Rao and Tulasi Films acquired the screening rights in Vishakhapatnam , East Godavari district , and West Godavari district . Abhirami Movies acquired the film 's Tamil Nadu distribution rights . Errabus acquired the screening rights for the United Kingdom and Europe .
Gayathri Films bought the Karnataka distribution rights for ₹ 41 million , the highest price offered for any Telugu film in Karnataka up to that time . Universal Media distributed the film in the United States . Producer Dil Raju acquired the film 's distribution rights in the Nizam region in mid @-@ December 2012 .
= = = Home media = = =
The satellite rights for the Hindi dubbed version were sold for a record price of ₹ 35 million ( US $ 520 @,@ 000 ) . Gemini TV paid an advance of ₹ 26 million for the satellite rights of the original version , and fully acquired them after the film 's release for an additional ₹ 75 million . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray were marketed by Sri Balaji Videos and were released on 3 April 2013 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film received positive reviews from critics . Y. Sunita Chowdary of The Hindu wrote , " ... the writing is humorous , lively and consistent . What more , the film works mainly on its dialogues and a brisk screenplay and has all the potential to rake in moolah at the box office , " and added , " Vinayak , having read the pulse well , comes out with Naayak that is a throwback to many of his earlier films but with correct dose of humour added , to cover the flaws . By the time you sense something wrong , he cleverly comes up with another funny scene . This way the film progresses and winds up before it gets too heavy , and voila there are smiles everywhere " . Mahalakshmi Prabhakaran of Daily News and Analysis wrote , " We ’ ll say that even if the film is about the age @-@ old formula of the hero bashing the bad guys and coming up trumps , Naayak is an entertaining film that you won ’ t regret watching , " and rated the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . AS Sashidhar of The Times of India termed the film a " pot boiling paisa vasool entertainer " and rated the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . Oneindia Entertainment stated , " V. V. Vinayak may not have given a great screenplay , but he has had a high entertainment quotient with his narration . His mass appearance has doubled up Ram Charan 's performance . Naayak is a perfect Sankranthi entertainer , " and rated the film 3 out of 5 . Radhika Rajamani of Rediff.com wrote , " The first half of the film moves at a breezy pace while the interval brings in the twist . In the second half there 's mostly stomach @-@ churning violence which is pretty repulsive . Technically the film is top @-@ notch . V V Vinayak delivers a hardcore commercial entertainer for the festival . If you can watch Naayak without analysing it , you will find it fun , " and rated the film 3 out of 5 . IndiaGlitz summarised , " Vinayak proves to be a director who knows how to play gimmicks with a formula story in hand and a narration baptized in masala . Naayak is for all those who love to watch an entertainer filled with doses of heroism and comedy , and also good music , " and added that the film is " commercial to the hilt " .
In contrast , a reviewer from Sify stated , " Director V V Vinayak , has chosen a routine story which has nothing new to offer . He chose a simple story and weaved an entertaining screenplay around it . Vinayak concentrated more on the presentation of the movie rather than the subject . The story and screenplay is predictable after the interesting interval bang " and called the film " Average " . Another reviewer from Sify rated the film 3 out of 5 and stated , " Nayak , a regular commercial potboiler , starts off as a regular mass movie and ends up the same way . Nayak team should have concentrated on the story more . A rehashed film that can be watched once " . B. V. S. Prakash of Deccan Chronicle wrote , " Even though Ram Charan impresses in the role of a brooding young IT employee who is determined to smash evil forces , the final outcome is more comic than serious . Vinayak tends to repackage scenes from his earlier movies . Akula Siva pens strong punch lines to enthral Ram Charan fans " .
= = = Box Office = = =
Naayak grossed ₹ 112 @.@ 5 million at the worldwide box office on its opening day , and ₹ 170 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 5 million ) on its second day , taking its two @-@ day total to ₹ 282 @.@ 9 million . The film collected a total of ₹ 295 million in its first week . As of late April 2014 , the film stood in fifth place of the top 10 Telugu films with the highest first week gross . In its second week of release , the film 's gross suffered due to the competition from the release of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu , slipping to the second spot in the charts . It witnessed more than a 50 % drop in its business , collecting approximately ₹ 80 million during the second weekend , and a total of ₹ 450 million in 10 days . By the end of its second week , the film had added approximately ₹ 55 million , for a 16 @-@ day total of ₹ 505 million net . The film grossed ₹ 600 million in its lifetime worldwide , and became the third most successful film of 2013 , after Attarintiki Daredi and Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu . Its distributor share of ₹ 465 million made it Ram Charan 's third film to cross the ₹ 400 million mark . It was fifth on the list of top 10 all @-@ time highest grossing movies at the Andhra Pradesh box office , as of November 2013 . It also ranked tenth on the list of top 20 hit Telugu movies of all time at the box office , as of May 2014 .
= = = = India = = = =
The film averaged 90 % occupancy in both single screens and multiplexes in India on its opening day , collecting ₹ 85 @.@ 5 million at the Andhra Pradesh box office and ₹ 27 million throughout the rest of India . With an average of 66 % across the globe , it collected ₹ 134 @.@ 9 million at the Andhra Pradesh box office , and ₹ 35 @.@ 5 million in the rest of India on its second day . In six days , it collected a total ₹ 234 @.@ 6 million net at Andhra Pradesh box office , and ₹ 25 million in the rest of India . The film completed a successful 50 day run in several centres across Andhra Pradesh on 27 February 2013 . The film collected a distributor share of ₹ 389 @.@ 5 million net at Andhra Pradesh box office in its lifetime , placing it sixth on the list of all @-@ time highest grossing Telugu films , as of November 2013 .
= = = = Overseas = = = =
The film collected ₹ 4 @.@ 5 million in overseas receipts on its opening day , which increased to ₹ 6 @.@ 5 million on its second day . However , the film 's trade was severely affected by Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu , dropping 70 % at the overseas box office , with a three @-@ day total of ₹ 9 @.@ 2 million , compared to Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 3 day opening day total of ₹ 11 @.@ 3 million . The film collected ₹ 21 @.@ 1 million in six days at the overseas box office . The film did good business by the end of its second weekend at the USA box office , ranking third in the charts by collecting ₹ 25 @.@ 3 million , despite of the adverse effect of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu which was in first place . Matru Ki Bijlee Ka Mandola stood in second place , although its per screen average was lower than that of Naayak . The film suffered a big setback after the release of Race 2 and Viswaroopam , dropping to sixth place while collecting ₹ 26 @.@ 5 million in 23 days .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= Ed Muransky =
Edward William " Ed " Muransky ( born January 20 , 1960 ) is a former professional American football offensive tackle who played for the Los Angeles Raiders of the National Football League ( NFL ) and Orlando Renegades of the United States Football League ( USFL ) . He was a member of the Super Bowl XVIII Champion Raiders . Prior to this he was an All @-@ American and Academic All @-@ American athlete who played for the University of Michigan Wolverines during the 1979 – 1981 seasons .
After retiring from football he became a business partner and advisor to Edward J. DeBartolo Jr . , former San Francisco 49ers owner . As DeBartolo became more involved in the casino industry , he relied on Muransky as a confidant . Muransky testified under a grant of immunity as a government witness in the March 2000 trial of Louisiana Governor Edwin Edwards , mainly about what DeBartolo had confided to Muransky . DeBartolo was the only extortion victim who claimed to have been extorted directly by Edwards , but Muransky could not provide direct testimony about private meetings between DeBartolo and Edwards . Muransky has continued to pursue business interests even after the controversies about DeBartolo have waned .
= = Cardinal Mooney High School = =
Born in Youngstown , Muransky played football for Cardinal Mooney High School where he was affectionately known as " Big Ed " by family and teammates . He was a three @-@ year varsity letterman and two @-@ year starter as an interior lineman at Cardinal Mooney . In 1976 , he won All @-@ Steel Valley , All @-@ NEO , and All @-@ State honors , and received the Mack Truck Award , given annually to the most outstanding high school lineman in the Youngstown area .
= = University of Michigan = =
Highly recruited by numerous " blue chip " schools , Muransky chose to play collegiate football at the University of Michigan . He lettered for three years at Michigan , where he wore # 72 , and earned All @-@ Big Ten honors in 1980 and 1981 . Muransky started 33 straight games at offensive tackle for the Wolverines from his sophomore through senior years , 1979 – 1981 . The 6 @-@ foot @-@ 7 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) , 320 @-@ pound ( 150 kg ; 23 st ) lineman was a key member of the 1980 Wolverines , coach Bo Schembechler 's first bowl @-@ winning team . In fact , he started all twelve games at right tackle . This includes the 1981 Rose Bowl against the Washington Huskies football team won by Michigan 23 – 6 . The game was Schembechler 's first bowl victory , and the coach was carried off the field on Muransky 's shoulders . Muransky was named to the Associated Press , UPI , and The Sporting News All @-@ American teams in 1981 and also garnered " Academic All @-@ American " his senior year . He was part of a 1981 team that had five All @-@ American honorees ( Anthony Carter , Butch Woolfolk , Bubba Paris and Kurt Becker ) .
= = = " Beef Bowl " Record Holder = = =
Muransky also set the all @-@ time " Beef Bowl " record by consuming 8 pounds ( 3 @.@ 63 kg ) of prime rib at Lawry 's before the 1979 Rose Bowl . Muransky later recalled : " Bubba Paris and I were two happy freshmen eating together at the Lawry 's Beef Bowl event before the 1979 Rose Bowl Game . After we had enjoyed our fourth plate of prime rib , mashed potatoes , corn and Yorkshire pudding , Bubba asked what the record was , and they said 7 cuts . Bubba continued for 3 more cuts , and I continued for four , totally under the Bo Schembechler radar screen . When they delivered the 8th cut to me , the media started to gather around my table , Bo walked by and let me know what he was thinking without ever saying a word . Afterward , a Paris @-@ Muransky night out ended with some pizza . The next morning in practice , Bo made an example of Bubba and me . We never ran so much in our lives as we did that day . We were in every play of scrimmage and then we ran sprints . " When the Wolverines returned to Pasadena for the 1981 Rose Bowl , " Bo made it a point to come to the back of the plane and talk to me and Bubba Paris . He wanted to let us know that my record from a couple years earlier would not be in jeopardy because we were going to be sitting with him at the Lawry 's Beef Bowl . He said he was going to limit each of us to two cuts of prime rib . " Schembechler had his own take on the story : " I let ' em eat because they were freshmen . They weren 't gonna play anyway . "
= = = Big Chill Cameo = = =
Muransky is also remembered for a cameo appearance in the 1983 film The Big Chill : " I was in the theater watching it , not knowing what was going to happen . It was kind of interesting with all of ( the characters ) watching ( the 1980 Michigan @-@ Michigan State game ) . It was pretty cool . Watching [ quarterback ] John Wangler go back was pretty cool . For a split @-@ second as they 're going back , I 'm thinking to myself , ' Oh my God , I pray to God I 'm not holding or I missed a block for a sack or something on the big screen pass . ' But it was a good block , and it was a fun moment . Any time I hear ' The Big Chill , ' it 's good memories . "
= = = Quitters = = =
The Wolverines were the unanimous pre @-@ season Number 1 pick in 1981 but lost their opener to Wisconsin 21 – 14 . In the team meeting the next day , Schembechler walked into the room and wrote " Ed Muransky " and " Stan Edwards " on the chalkboard , and then barked out , " The rest of you are quitters . I want nothing more to do with you , " and left . According to the coach , Muransky and Edwards were the only two who played with intensity against Wisconsin , and Bo left it to them to motivate the rest of the team . Muransky issued a challenge to the offense on the night before the following week 's game : " I looked at everyone and said , ' If we continue to play as great individuals , we 'll continue to lose . If we start to play as a great team , we 'll start winning . " The next day , the Wolverines beat Notre Dame , 25 – 7 .
= = Professional football career = =
= = = Los Angeles Raiders = = =
Muransky was selected in the fourth round ( 82nd pick ) by the Oakland Raiders in the 1982 NFL Draft , and he played in 24 games for the Raiders from 1982 – 1984 . The Raiders moved from Oakland to Los Angeles to play the 1982 NFL season . Thus , although he was drafted by the Oakland Raiders , he played his NFL career with the Los Angeles Raiders . In his second season in the NFL , he won a Super Bowl ring with the Raiders ' 1983 Super Bowl Championship team . He played all 16 regular season games for Tom Flores ' Raiders that season . The team went 12 – 4 during the 1983 NFL season and produced eight Pro Bowlers . Muransky played for an offensive line that included Pro Bowlers Henry Lawrence and Todd Christensen . The team was led that season by quarterback Jim Plunkett and future Hall of Famer Marcus Allen , who rushed for nine touchdowns , caught two and threw three on a 4 – 7 passing performance . Muransky described the Super Bowl experience as a " whirlwind " with " two weeks of hype like you 've never seen . " He recalled : " It was a big deal because offensive linemen weren 't making what they make today . That year , I made $ 77 @,@ 000 , which was a pretty decent contract at the time . But if you won the Super Bowl , you won $ 64 @,@ 000 . So it wasn 't peanuts . I remember walking off the field after that , thinking to myself , ' I have a Super Bowl ring for the rest of my life . ' " Although Muransky was cut in for a Super Bowl gameshare , he was not on the official gameday roster .
Although the Raiders only won one Super Bowl with Muransky , they had great success . In his rookie season , they were 8 – 1 in the strike @-@ shortened season . This was the best record in the American Football Conference and tied for the best in the League . The
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In the 2013 , the perturbational complexity index ( PCI ) was proposed , a measure of the algorithmic complexity of the electrophysiological response of the cortex to transcranial magnetic stimulation . This measure was shown to be higher in individuals that are awake , in REM sleep or in a locked @-@ in state than in those who are in deep sleep or in a vegetative state , making it potentially useful as a quantitative assessment of consciousness states .
Assuming that not only humans but even some non @-@ mammalian species are conscious , a number of evolutionary approaches to the problem of neural correlates of consciousness open up . For example , assuming that birds are conscious — a common assumption among neuroscientists and ethologists due to the extensive cognitive repertoire of birds — there are comparative neuroanatomical ways to validate some of the principal , currently competing , mammalian consciousness – brain theories . The rationale for such a comparative study is that the avian brain deviates structurally from the mammalian brain . So how similar are they ? What homologues can be identified ? The general conclusion from the study by Butler , et al . , is that some of the major theories for the mammalian brain also appear to be valid for the avian brain . The structures assumed to be critical for consciousness in mammalian brains have homologous counterparts in avian brains . Thus the main portions of the theories of Crick and Koch , Edelman and Tononi , and Cotterill seem to be compatible with the assumption that birds are conscious . Edelman also differentiates between what he calls primary consciousness ( which is a trait shared by humans and non @-@ human animals ) and higher @-@ order consciousness as it appears in humans alone along with human language capacity . Certain aspects of the three theories , however , seem less easy to apply to the hypothesis of avian consciousness . For instance , the suggestion by Crick and Koch that layer 5 neurons of the mammalian brain have a special role , seems difficult to apply to the avian brain , since the avian homologues have a different morphology . Likewise , the theory of Eccles seems incompatible , since a structural homologue / analogue to the dendron has not been found in avian brains . The assumption of an avian consciousness also brings the reptilian brain into focus . The reason is the structural continuity between avian and reptilian brains , meaning that the phylogenetic origin of consciousness may be earlier than suggested by many leading neuroscientists .
Joaquin Fuster of UCLA has advocated the position of the importance of the prefrontal cortex in humans , along with the areas of Wernicke and Broca , as being of particular importance to the development of human language capacities neuro @-@ anatomically necessary for the emergence of higher @-@ order consciousness in humans .
= = = Biological function and evolution = = =
Opinions are divided as to where in biological evolution consciousness emerged and about whether or not consciousness has any survival value . It has been argued that consciousness emerged ( i ) exclusively with the first humans , ( ii ) exclusively with the first mammals , ( iii ) independently in mammals and birds , or ( iv ) with the first reptiles . Other authors date the origins of consciousness to the first animals with nervous systems or early vertebrates in the Cambrian over 500 million years ago . Donald Griffin suggests in his book Animal Minds a gradual evolution of consciousness . Each of these scenarios raises the question of the possible survival value of consciousness .
Thomas Henry Huxley defends in an essay titled On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata , and its History an epiphenomenalist theory of consciousness according to which consciousness is a causally inert effect of neural activity — “ as the steam @-@ whistle which accompanies the work of a locomotive engine is without influence upon its machinery ” . To this William James objects in his essay Are We Automata ? by stating an evolutionary argument for mind @-@ brain interaction implying that if the preservation and development of consciousness in the biological evolution is a result of natural selection , it is plausible that consciousness has not only been influenced by neural processes , but has had a survival value itself ; and it could only have had this if it had been efficacious . Karl Popper develops in the book The Self and Its Brain a similar evolutionary argument .
Regarding the primary function of conscious processing , a recurring idea in recent theories is that phenomenal states somehow integrate neural activities and information @-@ processing that would otherwise be independent . This has been called the integration consensus . Another example has been proposed by Gerald Edelman called dynamic core hypothesis which puts emphasis on reentrant connections that reciprocally link areas of the brain in a massively parallel manner . Edelman also stresses the importance of the evolutionary emergence of higher @-@ order consciousness in humans from the historically older trait of primary consciousness which humans share with non @-@ human animals ( see Neural correlates section above ) . These theories of integrative function present solutions to two classic problems associated with consciousness : differentiation and unity . They show how our conscious experience can discriminate between a virtually unlimited number of different possible scenes and details ( differentiation ) because it integrates those details from our sensory systems , while the integrative nature of consciousness in this view easily explains how our experience can seem unified as one whole despite all of these individual parts . However , it remains unspecified which kinds of information are integrated in a conscious manner and which kinds can be integrated without consciousness . Nor is it explained what specific causal role conscious integration plays , nor why the same functionality cannot be achieved without consciousness . Obviously not all kinds of information are capable of being disseminated consciously ( e.g. , neural activity related to vegetative functions , reflexes , unconscious motor programs , low @-@ level perceptual analyses , etc . ) and many kinds of information can be disseminated and combined with other kinds without consciousness , as in intersensory interactions such as the ventriloquism effect . Hence it remains unclear why any of it is conscious . For a review of the differences between conscious and unconscious integrations , see the article of E. Morsella .
As noted earlier , even among writers who consider consciousness to be a well @-@ defined thing , there is widespread dispute about which animals other than humans can be said to possess it . Edelman has described this distinction as that of humans possessing higher @-@ order consciousness while sharing the trait of primary consciousness with non @-@ human animals ( see previous paragraph ) . Thus , any examination of the evolution of consciousness is faced with great difficulties . Nevertheless , some writers have argued that consciousness can be viewed from the standpoint of evolutionary biology as an adaptation in the sense of a trait that increases fitness . In his article " Evolution of consciousness " , John Eccles argued that special anatomical and physical properties of the mammalian cerebral cortex gave rise to consciousness ( " [ a ] psychon ... linked to [ a ] dendron through quantum physics " ) . Bernard Baars proposed that once in place , this " recursive " circuitry may have provided a basis for the subsequent development of many of the functions that consciousness facilitates in higher organisms . Peter Carruthers has put forth one such potential adaptive advantage gained by conscious creatures by suggesting that consciousness allows an individual to make distinctions between appearance and reality . This ability would enable a creature to recognize the likelihood that their perceptions are deceiving them ( e.g. that water in the distance may be a mirage ) and behave accordingly , and it could also facilitate the manipulation of others by recognizing how things appear to them for both cooperative and devious ends .
Other philosophers , however , have suggested that consciousness would not be necessary for any functional advantage in evolutionary processes . No one has given a causal explanation , they argue , of why it would not be possible for a functionally equivalent non @-@ conscious organism ( i.e. , a philosophical zombie ) to achieve the very same survival advantages as a conscious organism . If evolutionary processes are blind to the difference between function F being performed by conscious organism O and non @-@ conscious organism O * , it is unclear what adaptive advantage consciousness could provide . As a result , an exaptive explanation of consciousness has gained favor with some theorists that posit consciousness did not evolve as an adaptation but was an exaptation arising as a consequence of other developments such as increases in brain size or cortical rearrangement . Consciousness in this sense has been compared to the blind spot in the retina where it is not an adaption of the retina , but instead just a by @-@ product of the way the retinal axons were wired . Several scholars including Pinker , Chomsky , Edelman , and Luria have indicated the importance of the emergence of human language as an important regulative mechanism of learning and memory in the context of the development of higher @-@ order consciousness ( see Neural correlates section above ) .
= = = States of consciousness = = =
There are some brain states in which consciousness seems to be absent , including dreamless sleep , coma , and death . There are also a variety of circumstances that can change the relationship between the mind and the world in less drastic ways , producing what are known as altered states of consciousness . Some altered states occur naturally ; others can be produced by drugs or brain damage . Altered states can be accompanied by changes in thinking , disturbances in the sense of time , feelings of loss of control , changes in emotional expression , alternations in body image and changes in meaning or significance .
The two most widely accepted altered states are sleep and dreaming . Although dream sleep and non @-@ dream sleep appear very similar to an outside observer , each is associated with a distinct pattern of brain activity , metabolic activity , and eye movement ; each is also associated with a distinct pattern of experience and cognition . During ordinary non @-@ dream sleep , people who are awakened report only vague and sketchy thoughts , and their experiences do not cohere into a continuous narrative . During dream sleep , in contrast , people who are awakened report rich and detailed experiences in which events form a continuous progression , which may however be interrupted by bizarre or fantastic intrusions . Thought processes during the dream state frequently show a high level of irrationality . Both dream and non @-@ dream states are associated with severe disruption of memory : it usually disappears in seconds during the non @-@ dream state , and in minutes after awakening from a dream unless actively refreshed .
Research conducted on the effects of partial epileptic seizures on consciousness found that patients who suffer from partial epileptic seizures experience altered states of consciousness . In partial epileptic seizures , consciousness is impaired or lost while some aspects of consciousness , often automated behaviors , remain intact . Studies found that when measuring the qualitative features during partial epileptic seizures , patients exhibited an increase in arousal and became absorbed in the experience of the seizure , followed by difficulty in focusing and shifting attention .
A variety of psychoactive drugs and alcohol have notable effects on consciousness . These range from a simple dulling of awareness produced by sedatives , to increases in the intensity of sensory qualities produced by stimulants , cannabis , empathogens – entactogens such as MDMA ( " Ecstasy " ) , or most notably by the class of drugs known as psychedelics . LSD , mescaline , psilocybin , Dimethyltryptamine , and others in this group can produce major distortions of perception , including hallucinations ; some users even describe their drug @-@ induced experiences as mystical or spiritual in quality . The brain mechanisms underlying these effects are not as well understood as those induced by use of alcohol , but there is substantial evidence that alterations in the brain system that uses the chemical neurotransmitter serotonin play an essential role .
There has been some research into physiological changes in yogis and people who practise various techniques of meditation . Some research with brain waves during meditation has reported differences between those corresponding to ordinary relaxation and those corresponding to meditation . It has been disputed , however , whether there is enough evidence to count these as physiologically distinct states of consciousness .
The most extensive study of the characteristics of altered states of consciousness was made by psychologist Charles Tart in the 1960s and 1970s . Tart analyzed a state of consciousness as made up of a number of component processes , including exteroception ( sensing the external world ) ; interoception ( sensing the body ) ; input @-@ processing ( seeing meaning ) ; emotions ; memory ; time sense ; sense of identity ; evaluation and cognitive processing ; motor output ; and interaction with the environment . Each of these , in his view , could be altered in multiple ways by drugs or other manipulations . The components that Tart identified have not , however , been validated by empirical studies . Research in this area has not yet reached firm conclusions , but a recent questionnaire @-@ based study identified eleven significant factors contributing to drug @-@ induced states of consciousness : experience of unity ; spiritual experience ; blissful state ; insightfulness ; disembodiment ; impaired control and cognition ; anxiety ; complex imagery ; elementary imagery ; audio @-@ visual synesthesia ; and changed meaning of percepts .
= = = Phenomenology = = =
Phenomenology is a method of inquiry that attempts to examine the structure of consciousness in its own right , putting aside problems regarding the relationship of consciousness to the physical world . This approach was first proposed by the philosopher Edmund Husserl , and later elaborated by other philosophers and scientists . Husserl 's original concept gave rise to two distinct lines of inquiry , in philosophy and psychology . In philosophy , phenomenology has largely been devoted to fundamental metaphysical questions , such as the nature of intentionality ( " aboutness " ) . In psychology , phenomenology largely has meant attempting to investigate consciousness using the method of introspection , which means looking into one 's own mind and reporting what one observes . This method fell into disrepute in the early twentieth century because of grave doubts about its reliability , but has been rehabilitated to some degree , especially when used in combination with techniques for examining brain activity .
Introspectively , the world of conscious experience seems to have considerable structure . Immanuel Kant asserted that the world as we perceive it is organized according to a set of fundamental " intuitions " , which include object ( we perceive the world as a set of distinct things ) ; shape ; quality ( color , warmth , etc . ) ; space ( distance , direction , and location ) ; and time . Some of these constructs , such as space and time , correspond to the way the world is structured by the laws of physics ; for others the correspondence is not as clear . Understanding the physical basis of qualities , such as redness or pain , has been particularly challenging . David Chalmers has called this the hard problem of consciousness . Some philosophers have argued that it is intrinsically unsolvable , because qualities ( " qualia " ) are ineffable ; that is , they are " raw feels " , incapable of being analyzed into component processes . Most psychologists and neuroscientists reject these arguments . For example , research on ideasthesia shows that qualia are organised into a semantic @-@ like network . Nevertheless , it is clear that the relationship between a physical entity such as light and a perceptual quality such as color is extraordinarily complex and indirect , as demonstrated by a variety of optical illusions such as neon color spreading .
In neuroscience , a great deal of effort has gone into investigating how the perceived world of conscious awareness is constructed inside the brain . The process is generally thought to involve two primary mechanisms : ( 1 ) hierarchical processing of sensory inputs , and ( 2 ) memory . Signals arising from sensory organs are transmitted to the brain and then processed in a series of stages , which extract multiple types of information from the raw input . In the visual system , for example , sensory signals from the eyes are transmitted to the thalamus and then to the primary visual cortex ; inside the cerebral cortex they are sent to areas that extract features such as three @-@ dimensional structure , shape , color , and motion . Memory comes into play in at least two ways . First , it allows sensory information to be evaluated in the context of previous experience . Second , and even more importantly , working memory allows information to be integrated over time so that it can generate a stable representation of the world — Gerald Edelman expressed this point vividly by titling one of his books about consciousness The Remembered Present . In computational neuroscience , Bayesian approaches to brain function have been used to understand both the evaluation of sensory information in light of previous experience , and the integration of information over time . Bayesian models of the brain are probabilistic inference models , in which the brain takes advantage of prior knowledge to interpret uncertain sensory inputs in order to formulate a conscious percept ; Bayesian models have successfully predicted many perceptual phenomena in vision and the nonvisual senses .
Despite the large amount of information available , many important aspects of perception remain mysterious . A great deal is known about low @-@ level signal processing in sensory systems , but the ways by which sensory systems interact with each other , with " executive " systems in the frontal cortex , and with the language system are very incompletely understood . At a deeper level , there are still basic conceptual issues that remain unresolved . Many scientists have found it difficult to reconcile the fact that information is distributed across multiple brain areas with the apparent unity of consciousness : this is one aspect of the so @-@ called binding problem . There are also some scientists who have expressed grave reservations about the idea that the brain forms representations of the outside world at all : influential members of this group include psychologist J. J. Gibson and roboticist Rodney Brooks , who both argued in favor of " intelligence without representation " .
= = Medical aspects = =
The medical approach to consciousness is practically oriented . It derives from a need to treat people whose brain function has been impaired as a result of disease , brain damage , toxins , or drugs . In medicine , conceptual distinctions are considered useful to the degree that they can help to guide treatments . Whereas the philosophical approach to consciousness focuses on its fundamental nature and its contents , the medical approach focuses on the amount of consciousness a person has : in medicine , consciousness is assessed as a " level " ranging from coma and brain death at the low end , to full alertness and purposeful responsiveness at the high end .
Consciousness is of concern to patients and physicians , especially neurologists and anesthesiologists . Patients may suffer from disorders of consciousness , or may need to be anesthetized for a surgical procedure . Physicians may perform consciousness @-@ related interventions such as instructing the patient to sleep , administering general anesthesia , or inducing medical coma . Also , bioethicists may be concerned with the ethical implications of consciousness in medical cases of patients such as Karen Ann Quinlan , while neuroscientists may study patients with impaired consciousness in hopes of gaining information about how the brain works .
= = = Assessment = = =
In medicine , consciousness is examined using a set of procedures known as neuropsychological assessment . There are two commonly used methods for assessing the level of consciousness of a patient : a simple procedure that requires minimal training , and a more complex procedure that requires substantial expertise . The simple procedure begins by asking whether the patient is able to move and react to physical stimuli . If so , the next question is whether the patient can respond in a meaningful way to questions and commands . If so , the patient is asked for name , current location , and current day and time . A patient who can answer all of these questions is said to be " alert and oriented times four " ( sometimes denoted " A & Ox4 " on a medical chart ) , and is usually considered fully conscious .
The more complex procedure is known as a neurological examination , and is usually carried out by a neurologist in a hospital setting . A formal neurological examination runs through a precisely delineated series of tests , beginning with tests for basic sensorimotor reflexes , and culminating with tests for sophisticated use of language . The outcome may be summarized using the Glasgow Coma Scale , which yields a number in the range 3 — 15 , with a score of 3 indicating brain death ( the lowest defined level of consciousness ) , and 15 indicating full consciousness . The Glasgow Coma Scale has three subscales , measuring the best motor response ( ranging from " no motor response " to " obeys commands " ) , the best eye response ( ranging from " no eye opening " to " eyes opening spontaneously " ) and the best verbal response ( ranging from " no verbal response " to " fully oriented " ) . There is also a simpler pediatric version of the scale , for children too young to be able to use language .
In 2013 , an experimental procedure was developed to measure degrees of consciousness , the procedure involving stimulating the brain with a magnetic pulse , measuring resulting waves of electrical activity , and developing a consciousness score based on the complexity of the brain activity .
= = = Disorders of consciousness = = =
Medical conditions that inhibit consciousness are considered disorders of consciousness . This category generally includes minimally conscious state and persistent vegetative state , but sometimes also includes the less severe locked @-@ in syndrome and more severe chronic coma . Differential diagnosis of these disorders is an active area of biomedical research . Finally , brain death results in an irreversible disruption of consciousness . While other conditions may cause a moderate deterioration ( e.g. , dementia and delirium ) or transient interruption ( e.g. , grand mal and petit mal seizures ) of consciousness , they are not included in this category .
= = = Anosognosia = = =
One of the most striking disorders of consciousness goes by the name anosognosia , a Greek @-@ derived term meaning unawareness of disease . This is a condition in which patients are disabled in some way , most commonly as a result of a stroke , but either misunderstand the nature of the problem or deny that there is anything wrong with them . The most frequently occurring form is seen in people who have experienced a stroke damaging the parietal lobe in the right hemisphere of the brain , giving rise to a syndrome known as hemispatial neglect , characterized by an inability to direct action or attention toward objects located to the right with respect to their bodies . Patients with hemispatial neglect are often paralyzed on the right side of the body , but sometimes deny being unable to move . When questioned about the obvious problem , the patient may avoid giving a direct answer , or may give an explanation that doesn 't make sense . Patients with hemispatial neglect may also fail to recognize paralyzed parts of their bodies : one frequently mentioned case is of a man who repeatedly tried to throw his own paralyzed right leg out of the bed he was lying in , and when asked what he was doing , complained that somebody had put a dead leg into the bed with him . An even more striking type of anosognosia is Anton – Babinski syndrome , a rarely occurring condition in which patients become blind but claim to be able to see normally , and persist in this claim in spite of all evidence to the contrary .
= = Stream of consciousness = =
William James is usually credited with popularizing the idea that human consciousness flows like a stream , in his Principles of Psychology of 1890 . According to James , the " stream of thought " is governed by five characteristics : " ( 1 ) Every thought tends to be part of a personal consciousness . ( 2 ) Within each personal consciousness thought is always changing . ( 3 ) Within each personal consciousness thought is sensibly continuous . ( 4 ) It always appears to deal with objects independent of itself . ( 5 ) It is interested in some parts of these objects to the exclusion of others " . A similar concept appears in Buddhist philosophy , expressed by the Sanskrit term Citta @-@ saṃtāna , which is usually translated as mindstream or " mental continuum " . In the Buddhist view , though , the " mindstream " is viewed primarily as a source of noise that distracts attention from a changeless underlying reality .
= = = Narrative form = = =
In the west , the primary impact of the idea has been on literature rather than science : stream of consciousness as a narrative mode means writing in a way that attempts to portray the moment @-@ to @-@ moment thoughts and experiences of a character . This technique perhaps had its beginnings in the monologues of Shakespeare 's plays , and reached its fullest development in the novels of James Joyce and Virginia Woolf , although it has also been used by many other noted writers .
Here for example is a passage from Joyce 's Ulysses about the thoughts of Molly Bloom :
Yes because he never did a thing like that before as ask to get his breakfast in bed with a couple of eggs since the City Arms hotel when he used to be pretending to be laid up with a sick voice doing his highness to make himself interesting for that old faggot Mrs Riordan that he thought he had a great leg of and she never left us a farthing all for masses for herself and her soul greatest miser ever was actually afraid to lay out 4d for her methylated spirit telling me all her ailments she had too much old chat in her about politics and earthquakes and the end of the world let us have a bit of fun first God help the world if all the women were her sort down on bathingsuits and lownecks of course nobody wanted her to wear them I suppose she was pious because no man would look at her twice I hope Ill never be like her a wonder she didnt want us to cover our faces but she was a welleducated woman certainly and her gabby talk about Mr Riordan here and Mr Riordan there I suppose he was glad to get shut of her .
= = Spiritual approaches = =
To most philosophers , the word " consciousness " connotes the relationship between the mind and the world . To writers on spiritual or religious topics , it frequently connotes the relationship between the mind and God , or the relationship between the mind and deeper truths that are thought to be more fundamental than the physical world . Krishna consciousness , for example , is a term used to mean an intimate linkage between the mind of a worshipper and the god Krishna . The mystical psychiatrist Richard Maurice Bucke distinguished between three types of consciousness : Simple Consciousness , awareness of the body , possessed by many animals ; Self Consciousness , awareness of being aware , possessed only by humans ; and Cosmic Consciousness , awareness of the life and order of the universe , possessed only by humans who are enlightened . Many more examples could be given . The most thorough account of the spiritual approach may be Ken Wilber 's book The Spectrum of Consciousness , a comparison of western and eastern ways of thinking about the mind . Wilber described consciousness as a spectrum with ordinary awareness at one end , and more profound types of awareness at higher levels .
= Cyclone Dina =
Intense Tropical Cyclone Dina was a cyclone that caused record flooding across parts of Réunion . Originating from a tropical disturbance on 15 January 2002 near the Chagos Archipelago , the precursor to Dina quickly developed within a region favoring tropical cyclogenesis . By January 17 , the system had developed enough organized convection as it moved southwestward to be declared a tropical depression . Rapid intensification occurred shortly thereafter , with the system attaining winds in excess of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) on January 18 . Dina achieved its peak intensity on January 20 as an intense tropical cyclone winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . Hours after reaching hits strength , the storm bypassed Rodrigues Island about 150 km ( 93 mi ) to its north . On January 21 , the storm brushed Mauritius and Réunion as an intense tropical cyclone before turning southward . Once on a southward course , steady weakening ensued and the system eventually transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on January 25 . The remnants of the storm accelerated southeastward and were last noted on January 28 before being absorbed into a polar trough .
Across Mauritius and Réunion , torrential rains and destructive winds from the cyclone resulted in extensive to " catastrophic " damage . The entire island of Mauritius lost power during the storm and widespread structural damage took place . Agricultural and property damage amounted to US $ 47 million and US $ 50 million respectively in the republic . Nine fatalities were attribute to the storm in Mauritius : five off the coast of Rodrigues Island and four on the main island . More extensive damage was seen on Réunion where up to 2 @,@ 102 mm ( 82 @.@ 8 in ) of rain fell over three days . Record to near @-@ record flooding destroyed many homes , washed out roads , and caused catastrophic agricultural damage . Destructive winds , measured up to 280 km / h ( 170 mph ) also crippled communications . In all , six people died on the island and losses were estimated at € 200 million ( US $ 190 million ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On January 15 , a tropical disturbance began organizing near the Chagos Archipelago in the South Indian Ocean convergence zone , which is an extended area of convection connected to the monsoon . The thunderstorms gradually organized , associated with a weak circulation and located within an area of moderate wind shear . A distinct low pressure area developed on January 16 , about 750 km ( 470 mi ) east of Diego Garcia . The thunderstorms were primarily located along the western periphery due to continued shear , and ordinarily would prevent significant development . The system moved to the southwest along the north side of a ridge , and despite the shear it developed into a tropical disturbance late on January 16 . Subsequently , the system rapidly organized , developing rainbands as the convection increased .
At 0000 UTC on January 17 , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) upgraded the disturbance to a tropical depression , and six hours later upgraded the system further to Tropical Storm Dina . Shortly thereafter , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , and later that day initiated advisories about 425 km ( 265 mi ) south of Diego Garcia . Dina quickly intensified , and its T @-@ numbers using the Dvorak technique increased by 0 @.@ 5 every six hours during the storm 's development phase . An eye began developing late on January 17 , and at 1200 UTC on January 18 , MFR upgraded Dina to a tropical cyclone , or the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . This was only 36 hours after it was first classified as a tropical disturbance , which is much less than the five days most tropical cyclones take . About three hours earlier , the JTWC had also upgraded the storm to tropical cyclone status .
The small eye of Dina , only 20 km ( 12 mi ) in diameter , quickly became well @-@ defined , although it became obscured by the central dense overcast on visible satellite imagery . On January 19 , the cyclone slowed as it turned to the west @-@ southwest , after the ridge to its south intensified . The intensification rate briefly slowed , before Dina rapidly intensified late on January 19 , becoming an intense tropical cyclone early the next day . Surrounded by an eyewall of deep convection , Dina intensified to reach its peak intensity on January 20 . Based on satellite intensity estimates between 235 and 259 km / h ( 146 and 161 mph ) , the JTWC estimated peak one @-@ minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , about 205 km ( 127 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Rodrigues Island . At around the same time , MFR estimated peak ten @-@ minute winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . While at its peak , Dina had a very symmetrical structure , and gusts were estimated to have reached 300 km / h ( 190 mph ) .
On January 20 while near peak intensity , Dina slowed its movement further and moved more toward the west . After previously being in the projected track of the cyclone , Rodrigues Island was bypassed by the cyclone passing about 150 km ( 93 mi ) to its north . After passing by the island , Dina underwent an eyewall replacement cycle , which resulted in an outer eyewall forming and replacing the previous , smaller one . This resulted in the cyclone weakening slightly , although it retained much of its intensity while tracking toward Mauritius and Réunion . Late on January 21 , Dina passed about 65 km ( 40 mi ) north of Cape Malheureux in Mauritius , with 10 @-@ minute winds estimated at 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) ; however , the strongest winds remained offshore . At the time , the storm 's eye became asymmetric with a diameter of 85 km ( 53 mi ) . Late the next day , Dina also passed about 65 km ( 40 mi ) off the north coast of Réunion , and although the island was in the forecast track , the cyclone accelerated to the west in the final hours and spared the island from the strongest winds . This abrupt shift in tract took place as the cyclone interacted with the high terrain of Réunion . Additionally , Doppler weather radar showed the highest reflectivity values to be 40 to 60 km ( 25 to 37 mi ) from the center . On January 23 , Dina weakened below intense tropical cyclone status while it accelerated to the southwest ; the change in movement was due to the ridge moving further to the southeast . Increased wind shear due to an approaching trough contributed to the weakening , and by late on January 23 the eye dissipated . The next day , Dina weakened into a tropical storm , after the convection diminished around the center . Late on January 24 , the JTWC discontinued advisories , and about 24 hours later , MFR classified Dina as an extratropical cyclone . The system accelerated to the southeast and was absorbed by a polar trough on January 28 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
= = = Mauritius = = =
Less than a day prior to Cyclone Dina 's arrival in Mauritius , officials in the nation closed schools , government offices , businesses , and ports . A state of alert was issued for the entire country , meaning that those at greatest risk should seek shelter . All flights to and from the nation were canceled " until further notice . " Across the island , 259 people sought refuge in shelters . According to NASA , there was potential for a 12 @.@ 2 m ( 40 ft ) storm surge as the cyclone moved over the region .
The first island to be affected by the storm was Rodrigues . There gusts reached 122 km / h ( 76 mph ) . Rainfall was light on the island , reaching 94 mm ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) at Roche Bon Dieu . The cyclone killed five fishermen offshore Rodrigues . Numerous areas across Mauritius recorded hurricane @-@ force winds . On the republic 's main island , gusts reached 230 km / h ( 140 mph ) at Le Morne Brabant . A station near the capital city of Port Louis reported a gust of 206 km / h ( 128 mph ) . Torrential rainfall affected much of Mauritius during Dina 's passage , with a maximum of 745 @.@ 2 mm ( 29 @.@ 34 in ) falling in Pierrefonds . This was more than the average monthly rainfall , and most of the precipitation fell in about 24 hours . A barometric pressure of 935 @.@ 9 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 64 inHg ) was recorded in Vacoas @-@ Phoenix . Flooding and mudslides greatly disrupted the public water system , with most people losing running water .
Power and communications across Rodrigues and the island of Mauritius were crippled by the storm , with the entirety of the former and 90 percent of the latter losing electricity . For approximately ten hours , the country was cut off from the outside world , with all communications disrupted . About 50 @,@ 000 of the nation 's 280 @,@ 000 telecommunication lines sustained serious damage , resulting in prolonged power outages . Repair crews estimated that it would take until January 27 , nearly a week after the storm 's passage , for power to be fully restored . Widespread areas also lost water on Mauritius . Schools across the region sustained significant damage and as a precautionary measure , all classes were canceled until January 29 . Agriculture sustained considerable losses as a result of the storm . Approximately 15 metric tons of flour and 20 metric tons of rice were damaged and preliminary estimates for sugarcane losses across the island reached US $ 47 million . Property damage from the storm amounted to US $ 50 million , and there were four deaths on the island ; three were caused by traffic accidents , and the other was a man who died while making storm preparations .
In the wake of the storm , a special mobile force was dispatched by officials to assist in relief operations . Red Cross distribution centers were set up on Mauritius and served food and clothing to more than 500 by January 25 . Despite the severity of damage , government officials declined to appeal for international aid . Although no requests for aid were made , the Government of Norway provided US $ 10 @,@ 000 worth of funds to the nation . Owing to the effects of Cyclone Dina and several other meteorological factors , the economy of Mauritius suffered significantly in 2002 as a whole . Annual growth dropped to about 1 @.@ 9 percent from approximately 5 percent in 2001 . The sugarcane industry suffered greatly from the storm , experiencing a 19 @.@ 3 percent decrease .
= = = Réunion = = =
Due to the storm 's close passage to the island , much of Réunion experienced hurricane @-@ force winds . The strongest observed gust was 280 km / h ( 170 mph ) on Maïdo ; however , based on the destruction of Meteo @-@ France 's Doppler weather radar , winds could have exceeded 300 km / h ( 190 mph ) . Plaine des Cafres reported gusts of over 150 km / h ( 93 mph ) for at least 15 hours . These winds caused extensive damage , crippling communications , devastating infrastructure , and left more than 160 @,@ 000 families , about 70 percent of the island 's population , without power . Some areas were without power for nine days . Additionally , about 25 percent of the island was left without running water . Damaged transmitters interrupted radio and television broadcasts for several days . In Saint @-@ Denis , two people were seriously injured after a wall collapsed on them . Although winds were strong , the majority of damage was limited to broken windows , removed sheet metal , broken gutters , and removed siding . The most severe damage took place in exposed areas at higher elevations or where tunneling of the wind occurred .
Heavy rains produced by Dina triggered flash flooding and many landslides , further crippling travel and forcing at least 2 @,@ 500 people to seek refuge in public shelters . Some areas recorded more than 400 mm ( 16 in ) in a 24 ‑ hour span , notably the Bellecombe resting place ( a volcano lodge ) which measured 953 mm ( 37 @.@ 5 in ) in 24 hours as well as a two @-@ day total of 1 @,@ 360 mm ( 54 in ) . The heaviest rainfall was measured in La Plaine des Chicots at 2 @,@ 102 mm ( 82 @.@ 8 in ) . With the ground already saturated from previous rain events , the torrential rains caused numerous rivers across the island to burst their banks . The Ravine des Cabris reached an all @-@ time record flood while three other rivers reached their second @-@ highest levels , behind the flood event caused by Cyclone Firinga in 1989 . Heavy rains occurred in the typically dry western portion of the island , which resulted in significant flooding . Many ecosystems suffered from these floods with water quality greatly degraded and flow disrupted . However , in post @-@ storm surveys in July 2002 , it was found that the impact was not catastrophic and the ecosystems would eventually recover . Significant runoff also prompted fears of algae blooms that would damage coral reefs . Numerous roads were damaged or washed out by the floods , leaving approximately € 42 @.@ 9 million ( US $ 37 @.@ 6 million ) in losses . In Lengevin village within the Saint @-@ Joseph department , 35 families were forced to evacuate . Many landslides took place in addition to flooding , further hampering travel and isolating hundreds of residents .
Catastrophic agricultural damage occurred across the island , with losses reaching an estimated € 76 million ( US $ 66 @.@ 7 million ) . The entire fruit and vegetable crop was lost during the storm while the vanilla and geranium crops sustained heavy damage . Additionally , about 15 – 20 percent of the sugarcane crop was destroyed . Horticulture sustained about 50 percent losses ; however , much of this resulted from lost work hours . Poultry farms suffered about 70 percent losses , from lost animals and destroyed buildings . Along the coast , large waves measured up to 12 @.@ 47 m ( 40 @.@ 9 ft ) caused moderate damage . Additionally , an estimated storm surge of 6 to 9 m ( 20 to 30 ft ) impacted the island . Some buildings were flooded , roads washed out , and other roads were left covered in debris .
In all , about 15 @,@ 000 damage claims were filed across Réunion , with a total of 3 @,@ 251 homes damaged and about 850 condemned or destroyed . Property damage from the storm amounted to € 95 million ( US $ 83 @.@ 4 million ) . Collectively , losses on the island were estimated at € 200 million ( US $ 190 million ) . Although there were no fatalities directly related to the storm , six people died in various events indirectly caused by Dina .
In the wake of Cyclone Dina 's devastation on January 23 , then French Prime Minister Lionel Jospin ordered a relief team of 200 personnel to be dispatched to the island . He also expressed " deep personal sympathy " to the residents of Réunion . The following day , the Catholic Relief Services released immediate funds of € 16 @,@ 000 ( US $ 14 @,@ 000 ) . An estimated 50 @,@ 000 tonnes of debris was cleaned up across the island , the majority of which was in the Northwest Department , and cost waste management crews approximately € 4 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 4 million ) to process . Initially , the national disaster program was slow to react , with funding first being available on February 5 . The first payments were made starting a month later . In the five months following the storm , the Government of France provided about € 10 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 12 million ) in aid to farmers , accounting for an overestimation of about 20 percent in needs . Based on meteorological statistics regarding wind speed and rainfall , Cyclone Dina was regarded as a 1 @-@ in @-@ 30 – 50 year event in Réunion .
= Royal Albion Hotel =
The Royal Albion Hotel ( originally the Albion Hotel ) is a 3 @-@ star hotel in the seaside resort of Brighton , part of the English city of Brighton and Hove . Built on the site of a house belonging to Richard Russell , a local doctor whose advocacy of sea @-@ bathing and seawater drinking helped to make Brighton fashionable in the 18th century , it has been extended several times , although it experienced a period of rundown and closure in the early 20th century . A fire in 1998 caused serious damage , but the hotel was restored .
The Classical @-@ style building is in three parts of different sizes and dates but similar appearances . Large pilasters and columns of various orders feature prominently . Amon Henry Wilds , an important and prolific local architect , took the original commission on behalf of promoter John Colbatch . Another local entrepreneur , Harry Preston , restored the hotel to its former high status after buying it in poor condition . The building took on its present three @-@ wing form in 1963 . The original part of the building was listed at Grade II * by English Heritage for its architectural and historical importance , and its western extension is listed separately at the lower Grade II .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
The site itself is connected with the life and career of Richard Russell , a doctor who advocated sea water as a cure of ailments . After Russell 's death in 1759 , Old Steine developed as the centre of fashionable life in Brighton . Russell House , as it became known , was used as lodgings for visitors such as the Duke of Cumberland , and later became an entertainment venue with activities such as a puppet theatre , a camera obscura and resident jugglers .
In the 1820s , it passed to entrepreneur John Colbatch , who demolished it in 1823 . The local authorities tried to arrange for the land to be kept as open space , but negotiations collapsed and Colbatch began planning the construction of a hotel .
= = = Construction , success , disrepair = = =
Colbatch commissioned young architect Amon Henry Wilds , who began planning the hotel in 1822 . Wilds , the son of Amon Wilds and an associate of Charles Busby , had been responsible for many building schemes in Brighton from about 1815 , when he and his father moved their architectural practice to Brighton . Schemes already completed by 1822 included King 's Road and Brighton Unitarian Church . The hotel was built on a corner site at the point where Old Steine met King 's Road , and like Russell House the main façade faced away from the sea , towards Old Steine . The four @-@ storey structure opened on 5 August 1826 .
The venture was immediately successful , and a stylistically similar five @-@ storey extension was added to the west in about 1847 . At the same time , the name was changed from the Albion Hotel . Six years earlier , one of Brighton 's most important cultural establishments was established in a ground @-@ floor room : the Albion Rooms Literary and Scientific Institution combined the functions of library , lecture theatre and museum . The venture eventually became unsustainable , and the institution 's members presented the accumulated books , artefacts and pictures to Brighton Corporation , the local authority . This led to the establishment of the Brighton Museum and Art Gallery and Brighton Library in the grounds of the Royal Pavilion .
The hotel fell into disrepair in the late 19th century , and was closed in 1900 . Harry Preston , owner of the nearby Royal York Hotel , bought it in 1913 for £ 13 @,@ 500 ( £ 1 @,@ 198 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , and quickly restored its fashionable reputation . The building was completely refurbished , additions were made , and well @-@ known literary figures , artists and entertainers regularly stayed . The extensions carried out around this time , in the Edwardian style typical of the period , included a sea @-@ facing lounge at the rear of the hotel , and were carried out by Brighton architectural firm Clayton & Black . Started in the 1870s by Charles Clayton and Ernest Black and continued by their sons , this firm was one of Brighton 's most prolific designers of public buildings and churches over the next 60 years .
In 1856 , another hotel had been built west of the Royal Albion on land previously occupied by Williams 's Royal Hot and Cold Baths , an indoor bath @-@ house . The Lion Mansion Hotel was architecturally similar to the Royal Albion , and rose to four storeys . It was later known as the Adelphi Hotel . In 1963 , it was taken over by the Royal Albion , and became physically linked to it as a west wing .
= = = Fire = = =
On the morning of 24 November 1998 , the hotel was devastated by a fire which started in the kitchen . A chef was frying eggs and sausages in a pan ; hot fat spilt and caught light , and flames were immediately sucked up a vent to the top floor . The fire spread quickly , assisted by strong winds , and all 160 people in the building were evacuated . The Public and Commercial Services Union had to cancel their annual conference , due to be held that day , because of the disruption caused to its delegates , most of whom were staying at the hotel . About 160 firefighters from all parts of East and West Sussex attended the fire from about 8.20am until late in the evening , in what was later described as Brighton 's " biggest firefighting operation for nearly 30 years " . All parts of the hotel were affected by smoke , water and structural damage , but the original corner building was particularly badly affected .
= = Architecture = =
In its present form , the Royal Albion Hotel is in three linked sections , all stylistically similar . The original ( eastern ) wing is four storeys tall and has five extremely large Corinthian and Composite columns on the north face . These are flanked on both sides by large pilasters , which also run all round the east face . The top floor is an attic storey displaying Wilds 's characteristic motif : shell designs set in blank rounded tympana . Above this is a mansard roof , now mostly obscured . The centre section , dating from about 1847 , has three full storeys and two attic floors above , and is therefore taller . The façade has three bays . The theme of large pilasters and columns continues , but different styles are used : the left and right bays project slightly and have paired Tuscan pilasters , and a pair of tapering Ionic columns in the centre bay form a distyle in antis composition . The centre section also has a mansard roof — apparently a later addition . The western wing ( the former Lion Mansions ) has a Tuscan @-@ columned porch on the south ( seafront ) side and a Doric @-@ style equivalent facing north to Old Steine , four Composite pilasters extending for three of the four storeys , small cast @-@ iron balconies and some aedicula @-@ style window surrounds .
= = Present day = =
The Royal Albion Hotel was listed at Grade II * on 13 October 1952 . Such buildings are defined as being " particularly important ... [ and ] of more than special interest " . In February 2001 , it was one of 70 Grade II * -listed buildings and structures , and 1 @,@ 218 listed buildings of all grades , in the city of Brighton and Hove . The west wing ( the former Lion Mansions ) was listed at Grade II on 5 August 1999 . In February 2001 , it was one of 1 @,@ 124 buildings listed at that grade in Brighton and Hove ; the status indicates that the building is considered " nationally important and of special interest " .
The hotel is operated by Britannia Hotels . There are 208 guest rooms , one restaurant , two bars and five rooms for conferences and meetings . Bedrooms are classified in four grades , from standard to deluxe . It has a 3 @-@ star rating .
= Lazarus Aaronson =
Lazarus Leonard Aaronson ( 18 February 1895 – 9 December 1966 ) , often published as L. Aaronson , was a British poet and a lecturer in economics . As a young man , he belonged to a group of Jewish friends who are today known as the Whitechapel Boys , many who later achieved fame as writers and artists .
In his twenties , Aaronson converted to Christianity and a large part of his poetry focused on his conversion and spiritual identity as a Jew and an Englishman . In total , he published three collections of poetry : Christ in the Synagogue ( 1930 ) , Poems ( 1933 ) , and The Homeward Journey and Other Poems ( 1946 ) . Although he never achieved widespread recognition , Aaronson gained a cult following of dedicated readers .
Though less radical in his use of language , he has been compared to his more renowned Whitechapel friend , Isaac Rosenberg , in terms of diction and verbal energy . Aaronson 's poetry is characterised as more post @-@ Georgian than modernistic , and reviewers have traced influences from both the English poet John Keats , and Hebrew poets such as Shaul Tchernichovsky and Zalman Shneur in his writings .
Aaronson lived most of his life in London and spent much of his working life as a lecturer in economics at the City of London College . Upon retiring , he moved to Harpenden , Hertfordshire , where he died from heart failure and coronary heart disease on 9 December 1966 . His poetry was not widely publicised , and he left many unpublished poems at his death .
= = Life = =
Aaronson was born on 18 February 1895 at 34 Great Pearl Street , Spitalfields in the East End of London to impoverished Orthodox Jewish parents who had immigrated from Vilna in the Pale of Settlement in Eastern Europe . His father was Louis Aaronson , a master bootmaker , and his mother was Sarah Aaronson , née Kowalski . The young Aaronson attended Whitechapel City Boys ' School and later received a scholarship to attend Hackney Downs grammar school .
His father emigrated to New York in 1905 , and in 1912 , the rest of his family followed except for 17 @-@ year old Lazarus who remained in London . From then on , he lived with the family of Joseph Posener at 292 Commercial Road in the East End of London . At the time , the area was a hub of the Jewish diaspora and at the turn of the 20th century , a quarter of its population were Jews from Central and Eastern Europe . Growing up in the East End , Aaronson was part of a group of friends who are today referred to as the Whitechapel Boys , all of whom were children of Jewish immigrants and shared literary and artistic ambitions . Others in the group who , like Aaronson , later achieved distinction included John Rodker , Isaac Rosenberg , Joseph Leftwich , Samuel Winsten , Clara Birnberg , David Bomberg , and the brothers Abraham and Joseph Fineberg . Aaronson was also involved in the Young Socialist League , where he and other Whitechapel Boys helped organise educational meetings on modern art and radical politics . Aaronson remained a committed socialist throughout adulthood .
Having been diagnosed with tuberculosis and diabetes , Aaronson did not serve in the military during the First World War . Between 1913 and 1915 , and again between 1926 and 1928 , he studied economics at the London School of Economics , but never completed his degree .
Aaronson was married three times . His first wife was the actress Lydia Sherwood , ( 1906 – 1989 ) whom he was married to between 1924 and 1931 . He filed for divorce on grounds of her adultery with the theatre producer Theodore Komisarjevsky , and the suit was undefended . His second marriage , which took place on 9 July 1938 , to Dorothy Beatrice Lewer ( 1915 – 2005 ) , also ended in divorce . On 14 January 1950 , Aaronson married Margaret Olive Ireson ( 1920 – 1981 ) , with whom he had one son , David , who was born in 1953 .
To friends and family , Lazarus Aaronson was known as Laz . He was friends with novelist Stephen Hudson , sculptor Jacob Epstein , media mogul Sidney Bernstein , artists Mark Gertler and Matthew Smith and poets Harold Monro and Samuel Beckett .
Around 1934 , he began working as a lecturer in economics at the City of London College . Upon his retirement from the university in 1958 , Aaronson was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire in the 1959 New Year Honours , in recognition of his more than twenty @-@ five years of service . He then moved with his family from London to Harpenden , Hertfordshire , where he later died from heart failure and coronary heart disease on 9 December 1966 , at the age of 71 . He was buried in the Westfield Road Cemetery in Harpenden .
= = Poetry = =
Aaronson had literary ambitions from an early age and by 1914 , he was a contributing writer for the influential left @-@ leaning weekly The New Age . He was often published under the name L. Aaronson . In the
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" Defying Gravity " , " Bust Your Windows " and " Dancing with Myself " were included on the setlist , with " Somebody to Love " as an encore performance .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Metacritic gave the album a Metascore — a weighted average based on the impression of eight critical reviews — of 60 percent , signifying mixed or average reviews . Both Emma Wall of The Daily Telegraph and Christopher John Farley of The Wall Street Journal expressed approval of the choral arrangements , though Wall review observed that some of the ballads lack potency without their episodic context . Farley appreciated the " emotional backstory " given to the album by the television series , writing that it would " evoke fond memories of favorite episodes " for Glee fans . He found the better songs to be the ones which do not seem " too polished " , giving them a karaoke appeal . Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblatt wrote that the soundtrack is essentially a karaoke album , describing the songs as " unapologetically sincere " — lacking the series ' subversive wit , but with " a giddy sort of ' let 's put on a show ' charm " . Billboard 's Mikael Wood deemed the most successful tracks those which seem least suited to the series , such as the rock ballads " Don 't Stop Believin ' " and " Can 't Fight This Feeling " . Wood commented that " Take a Bow " and " Bust Your Windows " are also enjoyable , but " lack a certain revenge @-@ of @-@ the @-@ nerds triumph . "
The Independent 's Andy Gill was apathetic towards the album , which he too deemed " karaoke @-@ pop " . He praised Riley 's rendition of " Bust Your Windows " , calling it the album 's " most compelling moment " , but criticized Morrison 's rapping as " the least convincing [ ... ] in recording history . " Gill found Agron 's cover of " You Keep Me Hanging On " to be " irritatingly anonymous " , but otherwise felt the album contained little of note , either positive or negative . Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone shared Gill 's sentiments with regards to Morrison 's rapping and Riley 's " Bust Your Windows " , also deeming " Don 't Stop Believin ' " " a triumphal moment against which resistance is futile . " Dan Cairns of The Times described the album as " music of catch @-@ in @-@ the @-@ throat , quick @-@ fix , talent @-@ show emotion " variety , calling it " undeniably effective " but " utterly nauseating . "
Andrew Leahey of allmusic opined that some of the cast members are better actors than vocalists , but gave particular praise to Michele 's songs , suggesting that the soundtrack is largely a showcase for her talent , and that she outperforms most of the original artists . IGN 's Brian Linder described the album as having " an appealing irreverent spirit that tamps down the earnestness just as it begins to overwhelm . " Linder agreed that Morrison does not excel as an emcee , but still found his attempts at rapping enjoyable . He generally approved of the track list , but found the older songs such as " Sweet Caroline " and " Say a Little Prayer " lacking in resonance , and named " You Keep Me Hangin ' On " as the weakest performance . Linder commended Riley and Michele 's vocals , and most enjoyed the covers of " Somebody to Love " and " Keep Holding On " , suggesting that the latter surpasses the original version . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian commented that the album requires a suspension of disbelief , attributing some negative reviews from US critics to their inability to accept the fantasy of the series . Petridis reviewed " Dancing With Myself " , " Sweet Caroline " , " Gold Digger " , " Somebody to Love " and " Alone " favorably , but as with Gill and Linder disliked " You Keep Me Hangin ' On " , which she deemed bland and boring . Petridis wrote that the album does not entirely work in its own right , separate from the television series , but concluded that for listeners prepared to accept the conceit , " Glee : the Soundtrack almost lives up to its title . "
Glee : The Music , Volume 1 received a nomination in the category of Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media at the 53rd Grammy Awards .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Glee : The Music , Volume 1 debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 , selling 113 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release . The same week , the album also debuted at number two on the Billboard Soundtracks chart , going on to reach the top position on May 1 , 2010 . On September 9 , 2010 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales or shipments of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 or more . As of May 2011 , 1 @.@ 169 million copies have been sold in the US , and it has remained on the Billboard 200 for seventy @-@ three weeks . In the United Kingdom , the album entered the top 75 three weeks before its official release , on import sales alone . Following its official release , it debuted at number one with sales of 62 @,@ 000 according to The Official Charts Company . It was certified platinum for 300 @,@ 000 copies sold by the British Phonographic Industry on May 21 , 2010 . In Australia , the album peaked at number three , and was certified platinum for 70 @,@ 000 copies sold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) in 2009 , and received a 2x platinum certification from ARIA in 2011 . It peaked at number four in Canada , and has been certified platinum with 80 @,@ 000 units sold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . The album also peaked at number one in Ireland , eight in New Zealand , nine in the Netherlands , thirty @-@ four in both Austria and Wallonia , thirty @-@ seven in Mexico , forty @-@ eight in Switzerland , sixty @-@ nine in Spain , seventy @-@ four in Flanders , and eighty in Japan .
= = Singles = =
Each of the songs included on Glee : The Music , Volume 1 , except for the bonus tracks , were released as singles , available for download . The releases made the Glee Cast the tenth cast to have entries chart on the Billboard Hot 100 in its 51 @-@ year history . Their debut single " Don 't Stop Believin ' " charted at number five in Australia , number four in the US and Ireland , and number two in the United Kingdom . In the US , 177 @,@ 000 copies of the song were sold in its first week of release . Its number four debut surpassed the Journey original , which peaked at number nine in 1981 . The original rendition sold 42 @,@ 000 copies in the week of the Glee Cast release , up 48 % on the previous week . " Don 't Stop Believin ' " was also the cast 's best @-@ selling single , and has sold 1 @,@ 005 @,@ 000 copies in the US , a combination of sales from the original release ( 921 @,@ 000 ) and the rerecording for the season finale ( 84 @,@ 000 ) . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on October 13 , 2009 , and platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association the following year .
On October 22 , 2010 , Yahoo ! Music published a list of the twenty most popular Glee songs , based on download data from Nielsen SoundScan . Of the twenty best @-@ selling singles , eight are included on Glee : The Music , Volume 1 : " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , " Defying Gravity " ( 335 @,@ 000 copies ) , " Somebody to Love " ( 315 @,@ 000 ) , " Sweet Caroline " ( 187 @,@ 000 ) , " Take a Bow " ( 181 @,@ 000 ) , " Keep Holding On " ( 166 @,@ 000 ) , " Taking Chances " ( 163 @,@ 000 ) , and " Alone " ( 159 @,@ 000 ) . " Take a Bow " charted at number 46 in the US , with 53 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week of release . Sales of the original Rihanna version increased by 189 percent after the song was covered in the Glee episode " Showmance " . Sales of the Queen version of " Somebody to Love " rose from 2 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 downloads following the release of the Glee Cast cover version .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = = Chart precession and succession = = =
= = Release history = =
= Orkney =
Orkney / ˈɔːrkni / ( Scottish Gaelic : Arcaibh ) , also known as the Orkney Islands , is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland , United Kingdom , situated off the north coast of Great Britain . Orkney is 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) north of the coast of Caithness and comprises approximately 70 islands , of which 20 are inhabited . The largest island Mainland is often referred to as " the Mainland " . It has an area of 523 square kilometres ( 202 sq mi ) , making it the sixth @-@ largest Scottish island and the tenth @-@ largest island in the British Isles . The largest settlement and administrative centre is Kirkwall .
A form of the name dates to the pre @-@ Roman era and the islands have been inhabited for at least 8500 years , originally occupied by Mesolithic and Neolithic tribes and then by the Picts . Orkney was invaded and forcibly annexed by Norway in 875 and settled by the Norse . The Scottish Parliament then re @-@ annexed the earldom to the Scottish Crown in 1472 , following the failed payment of a dowry for James III 's bride Margaret of Denmark . Orkney contains some of the oldest and best @-@ preserved Neolithic sites in Europe , and the " Heart of Neolithic Orkney " is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site .
Orkney is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland , a constituency of the Scottish Parliament , a lieutenancy area , and a former county . The local council is Orkney Islands Council , one of only three Councils in Scotland with a majority of elected members who are independents .
In addition to the Mainland , most of the islands are in two groups , the North and South Isles , all of which have an underlying geological base of Old Red Sandstone . The climate is mild and the soils are extremely fertile , most of the land being farmed . Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy . The significant wind and marine energy resources are of growing importance , and the island generates more than its total yearly electricity demand using renewables . The local people are known as Orcadians and have a distinctive Orcadian dialect of Scots and a rich inheritance of folklore . There is an abundance of marine and avian wildlife .
= = Origin of the name = =
Pytheas of Massilia visited Britain – probably sometime between 322 and 285 BC – and described it as triangular in shape , with a northern tip called Orcas . This may have referred to Dunnet Head , from which Orkney is visible . Writing in the 1st century AD , the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela called the islands Orcades , as did Tacitus in AD 98 , claiming that his father @-@ in @-@ law Agricola had " discovered and subjugated the Orcades hitherto unknown " ( although both Mela and Pliny had previously referred to the islands . ) Etymologists usually interpret the element orc- as a Pictish tribal name meaning " young pig " or " young boar " .
Speakers of Old Irish referred to the islands as Insi Orc " island of the pigs " . The archipelago is known as Ynysoedd Erch in modern Welsh and Arcaibh in modern Scottish Gaelic , the -aibh representing a fossilized prepositional case ending .
Bede refers to the islands as " Orcades insulae " in his seminal work Ecclesiastical History of the English People .
Norwegian settlers arriving from the late ninth century reinterpreted orc as Old Norse orkn " seal " and added ey " island " to the end so the name became Orkneyjar " Seal Islands " , later shortened to " Orkney " in English . According to the Historia Norwegiæ , Orkney was named after an earl called Orkan .
The Norse knew Mainland Orkney as Megenland " Mainland " or as Hrossey " Horse Island " . The island is sometimes referred to as Pomona ( or Pomonia ) , a name that stems from a sixteenth @-@ century mistranslation by George Buchanan , which has rarely been used locally .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
A charred hazelnut shell , recovered in 2007 during excavations in Tankerness on the Mainland has been dated to 6820 – 6660 BC indicating the presence of Mesolithic nomadic tribes . The earliest known permanent settlement is at Knap of Howar , a Neolithic farmstead on the island of Papa Westray , which dates from 3500 BC . The village of Skara Brae , Europe 's best @-@ preserved Neolithic settlement , is believed to have been inhabited from around 3100 BC . Other remains from that era include the Standing Stones of Stenness , the Maeshowe passage grave , the Ring of Brodgar and other standing stones . Many of the Neolithic settlements were abandoned around 2500 BC , possibly due to changes in the climate .
During the Bronze Age fewer large stone structures were built although the great ceremonial circles continued in use as metalworking was slowly introduced to Scotland from Europe over a lengthy period . There are relatively few Orcadian sites dating from this era although there is the impressive Plumcake Mound near the Ring of Brodgar and various islands sites such as Tofts Ness on Sanday and the remains of two houses on Holm of Faray .
= = = Iron Age = = =
Excavations at Quanterness on the Mainland have revealed an Atlantic roundhouse built about 700 BC and similar finds have been made at Bu on the Mainland and Pierowall Quarry on Westray . The most impressive Iron Age structures of Orkney are the ruins of later round towers called " brochs " and their associated settlements such as the Broch of Burroughston and Broch of Gurness . The nature and origin of these buildings is a subject of ongoing debate . Other structures from this period include underground storehouses , and aisled roundhouses , the latter usually in association with earlier broch sites .
During the Roman invasion of Britain the " King of Orkney " was one of 11 British leaders who is said to have submitted to the Emperor Claudius in AD 43 at Colchester . After the Agricolan fleet had come and gone , possibly anchoring at Shapinsay , direct Roman influence seems to have been limited to trade rather than conquest .
By the late Iron Age , Orkney was part of the Pictish kingdom , and although the archaeological remains from this period are less impressive there is every reason to suppose the fertile soils and rich seas of Orkney provided the Picts with a comfortable living . The Dalriadic Gaels began to influence the islands towards the close of the Pictish era , perhaps principally through the role of Celtic missionaries , as evidenced by several islands bearing the epithet " Papa " in commemoration of these preachers . However , before the Gaelic presence could establish itself the Picts were gradually dispossessed by the Norsemen from the late 8th century onwards . The nature of this transition is controversial , and theories range from peaceful integration to enslavement and genocide .
= = = Norwegian rule = = =
Both Orkney and Shetland saw a significant influx of Norwegian settlers during the late 8th and early 9th centuries . Vikings made the islands the headquarters of their pirate expeditions carried out against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland . In response , Norwegian king Harald Hårfagre ( " Harald Fair Hair " ) annexed the Northern Isles , comprising Orkney and Shetland , in 875 . ( It is clear that this story , which appears in the Orkneyinga Saga , is based on the later voyages of Magnus Barelegs and some scholars believe it to be apocryphal . ) Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom as reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland , and then passed the earldom on to his brother Sigurd the Mighty .
However , Sigurd 's line barely survived him and it was Torf @-@ Einarr , Rognvald 's son by a slave , who founded a dynasty that controlled the islands for centuries after his death . He was succeeded by his son Thorfinn Skull @-@ splitter and during this time the deposed Norwegian King Eric Bloodaxe often used Orkney as a raiding base before being killed in 954 . Thorfinn 's death and presumed burial at the broch of Hoxa , on South Ronaldsay , led to a long period of dynastic strife .
Initially a pagan culture , detailed information about the return of the Christian religion to the islands of Scotland during the Norse @-@ era is elusive . The Orkneyinga Saga suggests the islands were Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway . The King summoned the jarl Sigurd the Stout and said , " I order you and all your subjects to be baptised . If you refuse , I 'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel . " Unsurprisingly , Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke , receiving their own bishop in the early 11th century .
Thorfinn the Mighty was a son of Sigurd and a grandson of King Máel Coluim mac Cináeda ( Malcolm II of Scotland ) . Along with Sigurd 's other sons he ruled Orkney during the first half of the 11th century and extended his authority over a small maritime empire stretching from Dublin to Shetland . Thorfinn died around 1065 and his sons Paul and Erlend succeeded him , fighting at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 . Paul and Erlend quarreled as adults and this dispute carried on to the next generation . The martyrdom of Magnus Erlendsson , who was killed in April 1116 by his cousin Haakon Paulsson , resulted in the building of St. Magnus Cathedral , still today a dominating feature of Kirkwall .
Unusually , from c . 1100 onwards the Norse jarls owed allegiance both to Norway for Orkney and to the Scottish crown through their holdings as Earls of Caithness . In 1231 the line of Norse earls , unbroken since Rognvald , ended with Jon Haraldsson 's murder in Thurso . The Earldom of Caithness was granted to Magnus , second son of the Earl of Angus , whom Haakon IV of Norway confirmed as Earl of Orkney in 1236 . In 1290 , the death of the child princess Margaret , Maid of Norway in Orkney , en route to mainland Scotland , created a disputed succession that led to the Wars of Scottish Independence . In 1379 the earldom passed to the Sinclair family , who were also barons of Roslin near Edinburgh .
Evidence of the Viking presence is widespread , and includes the settlement at the Brough of Birsay , the vast majority of place names , and the runic inscriptions at Maeshowe .
= = = Scottish rule = = =
In 1468 Orkney was pledged by Christian I , in his capacity as king of Norway , as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret , betrothed to James III of Scotland . As the money was never paid , the connection with the crown of Scotland has become perpetual .
The history of Orkney prior to this time is largely the history of the ruling aristocracy . From now on the ordinary people emerge with greater clarity . An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers , fishermen and merchants that called themselves comunitas Orcadie and who proved themselves increasingly able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords .
From at least the 16th century , boats from mainland Scotland and the Netherlands dominated the local herring fishery . There is little evidence of an Orcadian fleet until the 19th century but it grew rapidly and 700 boats were involved by the 1840s with Stronsay and then later Stromness becoming leading centres of development . White fish never became as dominant as in other Scottish ports .
In the 17th century , Orcadians formed the overwhelming majority of employees of the Hudson 's Bay Company in Canada . The harsh climate of Orkney and the Orcadian reputation for sobriety and their boat handling skills made them ideal candidates for the rigours of the Canadian north . During this period , burning kelp briefly became a mainstay of the islands ' economy . For example on Shapinsay over 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 048 t ) of burned seaweed were produced per annum to make soda ash , bringing in £ 20 @,@ 000 to the local economy . The industry collapsed suddenly in 1830 after the removal of tariffs on imported alkali .
Agricultural improvements beginning in the 17th century resulted in the enclosure of the commons and ultimately in the Victoria era the emergence of large and well @-@ managed farms using a five @-@ shift rotation system and producing high quality beef cattle .
In the 18th century Jacobite Risings Orkney was largely Jacobite in its sympathies . At the end of the 1715 rebellion , a large number of Jacobites who had fled north from mainland Scotland sought refuge on Orkney and were helped on to safety in Sweden . In 1745 , the Jacobite lairds on the islands ensured that Orkney remained pro @-@ Jacobite in outlook , and was a safe place to land supplies from Spain to aid their cause . Orkney was the last place in the British Isles that held out for the Jacobites and was not retaken by the British Government until 24 May 1746 , over a month after the defeat of the main Jacobite army at Culloden .
= = = 20th century = = =
Orkney was the site of a Royal Navy base at Scapa Flow , which played a major role in World War I and II . After the Armistice in 1918 , the German High Seas Fleet was transferred in its entirety to Scapa Flow to await a decision on its future . The German sailors opened the sea @-@ cocks and scuttled all the ships . Most ships were salvaged , but the remaining wrecks are now a favoured haunt of recreational divers . One month into World War II , a German U @-@ boat sank the Royal Navy battleship HMS Royal Oak in Scapa Flow . As a result , barriers were built to close most of the access channels ; these had the additional advantage of creating causeways enabling travellers to go from island to island by road instead of being obliged to rely on ferries . The causeways were constructed by Italian prisoners of war , who also constructed the ornate Italian Chapel .
During World War II , the politicians of German @-@ occupied Norway asked German authorities to take over Orkney as Norway sought new opportunities for expansion .
The navy base became run down after the war , eventually closing in 1957 . The problem of a declining population was significant in the post @-@ war years , though in the last decades of the 20th century there was a recovery and life in Orkney focused on growing prosperity and the emergence of a relatively classless society . Orkney was rated as the best place to live in Scotland in both 2013 and 2014 according to the Halifax Quality of Life survey .
= = = Overview of population trends = = =
In the modern era , population peaked in the mid 19th century at just over 26 @,@ 000 and declined for a century thereafter to a low of fewer than 17 @,@ 000 in the 1970s . Declines were particularly significant in the outlying islands , some of which remain vulnerable to ongoing losses . Although Orkney is in many ways very distinct from the other islands and archipelagos of Scotland these trends are very similar to those experienced elsewhere . The archipelago 's population grew by 11 % in the decade to 2011 as recorded by the census . During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 .
= = Geography = =
Orkney is separated from the mainland of Scotland by the Pentland Firth , a 10 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) wide seaway between Brough Ness on the island of South Ronaldsay and Duncansby Head in Caithness . Orkney lies between 58 ° 41 ′ and 59 ° 24 ′ North , and 2 ° 22 ′ and 3 ° 26 ′ West , measuring 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) from northeast to southwest and 47 kilometres ( 29 mi ) from east to west , and covers 975 square kilometres ( 376 sq mi ) .
The islands are mainly low @-@ lying except for some sharply rising sandstone hills on Hoy , Mainland and Rousay and rugged cliffs on some western coasts . Nearly all of the islands have lochs , but the watercourses are merely streams draining the high land . The coastlines are indented , and the islands themselves are divided from each other by straits generally called " sounds " or " firths " .
The tidal currents , or " roosts " as some of them are called locally , off many of the isles are swift , with frequent whirlpools . The islands are notable for the absence of trees , which is partly accounted for by the amount of wind .
= = Islands = =
= = = The Mainland = = =
The Mainland is the largest island of Orkney . Both of Orkney 's burghs , Kirkwall and Stromness , are on this island , which is also the heart of Orkney 's transportation system , with ferry and air connections to the other islands and to the outside world . The island is more densely populated ( 75 % of Orkney 's population ) than the other islands and has much fertile farmland . The Mainland is split into areas called East and West Mainland . These areas are determined by whether they lie East or West of Kirkwall . The bulk of the mainland lies West of Kirkwall , with comparatively little land lying East of Kirkwall . West Mainland parishes are : Stromness , Sandwick , Birsay , Harray , Stenness , Orphir , Evie , Rendall and Firth . East Mainland Parishes are : St Ola , Tankerness , St Andrews , Holm and Deerness .
The island is mostly low @-@ lying ( especially East Mainland ) but with coastal cliffs to the north and west and two sizeable lochs : the Loch of Harray and the Loch of Stenness . The Mainland contains the remnants of numerous Neolithic , Pictish and Viking constructions . Four of the main Neolithic sites are included in the Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site , inscribed in 1999 .
The other islands in the group are classified as north or south of the Mainland . Exceptions are the remote islets of Sule Skerry and Sule Stack , which lie 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) west of the archipelago , but form part of Orkney for local government purposes . In island names , the suffix " a " or " ay " represents the Norse ey , meaning " island " . Those described as " holms " are very small .
= = = The North Isles = = =
The northern group of islands is the most extensive and consists of a large number of moderately sized islands , linked to the Mainland by ferries and by air services . Farming , fishing and tourism are the main sources of income for most of the islands .
The most northerly is North Ronaldsay , which lies 4 kilometres ( 2 mi ) beyond its nearest neighbour , Sanday . To the west is Westray has a population of 550 . It is connected by ferry and air to Papa Westray , also known as " Papay " . Eday is at the centre of the North Isles . The centre of the island is moorland and the island 's main industries have been peat extraction and limestone quarrying .
Rousay , Egilsay and Gairsay lie north of the west Mainland across the Eynhallow Sound . Rousay is well known for its ancient monuments , including the Quoyness chambered cairn and Egilsay has the ruins of the only round @-@ towered church in Orkney . Wyre to the south east contains the site of Cubbie Roo 's castle . Stronsay and Papa Stronsay lie much further to the east across the Stronsay Firth . Auskerry is south of Stronsay and has a population of only five . Shapinsay and its Balfour Castle are a short distance north of Kirkwall .
Other small uninhabited islands in the North Isles group include : Calf of Eday , Damsay , Eynhallow , Faray , Helliar Holm , Holm of Faray , Holm of Huip , Holm of Papa , Holm of Scockness , Kili Holm , Linga Holm , Muckle Green Holm , Rusk Holm and Sweyn Holm .
= = = The South Isles = = =
The southern group of islands surrounds Scapa Flow . Hoy is the second largest of the Orkney Isles and Ward Hill at its northern end is the highest elevation in the archipelago . The Old Man of Hoy is a well @-@ known seastack . Burray lies to the east of Scapa Flow and is linked by causeway to South Ronaldsay , which hosts the cultural events , the Festival of the Horse and the Boys ' Ploughing Match on the third Saturday in August . It is also the location of the Neolithic Tomb of the Eagles . Graemsay and Flotta are both linked by ferry to the Mainland and Hoy , and the latter is known for its large oil terminal . South Walls has a 19th @-@ century Martello tower and is connected to Hoy by the Ayre . South Ronaldsay , Burray , Glims Holm , and Lamb Holm are connected by road to the Mainland by the Churchill Barriers .
Uninhabited South Islands include : Calf of Flotta , Cava , Copinsay , Corn Holm , Fara , Glims Holm , Hunda , Lamb Holm , Rysa Little , Switha and Swona . The Pentland Skerries lie further south , closer to the Scottish mainland .
= = Geology = =
The superficial rock of Orkney is almost entirely Old Red Sandstone , mostly of Middle Devonian age . As in the neighbouring mainland county of Caithness , this sandstone rests upon the metamorphic rocks of the Moine series , as may be seen on the Mainland , where a narrow strip is exposed between Stromness and Inganess , and again in the small island of Graemsay ; they are represented by grey gneiss and granite .
The Middle Devonian is divided into three main groups . The lower part of the sequence , mostly Eifelian in age , is dominated by lacustrine beds of the lower and upper Stromness Flagstones that were deposited in Lake Orcadie . The later Rousay flagstone formation is found throughout much of the North and South Isles and East Mainland .
The Old Man of Hoy is formed from sandstone of the uppermost Eday group that is up to 800 metres ( 870 yd ) thick in places . It lies unconformably upon steeply inclined flagstones , the interpretation of which is a matter of continuing debate .
The Devonian and older rocks of Orkney are cut by a series of WSW @-@ ENE to N @-@ S trending faults , many of which were active during deposition of the Devonian sequences . A strong synclinal fold traverses Eday and Shapinsay , the axis trending north @-@ south .
Middle Devonian basaltic volcanic rocks are found on western Hoy , on Deerness in eastern Mainland and on Shapinsay . Correlation between the Hoy volcanics and the other two exposures has been proposed , but differences in chemistry means this remains uncertain . Lamprophyre dykes of Late Permian age are found throughout Orkney .
Glacial striation and the presence of chalk and flint erratics that originated from the bed of the North Sea demonstrate the influence of ice action on the geomorphology of the islands . Boulder clay is also abundant and moraines cover substantial areas .
= = Climate = =
Orkney has a cool temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude , due to the influence of the Gulf Stream . The average temperature for the year is 8 ° C ( 46 ° F ) ; for winter 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) and for summer 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) .
The average annual rainfall varies from 850 millimetres ( 33 in ) to 940 millimetres ( 37 in ) . Winds are a key feature of the climate and even in summer there are almost constant breezes . In winter , there are frequent strong winds , with an average of 52 hours of gales being recorded annually .
To tourists , one of the fascinations of the islands is their " nightless " summers . On the longest day , the sun rises at 03 : 00 and sets at 21 : 29 GMT and complete darkness is unknown . This long twilight is known in the Northern Isles as the " simmer dim " . Winter nights are long . On the shortest day the sun rises at 09 : 05 and sets at 15 : 16 . At this time of year the aurora borealis can occasionally be seen on the northern horizon during moderate auroral activity .
The averages table below is for largest settlement Kirkwall 's weather station .
= = Politics = =
Orkney is represented in the House of Commons as part of the Orkney and Shetland constituency , which elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) , the current incumbent being Alistair Carmichael . This seat has been held by the Liberal Democrats or their predecessors the Liberal Party since 1950 , longer than any other they represent in Great Britain .
In the Scottish Parliament the Orkney constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament ( MSP ) by the first past the post system . The current MSP is Liam McArthur of the Liberal Democrats . Before McArthur the MSP was Jim Wallace , who was previously Deputy First Minister . Orkney is within the Highlands and Islands electoral region .
Orkney Islands Council consists of 21 members , all of whom are independent , that is they do not stand as representatives of a political party .
The Orkney Movement , a political party that supported devolution for Orkney from the rest of Scotland , contested the 1987 general election as the Orkney and Shetland Movement ( a coalition of the Orkney movement and its equivalent for Shetland ) . The Scottish National Party chose not to contest the seat to give the movement a " free run " . Their candidate , John Goodlad , came 4th with 3 @,@ 095 votes , 14 @.@ 5 % of those cast , but the experiment has not been repeated .
In the 2014 Scottish independence referendum 67 @.@ 2 % of voters in Orkney voted No to the question " Should Scotland be an independent country ? " This was the highest % No vote in any council area in Scotland . Turnout for the referendum was at 83 @.@ 7 % in Orkney with 10 @,@ 004 votes cast in the area against independence by comparison to 4 @,@ 883 votes for independence .
= = Economy = =
The soil of Orkney is generally very fertile and most of the land is taken up by farms , agriculture being by far the most important sector of the economy and providing employment for a quarter of the workforce . More than 90 % of agricultural land is used for grazing for sheep and cattle , with cereal production utilising about 4 % ( 4 @,@ 200 hectares ( 10 @,@ 000 acres ) ) and woodland occupying only 134 hectares ( 330 acres ) .
Fishing has declined in importance , but still employed 345 individuals in 2001 , about 3 @.@ 5 % of the islands ' economically active population , the modern industry concentrating on herring , white fish , lobsters , crabs and other shellfish , and salmon fish farming .
Today , the traditional sectors of the economy export beef , cheese , whisky , beer , fish and other seafood . In recent years there has been growth in other areas including tourism , food and beverage manufacture , jewellery , knitwear , and other crafts production , construction and oil transportation through the Flotta oil terminal . Retailing accounts for 17 @.@ 5 % of total employment , and public services also play a significant role , employing a third of the islands ' workforce .
In 2007 , of the 1 @,@ 420 VAT registered enterprises 55 % were in agriculture , forestry and fishing , 12 % in manufacturing and construction , 12 % in wholesale , retail and repairs , and 5 % in hotels and restaurants . A further 5 % were public service related . 55 % of these businesses employ between 5 and 49 people .
= = = Power = = =
Orkney has significant wind and marine energy resources , and renewable energy has recently come into prominence . Although Orkney is connected to the mainland , it generates over 100 % of its net power from renewables . This comes mainly from wind turbines situated right across Orkney .
The European Marine Energy Centre ( EMEC ) is a Scottish Government @-@ backed research facility that has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney Mainland and a tidal power testing station on the island of Eday . At the official opening of the Eday project the site was described as " the first of its kind in the world set up to provide developers of wave and tidal energy devices with a purpose @-@ built performance testing facility . " Funding for the UK 's first wave farm was announced by the Scottish Government in 2007 . It will be the world 's largest , with a capacity of 3 MW generated by four Pelamis machines at a cost of over £ 4 million . During 2007 Scottish and Southern Energy plc in conjunction with the University of Strathclyde began the implementation of a Regional Power Zone in the Orkney archipelago . This scheme ( that may be the first of its kind in the world ) involves " active network management " that will make better use of existing infrastructure and allow a further 15MW of new " non @-@ firm generation " output from renewables onto the network .
= = = Transport = = =
= = = = Air = = = =
Highland and Islands Airports operates the main airport in Orkney , Kirkwall Airport . Loganair , a franchise of Flybe , provides services to the Scottish mainland ( Aberdeen , Edinburgh , Glasgow and Inverness ) , as well as to Sumburgh Airport in Shetland .
Within Orkney , the council operates airfields on most of the larger islands including Stronsay , Eday , North Ronaldsay , Westray , Papa Westray , and Sanday . The shortest scheduled air service in the world , between the islands of Westray and Papa Westray , is scheduled at two minutes duration but can take less than one minute if the wind is in the right direction .
= = = = Ferry = = = =
Ferries serve both to link Orkney to the rest of Scotland , and also to link together the various islands of the Orkney archipelago . Ferry services operate between Orkney and the Scottish mainland and Shetland on the following routes :
Gills Bay to St Margaret 's Hope ( operated by Pentland Ferries )
John o ' Groats to Burwick on South Ronaldsay ( seasonal passenger only service , operated by John o ' Groats Ferries )
Lerwick to Kirkwall ( operated by NorthLink Ferries )
Aberdeen to Kirkwall ( operated by NorthLink Ferries )
Scrabster Harbour , Thurso to Stromness ( operated by NorthLink Ferries )
Inter @-@ island ferry services connect all the inhabited islands to Orkney Mainland , and are operated by Orkney Ferries , a company owned by Orkney Islands Council .
= = = Media = = =
Orkney is served by a weekly local newspaper , The Orcadian .
A local BBC radio station , BBC Radio Orkney , the local opt @-@ out of BBC Radio Scotland , broadcasts twice daily , with local news and entertainment . Orkney also had a commercial radio station , The Superstation Orkney , which broadcast to Kirkwall and parts of the mainland and also to most of Caithness until its closure in November 2014 . Moray Firth Radio broadcasts throughout Orkney on AM and from an FM transmitter just outside Thurso . The community radio station Caithness FM also broadcasts to Orkney .
= = = Festivals = = =
The islands are the home of several international festivals , including the Orkney International Science Festival in September , a folk festival in May and the St Magnus International Arts Festival in June .
= = Language , literature and folklore = =
At the beginning of recorded history , the islands were inhabited by the Picts , whose language was Brythonic . The Ogham script on the Buckquoy spindle @-@ whorl is cited as evidence for the pre @-@ Norse existence of Old Irish in Orkney .
After the Norse occupation , the toponymy of Orkney became almost wholly West Norse . The Norse language changed into the local Norn , which lingered until the end of the 18th century , when it finally died out . Norn was replaced by the Orcadian dialect of Insular Scots . This dialect is at a low ebb due to the pervasive influences of television , education , and the large number of incomers . However , attempts are being made by some writers and radio presenters to revitalise its use and the distinctive sing @-@ song accent and many dialect words of Norse origin remain in use . The Orcadian word most frequently encountered by visitors is peedie , meaning small , which may be derived from the French petit .
Orkney has a rich folklore , and many of the former tales concern trows , an Orcadian form of troll that draws on the islands ' Scandinavian connections . Local customs in the past included marriage ceremonies at the Odin Stone that formed part of the Stones of Stenness .
King Lot in certain versions of the Arthurian legend ( e.g. , Malory ) is ruler of Orkney . His sons Gawaine , Agravaine , Gareth , and Gaheris are major characters in the Matter of Britain .
The best known literary figures from modern Orkney are the poet Edwin Muir , the poet and novelist George Mackay Brown , and the novelist Eric Linklater .
= = Orcadians = =
An Orcadian is a native of Orkney , a term that reflects a strongly held identity with a tradition of understatement . Although the annexation of the earldom by Scotland took place over five centuries ago in 1472 , most Orcadians regard themselves as Orcadians first and Scots second .
When an Orcadian speaks of " Scotland " , they are talking about the land to the immediate south of the Pentland Firth . When an Orcadian speaks of " the mainland " , they mean Mainland , Orkney . Tartan , clans , bagpipes and the like are traditions of the Scottish Highlands and are not a part of the islands ' indigenous culture . However , at least two tartans with Orkney connections have been registered and a tartan has been designed for Sanday by one of the island 's residents , and there are pipe bands in Orkney .
Native Orcadians refer to the non @-@ native residents of the islands as " ferry loupers " , a term that has been in use for nearly two centuries at least .
= = Natural history = =
Orkney has an abundance of wildlife , especially of grey and common seals and seabirds such as puffins , kittiwakes , tysties , ravens , and bonxies . Whales , dolphins , and otters are also seen around the coasts . Inland the Orkney vole , a distinct subspecies of the common vole introduced by Neolithic humans , is an endemic . There are five distinct varieties , found on the islands of Sanday , Westray , Rousay , South Ronaldsay , and the Mainland , all the more remarkable as the species is absent on mainland Britain .
The coastline is well known for its colourful flowers including sea aster , sea squill , sea thrift , common sea @-@ lavender , bell and common heather . The Scottish primrose is found only on the coasts of Orkney and nearby Caithness and Sutherland . Although stands of trees are generally rare , a small forest named Happy Valley with 700 trees and lush gardens was created from a boggy hillside near Stenness during the second half of the 20th century .
The North Ronaldsay sheep is an unusual breed of domesticated animal , subsisting largely on a diet of seaweed , since they are confined to the foreshore for most of the year to conserve the limited grazing inland . The island was also a habitat for the Atlantic walrus until the mid @-@ 16th century .
The Orkney char ( Salvelinus inframundus ) used to live in Heldale Water on Hoy . It has been considered locally extinct since 1908 .
The introduction of alien stoats just prior to 2015 , a natural predator of the common vole and thus of the Orkney vole , may be harming native bird populations .
= Guilty Gear X =
Guilty Gear X ( Japanese : ギルティギア ゼクス , Hepburn : Giruti Gia Zekusu ) , subtitled By Your Side in Japan , is a fighting game developed by Arc System Works and published by Sammy Studios . The second installment of the Guilty Gear series , Guilty Gear X was developed over a period of about two years after the first game 's success . It was released in July 2000 for Japanese arcades , re @-@ released on Dreamcast in December 2000 , and later ported to PlayStation 2 in November 2001 and Game Boy Advance in January 2002 .
Guilty Gear X continues its predecessor 's timeline with new characters and gameplay features . Still a four @-@ button game , its instant @-@ kill techniques were weakened and a survival mode was added to the previous game 's three modes . The Dreamcast and PS2 versions have sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in Japan ; they have been praised for their graphics , controls and characters but criticized for their lack of replay value . The GBA version was the poorest @-@ received , with the main complaints concerning ease and graphics .
= = Gameplay = =
The fight system
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has a four @-@ main @-@ attack @-@ button configuration : punch , kick , slash and heavy slash . Players may also launch taunt attacks , with their main objective to reduce the opponent 's health to zero in a predetermined time . To win a fight a player must accumulate two points , with each round won earning a point . Guilty Gear X has features common in fighting games : combos , aerial attacks and counterattacks . A new feature is the Roman Cancel , which allows a player to cancel their move and its aftereffects to make other attacks .
The game has a tension gauge , increasing when a character causes damage or moves toward an adversary and decreasing when a character moves backwards or is stopped for a long time . When the gauge is half @-@ charged a player can use specials called Overdrive Attacks , which cause more damage than regular moves . A full gauge allows a player to make an Instant Kill , defeating an opponent regardless of health ; if an Instant Kill is unsuccessful , the tension gauge will not charge for the remainder of that round .
Guilty Gear X 's Dreamcast version includes four modes of play : Arcade , the game 's primary narrative mode ; Survival , in which the player fights through infinite levels until they are defeated ; Training , which allows a player to practice moves with the help of an in @-@ game move list and Versus , in which a player can fight another player . Guilty Gear X Plus also has art @-@ gallery and story modes ; according to the Sega website , the latter explains " misteries " which the Dreamcast version does not . The Advance Edition includes tag @-@ team and three @-@ on @-@ three modes ; each player chooses two or three characters , respectively , and can switch characters during a fight .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Plot = = =
Guilty Gear X continues the first game 's plot , in which the world has just recovered from a 100 @-@ year war against man @-@ made bio @-@ organic weapons known as Gears . When Testament planned to resurrect Gear leader Justice , all Gears were annihilated in a tournament . In Guilty Gear X , set less than a year later , a new Gear commander named Dizzy is discovered . Amid concern about a second war , another Holy Knights Tournament begins ; whoever captures and kills Dizzy will receive 500 @,@ 000 World Dollars . Dizzy proves to be inoffensive ; she joins the Jellyfish Air Pirates , and peace is established again .
= = = Characters = = =
Guilty Gear X has sixteen playable characters : Sol Badguy , Ky Kiske , May , Baiken , Faust , Potemkin , Chipp Zanuff , Millia Rage , Zato @-@ 1 , Jam Kuradoberi , Johnny , Anji Mito , Venom , Axl Low , Testament and Dizzy . Fourteen are available from the outset , with Testament and Dizzy unlockable characters . Guilty Gear X Plus adds three unlockable characters : Justice and Kliff Undersn , who return from the first game , and Robo @-@ Ky , an alternate version of Ky Kiske . The Plus edition allows a player to unlock gold versions of each character , who possesses a special advantage over the regular version .
= = Development and release = =
After the success of the first Guilty Gear released on May 14 , 1998 for PlayStation , Sammy Studios commissioned an arcade sequel in February 1999 . Developed by Team Neo Blood , an Arc System Works production group led by Daisuke Ishiwatari , the sequel was about two years in development . Unveiled at the Amusement Expo in February 2000 , Guilty Gear X was released for Japanese arcades on the Sega NAOMI system in July 2000 . After the game 's release , it was speculated that it would be ported to home consoles . Although the developers initially indicated that Guilty Gear X would debut for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) , it was first released for Dreamcast on December 14 , 2000 and re @-@ released as part of a Dreamcast collection on May 23 , 2003 .
A PS2 version was announced by Sammy in June 2001 for release that fall , and Guilty Gear X was released in North America on October 2 , 2001 . Since it was released before the Japanese version , the North American edition did not have the additional features of the Japanese counterpart . Sammy released the PS2 version in Japan on November 29 , 2001 and in Europe on March 1 , 2002 . In Japan , it was known as Guilty Gear X Plus ( ギルティギア ゼクス Plus , Giruti Gia Zekusu Purasu ) and was released in two versions : regular and deluxe , with the latter containing Guilty Gear @-@ related special products . On February 13 , 2003 , the game was re @-@ released in Japan as part of PlayStation2 the Best .
CyberFront released a PC version for Windows on November 30 , 2001 in Japan . Announced during an August 2001 convention at Space World , Game Boy Advance version Guilty Gear X : Advance Edition ( ギルティギア ゼクス アドバンスエディション , Giruti Gia Zekusu Adobansu Edishon ) was released on January 5 , 2002 . It was released in North America on August 13 , 2002 and in Europe on September 27 . Guilty Gear X ver . 1 @.@ 5 , an Atomiswave arcade @-@ system version , was released in 2003 after its February 2003 introduction at the Amusement Expo .
= = Reception = =
In June 2001 , Sammy reported a profit of ¥ 284 million for Guilty Gear X 's Japanese arcade version . Its Dreamcast version was the 128th @-@ bestselling title in Japan in 2000 , with 97 @,@ 934 copies sold from December 14 to December 31 . In 2001 the game sold 33 @,@ 822 more copies , for a total of 131 @,@ 756 . Guilty Gear X Plus sold over 128 @,@ 000 copies in Japan .
Critical reception for Guilty Gear X on Dreamcast and PS2 was positive ; they have average scores of 89 @.@ 33 percent and 79 @.@ 70 percent , respectively , on GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PS2 version 79 out of 100 . Anoop Gantayat of IGN called the Dreamcast version " possibly the finest @-@ looking 2D game ever , thanks to the high @-@ res graphics , mega @-@ ultra special effects and smooth animation . " According to T.J. Deci of AllGame , the PS2 is " notable for smooth , refined graphics , with richly detailed characters and backgrounds uncommon in 2D fighters . " Although Guilty Gear X 's overall graphics were praised , its sometimes @-@ confusing backgrounds were heavily criticized .
The Dreamcast version 's control responsiveness was praised by Gantayat . Guilty Gear X 's PS2 version was also generally praised , with Greg Kasavin of GameSpot writing that it " controls smoothly and precisely " . Major Mike of GamePro included the caveat that " some moves are difficult to execute and require patience to master fully . " According to James Fudge for GameSpy , " The gameplay manages to be easy to pick up but isn 't dumbed down enough to annoy expert fight fans . " Guilty Gear X 's limited replay value was heavily criticised ; Jay Fitzloff of Game Informer said , " Since it 's especially weak in the singles game , consider purchasing Guilty Gear X only if you and a friend want to go at it . "
The Game Boy Advance version was less well received , with aggregate scores of 64 @.@ 97 percent and 67 out of 100 from GameRankings and Metacritic respectively . A common criticism was that the game 's artificial intelligence was inefficient in combat , making it too easy . Although Chet of Game Informer said , " The new modes such as Tag Match and 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 add variety , but still cannot compensate for this fundamental problem " , according to Michael Knutson of GameZone its balance " gives the game a better replay value . "
GamesRadar criticized Guilty Gear X 's " overblown aesthetics " , giving it the game 's worst score ( three out of ten ) : " While it 's not completely hellish , it definitely deserves purgatory . " According to Star Dingo of GamePro , " Most backgrounds seem like pale , watercolor imitations of the originals ( you can count the colors on two hands ) " . Justin of Game Informer and Kaiser Hwang of IGN criticized the game 's sprites , which they considered small compared with those of Street Fighter .
Its characters were praised as " original " by Justin and " cool " by Kasavin . Gantayat wrote , " It 's the characters that stand out the most " , calling them " marvelously designed , " " unmatched in terms of fine details " and " very distinct . " According to Fudge , " There 's a character of choice for just about everyone . " The characters ' balance was praised by Tom Bramwell and Knutson . Guilty Gear X 's audio had a lukewarm response ; according to Chet and Hwang it was " weak " , and Dingo called it " atrocious " . Mike and Kasavin found the fight announcer 's voice " unintelligible " , with Mike also criticizing the game 's " oppressive " music . Knutson praised Guilty Gear X 's sound effects and music , and Kasavin considered its music appropriate for " the game 's fast @-@ paced action , as well as its anime theme . "
= = Other media = =
= = = Music = = =
Guilty Gear X 's musical albums were published by First Smile Entertainment . Its arcade music was released on September 20 , 2000 as Guilty Gear X Original Soundtrack ( ギルティギア ゼクス オリジナルサウンドトラック , Giruti Gia Zekusu Orijinaru Saundotorakku ) , composed by Daisuke Ishiwatari and arranged by Kazuhito Tomizuka and Yasuharu Takanashi . The album received mixed reviews . Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online gave it an eight out of ten : " The improved sound quality is a plus , as are the addition of new character themes , but some people may be put off by the fact that some of the new themes aren 't as good as some of the older ones . " Another reviewer , GoldfishX , gave it a five , calling it " possibly the most ear @-@ grating , hideous sound I have ever encountered in game music " but not giving it a worse score because " Ishiwatari deserves a ton of credit for putting together such brilliant compositions on such pathetic @-@ sounding hardware . "
A second album , Guilty Gear X Heavy Rock Tracks : The Original Soundtrack of Dreamcast , composed by Ishiwatari and arranged by Koichi Seiyama , was released on January 17 , 2001 . It was well received by critics , with perfect scores from GoldfishX and Z @-@ Freak of Square Enix Music Online . According to Goldfishx , " Even if you 're skeptical about hard rock , this is something that everyone should experience in their lifetime . It 's rare to have this type of heart @-@ pounding sound without some form of vocals , but it 's even rarer that the compositions reach this overall level of greatness . " Z @-@ Freak wrote , " Unless you totally hate hard rock , you MUST [ sic ] have this CD " and David Smith of IGN said that its music would either be loved or hated .
Three albums by the rock band Lapis Lazuli were released on May 6 , 2001 . Known collectively as Rising Force of Gear Image Vocal Tracks , the individual albums were entitled " Rock You ! ! " , " Slash ! ! " , and " Destroy ! ! "
= = = Other = = =
Enterbrain published several Guilty Gear X tie @-@ in books . An encyclopedic strategy guide was published on July 26 , 2000 , followed by Drafting Artworks , which is about the game 's universe , on December 13 . Two novelizations , written by Norimitsu Kaihō and illustrated by Ishiwatari — Lightning the Argent ( 白銀の迅雷 , Shirogane no Jinrai ) and The Butterfly and Her ( 胡蝶と疾風 , Kochō to Hayate ) — , were published on January 20 , 2001 and August 24 , 2002 .
A Guilty Gear X comic anthology was also published by Enterbrain on April 25 , 2001 . It inspired two yonkoma manga and an anthology , which were published by Ichijinsha on March 25 , October 25 , and September 25 , 2001 . A manga , Guilty Gear Xtra ( ギルティギアXTRA ) with a collaboration by Ishiwatari , Norimitsu Kaihō and Akihito Sumii , appeared in Kodansha 's Monthly Magazine Z on September 22 , 2003 . Based on Guilty Gear X Plus , a two @-@ part anthology was published on February 25 and April 25 , 2002 by Enterbrain . Ichijinsha published a yonkoma manga and an anthology based on Plus on April 8 and 25 , 2002 .
Battle for Saint , a compilation DVD with highlights of a Guilty Gear X arcade national championship , was released by Enterbrain on August 22 , 2001 . Two audio drama CDs with original storylines — Guilty Gear X Vol . 1 and Vol . 2 — were released by Scitron on October 24 and November 24 , 2001 . On October 25 , 2002 , Terranetz released a collectible card game series based on Guilty Gear X.
= Supernatural ( season 2 ) =
The second season of Supernatural , an American paranormal drama television series created by Eric Kripke , premiered on September 28 , 2006 , and concluded on May 17 , 2007 , airing 22 episodes . The season focuses on protagonists Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) as they track down Azazel , the demon responsible for the deaths of their mother Mary and father John . They attempt to discover the demon 's plan for Sam and other psychic children — young adults who were visited by Azazel as infants and given abilities , and whose mothers often then died in a fire . During their travels , they use their father 's journal to help them carry on the family business — saving people and hunting supernatural creatures .
The season aired on Thursdays at 9 : 00 pm ET in the United States , and was the first season to air on The CW television network , a joint venture of The WB and UPN . The previous season was broadcast on The WB . It averaged only about 3 @.@ 14 million American viewers , and was in danger of not being renewed . The cast and crew garnered many award nominations , but the episodes received mixed reviews from critics . While both the brotherly chemistry between the lead actors and the decision to finish the main storyline were praised , the formulaic structure of the episodes was criticized .
The season was internationally syndicated , airing in the United Kingdom on ITV , in Canada on Citytv and SPACE , and in Australia on Network Ten . It was released on DVD as a six @-@ disc box set September 11 , 2007 , by Warner Home Video in Region 1 . Although the season was split into two separate releases in Region 2 , the complete set was released October 29 , 2007 , and in Region 4 October 3 , 2007 . The episodes are also available through digital retailers such as Apple 's iTunes Store , Microsoft 's Xbox Live Marketplace , and Amazon.com 's on @-@ demand TV service .
= = Episodes = =
In this table , the number in the first column refers to the episode 's number within the entire series , whereas the number in the second column indicates the episode 's number within this particular season . " U.S. viewers in millions " refers to how many Americans watched the episode live or on the day of broadcast .
= = Cast = =
= = = Starring = = =
Jared Padalecki as Sam Winchester
Jensen Ackles as Dean Winchester
= = = Guest stars = = =
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
The writers used the second season to expand upon the concept of hunters , resulting in the introduction of many recurring characters through the hunter @-@ frequented saloon — Harvelle 's Roadhouse . Samantha Ferris portrayed Ellen Harvelle , proprietor of the Roadhouse and an old friend of John Winchester , while Alona Tal played Ellen 's daughter Jo . This pair complemented the father @-@ son relationship of the Winchesters in the first year . Ferris believes she was exactly what the producers were looking for : a " tough , strong , yet a little maternal actor " . Tal 's character , on the other hand , was an intended love interest for Dean , and was eventually phased out because she came off as more of a sister figure . Chad Lindberg portrayed the genius Ash , who uses his vast computer skills to track the paranormal . Because the writers felt the character 's " comical " and " wacky " personality was too unrealistic for the show , he was also removed by the finale .
Other characters returned from the first year . Actor Jim Beaver made multiple appearances as hunter Bobby Singer , an old family friend of the Winchesters . Beaver had expected his first @-@ season guest appearance in " Devil 's Trap " to be a " one @-@ shot deal " , and was surprised when he was asked to return . Adrianne Palicki reprised her role as Sam 's deceased girlfriend Jessica in the alternate @-@ reality episode " What Is and What Should Never Be " , as did Samantha Smith as Mary Winchester . Smith also made an appearance in a flashback in the penultimate episode , " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part One " . And though at first reluctant because of his role on Grey 's Anatomy , Jeffrey Dean Morgan returned as John Winchester in the season premiere and finale . However , the character dies in the premiere because the writers worried that having him separated from his sons again — Sam and Dean spend much of the first season tracking him down — would " split the show " by having him away " doing more interesting things than the boys are doing " . As a demon , the villain Azazel periodically switches hosts , and was first fully portrayed by Morgan in the first @-@ season finale . The reins passed to Fredric Lehne for the second @-@ season premiere , and the show 's producers enjoyed his performance so much they brought him back for the two @-@ part finale .
Many factors went into the casting decisions of the season 's guest stars . Linda Blair , famous for her role in the horror film The Exorcist , appeared in the episode " The Usual Suspects " . Though a fan of the show , Blair had turned down a guest appearance in the first season because she did not want to return to horror , having spent years getting a " clean slate " . This changed after the television series Extra aired a three @-@ part profile on her acting career and work with animals . It attempted to find a series that would write a role for her as " an actor 's piece " , rather than a cameo . Kripke , a fan of The Exorcist , offered to write an episode specifically for her , and she was " really touched " when he listened to her request to leave out demons in the storyline . During automated dialogue replacement , Jensen Ackles added in a reference to The Exorcist with the statement , " I could really go for some pea soup . "
The casting of Battlestar Galactica 's Tricia Helfer in " Roadkill " stemmed from the producers ' preference to hire actors important to Supernatural 's fanbase . This was the first episode to have the Winchesters as supporting characters , and Kripke felt " Tricia had the charisma to perform the leading role " . Kripke enjoyed Emmanuelle Vaugier 's work in television series such as Smallville , and believed she was an " easy choice " for the large role of the soon @-@ to @-@ be werewolf Madison in " Heart " . Director Kim Manners felt Vaugier brought to the character a vulnerability like that of Lon Chaney , Jr. in The Wolf Man , which made viewers sympathetic . Conspiracy @-@ theorist Ronald of " Nightshifters " was envisioned by writer and consulting producer Ben Edlund as the unsympathetic " semi @-@ drunk Randy Quaid from Independence Day " . However , this changed with Chris Gauthier 's casting , and Edlund felt that Ronald turned out to be a " really cool " character fans would enjoy . The producers considered Summer Glau for the role of the zombie Angela for " Children Shouldn 't Play with Dead Things " , but she could not accept due to scheduling conflicts .
= = = Writing = = =
When production of the second season started , Kripke wanted to avoid the monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week formula used in the first year . The writers attempted this by including more " human themes , " mainly " the things Sam and Dean are truly afraid of : death , grief , betrayal , etc . " This change brought the series ' focus onto situations such as the brothers dealing with their father 's death and giving them the task of hunting down Azazel , the demon who killed him . Morgan feels that the brothers ' " inner turmoil " created by the death of his character made them more three @-@ dimensional . While Dean has trouble dealing with his father 's death , Kripke wishes they had focused more on Sam 's reaction . Instead , the episodes dealt more with Sam 's fear of becoming evil , which Kripke regretted since the writers never depicted the character committing malevolent acts . Another main storyline of the season followed Sam and Dean as they track down the various psychic children — young adults like Sam who were visited by Azazel as infants and given abilities . However , the psychic children storyline made the mythology of the second season " dense " and " confusing " for Kripke .
Kripke instead favored the " unique and structurally interesting " self @-@ enclosed episodes , which sometimes arose from the writers ' unused ideas . From the series ' beginning , Kripke desired to feature an evil clown because he felt that " clowns in a context where they 're not supposed to be are friggin ' terrifying " . To fit with the series , the clown became a shapeshifting Rakshasa of Hindu mythology . This decision made the clown " less satisfying " , to Kripke 's chagrin , because it limited the clown @-@ related scenes . Another element of folklore favored by Kripke was the story of Robert Johnson , which he focused on in his first screenplay as a writer . He found the legend similar to Supernatural , noting , " It 's a piece of real life American history and folklore , it 's an American horror story , it takes place on the dusty back roads of rural America , and it 's got great music . " However , the lore takes place in the early 20th century , and prevented the inclusion of Sam and Dean . To circumvent this , writer Sera Gamble suggested Johnson 's story be made into a subplot detailed in flashbacks , with the Crossroads Demon returning in the present to make more deals . Although Gamble envisioned the demon 's hellhound as being similar in appearance to a Rottweiler , Kripke felt it would " look stupid " . The creature was instead made invisible , which Gamble believes gave it a more terrifying presence .
Before he entered the television industry , writer and consulting producer Ben Edlund had wanted to pen a metafictional script dealing with television production , but decided against it because he did not have production knowledge . He later returned to it for the episode " Hollywood Babylon " . Edlund decided to have the production staff look like " goofballs " , and made fun of Supernatural 's production staff , the network , and the studio . For example , comments made by Gary Cole 's " studio suit " character were based on notes from the network and studio for Supernatural during both seasons of production . Other metafictional references include a character commenting on the " terrible script " of Boogeyman , a film written by Kripke ; Sam becoming uncomfortable as the studio tour passes the set of Gilmore Girls , a television series in which Padalecki had a recurring role ; and Sam proclaiming Hollywood 's weather to be " positively Canadian " .
Other stories were developed from simple concepts . For example , the reformed @-@ vampire episode " Bloodlust " was developed to suggest that all monsters should not be killed indiscriminately . The plot alluded to " racial issues " , but not blatantly ; rather , as Padalecki noted , they explored it in a " fun way " . The episode " The Usual Suspects " emerged from the writers ' desire to keep the audience guessing . Cathryn Humphris pitched a story with a ghost serving as a death omen — warning people of future tragedy , rather than trying to kill them , unlike previous ghosts on the series . However , Humphris had trouble developing the script 's outline . Kripke noted a part of the episode in which brothers are arrested and have to explain to police what had happened ; this scenario ultimately became the framework of the episode , which begins with Sam and Dean being taken into custody . The concept for " Tall Tales " originated as a " he said , he said " episode , in which the brothers would recount conflicting versions of the same storyline . The writers deliberated over the use of five or six monsters in trying to find one appropriate for the episode , but eventually settled on a trickster because it " can do everything [ they ] want it to " . Although the writers typically prefer to put their own spin on folklore , they decided in this case to remain faithful to the archetypal trickster mythos . Because the season alluded to the possibility of Sam becoming bad , the writers wanted to portray how an evil Sam would behave and what Dean 's reaction would be . One of the writers ' first creative ideas of the season was depicted in the teaser of " Born Under a Bad Sign " , in which a blood @-@ covered Sam wakes up not remembering the past week of his life . The plot , which " fell into place " during the writing process , included demonic possession to explain Sam 's actions — an event that resulted in the return of the vengeful Meg Masters demon .
After the plotlines were developed , major deviations sometimes occurred in the writing process . Like in the final version of the script , twins with mind @-@ control abilities were the focus of Edlund 's original pitch for the episode " Simon Said " . However , the more powerful twin — kept secluded due to deformities — forced his brother to perceive himself as retarded . At the end of the episode , his brother ate him in retaliation . The story was eventually changed , and instead focused on questions such as " What do you do with power ? " . Kripke felt that this fit greatly with the series ' storyline , because Sam was uncomfortable with his developing abilities ; the writers wanted to explore one of the psychic children who took his ability as a gift . " Folsom Prison Blues " stemmed from Kripke 's desire to feature prison ghosts , and the initial plot had FBI Agent Henriksen finally capturing the brothers and sending them to prison . However , this caused a major complication : the writers would have to devise a way for Sam and Dean to escape in the end . Writer John Shiban suggested that the brothers be arrested on purpose in order to work a job , with the prison 's head guard being revealed as a family friend .
The two @-@ part finale " All Hell Breaks Loose " brought many storylines to a close . The psychic children were killed off because the writers felt the characters were not as interesting as demons and monsters . The Roadhouse was destroyed due to Kripke 's disliking of the concept ; he felt it gave a home to the road show . Fearing that he would disappoint fans by creating too much anticipation , Kripke also decided to answer many questions regarding Azazel 's plans in " Part One " . The second part ended the brothers ' quest to kill Azazel , but also opened more storylines for the third season , such as Dean 's demonic pact to resurrect Sam and the question of whether what returned was " one hundred percent pure Sam " . Additionally , the " war of demons against humanity " — hinted at throughout the first two seasons — finally started at the finale 's end .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography took place in Vancouver , British Columbia . The crew used two cameras simultaneously for each scene , which allowed for two different angles to be filmed of the same sequence . The series usually has a dark atmosphere , though production purposefully created a contrasting appearance for certain episodes . " Hollywood Babylon " details the filming of a fake horror movie , and the use of two filming styles helped make a distinction ; scenes of the fake film used more saturated colors , while scenes for the actual episode were " down to reality " . To depict the perfect world of " What Is and What Should Never Be " , the usual shadows and " moody lighting " more made colorful and warm .
Problems during production sometimes arose . For his scenes as the yellow @-@ eyed demon Azazel throughout the season , Fredric Lehne wore hard , colored contact lenses that greatly obscured his vision . The production crew placed sandbags on the floor to help him locate his marks . Lindsey McKeon , who portrayed a Reaper briefly possessed by Azazel in " In My Time of Dying " , also experienced the same problem . Her scene — she touches Ackles ' forehead — took nine takes to film because she kept missing . Filming for " What Is and What Should Never Be " was interrupted in order to accommodate the busy Adrianne Palicki . Production shifted to the following episode after five days of filming , and resumed when Palicki became available for the final three days .
Because the series uses few standing sets , set designer Jerry Wanek often had to construct entirely new sets for each episode . Outside elements had an influence on some designs , with the bar in the hotel of " Playthings " being an homage to The Shining . A Wisconsin native , Wanek was able to incorporate personal items into the motel set for the Wisconsin @-@ based episode " Nightshifter " ; because polka is part of the state 's culture , he used posters from his father 's old polka band , as well as photos of his nephews and Wisconsin landmarks . Due to " Tall Tales " ' s atmosphere , that episode 's motel was designed to be " over the top " . Wanek noted , " They were in this really odd @-@ looking motel that had crystal chandeliers and carved beds , turquoise stove and refrigerator , and this wonderful period linoleum on the floor . I thought it really matched the tempo and emotion of the show . " At times , however , Wanek was able to reuse old sets . The loft set from " No Exit " was redesigned into an apartment for " Crossroad Blues " , and the bar in " Born Under a Bad Sign " was a refurbished Roadhouse set .
Not all scenes could take place in the studio , and some were instead shot on location . The vault scenes in " Nightshifter " were filmed in an actual bank safe , as production would not have been able to construct one on set . Outside shots were filmed in downtown Vancouver , forcing streets to be closed off . The crypt of " Houses of the Holy " was built underneath St. Andrew 's @-@ Wesley United Church , with plastic used to imitate sculpted stone . Riverview Hospital — used as a filming location in previous episodes — was used for the premiere " In My Time of Dying " . It also functioned as a jail in " Folsom Prison Blues " due to , as Wanek describes , " the texture on the walls , the lack of any humanity in the design , and the materials used to build it ... " However , the prison block was built on a sound stage . The final scenes of " Simon Said " were filmed at Cleveland Dam , and " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part One " made use of a pre @-@ existing set built for the Western television series Bordertown . The climax of " Part Two " was originally to take place in an actual cemetery , but numerous issues forced production to film the scene in the studio .
= = = Music = = =
The mostly synthesized orchestral score of the season was composed by Christopher Lennertz and Jay Gruska . The pair try to base the music on the visuals of each episode , with about a third of each episode 's score being newly written for the supernatural legend . For example , when the werewolf 's point of view is depicted in " Heart " , Gruska tried to make the score predatorial . For " Roadkill " ' s emotional ending , Lennertz used cello and piano to " [ tug ] at the heart strings " and " push the tears " . The music was supposed to " become part of the sinister wallpaper " in " In My Time of Dying " . Thus , in the scene involving John Winchester selling his soul to Azazel , Gruska wrote the music as " dark and dank " , but feels the viewer would only notice the music if it was removed from the scene .
Other musical elements were based on aspects of the episode , and often used less conventional instruments . For " Simon Said " — featuring characters with the ability of mind @-@ control — Gruska tried to make the score more " mind @-@ trippy " , opting to mainly use " synthy , spacey electronica pads " to give it a science @-@ fiction sound . Toy @-@ piano sounds were included in " Playthings " by Gruska to make the score more childlike . Because of the Robert Johnson theme of " Crossroad Blues " , Lennertz made sure to be specific to Johnson 's style when writing the music for the opening scene . A blues guitarist was brought in , and played on a " beat @-@ up old acoustic guitar " . However , they added in dissonant notes to foreshadow the " grittiness to come " . Lennertz used organ , drums , bass , and guitar to have a " retro bluesy approach " for " Folsom Prison Blues " , mimicking the style of film composer David Holmes . Likewise , he wanted the episode " Nightshifter " to have a " feature film feel " , with the score ending up similar to The Bourne Identity . With Linda Blair of The Exorcist guest starring in " The Usual Suspects " , Gruska used tubular bells as an homage to the film 's score .
In addition to the score , the series makes use of rock songs , with most being selected from Kripke 's private collection . Among the many bands featured in the second season are AC / DC , Lynyrd Skynyrd , and Boston . Rock songs are also usually featured in " The Road So Far " montages at the beginning of select episodes that recap previous events . The premiere used Ted Nugent 's " Stranglehold " , and a " coming soon " sequence midway through the season was set to Nazareth 's " Hair of the Dog " . The finale recapped the entire season to Kansas ' " Carry On Wayward Son " . The second season also began the tradition of naming many episodes after classic rock songs , with Kripke preferring Led Zeppelin songs .
= = = Effects = = =
The series makes use of visual , special , and make @-@ up effects , as well as stuntwork . Beginning with the second season , visual effects became an in @-@ house department . Visual effects supervisor Ivan Hayden feels this improved the series because a fixed budget allowed them to compensate for other scenes that lacked effects , such as in " Nightshifter " . Wide shots of the bank 's exterior — featuring closed @-@ off streets , police , and SWAT helicopters — were accomplished with visual effects . The series ' catchphrase — " Scary just got sexy " — was added to a billboard in the background . For the episode " Houses of the Holy " , production did not want viewers to be able to determine that the " angel " was in actuality a priest . Thus , the shape engulfed in light was a girl wearing a skintight white leotard . At times , the visual effects used were subtle . Cockroaches were digitally inserted into the sewer scenes of " No Exit " ; director Kim Manners did not ask for it , but thought the addition " made it really creepy " . The episode " Playthings " featured a scene of a man dying after falling down stairs . The department added blood flowing from underneath him , and also made his fingers twitch and his mouth open and close to create a more lifelike appearance .
The special effects and makeup departments are also important assets to production . Dean has an out @-@ of @-@ body experience in " In My Time of Dying " , and some scenes feature him looking at his own body in a hospital bed . To forgo the use of visual effects , the special effects department sculpted a full gelatin face from Ackles , and applied it to a body double . To depict a woman burning to death in the episode " Simon Said " , the actress was sealed inside a full body silicone designed to look like her , and was doused with fire accelerant . She was required to breathe through a straw , as well as don underwear soaked in ice @-@ cold fire @-@ retardant gel . Prior to " Heart " , Kripke had not wanted to include werewolves in the series , as he felt that the budget would only allow for " a guy with fur glued to his face " . As he prefers to have monsters be able to walk among humans , production made the transformation subtle — the character 's eyes change , and her canine teeth and fingernails grow . However , writer Sera Gamble believes that they " dropped the ball " in the design , feeling that the creature looked too similar to a vampire .
= = Reception = =
Supernatural had low ratings during its second season . Viewers consisted mainly of teenage girls , with the CW trying to attract more males . It ranked No. 216 relative to the position of other prime time network shows . With an average viewership of 3 @.@ 14 million Americans , the show 's future was in doubt at the season 's end . Despite this , the series was renewed for a third season . According to Special Forces Soldier Master Sergeant Kevin Wise at a 2007 Supernatural convention , the DVDs most requested by armed forces personnel in Iraq and Afghanistan were the first two seasons of the series .
The second season of the series received mixed reviews from critics . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % approval rating with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 based on 5 reviews . Jim Kaz of IGN gave the season a similar score at 8 / 10 . While at first hesitant of the series , believing it to be " another horror / sci @-@ fi / occult hybrid currently igniting ratings " , he found the " eerie and intricate storylines " to overcome the " initial impressions of Clearasil ads and Paris Hilton in House of Wax " . Praising the cliffhangers and the brotherly chemistry between the lead actors , Kaz deemed Supernatural " one @-@ helluva edge @-@ of @-@ your @-@ seat , ball @-@ burner of a series with a forceful script , excellent acting ( said pretty boys included ) and some fine special effects " . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune thoroughly enjoyed the season , and " really , really liked " the Roadhouse . Not understanding why the Roadhouse was not used more throughout the season , she was " pretty annoyed " when it was destroyed . Ryan also favored the new hunter characters , especially Ash , and was " not thrilled " when Ash was killed . Regarding Sam and Dean , she noted the series ' " ability to hone in on [ sic ] the brotherly conflicts and emotions threaded through a well @-@ plotted monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week story " . While she enjoyed Tricia Helfer 's guest appearance , she did not enjoy the stunt casting of Linda Blair and would have preferred a " more skilled actress " . The season received a grade of a B- from Brian Tallerico of UGO , who found it " frustrating " due to the use of the " same predictable formula " that did not meet the standards of the first season . Other problems he found included " the brothers [ turning ] whiny and mopey and [ taking ] everything too seriously " . However , he believed that the season ended " strong " — he liked how the main storyline was wrapped up , opening new storylines — and noted that there were some " excellent " episodes . Tallerico praised the " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek Winchester adventure " " The Usual Suspects " , feeling that it had " enough pop culture references to make Tarantino jealous " and the " pitch @-@ perfect mix of tones that make the show so great " . He also found " Nightshifter " to be the " best action hour of Supernatural 's second year " , deeming it " riveting from beginning to end " . Also applauding the season 's cliffhanger was Peter Brown of iFMagazine , who gave the season a B + . He enjoyed the expansion of the series ' mythology , as well as the new characters introduced . He also praised the " haunting music and sounds that really give a chilling feel to each and every episode " , feeling them to be Emmy @-@ worthy .
The season 's cast and crew received the attention of multiple award programs . Writer Raelle Tucker won the Constellation Award for " Best Overall 2007 Science Fiction Film or Television Script " for the episode " What Is and What Should Never Be " , and work on " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part Two " garnered a Golden Reel nomination for " Best Sound Editing in Television : Short Form – Sound Effects and Foley " . Conchita Campbell gained a Young Artist Award nomination for " Best Performance in a TV Series – Guest Starring Young Actress " for her performance in " Playthings " , and Jessica Harmon was nominated in 2008 for a Leo Award in the category of " Best Guest Performance by a Female in a Dramatic Series " for the episode " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part One " .
= = Home media release = =
The second season of Supernatural was released as a six @-@ disc Region 1 DVD box set in the US on September 11 , 2007 , two weeks before the premiere of the third season . Including all 22 episodes of the second season , the set also featured DVD extras such as episode commentaries , deleted scenes , bloopers , Jared Padalecki 's original screen test , and a featurette on the making of the season finale . The season was ranked No. 13 in DVD sales for its week of release , selling 67 @,@ 735 sets for $ 2 @,@ 573 @,@ 253 . However , it slipped out of the top @-@ 30 list the following week . For Region 2 , the season was divided into two parts , being released on May 14 , 2007 , and September 10 , 2007 ; the complete set was released on October 29 , 2007 . The season was also released in Region 4 on October 3 , 2007 . The second season was released on Region A Blu @-@ ray Disc on June 14 , 2011 , including a new special feature – " The Devil 's Road Map " , an interactive guide featuring interviews about every episode .
= Emotions ( Mariah Carey album ) =
Emotions is the second studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released on September 17 , 1991 by Columbia Records . The album deviated from the formula of Carey 's 1990 self @-@ titled debut album , as she had more creative control over the material she produced and recorded . Additionally , Emotions features influences from a range of genres such as gospel , R & B , soul , pop and 1950s , 1960s and 1970s balladry infusion . On the record , Carey worked with a variety of producers and writers , including Walter Afanasieff , the only hold over from her previous effort . Additionally , Carey wrote and produced the album 's material with Robert Clivillés and David Cole from C + C Music Factory and Carole King , with whom she wrote one song .
Upon release , Emotions received generally mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . The album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 , surprising many critics following the success of Carey 's debut , which spent eleven weeks atop the chart . While selling far less than Mariah Carey , Emotions was eventually certified quadruple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of four million copies throughout the country , with estimated sales standing at 3 @,@ 595 @,@ 000 copies . Emotions achieved moderate success outside the United States , peaking within the top ten in Australia , Canada , the Netherlands , New Zealand , Norway and the United Kingdom . Its success in Japan was strong , shipping one million copies there . The album has sold 8 million copies worldwide .
Three commercial singles were released from the album . The title track , the album 's lead song , became Carey 's fifth chart topper on the Billboard Hot 100 , making her the only artist in history to have their first five singles reach the chart 's summit . Additionally , it became Carey 's third chart topper in Canada , and reached the top ten in France , the Netherlands and New Zealand . " Can 't Let Go " was released as the second single from Emotions on October 23 , 1991 . Due to Columbia 's removal of the single from stores in an attempt to boost the album 's sales , " Can 't Let Go " failed to become her sixth chart topper in the US , peaking at number two . European and worldwide success was very limited , reaching the top 20 in only Canada and the UK . Similarly , " Make It Happen " peaked at number five in the US , and achieved relatively weak international charting , prompting Columbia to halt promotion of the album .
= = Background = =
Following the success of Carey 's self @-@ titled debut album , critics wondered whether or not she would tour in order to promote the album in the major worldwide music markets . However , Carey expressed in several interviews that due to the strenuous nature and the sheer difficulty of her songs , she feared a tour with back @-@ to @-@ back shows would not be possible , aside from the long travel times and constant travel . With the extra time , Carey began writing and producing material for Emotions around the same time that her debut 's third single , " Someday " , was released in December 1990 . During this time period in music , it was traditional for an artist to release a studio album every two years in their prime , allowing the singles to fully promote the album through airwaves , as well as television appearances . Additionally , after a tour that would usually follow , as the next album would be released and would gain new fans , they would search the artist 's catalog , and purchase the previous album in hopes of learning of their older work . Sony , however , chose to market Carey in a different fashion , leaning towards the traditional form in the 1960s , where acts would release an LP every year . They felt that Carey 's reputation of being a " studio worm " and a songwriter from a young age would be captivating enough to deliver a new album more often than most .
As writing for the album came under way , Carey had a falling out with Ben Margulies , the man whom Carey had written seven of the eleven songs on Carey 's debut with . Together , the duo had written and produced seven songs for Carey 's demo tape which she handed to Tommy Mottola . Their parting of ways was due to a contract Carey had signed prior to her signing with Columbia . Carey had agreed to split not only the songwriting royalties from the songs , but half of her earnings as well , something she never thought twice about while writing songs in his father 's basement . However , when the time came to write music for Emotions , Sony officials made it clear he would only be paid the fair amount given to co @-@ writers on an album . Following the discussion , Margulies filed a lawsuit against Sony , claiming that under contract , he would be entitled to work with Carey , as well as reap extra benefits . After an almost one year lawsuit , the judge settled that Margulies was to earn ten percent of Carey 's direct earnings from her record sales , not including an income from any other ventures . While settled , their relationship remained ruined , damaged by what Carey considered treachery . In an interview with Fred Bronson , Carey said the following regarding the contract : " I signed blindly . Later , I tried to make it right so we could continue ... but he wouldn 't accept it . " After the settlement , Margulies spoke of his feelings on the matter , claiming he would hope to one day write again with Carey , placing most of the blame on the record label and concluding " Hopefully one day , art will prevail over business . "
= = Recording = =
Mariah Carey had originally been recorded in Margulies ' father 's basement , with old and minimal equipment . After being signed to Columbia , the songs that would be used for the album were re @-@ mastered and re @-@ recorded in professional studios . However , due to Sony 's involvement in the project , they did not allow Carey to produce most of the album , hoping the aid of several famed record producers would be able to ensure Carey 's already deemed " exquisite " songs would become popular . After the album 's success however , Carey was allowed more freedom on Emotions than on her debut . Since she no longer had a working or personal relationship with Margulies , she chose to work with mostly different musicians than those of her previous effort , with the exception of Walter Afanasieff , the only hold over from Mariah Carey . Even though he had only co @-@ written " Love Takes Time " , and had only produced part of the album , Carey felt a strong working chemistry with him , soon developing a unique form of songwriting alongside him . Aside from Afanasieff , Carey worked with Robert Clivillés and David Cole from the dance @-@ music influenced production duo , C + C Music Factory . Working with the duo was originally Mottola 's suggestion , but after meeting the pair , Carey agreed and wrote four songs together with them .
Additionally , aside from the three men , Carey worked with Carole King , a female singer @-@ songwriter who had been predominantly popular in the 1970s . However , unlike with C + C Music Factory , King approached Carey , hoping to work with her after hearing her perform live on The Arsenio Hall Show . During a conversation with Carey , King suggested that she cover " ( You Make Me Feel Like ) A Natural Woman " , a song she had written with Gerry Goffin for Aretha Franklin . After giving it some thought , Carey declined the offer , feeling uncomfortable about recording a song she felt one of her musical influences performed so perfectly . Still determined on working with Carey , King flew to New York for one day , to try to create a ballad of some sort . The two ladies sat together by a piano over the course of the day , and by nightfall , had written and arranged a song titled " If It 's Over " . After working with Carey , King said in an interview " I love her voice . She 's very expressive . She gives a lot of meaning to what she sings . " After recording " If It 's Over " , Carey expressed the musical connection she shared with Afanasieff , as well as the creative format in which she wrote and produced her music when with him , or working with C + C Music Factory . When working with Afanasieff , the duo would sit by a piano , and lead each other vocally and musically , until they would reach the right note and arrangement . During an interview in 1992 , Afanasieff described how Carey would stand next to him , and begin singing different notes and tunes she was thinking of , while he would follow her with the piano . In doing so , he would help lead her to the right note and vice versa . Carey described their working relationship as " very unique , " and felt it to be very similar to the form in which she had worked with Margulies . While similar , Carey 's creative process with Cole and Clivillés proved different ; they would bring her several different tapes and tunes , of which she would choose from . Afterwards , they would work on building the already created melody , and have Carey add and build onto it , as well as writing the lyrics and key .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Unlike Carey 's debut album , which featured a more contemporary pop and R & B background , Emotions proved to be far different . It borrowed from several genres ranging from gospel , R & B , soul , pop and 1960s and 1970s influences . The album 's lead single " Emotions " borrowed heavily from 1970s disco , and flaunted Carey 's upper range and extensive use of the whistle register . The song 's lyrics were described as " joyful " by author Chris Nickson , and told of a strong and deep emotion felt by the protagonist when with their lover . One of the album 's more gospel infused songs , " And You Don 't Remember " , featured organ chord changes and held minimal production in order to give the vocals a more " raw and sixties feel . " It and the former song were part of a trio of tracks from the album that were meant to pay homage to Motown ballads , with the inclusion of soft church choir vocals , and sole musical arrangement by Carey . Its lyrics reflected the song 's raw chorus , telling of girl that is promised the world by her boyfriend , and quickly forget about her and moves to the next one . After the heartbreak , the protagonist asks him " Don 't You Remember " all those things he had promised her , and the things they had spoken and dreamed about doing together . " Can 't Let Go " , the album 's second single , is a slow ballad , featuring sad and yearning lyrical content . The song 's introduction featured minor chord changes , and drew influence from fifties balladry . For the duration of the first half of the song , Carey sings in her lower and huskier registers , eventually leading to the belted crescendo and falsetto and whistle finish . Of the ten tracks on the album , Carey felt her most autobiographical lyrics were featured on " Make It Happen " , which told of Carey 's poor and difficult teen life prior to being signed by Columbia . It continues telling of the importance of faith and prayer to God . Nickson described its instrumentation as " restrained " and " very Motownish , " as well as noting its soft gospel infusion . Critically , the most anticipated song on the album was Carey 's collaboration with King . It was influenced by sixties and seventies gospel and other soulful genres . According to Nickson , the song 's instrumentation and basis was crucial to Carey 's performance throughout the song . Additionally , he described its content and instrumentation :
As a song full of gospel and soulful influences , it allowed Mariah to really tear loose and show what she could do – which in reality was far more than the vocal gymnastics that seemed to comprise her reputation so far . From a deep rumble to a high wail , she covered five octaves wonderfully , as the power of the tune built . The backing vocals – which once again had those churchy harmonies – filled out the spare melody , as did the stately horns , which entered towards the end . The song was truly a vocal showcase for Mariah .
The next song on the album 's track list , " You 're So Cold " , was originally intended to be the lead single from Emotions , eventually being switched for the title track . The song 's introduction features a piano and a capella vocal , working into its chorus . Chris Nickson wrote " The song sailed into the chorus , driven by the house @-@ y piano work , the bubbly , snacking rhythm belying the angry lyrics , the upbeat tone of voice . " As Nickson hinted at , its lyrics featured an angry message , calling out an unfaithful lover and asking how he could be " So Cold . " " So Blessed " was a song Carey wrote with Afanasieff , infusing fifties style pop balladry into it . Carey 's voice in the song is very restrained , as she stays within her lower registers throughout the duration of the track . " To Be Around You " was described by Nickson as " far more staccato . " Its production and melody was intended to pay tribute to " Got to Be Real " by Cheryl Lynn , as well as featuring spoken voices towards the end of the song . Nickson described " Till the End of Time " as a " gentle , almost lullaby melody . " It was a love ballad , preparing the listener for the song 's final track , " The Wind " . The latter song featured the album 's strongest jazz influence , and sampled a piano melody from Russell Freeman during the 1950s . After Afanasieff presented Carey with the melody he had discovered , it inspired her to write the melody and lyrics , which told of a friend that perished in a drunk @-@ driving accident . Musically , the album fulfilled its greatest challenge , according to critics . It had helped master Carey 's usage and infusion of several genres which she had not tapped into during the recording of her debut .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , Emotions garnered generally mixed to positive reviews from contemporary music critics , many of whom both praised and criticized the album 's content alongside Carey 's vocal acrobatics . Bill Lamb from About.com gave Emotions three and a half out of five stars , complimenting the album as a whole , claiming it to be " tightened " when in comparison to the original . He described the album 's lead single as " bone chilling , " however criticizing some of the Carey 's high notes as " vocal range overkill . " Allmusic editor , Ashley Battel , gave the album four out of five stars , calling it a " musical journey . " Additionally , Erlewine picked " Emotions " and " Make It Happen " as the album 's standout tracks and wrote " The one emotion that prevails upon completion of the album is definitely a positive one : satisfaction . " Parry Gettelman , editor from the Orlando Sentinel , was critical on Carey 's vocal acrobatics , writing " Carey has become so enamored of the ultra @-@ high @-@ frequency part of her range that I 'm starting to suspect she may be an intergalactic spy trying to re- establish communications with the far @-@ off Planet of Dogs . " Jonathan Kurant from the Sun @-@ Sentinel gave Emotions a mixed review , writing " Oddly , the album gets more original at the end , where not all people will bother getting to . " Further in the review , he outed " The Wind " and " Till the End of Time " as the album 's stand out tracks , but felt most of the album was unoriginal and not an improvement over her debut .
Steve Morse from The Boston Globe gave the album a positive review , calling it " a quantum leap in maturity and confidence . " Morse felt Emotions was superior to Carey 's debut , calling its lyrics " remarkable , " its ballads " unspeakably beautiful , " and Carey 's vocal and songwriting ability " unlimited . " Rob Tannenbaum from Rolling Stone was critical on the album , expressing how Carey 's extensive use of her range made it difficult to truly feel and connect to the lyrics within the songs . Tannenbaum concluded his review on Emotions with " Carey has a remarkable vocal gift , but to date , unfortunately , her singing has been far more impressive than expressive . " Arion Berger from Entertainment Weekly gave the album a C , calling it " colder and more calculated " than Carey 's debut . Additionally , Berger mirrored similar sentiments written by Tannenbaum , writing " [ Emotions ] is the hybrid progeny of a venerable tradition — the tradition of the R & B diva — and crass commercial instincts. it 's gospel without soul , love songs without passion , pop without buoyancy . " Robert Christgau said nothing on the album , but gave it a " dud " score . Deborah Wilker , editor of the Sun @-@ Sentinel , complimented Carey 's vocal and singing abilities , however criticizing some of the album 's content as a whole . Wilker wrote " With her elite industry connections and top @-@ notch voice , Carey can do better . Sure this set is enjoyable and provides pop fans with a new diva to idolize , but Carey and company don`t come close to exploiting the full range of her musical potential . " Dennis Hunt from the Los Angeles Times gave the album two out of a possible four stars . After comparing calling Carey 's voice to that of Whitney Houston 's , he called it " spectacular and impressive , " but criticized the album 's songs and production for " playing high on the angst scale . " Editor of the Chicago Tribune , Jan DeKnock , gave the album three stars , indicating a " Good " review . She called some of the album 's ballads " boring , " but described Carey 's voice as " breathtaking . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Emotions debuted at the number four position on the Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 129 @,@ 000 copies , surprising critics following the success of Mariah Carey ( 1990 ) . In total , the album spent twenty @-@ seven weeks in the top twenty and a total of fifty @-@ five on the albums chart , becoming Carey 's lowest @-@ peaking album until Glitter ( 2001 ) . Emotions was certified quadruple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of four million copies within the United States . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album 's stateside sales are estimated at 3 @,@ 595 @,@ 000 . On the Canadian RPM Albums Chart , Emotions debuted at number fourteen , on the issue dated October 5 , 1991 . Four weeks later , on the issue date November 2 , 1991 , the album reached its peak position of number six , staying there for one week . At the end of the year , Emotions finished number 35 on the Year @-@ End Albums Chart of 1991 . To date , the album has been certified quadruple @-@ platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) , denoting shipments of 400 @,@ 000 units . In Japan , Emotions debuted at number three on the official Oricon chart , and according to Sony Music , has shipped 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies throughout the country . In Australia , the album debuted at number ninety @-@ six on the ARIA Albums Chart during the week ending October 6 , 1991 , attaining its peak position of number eight four weeks later . The album spent thirty weeks in the top 100 , being certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) .
In France , Emotions received a gold certifications from the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , denoting shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . The album made its debut on the Dutch Top 40 at number seventy @-@ nine . The following week , it moved up to number fifty @-@ nine , which became its peak charting position . In total , Emotions spent six weeks within the Dutch charts , being certified platinum by the Nederlandse Vereniging van Producenten en Importeurs van beeld- en geluidsdragers ( NVPI ) , denoting shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . During the week of October 17 , 1991 , Emotions debuted at its peak position of number six , spending a total of sixteen weeks on the New Zealand Albums Chart . The Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) certified the album platinum , denoting shipments of 15 @,@ 000 units within the country . In Sweden , Emotions debuted at number twenty @-@ six on the Swedish Albums Chart , peaking at number thirteen and spending a total of five weeks fluctuating in the chart . Following its exit from the chart , the album was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . On October 13 , 1991 , Emotions debuted at number sixteen on the Swiss Albums Chart , attaining its peak position of fifteen the succeeding week . Following a run of nine weeks in the albums chart , the album was certified gold by the IFPI , denoting shipments of 50 @,@ 000 units throughout the country . On the UK Albums Chart , dated October 26 , 1991 , the album debuted at number ten . In its seventeenth week , Emotions attained its peak position of number four , placing higher than Carey 's debut reach of six . After charting in the United Kingdom for forty weeks , the album was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 300 @,@ 000 units . Emotions has sold 12 million copies worldwide , short of the 20 million sold by her debut in 1990 .
= = Singles = =
Three commercial singles were released from Emotions . The album 's lead single of the same name became Carey 's fifth chart topper in the United States , making her the only act in history to have their first five singles reach the charts summit in the country . Additionally , " Emotions " topped the singles chart in Canada , reached the top five in New Zealand , and peaked within the top twenty in Australia , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . The song garnered positive critical response , with Bill Lamb from About.com rating it " among her best . " Steve Morse from The Boston Globe called Carey 's high registers in the song a " feeling of pure joy , " whereas Jan DeKnock from the Chicago Tribune described Carey 's voice as " breathtaking . " The song 's music video features different scenes of Carey singing and enjoying herself throughout a car ride by the countryside , as well as a small celebration with several dancers .
The album 's second release , " Can 't Let Go " , only reached the number two position on the Billboard Hot 100 , failing to top the chart due to Columbia 's retraction of the single in order to boost sales of the album . Aside from Canada , where it attained a peak of number three , " Can 't Let Go " performed weakly across continental Europe , reaching the top twenty in only the UK . The song 's corresponding video was filmed in black and white , and featured Carey 's hair in a straightened style for the first time in her career . The video predominantly features close @-@ up scenes of Carey by a small outdoor fountain , as well as blooming white roses . " Make It Happen " was released as the third and final single from Emotions on April 4 , 1992 . It peaked at number five in the United States , and as " Can 't Let Go " , charted weakly throughout Europe , coming in at number seven in Canada , seventeen in the UK , and thirty @-@ five and forty @-@ seven in Australia and the Netherlands , respectively . The song was praised by critics ; Morse called it " a clear slice of spiritual autobiography , " and called the last chorus " glorious . " Similarly , DeKnock called the song " upbeat and inspirational . " The video filmed for " Make It Happen " featured Carey performing in front of an audience in a large cathedral @-@ like church , alongside back @-@ up singers and child dancers .
= = Promotion = =
As with Mariah Carey the previous year , Carey did not embark on a tour to promote the album , due to the long travel times and strenuous schedules on her voice . However , while not touring the world , Carey promoted Emotions through an array of television and award show appearances , stateside and across Europe . Carey performed " Emotions " live for the first time at the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards , backed by several male and female back up vocalists . Following the award show appearance , she sang " Emotions " on The Arsenio Hall Show , airing on September 23 , 1991 . Additionally , Carey performed the song at the 1992 Soul Train Music Awards , and on British music program and talk show Top of the Pops and Des O 'Connor . Additional European stops included Sondagstoppet and Kulan in Sweden during mid @-@ September 1991 . All of the above mentioned performances included " Can 't Let Go " as a secondary performance in the night . " Can 't Let Go " was sung on additional programs such as Saturday Night Live , a pre @-@ filmed studio clip on The Today Show . While the album 's final single " Make It Happen " was released only months after Emotions release , the song was not performed during the album 's original chart run , however making its way onto the set @-@ list of several of Carey following tours . On February 26 , 1992 , Carey performed " If It 's Over " at the 34th annual Grammy Award , with a full orchestra and several back up singers .
= = Awards and accolades = =
Throughout 1992 , Carey , the album and its accompanying singles received recognition by the music industry in the form of several awards . At the 19th annual American Music Awards , Carey took home the award for Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist . At the 3rd annual Billboard Music Awards , Carey took home two trophies for the album and " Emotions " , Top Female Album Artist and Top Female Single . Additionally , Carey was nominated for two Grammy Award at the 34th annual ceremony , for Producer of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , losing in both categories . All three of the album 's singles were awarded BMI Pop Awards in 1993 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Emotions adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Black Cat Bar =
The Black Cat Bar or Black Cat Café was a bar in San Francisco , California . It originally opened in 1906 and closed in 1921 . The Black Cat re @-@ opened in 1933 and operated for another 30 years . During its second run of operation , it was a hangout for Beats and bohemians but over time began attracting more and more of a gay clientele .
Because it catered to gay people , the bar became a flashpoint for the nascent homophile movement . The Black Cat was at the center of a legal fight that was one of the earliest court cases to establish legal protections for gay people in the United States . Despite this victory , continued pressure from law enforcement agencies eventually forced the bar 's closure in 1964 .
= = The original Black Cat = =
The Black Cat opened in 1906 , shortly after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake . In the early years , the bar was located in the basement of the Athens Hotel at 56 Mason Street in San Francisco 's Tenderloin neighborhood . This building still stands today and is now the Bristol Hotel . When entrepreneur Charles Ridley acquired the bar in 1911 , he turned it into a showplace for vaudeville @-@ style acts . Over the next several years , Ridley and the Black Cat came under increased police scrutiny as a possible center of prostitution . In 1921 , the bar lost its dance permit and closed down .
= = Beats and bohemians = =
With the repeal of Prohibition , the Black Cat re @-@ opened in 1933 at 710 Montgomery Street , again under Ridley 's proprietorship . Sol Stoumen bought the bar in the 1940s . In the early years of Stoumen 's ownership , the Black Cat was a center for the bohemian and Beat crowd . William Saroyan and John Steinbeck were known to frequent the establishment , and part of Jack Kerouac 's seminal Beat novel On the Road is set in the bar .
= = Growing gay clientele = =
While the Beats continued to congregate at the Black Cat into the 1950s , in the years following World War II , more and more gay people began patronizing it . The varied crowds mixed and gay Beat poet Allen Ginsberg described the Black Cat as " the best gay bar in America . It was totally open , bohemian , San Francisco ... and everybody went there , heterosexual and homosexual .... All the gay screaming queens would come , the heterosexual gray flannel suit types , longshoremen . All the poets went there . " By 1951 , the bar was placed on the Armed Forces Disciplinary Control Board 's list of establishments which military personnel were forbidden to enter .
The bar featured live entertainers , the best known of whom was José Sarria . Sarria , who began as a waiter , wore drag and entertained the crowd by singing parodies of popular torch songs . Eventually he performed three to four shows a night , along with a regular Sunday afternoon show , with Sarria performing full arias . His specialty was a re @-@ working of Bizet 's opera Carmen , set in modern @-@ day San Francisco . Sarria as Carmen would prowl through popular cruising area Union Square . The audience cheered " Carmen " on as she dodged the vice squad and made her escape .
Sarria encouraged patrons to be as open and honest as possible , exhorting the clientele , " There 's nothing wrong with being gay – the crime is getting caught , " and " United we stand , divided they catch us one by one . " At closing time , he would lead patrons in singing " God Save Us Nelly Queens " to the tune of " God Save the Queen " . Sometimes he would take the crowd outside to sing the final verse to the men across the street in jail , who had been arrested in raids earlier in the night . Speaking of this ritual in the film Word is Out ( 1977 ) , gay journalist George Mendenhall said :
" It sounds silly , but if you lived at that time and had the oppression coming down from the police department and from society , there was nowhere to turn ... and to be able to put your arms around other gay men and to be able to stand up and sing ' God Save Us Nelly
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Queens ' ... we were really not saying ' God Save Us Nelly Queens . ' We were saying ' We have our rights , too . ' "
Sarria became the first openly gay candidate in the United States to run for public office , running in 1961 for a seat on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors . Sarria almost won by default . On the last day for candidates to file petitions , city officials realized that there were fewer than five candidates running for the five open seats , which would have assured Sarria a seat . By the end of the day , 34 candidates had filed . Sarria garnered some 6 @,@ 000 votes , shocking political pundits and setting in motion the idea that a gay voting bloc could wield real power in city politics . As Sarria put it , " From that day on , nobody ran for anything in San Francisco without knocking on the door of the gay community . "
= = Police harassment = =
In 1948 , the San Francisco Police Department and the Alcohol Beverage Control Commission , in response to the Black Cat 's increasing homosexual clientele , began a campaign of harassment against the bar and its patrons . Bar owner Stoumen was charged with such crimes as " keeping a disorderly house " and the State Board of Equalization suspended the bar 's liquor license indefinitely . In response and on principle , Stoumen , who was heterosexual , took the state to court . In 1951 , the California Supreme Court , in Stoumen v. Reilly ( 37 Cal.2d 713 ) ruled that " [ i ] n order to establish ' good cause ' for suspension of plaintiff 's license , something more must be shown than that many of his patrons were homosexuals and that they used his restaurant and bar as a meeting place . " This was one of the earliest legal affirmations of the rights of gay people in the United States . The court qualified its opinion , however , by stating that ABC might still close gay bars with " proof of the commission of illegal or immoral acts on the premises . "
In response to this legal victory and based on the " illegal or immoral acts " language of the opinion , the state passed a constitutional amendment creating the California Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control ( ABC ) . The California State Assembly in 1955 passed a law authorizing broad powers for the ABC to shut down any " resort [ for ] sexual perverts . " The Black Cat was shut down under this authority , along with a number of other establishments . In a test case involving an Oakland bar , Vallerga v. Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control , the California Supreme Court struck down this new law as unconstitutional . This decision was not a complete victory , as the court noted that had the ABC 's revocation been based on " reports of women dancing with other women and women kissing other women " it might have upheld the law . Homosexuals , therefore , had won the right to assemble but only if they agreed not to touch .
Police and city officials responded to the increasing visibility of the Black Cat and other gay bars in the city , and the Black Cat 's success in court , by increasingly cracking down , staging more frequent raids and mass arrests . One favorite tactic was to arrest drag queens , since impersonating a member of the opposite sex was , at the time , a crime . Sarria responded by passing out labels for the drag queens to wear reading " I am a boy " so it could not be claimed they were impersonating women .
= = Closure = =
By 1963 , following some 15 years of unrelenting pressure from the police and the ABC , Stoumen decided he was no longer able financially to sustain the fight . The cost of his long legal battle was more than $ 38 @,@ 000 . Sarria tried to enlist the owners of the city 's other gay bars to help Stoumen pay his legal bills , but none offered any assistance . The ABC lifted the bar 's liquor license in 1963 , the night before its annual Halloween party . After a final defiant Halloween celebration at which only non @-@ alcoholic beverages were served and an attempt to survive on food and soft drink sales , the Black Cat closed down for good in February 1964 .
The site is now the location of Bocadillos , a tapas @-@ style restaurant . On December 15 , 2007 , a plaque commemorating the Black Cat and its place in San Francisco history was placed at the site .
= New York State Route 37B =
New York State Route 37B ( NY 37B ) is an east – west state highway located in St. Lawrence County , New York , in the United States . It serves as a business route of NY 37 through the village of Massena . While NY 37B enters the village , NY 37 bypasses it to the south . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 37 in the town of Louisville . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with NY 37 just east of the village limits in the town of Massena . NY 37B intersects North Main Street , a state @-@ maintained northward extension of NY 420 , in Massena 's central district .
The origins of NY 37B date back to the early 20th century when the New York State Legislature created Route 32 , an unsigned legislative route extending from North Lawrence to Ogdensburg via Massena . From Waddington to Massena , Route 32 followed River Road and Town Line Road . This portion of the route became part of NY 3 in 1924 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the Waddington – Massena segment of NY 3 became NY 37B . The route was extended east into Massena in the 1950s after NY 37 was realigned to follow a new bypass around the village .
Most of NY 37B west of Massena ran through a low @-@ lying area along the St. Lawrence River . In 1958 , this area was permanently indundated as part of the St. Lawrence Seaway 's construction . As a result , NY 37B was rerouted to follow a new roadway along the fringe of Lake St. Lawrence to meet NY 37 in Louisville Corner . A connector between NY 37 and NY 37B in Louisville was designated as NY 131 by 1960 . The alignments of NY 37B and NY 131 west of Massena were swapped c . 1962 , placing NY 37B on its modern alignment .
= = Route description = =
NY 37B begins at an intersection with its parent route , NY 37 , in the town of Louisville . The route heads to the northeast , paralleling the Grasse River as it passes a small number of homes and businesses located in the otherwise rural town . There are small patches of forested areas along the way to the Massena village line ( and the town 's line of the same name ) , where it intersects with Town Line Road ( County Route 43 ) . Once in Massena , the amount of development along the highway begins to increase . NY 37B , now known as Maple Street , continues northeast through Massena for three blocks before veering eastward upon passing Massena Memorial Hospital .
In the center of Massena , NY 37B intersects North Main Street , which connects to NY 420 south of the village . The portion of Main Street between NY 420 and NY 37B is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation as NY 970B , an unsigned reference route . Past North Main Street , NY 37B follows Maple Street southeast to Center Street . The route merges with Center Street and becomes a divided highway as it connects to Willow Street by way of an interchange and intersects an eastward extension of Center Street .
NY 37B turns south at the interchange , becoming Parker Avenue and crossing over the Grasse River to meet East Orvis Street on the southern riverbank . Here , the route turns east to follow East Orvis Street northeastward through the residential and commercial areas that comprise southeastern Massena . At the Massena village line , East Orvis Street becomes Highland Road , a name NY 37B retains for a short distance eastward to a junction with NY 37 ( St. Regis Boulevard ) . Although Highland Road continues through the intersection , NY 37B ends at the junction .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 32 , an unsigned legislative route extending from North Lawrence to Ogdensburg via Winthrop and Massena . It entered Massena on what is now NY 420 and followed Main Street and Maple Street through the village . West of Massena , the highway was routed on Town Line Road and River Road to a junction east of Waddington , where Route 32 continued west on modern NY 37 to Waddington . When state highways in New York were first posted in 1924 , the portion of Route 32 between Waddington and Massena became part of NY 3 , a highway extending across the width of the state .
The segment of NY 3 east of Watertown was rerouted as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to largely follow its modern alignment between Watertown and Plattsburgh . Most of NY 3 's former alignment along the St. Lawrence River from Alexandria Bay to Hogansburg became part of the new NY 37 ; however , from Waddington to Massena , NY 37 used a more inland routing . As a result , the former routing of NY 3 between the two villages became NY 37B instead . In the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1950s , NY 37 was rerouted to follow a new bypass around the southern edge of Massena . Following its completion , NY 37B was extended eastward along NY 37 's former routing on Maple Street , Parker Avenue , and Orvis Street to meet the bypass east of the village .
In the 1950s , construction began on the St. Lawrence Seaway , a system of canals and locks that would make the St. Lawrence River suitable for shipping . As part of the seaway 's construction , a low @-@ lying area in Ontario and New York between Waddington , New York , and Cornwall , Ontario , would be inundated with water in order to create a navigable channel through the Long Sault rapids and to allow hydroelectric stations to be established immediately upriver from Massena and Cornwall . Much of NY 37B was located within the flood @-@ prone region due to its proximity to the river . On July 1 , 1958 , the intentional flooding was carried out via the destruction of a cofferdam upstream , creating what is now known as Lake St. Lawrence and inundating the majority of NY 37B west of Massena .
Following the destruction of the majority of NY 37B , the route was realigned west of Massena to follow a new riverside roadway to the hamlet of Louisville Corner , where it came to an end at NY 37 . The remainder of NY 37B along the Massena – Louisville town line road and in Massena was unchanged . By 1960 , a connector between NY 37 in Louisville and NY 37B and Massena utilizing NY 37 's former routing west of the village was designated as NY 131 . The alignments of NY 37B and NY 131 west of the Maple Street / Town Line Road intersection were flipped c . 1962 , placing NY 131 on the riverside and town line roads and NY 37B on NY 37 's former routing into Massena .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in St. Lawrence County .
= Carolina wren =
The Carolina wren ( Thryothorus ludovicianus ) is a common species of wren that is a resident in the eastern half of the United States of America , the extreme south of Ontario , Canada , and the extreme northeast of Mexico . Severe winters restrict the northern limits of their range while favorable weather conditions lead to a northward extension of their breeding range . Their preferred habitat is in dense cover in forests , farm edges and suburban areas . This wren is the state bird of South Carolina .
There are seven recognized subspecies across the range of these wrens and they differ slightly in song and appearance . The birds are generally inconspicuous , avoiding the open for extended periods of time . When out in the open , they investigate their surroundings and are rarely stationary . After finding a mate , pairs maintain a territory and stay together for several years . Both sexes give out alarm calls , but only males sing to advertize territory . Carolina wrens raise multiple broods during the summer breeding season , but can fall victim to brood parasitism by brown @-@ headed cowbirds , among other species . Some populations have been affected by mercury contamination .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Carolina wren was first described under the name of Sylvia ludoviciana by John Latham in 1790 . Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot considered all wrens under the genus Troglodytes and called the Carolina wren Troglodytes arundinaceus but placed it subsequently in a separate genus Thryothorus ( initially misspelled Thriothorus ) that he created in 1816 . Thryothorus is of Greek origin from the combination of thryon ( rush , reed ) and thouros ( derivative of verb throskein to leap up , spring , jump at ) which means ' reed jumper ' ; its specific name ludovicianus is a post @-@ classical Latin term for Ludovicus ( derivative from Louis XIV ) that means ' of Louisiana ' that identifies the locality of the specimen collected near New Orleans .
There are seven recognized subspecies of the Carolina wren :
T. l. ludovicianus ( Latham , 1790 ) – Southeast Canada ( Southern Ontario , irregularly in Eastern and Southern Quebec ) and the eastern United States ( Southern Wisconsin and New England southward to Texas and northern Florida ) .
T. l. miamensis Florida wren ( Ridgway , 1875 ) – Florida from approximately 30 degrees ( Gainesville ) region southward through the rest of the state .
T. l. nesophilus ( Stevenson , 1973 ) – Dog Island in Northwestern Florida .
T. l. burleighi – Burleigh 's Carolina wren ( Lowery , 1940 ) Offshore islands off of the Mississippi coast : Cat Island , Ship Island ( Mississippi ) , and Horn Island .
T. l. lomitensis – Lomita wren ( Sennett , 1890 ) southern Texas to the extreme northeast of Mexico ( Tamaulipas ) .
T. l. berlandieri – Berlandier 's wren ( S. F. Baird , 1858 ) Northeastern Mexico ( eastern Coahuila , Nuevo Leon , and southwestern Tamaulipas )
T. l. tropicalis – Northeastern Mexico ( eastern San Luis Potosi and southern Tamaulipas ) .
T. ludovicianus is traditionally placed within its own genus as its only representative of North America , but recent DNA work suggests it is closely allied with the Bewick 's wren . A distinct population in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico , Belize , Nicaragua , and in Guatemala is treated as a separate species , either known as Cabot 's wren or white @-@ browed wren ( Thryothorus albinucha ) . It is considered a subspecies of T. ludovicianus by some authors , however .
= = Description = =
At 12 @.@ 5 to 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 9 to 5 @.@ 5 in ) long , with a 29 cm ( 11 in ) wingspan and a weight of about 18 to 23 g ( 0 @.@ 63 to 0 @.@ 81 oz ) , the Carolina wren is a fairly large wren ; the second largest in the United States species after the cactus wren . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 5 @.@ 4 to 6 @.@ 4 cm ( 2 @.@ 1 to 2 @.@ 5 in ) , the tail is 4 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 2 in ) , the culmen is 1 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 55 to 0 @.@ 71 in ) and the tarsus is 2 to 2 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 0 @.@ 91 in ) . Sexual dimorphism is slight with males being larger than their mates . A study indicated that out of 42 mated pairs , all but one of male was larger than the female of the pair . The males were on average 11 percent heavier along with having longer wing chords .
There are several differences among the subspecies . For T. l. ludovicianus , the crown is rich brown that appears more chestnut @-@ colored on its rump and uppertail @-@ coverts . Shoulders and greater coverts are a rich brown , with a series of small white dots on the lesser primary coverts . The secondary coverts are rich brown with a darker brown barring on both webs ; the bars on the primaries are on the outerwebs only , but darker and more noticeable . The retrices are brown with 18 to 20 bars that span across the tail . The white supercilious streak borders thinly with a black above and below , and extends above and beyond its shoulders . The ear coverts are speckled gray and grayish @-@ black . Its chin and throat are grey that becomes buff on its chest , flank and belly , though the latter two are of a warmer color . The underwing coverts sport a grayish buff color . Its iris is reddish @-@ brown , the upper mandible is lemon @-@ colored and paler at the base and lower mandible . The legs are flesh @-@ colored .
As for the other subspecies in contrast to T. l. ludovicianus , T. l. berlandieri is of a slightly smaller build , but possesses a larger bill , the upperparts are duller brown with deeper colored underparts , T. l. lomitensis is of a duller color ( than either ludovicianus or berlandieri ) with its underparts either pale or almost white , T. l. miamensis contains darker rusty chestnut upperparts and deeper colored below . T. l. burleighi is duller and sootier with less distinct tail markings , T. l. mesophilus has paler underparts and a whiter supercilium , and T. l. tropicalis is darker than all races , and contains heavier bars than T. l. berlandieri .
= = = Plumage = = =
The juvenile T.l. ludovicianus is similar in appearance , but the plumage is generally paler with a softer texture with buff @-@ tipped wing coverts , a superciliary streak is less white , a fluffy vent and crissum ( flanks ) without bars . In August and September , the partial plumage molt for the post @-@ juvenile wrens is darker in color and affects the contour plumage , wing coverts , tail and develops a whiter superciliary stripe . The post @-@ nuptial molt for adults in the same time period is more pronounced in color than the spring molt , with both sexes similar in appearance .
= = = Life span = = =
Survival rates differ by region . A male captured in Arkansas lived to be at least 73 months old , and in Alabama , the oldest female and male captured were six and ten years old , respectively . A mark @-@ and @-@ recapture analysis of the wrens analyzing survival probability within the Southeastern United States captured was monitored from 1992 to 2003 . Roughly 90 percent of the banded wrens died within 10 years .
= = = Similar species = = =
The easiest species to confuse with the Carolina wren is Bewick 's wren , which differs in being smaller but with a longer tail , grayer @-@ brown above and whiter below . The Carolina and white @-@ browed wrens differ from the house wren in being larger , with a decidedly longer bill and hind toe ; their culmen has a notch behind the tip .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
These birds are largely resident , and will only disperse beyond their range after mild winters . Carolina wrens sporadically breed as far north as Maine and Quebec after mild winters . In certain parts of their range , such as most of Iowa , prolonged periods of snow can curtail potential expansion . Permanent breeding locations range from eastern Nebraska , southern Michigan , southeast Ontario and the New England states to Mexican states such as Coahuila , Nuevo León , San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas and the Gulf Coast of the United States . Local occurrences with infrequent and likely breeding locations include southeast South Dakota , central Kansas , eastern Colorado , western Oklahoma and Texas as far as Maine and New Brunswick . There have been occasional vagrants spotted in Colorado , New Mexico , and Arizona , Wyoming , South Dakota , Manitoba , Nova Scotia , and the Gulf of St. Lawrence .
The range of the wrens increased northward and westward in several regions over the past few centuries . In Massachusetts , the wrens had expanded westward and northeastward from its former southeastern location in approximately 35 years , in New York the population increased three @-@ fold in roughly 25 years , while in midwest states such as Ohio and Michigan have seen numbers of the birds increase since the mid @-@ 1800s and early 1900s , respectively . Expansion around Ontario occurred since early reports in 1890 and 1905 . Explanations given include infrequent winter storms in the 20th century , expanded forest habitats , and the wrens taking advantage of urban areas containing feeders , especially in winter .
Carolina wrens adapt to various habitats . Natural habitats include various types of woodland such as oak hardwoods and mixed oak @-@ pine woodlands , ash and elmwoods , hickory @-@ oak woodlands with a healthy amount of tangled undergrowth . The preferred habitats are riparian forests , brushy edges , swamps , overgrown farmlands , and suburban yards with abundant thick shrubs and trees , and parks . It has an affinity for dilapidated buildings and unkempt yards in man @-@ made areas . Subspecies burleighi and neophilus inhabit slash pine and palmettos .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Song and calls = = =
Carolina wrens sing year round and at any point during the daytime , with the exception of performing during the most harsh weather conditions . The birds are also the only species in the Certhiidae family that neither sings in duet nor has their song control regions affect repertoire size . Males alone sing , and have a repertoire of at least twenty different phrase patterns and on average , thirty two . One of these patterns is repeated for several minutes , and although the male 's song can be repeated up to twelve times , the general amount of songs range from three to five times in repetition . While singing , the tail of the birds is pointed downward . Some general vocalizations have been transcribed as teakettle @-@ teakettle @-@ teakettle and cheery @-@ cheery @-@ cheery . Various descriptions of the teakettle song include whee @-@ udel , whee @-@ udel , whee @-@ udel , che @-@ wortel , che @-@ wortel and túrtee @-@ túrtee @-@ túrtee and familiar names and phrases such as sweet heart , sweet heart , come to me , come to me , sweet William , and Richelieu , Richelieu .
Males are capable of increasing their repertoire through song learning , but due to their sedentary nature and territorial defense habits , the song learning must occur within the first three months of life . Geographic barriers affect song repertoire size from male wrens , as one study indicated that distances separated as close as 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) by water barriers can have the same effect as that of a distance of 145 kilometres ( 90 mi ) in the mainland with no barriers .
Female Carolina wrens possess song control regions that would appear to make them capable of singing with repertoires like the male . Due to vocalizations that they occasionally make with the male , it has been suggested that song perception plays a role and is of behavioral relevance .
Different subspecies have variations in songs and calls , such as miamensis having a more rapid song that contains more notes than the races that are further north .
Their songs can be confused with the Kentucky warbler . The song patterns are similar , but is of a different quality , as the warbler 's songs is described as richer , with more ringing and a hurried pace . Other bird species that have their songs described as akin to the wrens are the flicker , Baltimore oriole , gray catbird , and more specifically the peto , peto , peto calls of the tufted titmouse , and whistles of the northern cardinal . Occasionally , the wrens mimic other species , and in Pennsylvania it has led for it to be also known as the ' mocking wren ' .
= = = Sexual selection = = =
A 2006 study suggested that the correlation of tail length and body size in males , wing length in females , and lifespan for both sexes were signs of individual quality , and the wrens of high quality tend to mate with like individuals . The courting and antagonistic encounters that involve the tail fanning and wing drooping was suggested to be a possible signaling use . Age and life experience are not thought of as significant for potential mates due to their relatively short lifespan and sedentary lifestyle . Due to the large size of male wrens and the male 's vigor in defending its territory , intrasexual selection was given as a possible explanation for the sexual dimorphism .
= = = Territorial and predator defense = = =
Both sexes are involved in defending the territory . One aspect of territorial defense involves identifying the proximity of the threat based on the loudness of bird song as well as the level of degradation of the calls . In experiments involving playback , the wrens are capable of discriminating between degraded and undegraded songs , as well as degraded songs in the same acoustic conditions , and can detect changes of acoustic properties within their territories , such as songs under foliage . Song degradation can also be used to determine the proximity of potential intruders . If the song of a bird appears to be degraded , the wrens will assume that the threat is distant not respond ; if the song is not degraded , they respond by attacking . Not all birds within their territory are potential enemies . Some species of birds that are neighbors are designated as ' dear @-@ enemies ' by the wrens , and the responses to neighbors and intruders in their territories differ by the season . In spring , the wrens respond more aggressively toward neighbors , though in the fall , no major discrepancy in responses is shown . When protecting their nest , alarm calls are the general response . The wrens judge the size of the potential threat , such as a blue jay and avoid the risk of injury when attacking . Countersinging produced by intruder birds is more likely to be taken as an aggressive threat to male Carolina wrens .
Both males and females utilize calls in alarm situations , especially in territorial disputes and encounters with predators . Males alone produce the cheer call , which can sound indistinct . In southern regions of their range , the sound males use in alarm disputes is a ringing pink or p 'dink sound . Females are the only ones that can perform the paired dit @-@ dit or chatter sounds . The former can be used in territorial disputes with predators , and with at least northern populations the songs are used in alternation with the males cheer chant . The chatter is used exclusively with territorial encounters with male song , and the song can either follow or overlap her mate 's song .
= = = Feeding = = =
Carolina wrens spend the majority of their time on or near the ground searching for food , or in tangles of vegetation and vines . They also probe bark crevices on lower tree levels , or pick up leaf @-@ litter in order to search for prey . Their diet consists of invertebrates , such as beetles , true bugs , grasshoppers , katydids , spiders , ants , bees , and wasps . Small lizards and tree frogs also make up the carnivorous portion of their diet . Vegetable matter makes up a small percentage of their diets , such as fruit pulp and various seeds . In the northern portion of their range , they frequent bird feeders .
= = = Movement = = =
Carolina wrens are wary , and are more often heard than seen . When on the ground , they move in jerky hops pillaging through various objects , whether man @-@ made or natural . While moving abruptly , they pause momentarily for chattering or singing . When stationary , they move in twitched motions , jerking their breast around . They also sun- or sand @-@ bathe . The wrens also displays a skittish behavior when encountered by humans , as they can be seen thrusting off into cover slowly if approaching is detected . However , they occasionally seek out humans that are near , so long as there is no movement from them . Other movements involve being capable of crawling like a creeper and hanging upside @-@ down like a nuthatch .
Flights are generally of short duration , rapid , low @-@ leveled , and wavelike . The wings during flight are flapped rapidly , and are frequently used during foraging . They are also capable of flying vertically from the base of a tree to the top in a single wing assisted bound .
= = = Breeding = = =
Carolina wrens are both genetically and socially monogamous and will usually mate for life . Mate changing is rare , and there has been one possible instance of polygamy . During the winter season , males are more responsible for guarding the territory . Females vary in succeeding to maintain winter territories without a mate . It has been suggested that the possibility of desertion and decline in care @-@ taking from males along with the need for security in resources year @-@ round prevent extra pair copulations from females , as the mortality rate for Carolina wrens peaks during the winter . Along with thermoregulatory benefits , roosting is thought to reinforce pair @-@ bonding and prevent divorce between mates .
The nests are arch @-@ shaped structures with a side entrance and built of dried plants or strips of bark , as well as horsehair , string , wool and snake sloughs . Males obtain nesting materials while the females remains at the site to construct the nest . Nests are located in fragmented or complete cavities in trees , or in man @-@ made structures such as bird @-@ boxes , buildings , tin cans , mailboxes or unorthodox places such as pockets of hanging jackets in sheds or in a tractor in everyday use . Nests are from 1 – 3 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) from the ground and are rarely higher . They occasionally can be built in sloping locations or at ground level .
Egg laying dates and clutch size vary by region ; in Texas the time period is from late February to late August , in Iowa it ranges from late April to June . The clutch size is generally 3 to 6 eggs , but can reach as high as seven in Texas . The eggs are creamy white with brown or reddish @-@ brown spots , and are more heavily marked at the broad end . The eggs are incubated by the female for 12 – 16 days . After the young hatch , they are fed exclusively on invertebrates and they fledge in 12 – 14 days . As many as three broods may be raised by a pair in a single breeding season . In one study , three of the 70 fledglings remained or defended territory adjacent to the natal area .
Male and females are involved in the process of provisioning at similar rates throughout most nest stages , with the males providing slightly more in the nestling stages . Both sexes increase their provision rates as the nestlings grow in age .
= = Predation and threats = =
Brood parasitism by brown @-@ headed cowbirds is common , with up to 25 % of Carolina wren nests being affected in certain regions such as Oklahoma and Alabama . Cowbird parasitism peaks in April at 41 % , and is as low as 8 % and 0 % in July and August , respectively . Female cowbirds sometimes eject Carolina wren eggs before laying their own , and even if host eggs are retained , the size of cowbird eggs negatively affect the hatching success of wren eggs . As a result , cowbirds may have a significant impact on the reproductive success of wrens . The feeding rate for cowbird nestlings is higher than wren feeding rates , and some have been raised to independence . This also can be detrimental to the survival of wren nestlings . A rare instance of brood @-@ parasitism by a house finch has been recorded . The rate of brood parasitism is thought to be lower in more natural and concealed nesting locations . Body parasites such as the larvae of blowflies feed on nestlings and the blood loss weakens nestlings . Fellow species of wren such as Bewick 's wren and the winter wren compete for nesting locations and food , respectively .
In Virginia , some Carolina wrens populations show high levels of mercury in their blood and this is acquired from feeding all @-@ year @-@ round on spiders . Spiders being at a higher trophic levels contain a higher concentrations of mercury ( through biomagnification ) than herbivorous invertebrates . As these wrens are year @-@ round residents , they are at a higher risk than other species to acquire mercury in its blood . Nest abandonment and failure to raise young were more common with higher mercury content . Exposure , and prolonged periods of cold , ice , and snow is thought to affect the wren nestling and adult populations , respectively . Wrens that outlast those winters reside in sheltered areas during the season .
Among the top predators of adult Carolina wrens are domestic cats , and snakes such as the canebrake rattlesnake . Raccoons and black rat snakes also feed on wren eggs and nestlings .
= = In culture = =
In 1930 , the South Carolina Federated Women 's club adopted the Carolina wren as the unofficial state bird over the eastern mourning dove and pushed for its official state adoption until 1939 , when the South Carolina Legislature named the northern mockingbird as the state bird . In 1948 , the legislature repealed their previous decision , and the wren became the official state bird .
In 2000 , the Carolina wren was featured on the back of the South Carolina edition of the 50 State Quarters .
= Insect =
Insects ( from Latin insectum , a calque of Greek ἔντομον [ éntomon ] , " cut into sections " ) are a class of invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton , a three @-@ part body ( head , thorax and abdomen ) , three pairs of jointed legs , compound eyes and one pair of antennae . They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet , including more than a million described species and representing more than half of all known living organisms . The number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million , and potentially represent over 90 % of the differing animal life forms on Earth . Insects may be found in nearly all environments , although only a small number of species reside in the oceans , a habitat dominated by another arthropod group , crustaceans .
The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch from eggs . Insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts . The immature stages can differ from the adults in structure , habit and habitat , and can include a passive pupal stage in those groups that undergo 4 @-@ stage metamorphosis ( see holometabolism ) . Insects that undergo 3 @-@ stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages . The higher level relationship of the Hexapoda is unclear . Fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era , including giant dragonflies with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm ( 22 – 28 in ) . The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants .
Adult insects typically move about by walking , flying or sometimes swimming ( see below , Locomotion ) . As it allows for rapid yet stable movement , many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles . Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight . Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water , with larval adaptations that include gills , and some adult insects are aquatic and have adaptations for swimming . Some species , such as water striders , are capable of walking on the surface of water . Insects are mostly solitary , but some , such as certain bees , ants and termites , are social and live in large , well @-@ organized colonies . Some insects , such as earwigs , show maternal care , guarding their eggs and young . Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways . Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances . Other species communicate with sounds : crickets stridulate , or rub their wings together , to attract a mate and repel other males . Lampyridae in the beetle order Coleoptera communicate with light .
Humans regard certain insects as pests , and attempt to control them using insecticides and a host of other techniques . Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap , leaves or fruits . A few parasitic species are pathogenic . Some insects perform complex ecological roles ; blow @-@ flies , for example , help consume carrion but also spread diseases . Insect pollinators are essential to the life @-@ cycle of many flowering plant species on which most organisms , including humans , are at least partly dependent ; without them , the terrestrial portion of the biosphere ( including humans ) would be devastated . Many other insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit . Silkworms and bees have been used extensively by humans for the production of silk and honey , respectively . In some cultures , people eat the larvae or adults of certain insects .
= = Etymology = =
The word " insect " comes from the Latin word insectum , meaning " with a notched or divided body " , or literally " cut into " , from the neuter singular perfect passive participle of insectare , " to cut into , to cut up " , from in- " into " and secare " to cut " ; because insects appear " cut into " three sections . Pliny the Elder introduced the Latin designation as a loan @-@ translation of the Greek word ἔντομος ( éntomos ) or " insect " ( as in entomology ) , which was Aristotle 's term for this class of life , also in reference to their " notched " bodies . " Insect " first appears documented in English in 1601 in Holland 's translation of Pliny . Translations of Aristotle 's term also form the usual word for " insect " in Welsh ( trychfil , from trychu " to cut " and mil , " animal " ) , Serbo @-@ Croatian ( zareznik , from rezati , " to cut " ) , Russian ( насекомое nasekomoje , from seč ' / -sekat ' , " to cut " ) , etc .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
The evolutionary relationship of insects to other animal groups remains unclear .
Although traditionally grouped with millipedes and centipedes — possibly on the basis of convergent adaptations to terrestrialisation — evidence has emerged favoring closer evolutionary ties with crustaceans . In the Pancrustacea theory , insects , together with Entognatha , Remipedia , and Cephalocarida , make up a natural clade labeled Miracrustacea .
A report in November 2014 unambiguously places the insects in one clade , with the crustaceans and myriapods , as the nearest sister clades . This study resolved insect phylogeny of all extant insect orders , and provides " a robust phylogenetic backbone tree and reliable time estimates of insect evolution . "
Other terrestrial arthropods , such as centipedes , millipedes , scorpions , and spiders , are sometimes confused with insects since their body plans can appear similar , sharing ( as do all arthropods ) a jointed exoskeleton . However , upon closer examination , their features differ significantly ; most noticeably , they do not have the six @-@ legged characteristic of adult insects .
The higher @-@ level phylogeny of the arthropods continues to be a matter of debate and research . In 2008 , researchers at Tufts University uncovered what they believe is the world 's oldest known full @-@ body impression of a primitive flying insect , a 300 million @-@ year @-@ old specimen from the Carboniferous period . The oldest definitive insect fossil is the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti , from the 396 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Rhynie chert . It may have superficially resembled a modern @-@ day silverfish insect . This species already possessed dicondylic mandibles ( two articulations in the mandible ) , a feature associated with winged insects , suggesting that wings may already have evolved at this time . Thus , the first insects probably appeared earlier , in the Silurian period .
Four super radiations of insects have occurred : beetles ( evolved about 300 million years ago ) , flies ( evolved about 250 million years ago ) , and moths and wasps ( evolved about 150 million years ago ) . These four groups account for the majority of described species . The flies and moths along with the fleas evolved from the Mecoptera .
The origins of insect flight remain obscure , since the earliest winged insects currently known appear to have been capable fliers . Some extinct insects had an additional pair of winglets attaching to the first segment of the thorax , for a total of three pairs . As of 2009 , no evidence suggests the insects were a particularly successful group of animals before they evolved to have wings .
Late Carboniferous and Early Permian insect orders include both extant groups , their stem groups , and a number of Paleozoic groups , now extinct . During this era , some giant dragonfly @-@ like forms reached wingspans of 55 to 70 cm ( 22 to 28 in ) , making them far larger than any living insect . This gigantism may have been due to higher atmospheric oxygen levels that allowed increased respiratory efficiency relative to today . The lack of flying vertebrates could have been another factor . Most extinct orders of insects developed during the Permian period that began around 270 million years ago . Many of the early groups became extinct during the Permian @-@ Triassic extinction event , the largest mass extinction in the history of the Earth , around 252 million years ago .
The remarkably successful Hymenoptera appeared as long as 146 million years ago in the Cretaceous period , but achieved their wide diversity more recently in the Cenozoic era , which began 66 million years ago . A number of highly successful insect groups evolved in conjunction with flowering plants , a powerful illustration of coevolution .
Many modern insect genera developed during the Cenozoic . Insects from this period on are often found preserved in amber , often in perfect condition . The body plan , or morphology , of such specimens is thus easily compared with modern species . The study of fossilized insects is called paleoentomology .
= = = Evolutionary relationships = = =
Insects are prey for a variety of organisms , including terrestrial vertebrates . The earliest vertebrates on land existed 400 million years ago and were large amphibious piscivores . Through gradual evolutionary change , insectivory was the next diet type to evolve .
Insects were among the earliest terrestrial herbivores and acted as major selection agents on plants . Plants evolved chemical defenses against this herbivory and the insects , in turn , evolved mechanisms to deal with plant toxins . Many insects make use of these toxins to protect themselves from their predators . Such insects often advertise their toxicity using warning colors . This successful evolutionary pattern has also been used by mimics . Over time , this has led to complex groups of coevolved species . Conversely , some interactions between plants and insects , like pollination , are beneficial to both organisms . Coevolution has led to the development of very specific mutualisms in such systems .
= = = Taxonomy = = =
Traditional morphology @-@ based or appearance @-@ based systematics have usually given the Hexapoda the rank of superclass , and identified four groups within it : insects ( Ectognatha ) , springtails ( Collembola ) , Protura , and Diplura , the latter three being grouped together as the Entognatha on the basis of internalized mouth parts . Supraordinal relationships have undergone numerous changes with the advent of methods based on evolutionary history and genetic data . A recent theory is that the Hexapoda are polyphyletic ( where the last common ancestor was not a member of the group ) , with the entognath classes having separate evolutionary histories from the Insecta . Many of the traditional appearance @-@ based taxa have been shown to be paraphyletic , so rather than using ranks like subclass , superorder , and infraorder , it has proved better to use monophyletic groupings ( in which the last common ancestor is a member of the group ) . The following represents the best @-@ supported monophyletic groupings for the Insecta .
Insects can be divided into two groups historically treated as subclasses : wingless insects , known as Apterygota , and winged insects , known as Pterygota . The Apterygota consist of the primitively wingless order of the silverfish ( Thysanura ) . Archaeognatha make up the Monocondylia based on the shape of their mandibles , while Thysanura and Pterygota are grouped together as Dicondylia . The Thysanura themselves possibly are not monophyletic , with the family Lepidotrichidae being a sister group to the Dicondylia ( Pterygota and the remaining Thysanura ) .
Paleoptera and Neoptera are the winged orders of insects differentiated by the presence of hardened body parts called sclerites , and in the Neoptera , muscles that allow their wings to fold flatly over the abdomen . Neoptera can further be divided into incomplete metamorphosis @-@ based ( Polyneoptera and Paraneoptera ) and complete metamorphosis @-@ based groups . It has proved difficult to clarify the relationships between the orders in Polyneoptera because of constant new findings calling for revision of the taxa . For example , the Paraneoptera have turned out to be more closely related to the Endopterygota than to the rest of the Exopterygota . The recent molecular finding that the traditional louse orders Mallophaga and Anoplura are derived from within Psocoptera has led to the new taxon Psocodea . Phasmatodea and Embiidina have been suggested to form the Eukinolabia . Mantodea , Blattodea , and Isoptera are thought to form a monophyletic group termed Dictyoptera .
The Exopterygota likely are paraphyletic in regard to the Endopterygota . Matters that have incurred controversy include Strepsiptera and Diptera grouped together as Halteria based on a reduction of one of the wing pairs – a position not well @-@ supported in the entomological community . The Neuropterida are often lumped or split on the whims of the taxonomist . Fleas are now thought to be closely related to boreid mecopterans . Many questions remain in the basal relationships amongst endopterygote orders , particularly the Hymenoptera .
The study of the classification or taxonomy of any insect is called systematic entomology . If one works with a more specific order or even a family , the term may also be made specific to that order or family , for example systematic dipterology .
= = Diversity = =
Though the true dimensions of species diversity remain uncertain , estimates range from 2 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 8 million species with a mean of 5 @.@ 5 million . This probably represents less than 20 % of all species on Earth , and with only about 20 @,@ 000 new species of all organisms being described each year , most species likely will remain undescribed for many years unless species descriptions increase in rate . About 850 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 of all described species are insects . Of the 24 orders of insects , four dominate in terms of numbers of described species , with at least 3 million species included in Coleoptera , Diptera , Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera . A recent study estimated the number of beetles at 0 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 1 million with a mean of 1 @.@ 5 million .
= = Morphology and physiology = =
= = = External = = =
Insects have segmented bodies supported by exoskeletons , the hard outer covering made mostly of chitin . The segments of the body are organized into three distinctive but interconnected units , or tagmata : a head , a thorax and an abdomen . The head supports a pair of sensory antennae , a pair of compound eyes , and , if present , one to three simple eyes ( or ocelli ) and three sets of variously modified appendages that form the mouthparts . The thorax has six segmented legs — one pair each for the prothorax , mesothorax and the metathorax segments making up the thorax — and , none , two or four wings . The abdomen consists of eleven segments , though in a few species of insects , these segments may be fused together or reduced in size . The abdomen also contains most of the digestive , respiratory , excretory and reproductive internal structures . Considerable variation and many adaptations in the body parts of insects occur , especially wings , legs , antenna and mouthparts .
= = = Segmentation = = =
The head is enclosed in a hard , heavily sclerotized , unsegmented , exoskeletal head capsule , or epicranium , which contains most of the sensing organs , including the antennae , ocellus or eyes , and the mouthparts . Of all the insect orders , Orthoptera displays the most features found in other insects , including the sutures and sclerites . Here , the vertex , or the apex ( dorsal region ) , is situated between the compound eyes for insects with a hypognathous and opisthognathous head . In prognathous insects , the vertex is not found between the compound eyes , but rather , where the ocelli are normally . This is because the primary axis of the head is rotated 90 ° to become parallel to the primary axis of the body . In some species , this region is modified and assumes a different name .
The thorax is a tagma composed of three sections , the prothorax , mesothorax and the metathorax . The anterior segment , closest to the head , is the prothorax , with the major features being the first pair of legs and the pronotum . The middle segment is the mesothorax , with the major features being the second pair of legs and the anterior wings . The third and most posterior segment , abutting the abdomen , is the metathorax , which features the third pair of legs and the posterior wings . Each segment is dilineated by an intersegmental suture . Each segment has four basic regions . The dorsal surface is called the tergum ( or notum ) to distinguish it from the abdominal terga . The two lateral regions are called the pleura ( singular : pleuron ) and the ventral aspect is called the sternum . In turn , the notum of the prothorax is called the pronotum , the notum for the mesothorax is called the mesonotum and the notum for the metathorax is called the metanotum . Continuing with this logic , the mesopleura and metapleura , as well as the mesosternum and metasternum , are used .
The abdomen is the largest tagma of the insect , which typically consists of 11 – 12 segments and is less strongly sclerotized than the head or thorax . Each segment of the abdomen is represented by a sclerotized tergum and sternum . Terga are separated from each other and from the adjacent sterna or pleura by membranes . Spiracles are located in the pleural area . Variation of this ground plan includes the fusion of terga or terga and sterna to form continuous dorsal or ventral shields or a conical tube . Some insects bear a sclerite in the pleural area called a laterotergite . Ventral sclerites are sometimes called laterosternites . During the embryonic stage of many insects and the postembryonic stage of primitive insects , 11 abdominal segments are present . In modern insects there is a tendency toward reduction in the number of the abdominal segments , but the primitive number of 11 is maintained during embryogenesis . Variation in abdominal segment number is considerable . If the Apterygota are considered to be indicative of the ground plan for pterygotes , confusion reigns : adult Protura have 12 segments , Collembola have 6 . The orthopteran family Acrididae has 11 segments , and a fossil specimen of Zoraptera has a 10 @-@ segmented abdomen .
= = = = Exoskeleton = = = =
The insect outer skeleton , the cuticle , is made up of two layers : the epicuticle , which is a thin and waxy water resistant outer layer and contains no chitin , and a lower layer called the procuticle . The procuticle is chitinous and much thicker than the epicuticle and has two layers : an outer layer known as the exocuticle and an inner layer known as the endocuticle . The tough and flexible endocuticle is built from numerous layers of fibrous chitin and proteins , criss @-@ crossing each other in a sandwich pattern , while the exocuticle is rigid and hardened . The exocuticle is greatly reduced in many soft @-@ bodied insects ( e.g. , caterpillars ) , especially during their larval stages .
Insects are the only invertebrates to have developed active flight capability , and this has played an important role in their success . Their muscles are able to contract multiple times for each single nerve impulse , allowing the wings to beat faster than would ordinarily be possible . Having their muscles attached to their exoskeletons is more efficient and allows more muscle connections ; crustaceans also use the same method , though all spiders use hydraulic pressure to extend their legs , a system inherited from their pre @-@ arthropod ancestors . Unlike insects , though , most aquatic crustaceans are biomineralized with calcium carbonate extracted from the water .
= = = Internal = = =
= = = = Nervous system = = = =
The nervous system of an insect can be divided into a brain and a ventral nerve cord . The head capsule is made up of six fused segments , each with either a pair of ganglia , or a cluster of nerve cells outside of the brain . The first three pairs of ganglia are fused into the brain , while the three following pairs are fused into a structure of three pairs of ganglia under the insect 's esophagus , called the subesophageal ganglion .
The thoracic segments have one ganglion on each side , which are connected into a pair , one pair per segment . This arrangement is also seen in the abdomen but only in the first eight segments . Many species of insects have reduced numbers of ganglia due to fusion or reduction . Some cockroaches have just six ganglia in the abdomen , whereas the wasp Vespa crabro has only two in the thorax and three in the abdomen . Some insects , like the house fly Musca domestica , have all the body ganglia fused into a single large thoracic ganglion .
At least a few insects have nociceptors , cells that detect and transmit signals responsible for the sensation of pain . This was discovered in 2003 by studying the variation in reactions of larvae of the common fruitfly Drosophila to the touch of a heated probe and an unheated one . The larvae reacted to the touch of the heated probe with a stereotypical rolling behavior that was not exhibited when the larvae were touched by the unheated probe . Although nociception has been demonstrated in insects , there is no consensus that insects feel pain consciously
Insects are capable of learning .
= = = = Digestive system = = = =
An insect uses its digestive system to extract nutrients and other substances from the food it consumes . Most of this food is ingested in the form of macromolecules and other complex substances like proteins , polysaccharides , fats and nucleic acids . These macromolecules must be broken down by catabolic reactions into smaller molecules like amino acids and simple sugars before being used by cells of the body for energy , growth , or reproduction . This break @-@ down process is known as digestion .
The main structure of an insect 's digestive system is a long enclosed tube called the alimentary canal , which runs lengthwise through the body . The alimentary canal directs food unidirectionally from the mouth to the anus . It has three sections , each of which performs a different process of digestion . In addition to the alimentary canal , insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs . These structures usually reside in the thorax , adjacent to the foregut .
The salivary glands ( element 30 in numbered diagram ) in an insect 's mouth produce saliva . The salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium , located behind the hypopharynx . By moving its mouthparts ( element 32 in numbered diagram ) the insect can mix its food with saliva . The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth , where it begins to break down . Some insects , like flies , have extra @-@ oral digestion . Insects using extra @-@ oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down . This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source . The gut is where almost all of insects ' digestion takes place . It can be divided into the foregut , midgut and hindgut .
= = = = = Foregut = = = = =
The first section of the alimentary canal is the foregut ( element 27 in numbered diagram ) , or stomodaeum . The foregut is lined with a cuticular lining made of chitin and proteins as protection from tough food . The foregut includes the buccal cavity ( mouth ) , pharynx , esophagus and crop and proventriculus ( any part may be highly modified ) which both store food and signify when to continue passing onward to the midgut .
Digestion starts in buccal cavity ( mouth ) as partially chewed food is broken down by saliva from the salivary glands . As the salivary glands produce fluid and carbohydrate @-@ digesting enzymes ( mostly amylases ) , strong muscles in the pharynx pump fluid into the buccal cavity , lubricating the food like the salivarium does , and helping blood feeders , and xylem and phloem feeders .
From there , the pharynx passes food to the esophagus , which could be just a simple tube passing it on to the crop and proventriculus , and then onward to the midgut , as in most insects . Alternately , the foregut may expand into a very enlarged crop and proventriculus , or the crop could just be a diverticulum , or fluid @-@ filled structure , as in some Diptera species .
= = = = = Midgut = = = = =
Once food leaves the crop , it passes to the midgut ( element 13 in numbered diagram ) , also known as the mesenteron , where the majority of digestion takes place . Microscopic projections from the midgut wall , called microvilli , increase the surface area of the wall and allow more nutrients to be absorbed ; they tend to be close to the origin of the midgut . In some insects , the role of the microvilli and where they are located may vary . For example , specialized microvilli producing digestive enzymes may more likely be near the end of the midgut , and absorption near the origin or beginning of the midgut .
= = = = = Hindgut = = = = =
In the hindgut ( element 16 in numbered diagram ) , or proctodaeum , undigested food particles are joined by uric acid to form fecal pellets . The rectum absorbs 90 % of the water in these fecal pellets , and the dry pellet is then eliminated through the anus ( element 17 ) , completing the process of digestion . The uric acid is formed using hemolymph waste products diffused from the Malpighian tubules ( element 20 ) . It is then emptied directly into the alimentary canal , at the junction between the midgut and hindgut . The number of Malpighian tubules possessed by a given insect varies between species , ranging from only two tubules in some insects to over 100 tubules in others .
= = = = Reproductive system = = = =
The reproductive system of female insects consist of a pair of ovaries , accessory glands , one or more spermathecae , and ducts connecting these parts . The ovaries are made up of a number of egg tubes , called ovarioles , which vary in size and number by species . The number of eggs that the insect is able to make vary by the number of ovarioles with the rate that eggs can be develop being also influenced by ovariole design . Female insects are able make eggs , receive and store sperm , manipulate sperm from different males , and lay eggs . Accessory glands or glandular parts of the oviducts produce a variety of substances for sperm maintenance , transport and fertilization , as well as for protection of eggs . They can produce glue and protective substances for coating eggs or tough coverings for a batch of eggs called oothecae . Spermathecae are tubes or sacs in which sperm can be stored between the time of mating and the time an egg is fertilized .
For males , the reproductive system is the testis , suspended in the body cavity by tracheae and the fat body . Most male insects have a pair of testes , inside of which are sperm tubes or follicles that are enclosed within a membranous sac . The follicles connect to the vas deferens by the vas efferens , and the two tubular vasa deferentia connect to a median ejaculatory duct that leads to the outside . A portion of the vas deferens is often enlarged to form the seminal vesicle , which stores the sperm before they are discharged into the female . The seminal vesicles have glandular linings that secrete nutrients for nourishment and maintenance of the sperm . The ejaculatory duct is derived from an invagination of the epidermal cells during development and , as a result , has a cuticular lining . The terminal portion of the ejaculatory duct may be sclerotized to
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form the intromittent organ , the aedeagus . The remainder of the male reproductive system is derived from embryonic mesoderm , except for the germ cells , or spermatogonia , which descend from the primordial pole cells very early during embryogenesis .
= = = = Respiratory system = = = =
Insect respiration is accomplished without lungs . Instead , the insect respiratory system uses a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases either diffuse or are actively pumped , delivering oxygen directly to tissues that need it via their trachea ( element 8 in numbered diagram ) . Since oxygen is delivered directly , the circulatory system is not used to carry oxygen , and is therefore greatly reduced . The insect circulatory system has no veins or arteries , and instead consists of little more than a single , perforated dorsal tube which pulses peristaltically . Toward the thorax , the dorsal tube ( element 14 ) divides into chambers and acts like the insect 's heart . The opposite end of the dorsal tube is like the aorta of the insect circulating the hemolymph , arthropods ' fluid analog of blood , inside the body cavity . Air is taken in through openings on the sides of the abdomen called spiracles .
The respiratory system is an important factor that limits the size of insects . As insects get bigger , this type of oxygen transport gets less efficient and thus the heaviest insect currently weighs less than 100 g . However , with increased atmospheric oxygen levels , as happened in the late Paleozoic , larger insects were possible , such as dragonflies with wingspans of more than two feet .
There are many different patterns of gas exchange demonstrated by different groups of insects . Gas exchange patterns in insects can range from continuous and diffusive ventilation , to discontinuous gas exchange . During continuous gas exchange , oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is released in a continuous cycle . In discontinuous gas exchange , however , the insect takes in oxygen while it is active and small amounts of carbon dioxide are released when the insect is at rest . Diffusive ventilation is simply a form of continuous gas exchange that occurs by diffusion rather than physically taking in the oxygen . Some species of insect that are submerged also have adaptations to aid in respiration . As larvae , many insects have gills that can extract oxygen dissolved in water , while others need to rise to the water surface to replenish air supplies which may be held or trapped in special structures .
= = = = Circulatory system = = = =
The insect circulatory system utilizes hemolymph , a tissue analogous to blood that circulates in the interior of the insect body , while remaining in direct contact with the animal 's tissues . It is composed of plasma in which hemocytes are suspended . In addition to hemocytes , the plasma also contains many chemicals . It is also the major tissue type of the open circulatory system of arthropods , characteristic of spiders , crustaceans and insects .
= = Reproduction and development = =
The majority of insects hatch from eggs . The fertilization and development takes place inside the egg , enclosed by a shell ( chorion ) that consists of maternal tissue . In contrast to eggs of other arthropods , most insect eggs are drought resistant . This is because inside the chorion two additional membranes develop from embryonic tissue , the amnion and the serosa . This serosa secretes a cuticle rich in chitin that protects the embryo against desiccation . In Schizophora however the serosa does not develop , but these flies lay their eggs in damp places , such as rotting matter . Some species of insects , like the cockroach Blaptica dubia , as well as juvenile aphids and tsetse flies , are ovoviviparous . The eggs of ovoviviparous animals develop entirely inside the female , and then hatch immediately upon being laid . Some other species , such as those in the genus of cockroaches known as Diploptera , are viviparous , and thus gestate inside the mother and are born alive . Some insects , like parasitic wasps , show polyembryony , where a single fertilized egg divides into many and in some cases thousands of separate embryos . Insects may be univoltine , bivoltine or multivoltine , i.e. they may have one , two or many broods ( generations ) in a year .
Other developmental and reproductive variations include haplodiploidy , polymorphism , paedomorphosis or peramorphosis , sexual dimorphism , parthenogenesis and more rarely hermaphroditism . In haplodiploidy , which is a type of sex @-@ determination system , the offspring 's sex is determined by the number of sets of chromosomes an individual receives . This system is typical in bees and wasps . Polymorphism is where a species may have different morphs or forms , as in the oblong winged katydid , which has four different varieties : green , pink and yellow or tan . Some insects may retain phenotypes that are normally only seen in juveniles ; this is called paedomorphosis . In peramorphosis , an opposite sort of phenomenon , insects take on previously unseen traits after they have matured into adults . Many insects display sexual dimorphism , in which males and females have notably different appearances , such as the moth Orgyia recens as an exemplar of sexual dimorphism in insects .
Some insects use parthenogenesis , a process in which the female can reproduce and give birth without having the eggs fertilized by a male . Many aphids undergo a form of parthenogenesis , called cyclical parthenogenesis , in which they alternate between one or many generations of asexual and sexual reproduction . In summer , aphids are generally female and parthenogenetic ; in the autumn , males may be produced for sexual reproduction . Other insects produced by parthenogenesis are bees , wasps and ants , in which they spawn males . However , overall , most individuals are female , which are produced by fertilization . The males are haploid and the females are diploid . More rarely , some insects display hermaphroditism , in which a given individual has both male and female reproductive organs .
Insect life @-@ histories show adaptations to withstand cold and dry conditions . Some temperate region insects are capable of activity during winter , while some others migrate to a warmer climate or go into a state of torpor . Still other insects have evolved mechanisms of diapause that allow eggs or pupae to survive these conditions .
= = = Metamorphosis = = =
Metamorphosis in insects is the biological process of development all insects must undergo . There are two forms of metamorphosis : incomplete metamorphosis and complete metamorphosis .
= = = = Incomplete metamorphosis = = = =
Hemimetabolous insects , those with incomplete metamorphosis , change gradually by undergoing a series of molts . An insect molts when it outgrows its exoskeleton , which does not stretch and would otherwise restrict the insect 's growth . The molting process begins as the insect 's epidermis secretes a new epicuticle inside the old one . After this new epicuticle is secreted , the epidermis releases a mixture of enzymes that digests the endocuticle and thus detaches the old cuticle . When this stage is complete , the insect makes its body swell by taking in a large quantity of water or air , which makes the old cuticle split along predefined weaknesses where the old exocuticle was thinnest .
Immature insects that go through incomplete metamorphosis are called nymphs or in the case of dragonflies and damselflies , also naiads . Nymphs are similar in form to the adult except for the presence of wings , which are not developed until adulthood . With each molt , nymphs grow larger and become more similar in appearance to adult insects .
= = = = Complete metamorphosis = = = =
Holometabolism , or complete metamorphosis , is where the insect changes in four stages , an egg or embryo , a larva , a pupa and the adult or imago . In these species , an egg hatches to produce a larva , which is generally worm @-@ like in form . This worm @-@ like form can be one of several varieties : eruciform ( caterpillar @-@ like ) , scarabaeiform ( grub @-@ like ) , campodeiform ( elongated , flattened and active ) , elateriform ( wireworm @-@ like ) or vermiform ( maggot @-@ like ) . The larva grows and eventually becomes a pupa , a stage marked by reduced movement and often sealed within a cocoon . There are three types of pupae : obtect , exarate or coarctate . Obtect pupae are compact , with the legs and other appendages enclosed . Exarate pupae have their legs and other appendages free and extended . Coarctate pupae develop inside the larval skin . Insects undergo considerable change in form during the pupal stage , and emerge as adults . Butterflies are a well @-@ known example of insects that undergo complete metamorphosis , although most insects use this life cycle . Some insects have evolved this system to hypermetamorphosis .
Some of the oldest and most successful insect groups , such Endopterygota , use a system of complete metamorphosis . Complete metamorphosis is unique to a group of certain insect orders including Diptera , Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera . This form of development is exclusive and not seen in any other arthropods .
= = Senses and communication = =
Many insects possess very sensitive and , or specialized organs of perception . Some insects such as bees can perceive ultraviolet wavelengths , or detect polarized light , while the antennae of male moths can detect the pheromones of female moths over distances of many kilometers . The yellow paper wasp ( Polistes versicolor ) is known for its wagging movements as a form of communication within the colony ; it can waggle with a frequency of 10 @.@ 6 ± 2 @.@ 1 Hz ( n = 190 ) . These wagging movements can signal the arrival of new material into the nest and aggression between workers can be used to stimulate others to increase foraging expeditions . There is a pronounced tendency for there to be a trade @-@ off between visual acuity and chemical or tactile acuity , such that most insects with well @-@ developed eyes have reduced or simple antennae , and vice versa . There are a variety of different mechanisms by which insects perceive sound , while the patterns are not universal , insects can generally hear sound if they can produce it . Different insect species can have varying hearing , though most insects can hear only a narrow range of frequencies related to the frequency of the sounds they can produce . Mosquitoes have been found to hear up to 2 kHz . , and some grasshoppers can hear up to 50 kHz . Certain predatory and parasitic insects can detect the characteristic sounds made by their prey or hosts , respectively . For instance , some nocturnal moths can perceive the ultrasonic emissions of bats , which helps them avoid predation . Insects that feed on blood have special sensory structures that can detect infrared emissions , and use them to home in on their hosts .
Some insects display a rudimentary sense of numbers , such as the solitary wasps that prey upon a single species . The mother wasp lays her eggs in individual cells and provides each egg with a number of live caterpillars on which the young feed when hatched . Some species of wasp always provide five , others twelve , and others as high as twenty @-@ four caterpillars per cell . The number of caterpillars is different among species , but always the same for each sex of larva . The male solitary wasp in the genus Eumenes is smaller than the female , so the mother of one species supplies him with only five caterpillars ; the larger female receives ten caterpillars in her cell .
= = = Light production and vision = = =
A few insects , such as members of the families Poduridae and Onychiuridae ( Collembola ) , Mycetophilidae ( Diptera ) and the beetle families Lampyridae , Phengodidae , Elateridae and Staphylinidae are bioluminescent . The most familiar group are the fireflies , beetles of the family Lampyridae . Some species are able to control this light generation to produce flashes . The function varies with some species using them to attract mates , while others use them to lure prey . Cave dwelling larvae of Arachnocampa ( Mycetophilidae , Fungus gnats ) glow to lure small flying insects into sticky strands of silk . Some fireflies of the genus Photuris mimic the flashing of female Photinus species to attract males of that species , which are then captured and devoured . The colors of emitted light vary from dull blue ( Orfelia fultoni , Mycetophilidae ) to the familiar greens and the rare reds ( Phrixothrix tiemanni , Phengodidae ) .
Most insects , except some species of cave crickets , are able to perceive light and dark . Many species have acute vision capable of detecting minute movements . The eyes may include simple eyes or ocelli as well as compound eyes of varying sizes . Many species are able to detect light in the infrared , ultraviolet and the visible light wavelengths . Color vision has been demonstrated in many species and phylogenetic analysis suggests that UV @-@ green @-@ blue trichromacy existed from at least the Devonian period between 416 and 359 million years ago .
= = = Sound production and hearing = = =
Insects were the earliest organisms to produce and sense sounds . Insects make sounds mostly by mechanical action of appendages . In grasshoppers and crickets , this is achieved by stridulation . Cicadas make the loudest sounds among the insects by producing and amplifying sounds with special modifications to their body and musculature . The African cicada Brevisana brevis has been measured at 106 @.@ 7 decibels at a distance of 50 cm ( 20 in ) . Some insects , such as the Helicoverpa zeamoths , hawk moths and Hedylid butterflies , can hear ultrasound and take evasive action when they sense that they have been detected by bats . Some moths produce ultrasonic clicks that were once thought to have a role in jamming bat echolocation . The ultrasonic clicks were subsequently found to be produced mostly by unpalatable moths to warn bats , just as warning colorations are used against predators that hunt by sight . Some otherwise palatable moths have evolved to mimic these calls . More recently , the claim that some moths can jam bat sonar has been revisited . Ultrasonic recording and high @-@ speed infrared videography of bat @-@ moth interactions suggest the palatable tiger moth really does defend against attacking big brown bats using ultrasonic clicks that jam bat sonar .
Very low sounds are also produced in various species of Coleoptera , Hymenoptera , Lepidoptera , Mantodea and Neuroptera . These low sounds are simply the sounds made by the insect 's movement . Through microscopic stridulatory structures located on the insect 's muscles and joints , the normal sounds of the insect moving are amplified and can be used to warn or communicate with other insects . Most sound @-@ making insects also have tympanal organs that can perceive airborne sounds . Some species in Hemiptera , such as the corixids ( water boatmen ) , are known to communicate via underwater sounds . Most insects are also able to sense vibrations transmitted through surfaces .
Communication using surface @-@ borne vibrational signals is more widespread among insects because of size constraints in producing air @-@ borne sounds . Insects cannot effectively produce low @-@ frequency sounds , and high @-@ frequency sounds tend to disperse more in a dense environment ( such as foliage ) , so insects living in such environments communicate primarily using substrate @-@ borne vibrations . The mechanisms of production of vibrational signals are just as diverse as those for producing sound in insects .
Some species use vibrations for communicating within members of the same species , such as to attract mates as in the songs of the shield bug Nezara viridula . Vibrations can also be used to communicate between entirely different species ; lycaenid ( gossamer @-@ winged butterfly ) caterpillars which are myrmecophilous ( living in a mutualistic association with ants ) communicate with ants in this way . The Madagascar hissing cockroach has the ability to press air through its spiracles to make a hissing noise as a sign of aggression ; the Death 's @-@ head Hawkmoth makes a squeaking noise by forcing air out of their pharynx when agitated , which may also reduce aggressive worker honey bee behavior when the two are in close proximity .
= = = Chemical communication = = =
Chemical communications in animals rely on a variety of aspects including taste and smell . Chemoreception is the physiological response of a sense organ ( i.e. taste or smell ) to a chemical stimulus where the chemicals act as signals to regulate the state or activity of a cell . A semiochemical is a message @-@ carrying chemical that is meant to attract , repel , and convey information . Types of semiochemicals include pheromones and kairomones . One example is the butterfly Phengaris arion which uses chemical signals as a form of mimicry to aid in predation .
In addition to the use of sound for communication , a wide range of insects have evolved chemical means for communication . These chemicals , termed semiochemicals , are often derived from plant metabolites include those meant to attract , repel and provide other kinds of information . Pheromones , a type of semiochemical , are used for attracting mates of the opposite sex , for aggregating conspecific individuals of both sexes , for deterring other individuals from approaching , to mark a trail , and to trigger aggression in nearby individuals . Allomonea benefit their producer by the effect they have upon the receiver . Kairomones benefit their receiver instead of their producer . Synomones benefit the producer and the receiver . While some chemicals are targeted at individuals of the same species , others are used for communication across species . The use of scents is especially well known to have developed in social insects .
= = Social behavior = =
Social insects , such as termites , ants and many bees and wasps , are the most familiar species of eusocial animal . They live together in large well @-@ organized colonies that may be so tightly integrated and genetically similar that the colonies of some species are sometimes considered superorganisms . It is sometimes argued that the various species of honey bee are the only invertebrates ( and indeed one of the few non @-@ human groups ) to have evolved a system of abstract symbolic communication where a behavior is used to represent and convey specific information about something in the environment . In this communication system , called dance language , the angle at which a bee dances represents a direction relative to the sun , and the length of the dance represents the distance to be flown . Though perhaps not as advanced as honey bees , bumblebees also potentially have some social communication behaviors . Bombus terrestris , for example , exhibit a faster learning curve for visiting unfamiliar , yet rewarding flowers , when they can see a conspecific foraging on the same species .
Only insects which live in nests or colonies demonstrate any true capacity for fine @-@ scale spatial orientation or homing . This can allow an insect to return unerringly to a single hole a few millimeters in diameter among thousands of apparently identical holes clustered together , after a trip of up to several kilometers ' distance . In a phenomenon known as philopatry , insects that hibernate have shown the ability to recall a specific location up to a year after last viewing the area of interest . A few insects seasonally migrate large distances between different geographic regions ( e.g. , the overwintering areas of the Monarch butterfly ) .
= = = Care of young = = =
The eusocial insects build nest , guard eggs , and provide food for offspring full @-@ time ( see Eusociality ) . Most insects , however , lead short lives as adults , and rarely interact with one another except to mate or compete for mates . A small number exhibit some form of parental care , where they will at least guard their eggs , and sometimes continue guarding their offspring until adulthood , and possibly even feeding them . Another simple form of parental care is to construct a nest ( a burrow or an actual construction , either of which may be simple or complex ) , store provisions in it , and lay an egg upon those provisions . The adult does not contact the growing offspring , but it nonetheless does provide food . This sort of care is typical for most species of bees and various types of wasps .
= = Locomotion = =
= = = Flight = = =
Insects are the only group of invertebrates to have developed flight . The evolution of insect wings has been a subject of debate . Some entomologists suggest that the wings are from paranotal lobes , or extensions from the insect 's exoskeleton called the nota , called the paranotal theory . Other theories are based on a pleural origin . These theories include suggestions that wings originated from modified gills , spiracular flaps or as from an appendage of the epicoxa . The epicoxal theory suggests the insect wings are modified epicoxal exites , a modified appendage at the base of the legs or coxa . In the Carboniferous age , some of the Meganeura dragonflies had as much as a 50 cm ( 20 in ) wide wingspan . The appearance of gigantic insects has been found to be consistent with high atmospheric oxygen . The respiratory system of insects constrains their size , however the high oxygen in the atmosphere allowed larger sizes . The largest flying insects today are much smaller and include several moth species such as the Atlas moth and the White Witch ( Thysania agrippina ) .
Insect flight has been a topic of great interest in aerodynamics due partly to the inability of steady @-@ state theories to explain the lift generated by the tiny wings of insects . But insect wings are in motion , with flapping and vibrations , resulting in churning and eddies , and the misconception that physics says " bumblebees can 't fly " persisted throughout most of the twentieth century .
Unlike birds , many small insects are swept along by the prevailing winds although many of the larger insects are known to make migrations . Aphids are known to be transported long distances by low @-@ level jet streams . As such , fine line patterns associated with converging winds within weather radar imagery , like the WSR @-@ 88D radar network , often represent large groups of insects .
= = = Walking = = =
Many adult insects use six legs for walking and have adopted a tripedal gait . The tripedal gait allows for rapid walking while always having a stable stance and has been studied extensively in cockroaches . The legs are used in alternate triangles touching the ground . For the first step , the middle right leg and the front and rear left legs are in contact with the ground and move the insect forward , while the front and rear right leg and the middle left leg are lifted and moved forward to a new position . When they touch the ground to form a new stable triangle the other legs can be lifted and brought forward in turn and so on . The purest form of the tripedal gait is seen in insects moving at high speeds . However , this type of locomotion is not rigid and insects can adapt a variety of gaits . For example , when moving slowly , turning , or avoiding obstacles , four or more feet may be touching the ground . Insects can also adapt their gait to cope with the loss of one or more limbs .
Cockroaches are among the fastest insect runners and , at full speed , adopt a bipedal run to reach a high velocity in proportion to their body size . As cockroaches move very quickly , they need to be video recorded at several hundred frames per second to reveal their gait . More sedate locomotion is seen in the stick insects or walking sticks ( Phasmatodea ) . A few insects have evolved to walk on the surface of the water , especially members of the Gerridae family , commonly known as water striders . A few species of ocean @-@ skaters in the genus Halobates even live on the surface of open oceans , a habitat that has few insect species .
= = = = Use in robotics = = = =
Insect walking is of particular interest as an alternative form of locomotion in robots . The study of insects and bipeds has a significant impact on possible robotic methods of transport . This may allow new robots to be designed that can traverse terrain that robots with wheels may be unable to handle .
= = = Swimming = = =
A large number of insects live either part or the whole of their lives underwater . In many of the more primitive orders of insect , the immature stages are spent in an aquatic environment . Some groups of insects , like certain water beetles , have aquatic adults as well .
Many of these species have adaptations to help in under @-@ water locomotion . Water beetles and water bugs have legs adapted into paddle @-@ like structures . Dragonfly naiads use jet propulsion , forcibly expelling water out of their rectal chamber . Some species like the water striders are capable of walking on the surface of water . They can do this because their claws are not at the tips of the legs as in most insects , but recessed in a special groove further up the leg ; this prevents the claws from piercing the water 's surface film . Other insects such as the Rove beetle Stenus are known to emit pygidial gland secretions that reduce surface tension making it possible for them to move on the surface of water by Marangoni propulsion ( also known by the German term Entspannungsschwimmen ) .
= = Ecology = =
Insect ecology is the scientific study of how insects , individually or as a community , interact with the surrounding environment or ecosystem . Insects play one of the most important roles in their ecosystems , which includes many roles , such as soil turning and aeration , dung burial , pest control , pollination and wildlife nutrition . An example is the beetles , which are scavengers that feed on dead animals and fallen trees and thereby recycle biological materials into forms found useful by other organisms . These insects , and others , are responsible for much of the process by which topsoil is created .
= = = Defense and predation = = =
Insects are mostly soft bodied , fragile and almost defenseless compared to other , larger lifeforms . The immature stages are small , move slowly or are immobile , and so all stages are exposed to predation and parasitism . Insects then have a variety of defense strategies to avoid being attacked by predators or parasitoids . These include camouflage , mimicry , toxicity and active defense .
Camouflage is an important defense strategy , which involves the use of coloration or shape to blend into the surrounding environment . This sort of protective coloration is common and widespread among beetle families , especially those that feed on wood or vegetation , such as many of the leaf beetles ( family Chrysomelidae ) or weevils . In some of these species , sculpturing or various colored scales or hairs cause the beetle to resemble bird dung or other inedible objects . Many of those that live in sandy environments blend in with the coloration of the substrate . Most phasmids are known for effectively replicating the forms of sticks and leaves , and the bodies of some species ( such as O. macklotti and Palophus centaurus ) are covered in mossy or lichenous outgrowths that supplement their disguise . Some species have the ability to change color as their surroundings shift ( B. scabrinota , T. californica ) . In a further behavioral adaptation to supplement crypsis , a number of species have been noted to perform a rocking motion where the body is swayed from side to side that is thought to reflect the movement of leaves or twigs swaying in the breeze . Another method by which stick insects avoid predation and resemble twigs is by feigning death ( catalepsy ) , where the insect enters a motionless state that can be maintained for a long period . The nocturnal feeding habits of adults also aids Phasmatodea in remaining concealed from predators .
Another defense that often uses color or shape to deceive potential enemies is mimicry . A number of longhorn beetles ( family Cerambycidae ) bear a striking resemblance to wasps , which helps them avoid predation even though the beetles are in fact harmless . Batesian and Müllerian mimicry complexes are commonly found in Lepidoptera . Genetic polymorphism and natural selection give rise to otherwise edible species ( the mimic ) gaining a survival advantage by resembling inedible species ( the model ) . Such a mimicry complex is referred to as Batesian and is most commonly known by the mimicry by the limenitidine Viceroy butterfly of the inedible danaine Monarch . Later research has discovered that the Viceroy is , in fact more toxic than the Monarch and this resemblance should be considered as a case of Müllerian mimicry . In Müllerian mimicry , inedible species , usually within a taxonomic order , find it advantageous to resemble each other so as to reduce the sampling rate by predators who need to learn about the insects ' inedibility . Taxa from the toxic genus Heliconius form one of the most well known Müllerian complexes .
Chemical defense is another important defense found amongst species of Coleoptera and Lepidoptera , usually being advertised by bright colors , such as the Monarch butterfly . They obtain their toxicity by sequestering the chemicals from the plants they eat into their own tissues . Some Lepidoptera manufacture their own toxins . Predators that eat poisonous butterflies and moths may become sick and vomit violently , learning not to eat those types of species ; this is actually the basis of Müllerian mimicry . A predator who has previously eaten a poisonous lepidopteran may avoid other species with similar markings in the future , thus saving many other species as well . Some ground beetles of the Carabidae family can spray chemicals from their abdomen with great accuracy , to repel predators .
= = = Pollination = = =
Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred in the reproduction of plants , thereby enabling fertilisation and sexual reproduction . Most flowering plants require an animal to do the transportation . While other animals are included as pollinators , the majority of pollination is done by insects . Because insects usually receive benefit for the pollination in the form of energy rich nectar it is a grand example of mutualism . The various flower traits ( and combinations thereof ) that differentially attract one type of pollinator or another are known as pollination syndromes . These arose through complex plant @-@ animal adaptations . Pollinators find flowers through bright colorations , including ultraviolet , and attractant pheromones . The study of pollination by insects is known as anthecology .
= = = Parasitism = = =
Many insect are parasites of other insects such as the parasitoid wasps . These insects are known as entomophagous parasites . They can be beneficial due to their devastation of pests that can destroy crops and other resources . Many insects have a parasitic relationship with humans such as the mosquito . These insects are known to spread diseases such as malaria and yellow fever and because of such , mosquitoes indirectly cause more deaths of humans than any other animal .
= = Relationship to humans = =
= = = As pests = = =
Many insects are considered pests by humans . Insects commonly regarded as pests include those that are parasitic ( e.g. lice , bed bugs ) , transmit diseases ( mosquitoes , flies ) , damage structures ( termites ) , or destroy agricultural goods ( locusts , weevils ) . Many entomologists are involved in various forms of pest control , as in research for companies to produce insecticides , but increasingly rely on methods of biological pest control , or biocontrol . Biocontrol uses one organism to reduce the population density of another organism — the pest — and is considered a key element of integrated pest management .
Despite the large amount of effort focused at controlling insects , human attempts to kill pests with insecticides can backfire . If used carelessly , the poison can kill all kinds of organisms in the area , including insects ' natural predators , such as birds , mice and other insectivores . The effects of DDT 's use exemplifies how some insecticides can threaten wildlife beyond intended populations of pest insects .
= = = In beneficial roles = = =
Although pest insects attract the most attention , many insects are beneficial to the environment and to humans . Some insects , like wasps , bees , butterflies and ants , pollinate flowering plants . Pollination is a mutualistic relationship between plants and insects . As insects gather nectar from different plants of the same species , they also spread pollen from plants on which they have previously fed . This greatly increases plants ' ability to cross @-@ pollinate , which maintains and possibly even improves their evolutionary fitness . This ultimately affects humans since ensuring healthy crops is critical to agriculture . As well as pollination ants help with seed distribution of plants . This helps to spread the plants which increases plant diversity . This leads to an overall better environment . A serious environmental problem is the decline of populations of pollinator insects , and a number of species of insects are now cultured primarily for pollination management in order to have sufficient pollinators in the field , orchard or greenhouse at bloom time . Another solution , as shown in Delaware , has been to raise native plants to help support native pollinators like L. vierecki . Insects also produce useful substances such as honey , wax , lacquer and silk . Honey bees have been cultured by humans for thousands of years for honey , although contracting for crop pollination is becoming more significant for beekeepers . The silkworm has greatly affected human history , as silk @-@ driven trade established relationships between China and the rest of the world .
Insectivorous insects , or insects which feed on other insects , are beneficial to humans because they eat insects that could cause damage to agriculture and human structures . For example , aphids feed on crops and cause problems for farmers , but ladybugs feed on aphids , and can be used as a means to get significantly reduce pest aphid populations . While birds are perhaps more visible predators of insects , insects themselves account for the vast majority of insect consumption . Ants also help control animal populations by consuming small vertebrates . Without predators to keep them in check , insects can undergo almost unstoppable population explosions .
Insects are also used in medicine , for example fly larvae ( maggots ) were formerly used to treat wounds to prevent or stop gangrene , as they would only consume dead flesh . This treatment is finding modern usage in some hospitals . Recently insects have also gained attention as potential sources of drugs and other medicinal substances . Adult insects , such as crickets and insect larvae of various kinds , are also commonly used as fishing bait .
= = = In research = = =
Insects play important roles in biological research . For example , because of its small size , short generation time and high fecundity , the common fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is a model organism for studies in the genetics of higher eukaryotes . D. melanogaster has been an essential part of studies into principles like genetic linkage , interactions between genes , chromosomal genetics , development , behavior and evolution . Because genetic systems are well conserved among eukaryotes , understanding basic cellular processes like DNA replication or transcription in fruit flies can help to understand those processes in other eukaryotes , including humans . The genome of D. melanogaster was sequenced in 2000 , reflecting the organism 's important role in biological research . It was found that 70 % of the fly genome is similar to the human genome , supporting the evolution theory .
= = = As food = = =
In some cultures , insects , especially deep @-@ fried cicadas , are considered to be delicacies , whereas in other places they form part of the normal diet . Insects have a high protein content for their mass , and some authors suggest their potential as a major source of protein in human nutrition . In most first @-@ world countries , however , entomophagy ( the eating of insects ) , is taboo . Since it is impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain , insects are inadvertently present in many foods , especially grains . Food safety laws in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food , but rather limit their quantity . According to cultural materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris , the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have other protein sources such as fish or livestock .
Due to the abundance of insects and a worldwide concern of food shortages , the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations considers that the world may have to , in the future , regard the prospects of eating insects as a food staple . Insects are noted for their nutrients , having a high content of protein , minerals and fats and are eaten by one @-@ third of the global population .
= = = In culture = = =
Scarab beetles held religious and cultural symbolism in Old Egypt , Greece and some shamanistic Old World cultures . The ancient Chinese regarded cicadas as symbols of rebirth or immortality . In Mesopotamian literature , the epic poem of Gilgamesh has allusions to Odonata which signify the impossibility of immortality . Amongst the Aborigines of Australia of the Arrernte language groups , honey ants and witchety grubs served as personal clan totems . In the case of the ' San ' bush @-@ men of the Kalahari , it is the praying mantis which holds much cultural significance including creation and zen @-@ like patience in waiting .
= SS Samuel Huntington =
SS Samuel Huntington was an American liberty ship during World War II . She was the 248th liberty ship authorized by the United States Maritime Commission and was named in honor of Samuel Huntington , a signer of the American Declaration of Independence . SS Samuel Huntington was launched in 1942 and sailed to ports in the Pacific , South America , Africa , and the United Kingdom . She was one of a select group of liberty ships that were outfitted to carry a limited number of either troops or prisoners of war . As part of a convoy to resupply the Allied troops at Anzio , she sank after a successful German bomb attack in January 1944 .
= = Construction = =
Samuel Huntington was laid down on 20 January 1942 by Permanente Metals Corp. on ship way number four at their No. 2 Yard in Richmond , California . She was the 248th liberty ship authorized by the United States Maritime Commission and the 48th ship begun at the ship yard . The Huntington — a type EC2 @-@ S @-@ C1 , or standard , liberty ship — was launched on 26 April , and delivered on 18 May . She was completed in 118 days , spending 96 on the ways and 22 on the water before delivery . She was one of about 220 liberty ships , about one out of every 10 made , that were outfitted to carry a limited number of either troops or prisoners of war . Sources are not clear when the passenger capability was added to Samuel Huntington , but modifications of this sort were made after November 1942 .
= = Service history = =
Ten days after her delivery , Samuel Huntington departed San Francisco for Los Angeles . Sailing from that port on 31 May 1942 , she arrived at Suva in the Fiji Islands on 19 June . After the Huntington made her way to Lautoka , she departed there on 6 July for Chile . After arriving at Antofagasta on 29 July , the cargo ship worked her way up and down the South American coast , calling at Iquique on 30 July , Valparaiso on 7 August , and Punta Arenas on 13 August . Sailing from Punta Arenas the next day , she navigated the Straits of Magellan , crossed the South Atlantic , and arrived at Cape Town , South Africa , on 2 September .
Sailing from Cape Town on 6 September , Samuel Huntington sailed around the African continent , calling at Durban on 10 September , and arriving at Aden , on the Arabian peninsula , in mid September . Departing there on 24 September , the Huntington sailed up the Red Sea , calling at Massaua on the Eritrean coast on 26 September and Suez on 1 October . Departing Suez on 12 October , she retraced her track around Africa , calling at Port Sudan on 18 October , Durban on 2 November , Cape Town on 7 November . Leaving the same day , she crossed the South Atlantic and headed for Paramaribo , Suriname .
Samuel Huntington arrived at Paramaribo on 27 November , and sailed three days later for Trinidad . After arriving at that Caribbean port on 1 December , the Huntington waited for a week before sailing in convoy TAG @-@ 27 to Guantanamo Bay with 12 other ships . After arriving at Guantanamo Bay on 12 December , the convoy , dropping four ships , reformed as convoy GN.27 headed for New York City and departed the same day . The Huntington , calling at a U.S. port for the first time in seven months , arrived at New York on 19 December .
The Huntington departed New York as a part of Convoy SC @-@ 118 headed for Liverpool via Halifax on 24 January . As the convoy , which consisted of 60 ships and 26 escorts , sailed near Iceland , a wolf pack of Kriegsmarine U @-@ Boats attacked the convoy repeatedly over a four @-@ day period . Some 20 U @-@ boats participated , sinking 12 Allied ships , including Henry R. Mallory , a troop transport that went down with 272 men — more than half of her passengers and crew ; three U @-@ boats were lost . Samuel Huntington departed the convoy and arrived at Clyde on 11 February .
After calling at Belfast Lough in early April , Samuel Huntington made her way to Liverpool to join Convoy ON 181 to New York . Departing on 30 April as one of 48 merchant ships in the convoy , the liberty ship made port at New York on 17 May . The convoy reported no submarine activity , and about two @-@ thirds of the convoy were able to take target practice on icebergs during the voyage .
Samuel Huntington next departed New York on 13 June for Oran as a part of Convoy UGS @-@ 10 . Joining 74 other merchant ships and their 28 escorts , the Huntington made it safely to Oran on 5 July ; another ship in the convoy was sunk by a U @-@ boat . During her participation in Operation Husky , the Allied invasion of Sicily , the Huntington and fellow liberty ships William W. Gerhard and William Mulholland all suffered casualties from an air attack on 1 August at Palermo . Damage to the ship was apparently minor enough that she was ready to sail nine days later , when she joined Convoy GUS @-@ 12 — which had originated in Alexandria and was destined for Hampton Roads , Virginia — to return to the United States . Samuel Huntington left the convoy as it neared the U.S. east coast , and headed for New York , arriving there on 5 September .
After making her way to Hampton Roads , Samuel Huntington departed for Casablanca on 5 October as part of Convoy UGS @-@ 20 , where she arrived on 21 October . Eight days later , she joined Convoy GUS @-@ 19 — a 110 @-@ ship Alexandria – Hampton Roads convoy — and headed for home . She arrived in Baltimore on 16 November . Shifting to Hampton Roads in early December , Samuel Huntington prepared to depart on what would be her last sailing from the United States .
The Huntington — in Convoy UGS @-@ 27 , a 115 @-@ ship convoy — sailed from Hampton Roads on 15 December for Oran , arriving there on 3 January 1944 . She departed from Oran on 16 January and arrived at Naples five days later . One week later , Samuel Huntington sailed to Anzio where she anchored one @-@ quarter mile ( 400 m ) off the beach on 29 January with 7 @,@ 181 long tons ( 7 @,@ 296 t ) of cargo , including ammunition , canned gasoline and TNT .
= = = Sinking = = =
At sunset on 29 January , Luftwaffe bombers planes armed with Henschel Hs 293 anti @-@ shipping guided missiles attacked the ships at anchor off Anzio . British cruiser Spartan was hit amidships and rolled over on her port side and sank with a loss of 65 men . Soon after Spartan was hit , another Hs 293 slammed into Samuel Huntington , penetrating to her boiler room before exploding and killing four men . The force of the explosion blew out two of her cargo hatches , launching a jeep into the stricken ship 's flying bridge in the process . With no power , and , hence , no way of fighting the fire , Samuel Huntington 's master ordered the ship abandoned , and the crew lowered her lifeboats and headed away from the ship . Fifteen minutes after the bomb 's blast , another explosion rocked the ship , throwing a cloud of debris over 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) in the air , and raining shrapnel on ships as far as 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) away .
After the second explosion , Samuel Huntington settled to the bottom , but because the bottom had been only 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) below her keel , most of the ship remained above the water . U.S. Navy salvage ship Weight came alongside the Huntington and trained two deck water guns and a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 6 @.@ 4 cm ) water hose to douse the fires . When the task seemed accomplished , Weight pulled away . The fires flared up again four hours later and Weight returned to fight the conflagration again . After tending to other ships damaged during the raid , Weight returned a third time . By the early morning hours on 30 January , any hope of salvaging Samuel Huntington or her cargo ended when the fires reached her load of canned gasoline . The resulting explosion completely destroyed the ship and again rained shrapnel on nearby ships . When the smoke cleared , no trace of the Huntington remained .
= Gail Kim =
Gail Kim @-@ Irvine ( née Kim ; born February 20 , 1977 ) is a Canadian professional wrestler , professional wrestling valet , model and actress of Korean descent currently working for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . She is also known for her time with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , where she won the WWE Women 's Championship in her first match .
She began her career wrestling as La Felina on the Canadian independent circuit , before joining WWE in 2002 as Gail Kim . In her WWE debut match , she won the Women 's Championship , becoming the first WWE Diva in history to win a championship in her first match . After being released by WWE in 2004 , Kim joined TNA in September 2005 . There , she joined the tag team America 's Most Wanted as their valet . After the dissolution of the group , Kim performed as a singles wrestler , eventually becoming the inaugural TNA Knockouts Champion in October 2007 . She later left TNA in August 2008 , to return to WWE three months later , where she remained until 2011 . The following October she returned to TNA . In 2012 , Pro Wrestling Illustrated named Kim the number one female wrestler in the world and in 2016 she was announced as the first female inductee into the TNA Hall of Fame . She is regarded by wrestling fans and wrestlers themselves as one of the greatest female wrestlers of all time .
= = Early life = =
Kim was born in Toronto , Ontario , Canada , on February 20 , 1977 . Kim attended York Memorial Collegiate Institute and majored in kinesiology at the University of Toronto before transferring to Ryerson University and changing her major to nutrition .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Canadian independent circuit ( 2000 – 2002 ) = = =
After obtaining her degree from Ryerson University , Kim decided to become a professional wrestler and joined Ron Hutchinson 's School of Pro Wrestling in Toronto . She received supplementary training from Rob Etchevarria at the Squared Circle Pro Wrestling Gym . She debuted in December 2000 , wearing a mask and wrestling as " The Queen of the Cats " La Felina in the Southern Ontario @-@ based Apocalypse Wrestling Federation . She , however , was eventually unmasked by Tracy Brooks in a " Mask versus Hair " match . Kim worked on the Canadian independent circuit for two years , wrestling for promotions such as Border City Wrestling .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = =
Kim was introduced to World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) employee Nora Greenwald ( known on @-@ screen as Molly Holly ) by Jason Sensation in 2001 ; Greenwald encouraged Kim to send her videos and tapes to WWF officials . In October 2002 , she was hired by the WWF , now renamed World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . She spent eight months training in their then @-@ developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) and wrestled house shows and dark matches before being called up to their main roster . After several weeks of vignettes showcasing Matrix @-@ like effects aired on Raw , Kim debuted on June 30 as a fan favorite , with a Matrix @-@ inspired outfit .
Her first televised WWE match was a seven @-@ woman battle royal on the June 30 , 2003 episode of Raw with the WWE Women 's Championship , then held by an injured Jazz , on the line . Kim won the match by lastly eliminating Victoria . Kim held the title for four weeks , successfully defending it once against Molly Holly , before losing it to Holly on the July 28 episode of Raw . The following week , Kim turned heel on Trish Stratus , which stemmed from a previous Raw episode where Stratus cost Kim and herself a tag match against Victoria and Holly ; Kim subsequently formed an alliance with Holly to take on Stratus , defeating her and various partners on several occasions , until Stratus was later assisted by Lita . At WWE 's Unforgiven pay @-@ per @-@ view event on September 21 , Stratus and Lita defeated Kim and Holly in a tag team match . The four women continued to feud until November , when Kim was sidelined with a broken right collarbone .
Kim returned to Raw in April 2004 and immediately reforged her alliance with Holly . In May 2004 , Kim submitted then @-@ Women 's Champion Victoria twice , in singles match and a six @-@ woman tag match , earning herself a title shot at Bad Blood . However , Lita pinned Kim on the June 7 episode of Raw , and Lita and Trish Stratus were added to the championship match . At Bad Blood on June 13 , she faced Lita , Stratus , and Victoria in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match for the WWE Women 's Championship , which was won by Stratus .
Kim participated in a battle royal on October 19 at Taboo Tuesday , which was won by Stratus . Kim , however , was released by WWE on November 3 , 2004 as a result of cost cutting . Kim was caught off guard by her release and was told that management wanted to take the women 's division in a new direction .
= = = International circuit ( 2005 ) = = =
After her release from WWE , Kim would make an appearance for Mid @-@ Atlantic Championship Wrestling on January 22 , 2005 in South Korea , teaming with Lollipop in a tag team match , where they defeated Malia Hosaka and Nidia . On June 26 , Kim made her debut for World Series Wrestling ( WSW ) in Melbourne , Australia , losing to Nidia in a singles match . Two days later at another WSW event in Sydney , Kim defeated Nidia in a rematch . The following night , Kim teamed up with A.J. Styles to defeat Nidia and Christopher Daniels in a mixed tag team match .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling = = =
= = = = America 's Most Wanted ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
Following her release from WWE and the expiration of her 90 @-@ day no @-@ compete clause , Kim made sporadic appearances on the independent circuit , including at Michigan 's All World Wrestling League and in Japan . She also competed in Korea and Mexico before being signed by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) on September 6 , 2005 . She made her TNA debut on the October 8 , 2005 episode of TNA Impact ! , aligning herself with Jeff Jarrett and America 's Most Wanted ( AMW ) ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) and taking on the role of AMW 's and Jarrett 's manager , and regularly got physically involved in the wrestlers ' matches . Kim made her in @-@ ring debut on July 16 , 2006 at TNA 's Victory Road pay @-@ per @-@ view in a Six Man Mixed Tag Team match with AMW against A.J. Styles , Christopher Daniels , and Sirelda . However , her team ended up on the losing end of the contest . At Hard Justice on August 13 , Kim defeated Sirelda in a singles match .
In early 2007 , after the dissolution of AMW , Kim began a more active role as an in @-@ ring competitor in TNA . This began with an on @-@ screen feud with her former alliance , James Storm , and his new manager Jacqueline . The first encounter between the group was on February 11 at Against All Odds in a mixed tag team match , which Kim and her partner , Petey Williams , lost . On March 11 at Destination X , Storm and Jacqueline won a rematch against Kim and Williams in a Double Bullrope match . Kim went on to defeat Jacqueline in a Six Sides of Steel cage match on April 15 at Lockdown . Their feud came to an end on the May 3 episode of TNA Impact ! , when Kim defeated Jacqueline under street fight rules .
= = = = Singles competition ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
After the conclusion to her feud with Jacqueline , Kim made two minor pay @-@ per @-@ view appearances in a short feud against Robert Roode , before outlasting nine other competitors in a ten @-@ woman gauntlet match to become the inaugural TNA Women 's Knockout Champion on October 14 , 2007 at Bound for Glory . She made her first title defense on November 11 at Genesis , where she retained the renamed TNA Women 's Knockout Championship by defeating Roxxi Laveaux , ODB , and Angel Williams . Kim then began a feud with Awesome Kong over the championship . Their first encounter occurred on December 2 at Turning Point , which resulted in Kim retaining the title due to a disqualification by Kong . On January 6 , 2008 at Final Resolution , Kim defeated Kong in an acclaimed second encounter to retain the championship under no disqualification rules . In their third and final encounter in the main event of the January 10 episode of TNA Impact ! , Kong defeated Kim to win the TNA Women 's Knockout Championship .
During the January 24 episode of TNA Impact ! , Kim was awarded the 2007 TNA Knockout of the Year award . Kim competed in a three way match on March 9 at Destination X against Kong and ODB , which Kong won . On April 13 at Lockdown , she teamed with ODB to defeat the team of Raisha Saeed and Kong in a tag team match . On May 11 at Sacrifice , Kim won a TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal , which involved a battle royal and then a ladder match with the two remaining competitors , to become new one contender TNA Women 's Knockout Championship . Kim competed for the championship on the May 15 episode of TNA Impact ! , however failed to win the title . At Slammiversary on June 8 , Kim teamed with ODB and Roxxi to defeat The Beautiful People ( Angelina Love and Velvet Sky ) and Moose in a six woman tag team match . Kim then went on to defeat Love on July 13 at Victory Road . Kim then teamed with ODB and Taylor Wilde to defeat the team of Kong and The Beautiful People on August 10 at Hard Justice , in her last TNA pay @-@ per @-@ view match . Kim 's final match with TNA aired on the August 21 episode of TNA Impact ! in a losing effort to Kong under street fight rules . Kim left TNA in mid @-@ August 2008 after her contract expired .
= = = Return to WWE ( 2008 – 2011 ) = = =
After leaving TNA , Kim re @-@ signed with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) in late @-@ 2008 . She made her return as a fan favorite on the March 27 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , interrupting a WWE Divas Championship match between villainous Divas Maryse and Michelle McCool by attacking both competitors . Kim made her in @-@ ring return on the March 30 episode of Raw on the winning team of an 18 @-@ Diva tag team match . She made her first WrestleMania appearance in the 25 @-@ Diva Miss WrestleMania battle royal on April 5 , 2009 at WrestleMania XXV . On the April 17 episode of SmackDown , Kim defeated then @-@ Divas Champion Maryse . This earned her a championship match the following week , which she failed to win .
On the June 29 episode of Raw , Kim was traded to the Raw brand as part of a 15 wrestler tri @-@ branded trade between Raw , SmackDown , and ECW . A few weeks later on the August 10 episode of Raw , she gained another Divas title shot by winning a Fatal 4 @-@ Way match that also involved Beth Phoenix , Kelly Kelly , and Alicia Fox , to become number one contender . She was unsuccessful in winning the championship on the August 17 episode of Raw , when she faced then @-@ champion Mickie James . At Bragging Rights on October 25 , Kim , with Melina and Kelly Kelly , represented Raw in a losing effort to Michelle McCool , Beth Phoenix , and Natalya , representing SmackDown . Kim was on the winning side of a five @-@ on @-@ five Survivor Series Elimination match on November 22 at Survivor Series .
In early 2010 , a tournament was held for the newly vacated Divas Championship , and Kim defeated Jillian Hall and Alicia Fox en route to the finals . The finals were held on the February 22 episode of Raw , which Maryse won to become the new champion . The finals were originally to be held on February 21 at Elimination Chamber , but the match was changed to the team of Maryse and Kim versus Team LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla ) , which was won by LayCool as a result of Maryse abandoning Kim during the match . Kim was a part of the losing side of a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match , against Team LayCool , Alicia Fox , Vickie Guerrero , and Maryse , at WrestleMania XXVI on March 28 . At Fatal 4 @-@ Way on June 20 , Kim challenged for the Divas Championship in a Fatal 4 @-@ Way match that also involved then @-@ champion Eve , Maryse , and Alicia Fox , which Fox would win to become the champion .
In early 2011 , Kim participated in fewer matches on television , as she became the on @-@ screen girlfriend of Daniel Bryan . She also began accompanying him to the ring during his matches . At that time , Bryan was managed by Nikki and Brie Bella , and after they discovered Daniel Bryan kissing Kim backstage , they assaulted Kim , starting a feud with her . On January 30 at the Royal Rumble , the Bella Twins once again assaulted Kim . The following night on Raw , Kim was at ringside during Bryan 's match against Tyson Kidd . After the match , the Bellas entered the ring , Nikki slapped Bryan and Kim attacked her .
For the first half of 2011 , Kim feuded with Melina , due to Melina 's claims that Kim was a " horrible friend . " The matches between the two mainly took place on Superstars , and saw Kim emerging victorious in two singles matches on May 30 and June 23 . On the August 1 episode of Raw , Kim participated in a battle royal to determine the number one contender for the Divas Championship , however , shortly after the match began , she eliminated herself . Kim later explained that WWE had instructed her to get eliminated from the match within the first minute , so she decided to just eliminate herself . On August 5 , Kim announced on her Twitter account that she had quit WWE following the incident . Kim later indicated that WWE did not grant her release , but would instead force her to stay with the promotion for the remainder of her contract . Kim 's WWE.com profile was removed on September 30 , indicating that she had officially left the company , and that her contract expired . Kim later stated in an interview with The Sun that she was not happy with her time in WWE due to feeling that the female talent were being held back , while also vowing never to re @-@ sign with the promotion .
= = = Return to TNA = = =
= = = = Championship reigns ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = = =
Kim returned to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) on the October 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , attacking TNA Knockouts Champion Velvet Sky and aligning herself with Karen Jarrett and Madison Rayne , thus establishing herself as a villainess . On the October 27 episode of Impact Wrestling , Jarrett named Kim the # 1 Contender to Sky 's title , before she went on to defeat Tara in her first match back with the promotion . On the November 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim and Rayne defeated TnT ( Brooke Tessmacher and Tara ) to win the TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship . The following week they made their first title defense , defeating Mickie James and Velvet Sky . On November 13 at Turning Point , Kim defeated Sky to win the TNA Knockouts Championship for the second time , making her a double champion and only the second woman in TNA history to hold both the Knockouts and the Knockouts Tag Team titles simultaneously . She made her first title defense on December 11 at Final Resolution , defeating Mickie James following interference from Madison Rayne . On the December 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim retained her title against James following another interference from Rayne .
On the January 5 , 2012 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim and Rayne retained their tag team titles against James and Traci Brooks . Three days later at Genesis , Kim defeated James by disqualification to retain the Knockouts Championship . On February 12 at Against All Odds , Kim successfully defended the Knockouts Championship against Tara , during which Madison Rayne walked out on her Knockouts Tag Team Championship partner . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Rayne won a battle royal to become the number one contender to Kim 's Knockouts Championship . In the following weeks , tension between Kim and Rayne began to be teased with the two negatively interfering in each other 's matches . On the March 8 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim and Rayne lost the Knockouts Tag Team Championship to Eric Young and ODB . On March 18 at Victory Road , Kim successfully defended the Knockouts Championship against Rayne . On the March 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim and Rayne reconciled and remained together as a team . On April 15 at Lockdown , Kim defeated Velvet Sky in a steel cage match , following a distraction from Rayne , to retain her title . Afterwards , Kim went on a losing streak against Brooke Tessmacher , which led to TNA naming Tessmacher the number one contender to her title . On May 13 at Sacrifice , Kim defeated Tessmacher , pinning her with her feet on the ropes , for another successful title defense . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim successfully defended her title against Tessmacher and Velvet Sky in a three @-@ way match . On May 20 , Kim became the longest reigning TNA Knockouts Champion in history by breaking Madison Rayne 's previous record of 188 days . On June 10 at Slammiversary , Kim lost the title to Miss Tessmacher , ending her reign at 210 days . Kim received her rematch for the title on the July 12 episode of Impact Wrestling , but was again defeated by Tessmacher .
= = = = Various feuds and alliance with Lei 'D Tapa ( 2013 – 2014 ) = = = =
On January 13 , 2013 , at the Genesis pay @-@ per @-@ view , Kim competed in a five @-@ woman gauntlet match to determine the number one contender to the TNA Knockouts Championship . Kim eliminated Miss Tessmacher , ODB and Mickie James but was eventually eliminated by Velvet Sky after referee Taryn Terrell failed to notice Kim 's foot under the ropes . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim received a rematch for Sky 's number one contendership , but was again defeated . Kim was defeated on the February 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , in a fatal four – way elimination match for the Knockouts Championship against champion Tara , Miss Tessmacher , and Velvet Sky after physical involvement from referee Taryn Terrell .
On March 10 at Lockdown , Kim unsuccessfully challenged Sky for her Knockouts Championship , after being assaulted by referee Taryn Terrell , who Kim slapped during the match . Afterwards , Kim attacked Terrell backstage during an interview . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Terrell was placed on probation due to her actions . Later that night , Kim and Tara were defeated by Mickie James and Velvet Sky in a match officiated by Terrell , after Terrell violated her probation by slapping Kim . On the March 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , Terrell was terminated as Knockouts referee by Brooke Hogan , who then immediately signed Terrell to the Knockouts roster , after which Terrell attacked Kim . On the April 4 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim and Tara defeated Terrell and Sky , with Kim pinning Terrell for the win due to a fast count by special guest referee Joey Ryan . Terrell defeated Kim in singles competition on the April 11 episode of Impact Wrestling . The rivalry between Kim and Terrell culminated in a Last Knockout Standing match on June 2 at Slammiversary XI , which Terrell won .
On the July 11 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim defeated Terrell in a ladder match to become the number one contender to the Knockouts Championship . Kim received her title opportunity on the July 25 episode of Impact Wrestling , against champion Mickie James ; Kim lost the match and afterwards , confronted referee ODB after she failed to see a dirty pin , beginning a feud between the two . The following week , Kim fought ODB to double count @-@ out . On August 15 at Impact Wrestling : Hardcore Justice , ODB pinned Kim in a three @-@ way hardcore match , which also included James . Kim and ODB faced off once again in a number one contender two out of three falls match on the August 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , which ODB won after making Kim submit for the first time ever in her career , to score the last fall . On October 20 at Bound for Glory , Kim defeated ODB and Brooke a three @-@ way match , following interference from her new ally Lei 'D Tapa , to win her third TNA Knockouts Championship .
Kim made her first televised defense on the October 31 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating ODB in a rematch . Kim defeated
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was buried in his church of St. John , and was the first Archbishop of Canterbury that was not buried in St Augustine 's Abbey . His letters to the Anglo @-@ Saxon missionaries on the European continent show him to have been highly educated .
= Gerðr =
In Norse mythology , Gerðr ( Old Norse " fenced @-@ in " ) is a jötunn , goddess , and the wife of the god Freyr . Gerðr is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources ; the Prose Edda and Heimskringla , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson ; and in the poetry of skalds . Gerðr is sometimes modernly anglicized as Gerd or Gerth .
In both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda , Freyr sees Gerðr from a distance , becomes deeply lovesick at the sight of her shimmering beauty , and has his servant Skírnir go to Jötunheimr ( where Gerðr and her father Gymir reside ) to gain her love . In the Poetic Edda Gerðr initially refuses , yet after a series of threats by Skírnir she finally agrees . In the Prose Edda , no mention of threats are made . In both sources , Gerðr agrees to meet Freyr at a fixed time at the location of Barri and , after Skírnir returns with Gerðr 's response , Freyr laments that the meeting could not occur sooner . In both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda , Gerðr is described as the daughter of Gymir and the mountain jötunn Aurboða .
In Heimskringla , Gerðr is recorded as the wife of Freyr , euhemerized as having been a beloved king of Sweden . In the same source , the couple are the founders of the Yngling dynasty and produced a son , Fjölnir , who rose to kinghood after Freyr 's passing and continued their line . Gerðr is commonly theorized to be a goddess associated with the earth . Gerðr inspired works of art and literature .
= = Attestations = =
Gerðr is attested in two poems in the Poetic Edda , in two books of the Prose Edda , and in two books in Heimskringla .
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Skírnismál , the god Freyr sat on the high seat Hlidskjalf and looked into all worlds . Freyr saw a beautiful girl walking from the hall of her father to a storehouse . Freyr became heartsick for the girl . Freyr has a page named Skírnir . Freyr 's father Njörðr and , in verse , the goddess Skaði tells Skírnir to find out what troubles Freyr . An exchange occurs between Freyr and Skírnir in verse , where Freyr tells Skírnir that he has seen a wondrous girl with shining arms at the home of ( her father ) Gymir , yet that the gods and elves do not wish for the two to be together :
Skírnir requests that Freyr give him a horse and Freyr 's sword ; a sword which fights jötnar by itself . Under the cover of darkness , Skírnir rides the horse over nations and dew @-@ covered mountains until he reaches Jötunheimr , the home of the jötnar , and proceeds to Gymir 's courts . Ferocious dogs are tied before the wooden fence that surrounds Gerðr 's hall . Skírnir rides out to a herdsman ( unnamed ) sitting on a mound , greets him , and asks the herdsman how he may speak to the maiden beyond Gymir 's dogs . An exchange occurs between the herdsman and Skírnir , during which the herdsman tells Skírnir that he will never speak to the girl .
Hearing a terrible noise in her dwellings , Gerðr asks where it is coming from , noting that the earth trembles and that all of Gymir 's courts shake . A serving maid ( unnamed ) notes that outside a man has dismounted his horse and has let it graze . Gerðr tells the serving maid to invite the man to come into their hall and to partake of some of their " famous mead , " yet Gerðr expresses fear that the man outside may be her " brother 's slayer " .
Gerðr asks the stranger if he is of the elves , Æsir , or the Vanir , and why he comes alone " over the wild fire " to seek their company . Skírnir responds that he is of none of these groups , yet that he has indeed sought her out . Skírnir offers Gerðr 11 golden apples ( or apples of eternal life , in a common emendation ) to gain her favor . Gerðr rejects the apples — no matter who offers them — and adds that neither will she and Freyr be together as long as they live . Skírnir offers Gerðr a ring , here unnamed , that produces eight more gold rings every ninth night and " was burned with Odin 's young son " . Gerðr responds that she is not interested in the ring , for she shares her father 's property , and Gymir has no lack of gold .
= = = = Threats = = = =
Skírnir turns to threats ; he points out to Gerðr that he holds a sword in his hand and he threatens to cut her head from her neck unless she agrees . Gerðr refuses ; she says that she will not endure the coercion of any man , and says that if Gymir encounters Skírnir then a battle can be expected . Skírnir again reminds Gerðr of his blade and predicts that Gerðr 's jötunn father will meet his doom with it . Skírnir warns Gerðr that he will strike her with his Gambanteinn , a wand , that it will tame her to his desires , and says that she will never again be seen by " the sons of men " . From early morning , Gerðr will sit on an eagle 's mound , looking outward to the world , facing Hel , and that " food shall be more hateful to you than to every man is the shining serpent among men " .
Skírnir declares that when Gerðr comes out she will be a spectacle ; Hrímgrímnir will " glare " at her , " everything " will stare at her , she will become more famous than the watchman of the gods , and that she will " gape through the bars " . Gerðr will experience " madness and howling , tearing affliction and unbearable desire " and that , in grief , tears will flow from her . Skírnir tells Gerðr to sit down , for her fate will be even worse yet . She will be harassed by fiends all her weary days . From the court of jötnar to the halls of the hrimthurs , Gerðr shall everyday crawl without choice , nor hope of choice . Gerðr will weep rather than feel joy , suffering tearfully . She will live the rest of her life in misery with a three @-@ headed thurs or otherwise be without a man altogether . Skírnir commands for Gerðr 's mind to be seized , that she may waste away with pining , and that she be as the thistle at the end of the harvest ; crushed .
Skírnir says that he has been to a wood to get a " potent branch " , which he found . He declares that the gods Odin and Thor are angry with Gerðr , and that Freyr will hate her ; she has " brought down the potent wrath of the gods " . Skírnir declares to the hrimthursar , thursar , the sons of Suttungr , and the " troops of the Æsir " that he has denied both pleasure and benefit from men to Gerðr . Skírnir details that the thurs 's name who will own her below the gates of Nágrind is Hrímgrímnir and that there , at the roots of the world , the finest thing Gerðr will be given to drink is the urine of goats . He carves " thurs " ( the runic character * thurisaz ) on Gerðr and three runes ( unnamed ) symbolizing lewdness , frenzy , and unbearable desire , and comments that he can rub them off just as he has carved them — if he wishes .
Gerðr responds with a welcome to Skírnir and tells him to take a crystal cup containing ancient mead , noting that she thought she would never love one of the Vanir . Skírnir asks her when she will meet with Freyr . Gerðr says that they shall meet at a tranquil location called Barri , and that after nine nights she will there grant Freyr her love :
Skírnir rides home . Standing outside , Freyr immediately greets Skírnir and asks for news . Skírnir tells him that Gerðr says she will meet with him at Barri . Freyr , impatient , comments that one night is long , as is two nights , and questions how he will bear three , noting that frequently a month seemed shorter than half a night before being with Gerðr .
A stanza in the poem Lokasenna refers to Gerðr . In the poem , Loki accuses the god Freyr of having purchased Gymir 's daughter ( Gerðr ) with gold and comments that , in the process , Freyr gave away his sword . Referring to Freyr as a " wretch " , Loki then posits how Freyr intends to fight when the Sons of Muspell ride over the wood Myrkviðr ( an event during Ragnarök ) . Freyr 's servant , Byggvir , interjects and the poem continues .
In the poem Hyndluljóð , Óttar 's ancestry is recounted and information is provided about the gods . One stanza that actually belongs to Völuspá hin skamma relates that Freyr and Gerðr were married , that Gerðr is the daughter of the jötunn Gymir , that Gerðr 's mother is Aurboða , and that they are related to Þjazi ( the nature of the kinship is not specified ) — father of the goddess and jötunn Skaði .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In chapter 37 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , Gerðr is introduced by the enthroned figure of High as the daughter of Gymir and the mountain jötunn Aurboða , and is described as " the most beautiful of all women " . High reports that Freyr went into Hlidskjalf and looked over all worlds . When Freyr looked to the north he saw a distant homestead with a large and magnificent building . A woman went to the building , and when she lifted her arms and opened the door to the building " light was shed from her arms over both sky and sea , and all worlds were made bright by her " . In punishment for " his great presumption " in having sat in the holy seat , Freyr went away filled with grief .
Freyr arrives home and neither sleeps nor drinks , remaining in silence . No one dares speak to him . The god Njörðr sends Freyr 's servant Skírnir to speak to Freyr . Freyr tells Skírnir that he saw a beautiful woman , so beautiful that he was filled with grief and that he would soon die if he could not have her . Freyr tells Skírnir that he must go gain her hand on his behalf — whether the woman 's father agrees or not — and he will be rewarded . Skírnir replies that he accepts the mission but only in exchange for Freyr 's sword , which can fight on its own . Freyr gives him the sword and Skírnir sets off . Skírnir asks for the woman 's hand for Freyr and receives her promise . Nine nights later she is to meet with Freyr at a location called Barey . Skírnir delivers the news to Freyr and Freyr responds with the final stanza from the Poetic Edda poem Skírnismál , lamenting that he must wait .
At the beginning of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , eight goddesses are listed as attending a feast held by Ægir on the island of Hlesy ( modernly Læsø , Denmark ) , including Gerðr . In chapter 19 , different ways of referring to the goddess Frigg are provided . One of these names is " rival of Gerðr " ; however , this is probably a scribal error ( see " Theories " section below ) . In chapter 57 , various goddesses are listed , including Gerðr ( between Snotra and Gefjon ) .
= = = Heimskringla = = =
In chapter 12 of Ynglinga saga ( as collected in Heimskringla ) , an euhemerized prose account relates that Freyr was a much loved king in what is now Sweden . Freyr 's wife was Gerðr and their son was Fjölnir . Gerðr 's fate is not provided , but after Freyr 's death their son goes on to become king and their family line , the Ynglings , continues . In a verse stanza found in chapter 16 of Haralds saga Gráfeldar , Gerðr is mentioned in a kenning for " woman " ( " Gerðr @-@ of @-@ gold @-@ rings " ) .
= = Archaeological record = =
Small pieces of gold foil featuring engravings dating from the Migration Period into the early Viking Age ( known as gullgubber ) have been discovered in various locations in Scandinavia , almost 2 @,@ 500 at one location . The foil pieces have been found largely at sites of buildings , only rarely in graves . The figures are sometimes single , occasionally an animal , sometimes a man and a woman with a leafy bough between them , facing or embracing one another . The human figures are almost always clothed and are sometimes depicted with their knees bent . Scholar Hilda Ellis Davidson says that it has been suggested that the figures are partaking in a dance , and that they may have been connected with weddings , as well as linked to the Vanir group of gods , representing the notion of a divine marriage , such as in the Poetic Edda poem Skírnismál ; the coming together of Gerðr and Freyr .
= = Theories = =
= = = " Rival of Frigg " = = =
In chapter 19 of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , Gerðr is listed among " rivals " of the goddess Frigg , a list of sexual partners of Frigg 's husband , Odin . Instead of Gerðr , the jötunn Gríðr , mother of Odin 's son Víðarr according to the Prose Edda , was probably intended . One manuscript has Gríðr corrected to Gerðr . Andy Orchard notes that it may nonetheless be an intentional inclusion in view of " Odin 's notorious appetites " .
= = = Earth and fertility = = =
Scholar John Lindow comments that Gerðr 's name has been etymologically associated with the earth and enclosures and that the wedding of Gerðr and Freyr is commonly seen as " the divine coupling of sky and earth or at least fertility god and representative of the soil . " Lindow adds that , at the same time , the situation can be read as simply the gods getting what they want from the jötnar .
Hilda Ellis Davidson comments that Gerðr 's role in Skírnismál has parallels with the goddess Persephone from Greek mythology , " since it is made clear that if [ Gerðr ] remains below in the dark kingdom of the underworld there will be nothing to hope for but sterility and famine . She does not become the bride of the underworld , however ; her bridal is to be in the upper world when she consents to meet Freyr at Barri . "
= = Modern influence = =
Gerðr has inspired works of art and literature . The Danish poet Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger wrote a series of poems referencing Gerðr as collected in ( 1819 ) Nordens Guder . Esaias Tegnér 's ( 1782 – 1846 ) unfinished epic poem Gerda also references the goddess . K. Ehrenberg depicted the goddess in his illustration ( 1883 ) Freyr und Gerda , Skade und Niurd .
= New York State Route 9M =
New York State Route 9M ( NY 9M ) was a state highway in Warren County , New York , in the United States . It was a spur route of U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) that largely followed the eastern bank of the Schroon River . The southern terminus of the route was at NY 8 in the town of Horicon near the hamlet of Starbuckville . Its northern terminus was at US 9 in the Chester hamlet of Pottersville . NY 9M was known as East Schroon River Road and Glendale Road and crossed over the southern tip of Schroon Lake .
NY 9M was assigned c . 1931 to what had been designated as legislative Route 22 @-@ c from 1913 to 1921 . It lasted for less than a decade as it was removed c . 1939 . Its former routing is now maintained by Warren County as part of three county routes , namely County Route 55 ( CR 55 ) , CR 62 , and County Route 64 .
= = Route description = =
NY 9M began at an intersection with NY 8 ( now CR 53 ) north of the hamlet of Starbuckville in the town of Horicon . The route followed Valentine Pond Road north for a negligible distance , then progressed westward along the eastern bank of the Schroon River on East Schroon River Road . Across the river , Carl Turner Road , a locally maintained highway , followed a routing parallel to that of NY 9M on the other shore . Both roads gradually curved northward , mirroring a similar turn in the river 's course . Carl Turner Road came to an end here ; however , NY 9M continued on . Near a junction with modern @-@ day Short Street , NY 9M began to deviate from the river .
North of Short Street , NY 9M curved back to the northwest , passing Smith Pond and traveling through woodlands as it approached Schroon Lake . It then crossed over the southern tip of the lake and entered the town of Chester on the opposite bank . The route came to an end shortly afterward at a junction with US 9 in the hamlet of Pottersville .
= = History = =
In 1913 , the New York State Legislature created Route 22 @-@ c , an unsigned legislative route extending 4 @.@ 80 miles ( 7 @.@ 72 km ) from State Highway 1023 ( later NY 8 and now CR 53 ) near Starbuckville to legislative Route 22 ( modern US 9 ) in Pottersville . The Route 22 @-@ c designation was eliminated on March 1 , 1921 , as part of a partial renumbering of New York 's legislative route system . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , hundreds of state @-@ maintained highways that did not have a signed designation were assigned one . The former routing of legislative Route 22 @-@ c was designated as NY 9M by the following year . NY 9M was short @-@ lived , however , as it ceased to exist c . 1939 . Its former routing is now maintained by Warren County as CR 55 from former NY 8 ( CR 53 ) to East Schroon River Road , CR 64 from Valentine Pond Road to East Shore Road , and CR 62 from East Shore Road to US 9 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Warren County .
= Japanese ironclad Kongō =
Kongō ( 金剛 , Kongō ) was the lead ship of the Kongō @-@ class ironclad corvettes built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the 1870s . The class was built in the United Kingdom because such ships could not yet be constructed in Japan . Completed in 1878 , Kongō briefly served with the Small Standing Fleet before becoming a training ship in 1887 , thereafter making training cruises to the Mediterranean and to countries on the edge of the Pacific Ocean . The ship returned to active duty during the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 where she participated in the Battle of Weihaiwei . Kongō resumed her training duties after the war , though she also played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . The ship was reclassified as a survey ship in 1906 and was sold for scrap in 1910 .
= = Design and description = =
During the brief Japanese occupation of Taiwan in 1874 , tensions heightened between China and Japan , and the possibility of war impressed on the Japanese government the need to reinforce its navy . The following year the government placed an order for the armored frigate Fusō and the Kongō @-@ class corvettes Kongō and Hiei — with British shipyards as no Japanese shipyard was able to build ships of this size . All three ships were designed by British naval architect Sir Edward Reed ,
The contract for Kongō was awarded to Earle 's Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. in Hull , England on 24 September 1875 for the price of £ 120 @,@ 750 , exclusive of armament . The vessel was named for Mount Kongō .
Kongō was 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) . She had a forward draft of 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) and drew 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) aft . The ship displaced 2 @,@ 248 long tons ( 2 @,@ 284 t ) and had a crew of 22 officers and 212 enlisted men . Her hull was of composite construction with an iron framework planked with wood .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Kongō had a single two @-@ cylinder double @-@ expansion horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine , driving a single propeller using steam from six cylindrical boilers . The engine was designed to produce 2 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) to give the Kongō @-@ class ironclads a speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) . During her sea trials on 7 December 1877 , the ship reached a maximum speed of 13 @.@ 73 knots ( 25 @.@ 43 km / h ; 15 @.@ 80 mph ) from 2 @,@ 450 ihp ( 1 @,@ 830 kW ) , enough to earn the builder a bonus of £ 300 . She carried enough coal to steam 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ironclad was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 14 @,@ 036 square feet ( 1 @,@ 304 m2 ) . The ship was reboilered at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in 1889 ; the new boilers proved to be less powerful during sea trials , with Kongō reaching a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 46 knots ( 23 @.@ 08 km / h ; 14 @.@ 34 mph ) from 2 @,@ 028 ihp ( 1 @,@ 512 kW ) . Her topmasts were removed in 1895 .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Kongō was fitted with three 172 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) Krupp rifled breech @-@ loading ( RBL ) guns and six RBL 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) Krupp guns . All of the 172 @-@ millimeter guns were positioned as chase guns , two forward and one aft . The 152 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted on the broadside . The ship also carried two short 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns for use ashore or mounted on the ships ' boats .
During the 1880s , the armament of the ship was reinforced with the addition of four quadruple @-@ barreled 25 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) Nordenfelt and two quintuple @-@ barreled 11 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) Nordenfelt machine guns for defense against torpedo boats . Around the same time she also received two 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes for Schwartzkopff torpedoes . The anti @-@ torpedo boat armament was again reinforced in 1897 by the addition of a pair of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . After the end of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Kongō 's armament was reduced to six ex @-@ Russian 12 @-@ pounder guns and six 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounders .
The Kongō @-@ class corvettes had a wrought @-@ iron armor waterline belt 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships that tapered to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) at the ends of the ship .
= = History = =
Japanese sources universally give the date for Kongō 's keel @-@ laying as 24 September 1875 — the same as that for the awarding of the contract — but historian Hans Langerer describes this as improbable , arguing that no shipyard would order enough material to begin construction without cash in hand . Kongō was launched on 17 April 1877 ; the wife of a secretary in the Japanese Legation cut the retaining rope with a hammer and chisel . Completed in January 1878 , Kongō sailed for Japan on 18 February under the command of a British captain and with a British crew because the IJN was not yet ready for such a long voyage . She arrived in Yokohama on 26 April and was classified as a Third Class Warship on 4 May . On 10 July a formal ceremony was held in Yokohama for the receipt of the ship that was attended by the Meiji Emperor and many senior government officials . The ship was opened for tours by the nobility , their families and invited guests for three days after the ceremony . On 14 July , the general public was allowed to tour the ship for a week .
Kongō hosted the Duke of Genoa when he visited Japan in late 1879 . The ship was assigned to the Small Standing Fleet in 1885 and made port visits to Port Arthur and Chefoo in China and Jinsen in Korea the following year . She became a training ship in 1887 for the Kure Naval District . Together with her sister ship Hiei , Kongō sailed from Shinagawa , Tokyo on 13 August 1889 on a training cruise to the Mediterranean with cadets from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy , returning on 2 February 1890 . On 5 October , the sister ships departed Shinagawa for Kobe to pick up the 69 survivors of the wrecked Ottoman frigate Ertuğrul , transporting them to their homeland at Constantinople , Turkey , on 2 January 1891 , after which the ships ' officers were received by Sultan Abdul Hamid II . The ships also carried a class of naval cadets on this mission . On the return voyage , the two corvettes made port at Piraeus where they were visited by King George I of Greece and his son , Crown Prince Constantine . Making stops at Alexandria , Port Said , Aden , Colombo , Singapore and Hong Kong , the sister ships arrived at Shinagawa on 10 May where Kongō resumed her training duties .
Kongō began another cadet cruise on 24 September 1892 and visited Vancouver and San Francisco . On her return voyage she stopped at Honolulu and was present during the Hawaiian Revolution of 1893 . Though playing no part in the affair , she remained there to protect Japanese interests until relieved by the cruiser Naniwa and reached home on 22 April . Kongō began another cadet cruise on 19 April 1894 , but on arrival at Honolulu , transferred her cadets to the cruiser Takachiho on 16 June and relieved Takachiho as the patrol ship . Kongō 's tenure there was brief as she was recalled home on 5 July due to rising tensions ahead of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War . She did not participate in the Battle of the Yalu River in September , but was present during the Battle of Weihaiwei in January – February 1895 .
After the war , Kongō and Hiei alternated annual cadet training cruises , with Kongō making the 1896 cruise to China and Southeast Asia from 11 April to 16 September and the 1898 cruise to Australia from 17 March to 16 September . During the latter cruise , on 21 March 1898 , she was re @-@ designated as a 3rd @-@ class coast defense ship , although she retained her training duties . Kongō made the 1900 cruise to Manila , Hong Kong and Australia from 21 February to 30 July and both ships made the 1902 cruise , their last , to Manila and Australia from 19 February to 25 August . Kongō played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War before being reclassified as a survey ship in 1906 . She was stricken from the Navy List on 20 July 1909 and sold on 20 May 1910 for scrap .
= Leges Henrici Primi =
The Leges Henrici Primi or Laws of Henry I is a legal treatise , written in about 1115 , that records the legal customs of medieval England in the reign of King Henry I of England . Although it is not an official document , it was written by someone apparently associated with the royal administration . It lists and explains the laws , and includes explanations of how to conduct legal proceedings . Although its title implies that these laws were issued by King Henry , it lists laws issued by earlier monarchs that were still in force in Henry 's reign ; the only law of Henry that is included is the coronation charter he issued at the start of his reign . It covers a diverse range of subjects , including ecclesiastical cases , treason , murder , theft , feuds , assessment of danegeld , and the amounts of judicial fines .
The work survives in six manuscripts that range in date from about 1200 to around 1330 , belonging to two different manuscript traditions . Besides the six surviving manuscripts , three others were known to scholars in the 17th and 18th centuries , but have not survived to the present day . Two other separate copies may also have existed . The complete work itself was first printed in 1644 , but an earlier partial edition appeared in 1628 . The Leges is the first legal treatise in English history , and has been credited with having the greatest effect on the views of English law before the reign of King Henry II than any other work of its kind .
= = Background and similar works = =
The Leges Henrici Primi or Laws of Henry I is not merely a compilation of laws but an integrated legal treatise , the first such in the history of England , written in the Latin language about 1115 . It records the legal customs of medieval England . It was part of a small group of similar writings devoted to legal procedures that were written for royal administrators . Besides the Leges , other works of this type produced at this time were the Quadripartitus , parts of the Leges Edwardi Regis , the Instituta Cnuti , and the Consiliatio Cnuti . It is possible the Leges Willhelmi was also written during this time period . It is the longest of the legal tracts from its time , and made some effort to be comprehensive .
= = Authorship and title = =
The Leges was written between 1114 and 1118 by an unknown Norman , who is very likely to be the author of another legal work , the Quadripartitus , although some historians , including H. G. Richardson and G. O. Sayles , argue that the two works were by different authors . The Leges was probably part of a project including the Quadripartitus , the two works being part of a planned work in four volumes to cover not only the laws of the writer 's own time , but previous laws of the Anglo @-@ Saxon monarchs , as well as how to handle legal cases . As part of both works , the author has included the Charter of Liberties , which was King Henry 's coronation charter promising not to follow the administrative and legal policies of his predecessor , King William II . About a third of the material in the Leges is also in the Quadripartitus . There is evidence that the author of the two works had been a member of the household of Gerard , who had been chancellor under Kings William I and William II before becoming Archbishop of York under Henry I. The work was likely composed at Winchester .
Usually the work has been known as the Leges Henrici Primi , or Laws of Henry the First . It gained that name from the inscription " De libertate ecclesie et totius Anglie obseruanda leges Henrici primi " which occurs on five of the six extant manuscripts . The sixth manuscript adds " filii conquestoris " at the end of the inscription . The historian Felix Libermann called the work Leges Henrici , but the fuller title of Leges Henrici Primi is generally used to help differentiate which Henry is being referred to .
= = Contents = =
The work is not a law code issued by King Henry , but a compilation of already extant legislation that was still current during his reign . It is not a comprehensive listing of all laws that were in force during the early 11th century . It begins with Henry 's Charter of Liberties , which he issued after his coronation , and this is the only actual legal document reproduced in the Leges . Some discussions of juridical matters then follow , then a long treatment of ecclesiastical issues . The rest of the treatise is concerned with non @-@ ecclesiastical subjects , including cases of injury , theft , murder , and feuds . Procedural topics are included , such as how summonses to court should be formed , what notices need to be made before judicial procedures , how adjournments should be handled , and other such concerns . There is no strong organizational framework to the entirety of the Leges , which leads the author to repeat subjects as well as treating some subjects less than adequately .
The law code recognised the difference between the laws of the Danelaw , the old Kingdom of Mercia , and the lands of the Kingdom of Wessex . It also set out a list of legal proceedings that could only be tried before the king or his officials , the cases of which were known as " royal pleas " or " pleas of the crown " ; they included serious crimes such as treason , murder , rape , robbery , arson , and some types of theft . Treasure trove and salvage from wrecks were also matters of interest to the crown . Other royal cases involved counterfeiters or false judgement , or violent acts against the king himself or his household and servants . The king also reserved the right to hear appeals from other courts conducted by local authorities or by his nobles . The tract also set out who should attend the shire court , ruling that the local bishop and earl , as well as the sheriff and local barons , among others , should attend .
The work assumes that the royal legal system would still address some issues that later would have been dealt with by ecclesiastical courts . Clergy are not only to take part in the shire court , but could be summoned to answer charges in the court . It also sets out the various courts that were established and their jurisdiction . It takes for granted that the Anglo @-@ Saxon laws of England are still in effect . It also addresses the administration of forest law under Henry I. Another new concern in the Leges is law covering the roadways and highways .
Another area covered by the work is royal finance , with the Leges setting out the rate of Danegeld , at a rate of one shilling per hide . It also covers judicial fines , setting forth a fine of 46 marks as the penalty for committing murder . The author of the work criticised the royal justices , calling them greedy . It sets out elaborate procedures for the conduct of murder cases , or murdum .
The Leges also devoted some effort to the theory of the law , and attempted to make generalisations about legal procedures and practices . It also contains a number of dicta which became cliches , such as " who unknowingly offends will knowingly amend " and " witness is not needed as to what did not occur , but as to what an accused claims did occur " .
= = Manuscripts = =
The work comes down to the present day in two manuscript traditions , neither one of which contains many manuscripts . There are six surviving manuscripts between the two traditions – that of the manuscript Sc and its copies , and the " London group " . The Sc group is composed of the Sc manuscript itself , which probably dates from about 1225 , and its copy , Hg , which was written about 1250 . Sc is currently part of the Red Book of the Exchequer held by the Public Record Office . Hg is held by the British Library and is catalogued as Hargrave 313 . It consists of folios 5 through 14a of the manuscript .
Four other extant manuscripts belong to the " London " tradition , and three other now @-@ lost manuscripts are also known to have belonged to this grouping . The surviving manuscripts are known as K , Co , Or , and Rs . The three lost manuscripts have been assigned the names of Gi , Sl , and Tw . K is a manuscript currently in the British Library , and was part of the Cotton Library before becoming part of the British Museum then the British Library . Given the catalogue name of Cotton Claudius D II , it is the only illuminated manuscript of the Leges and dates to around 1310 . Co is currently in the Corpus Christi College , Cambridge Library and was part of the Parker Library in the 16th century before being bequeathed to Corpus Christi on Parker 's death . This manuscript dates to around 1320 and is catalogued as Corpus Christi College 70 . The Leges occupies folios 108 through 170 . The manuscript Or was originally part of the Oriel College , Oxford Library but is now part of the Bodleian Library . It dates from around 1330 and is catalogued as Oriel College 46 . The last extant manuscript is Rs , which is currently in the John Rylands Library in Manchester . It was written about 1201 and is catalogued as Rylands lat.155.
The three known but now @-@ lost manuscripts included Gi , which was known in 1721 and was owned by the London Guildhall . It was used by David Wilkins to compile his 1721 work Leges Anglo @-@ Saxonicae as well by Henry Spelman to correct manuscripts used in the Epistola Eleutherii . The Sl manuscript belonged to John Selden in the 17th century , but it is unclear when it was created . It was used by Roger Twysden in his edition of the Leges Henrici Primi . The last securely known lost manuscript is the Tw manuscript , and was used by Twysden in his edition of the Leges , and was perhaps owned by him also .
Possibly two other manuscripts existed but little is known about them . One is often designated Sp , and was used by Spelman for his 1625 Glossarium Archaiollogicum , for which he used three manuscripts of the Leges – Sc , K and one that he does not name but has subsequently been designated as Sp . It appears to have belonged to the London grouping , and may have been Gi rather than a separate manuscript , although Spelman 's description and usage is unclear as to which possibility is most likely . The other possible manuscript was one that Wilkins referred to as " quod iudetur fuisse Archiepiscopi aut Monachorum Cantuar . " but it has not been found in searches of the Lambeth Library and the various Canterbury repositories .
Besides the medieval manuscripts , there are three early modern transcriptions of the work – one from the 16th century now at the Cambridge University Library as manuscript Dd.VI 38 , the second at Trinity College , Cambridge from the 17th century , catlogued as Cambridge O.10,20 , and the last in the British Library as Harley 785 , also dating from the 17th century .
= = Publishing history = =
The first complete printed edition of the Leges was in 1644 , as an appendix to a new edition of the Arcaionomia prepared by Abraham Wheelock . The actual text of the Leges was edited by Twysden . Prior to this , two other scholars , William Lambarde and Spelman , had intended to produce printed editions of the Leges , but were unable to follow through on the project . A portion of the Leges had earlier appeared in Edward Coke 's Institutes of the Laws of England in 1628 . Another edition appeared in 1721 , with Wilkins ' publication of the Leges Anglo @-@ Saxonicae , which built on the work of William Somner between 1645 and 1652 . In 1776 , David Hoüard reprinted Wilkins ' text of the Leges in the Traites sur les coutumes anglo @-@ normandes , and in 1789 another reproduction of Wilkins ' text appeared in Paulus Canciani 's Barbarorum Legs Antiquae .
What is considered the first scholarly discussion of the Leges appeared in 1827 by George Philips , who did not reproduce the entire text in his Englische Reichsund Rechtsgeschichte , but did provide a couple of extracts along with a discussion of the sources of the work and a description of the work . In 1840 , the Record Commission published an edition of the text that had been edited by Richard Price and Benjamin Thorpe . The next major production of the Leges was Felix Liebermann who produced three volumes of Gesetze der Angelsachsen between 1903 and 1916 , with the Leges being one of the legal treatises being reproduced in the Gesetze . A modern translation , with the original Latin text on pages facing the translation , was published in 1972 by the Clarendon Press and edited by L. J. Downer , and includes updated commentary and manuscript information .
= = Legacy and influence = =
The work is an important historical source for the study of the Middle Ages . An edition was published along with other 12th @-@ century legal treatises , in the Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen , and more recently it has been studied by the historian L. J. Downer . The historian Patrick Wormald says of the Leges that it " has had more effect on views of English law before Henry II than any other " .
= 2001 FA Charity Shield =
The 2001 FA Charity Shield was the 79th FA Charity Shield , an annual football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Premier League and FA Cup . The match was contested between Liverpool , winners of the 2000 – 01 FA Cup and Manchester United , who won the 2000 – 01 Premier League on 12 August 2001 . It was the first Shield match to be held at the Millennium Stadium following the closure of Wembley Stadium for reconstruction .
This was Liverpool 's 19th appearance and Manchester United 's 21st and the 5th time they had met in the competition . The anticipated meeting of Liverpool midfielder Steven Gerrard and new Manchester United signing Juan Sebastián Verón did not occur . Another omission from the Liverpool team was striker Robbie Fowler , who was left out of the matchday squad . New signings for both teams made an appearance , with defender John Arne Riise making his first appearance in English football for Liverpool , while striker Ruud van Nistelrooy made his debut for Manchester United .
Watched by a crowd of 70 @,@ 027 spectators , Liverpool took the lead in the second minute when Gary McAllister scored from a free kick after a foul on Danny Murphy by Roy Keane . Liverpool extended their lead in the 16th minute when striker Michael Owen scored . Manchester United scored in the second half through Van Nistelrooy but were unable to find the equalising goal in the remaining minutes . Thus , Liverpool won the match 2 – 1 to win the Shield for the 14th time . Despite the victory , Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier was realistic about his team 's prospects in the upcoming 2001 – 02 FA Premier League . Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson was critical of referee Andy D 'Urso 's performance after he turned down two penalty appeals from his side during the match . Liverpool 's victory marked their 14th success , while the match was United 's fourth consecutive loss in the competition .
= = Background = =
Founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield , the FA Community Shield began as a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , although in 1913 it was played between an Amateurs XI and a Professionals XI . In 1921 , it was played by the league champions of the top division and FA Cup winners for the first time . Wembley Stadium acted as the host of the Shield from 1974 . Cardiff 's Millennium Stadium was hosting the Shield for the first time ; it took over as the venue for the event while the new Wembley Stadium underwent a six @-@ year renovation between 2001 and 2006 .
Liverpool qualified for the Charity Shield by winning the 2000 – 01 FA Cup . They beat Arsenal 2 – 1 in the final , courtesy of two goals from Michael Owen after Fredrik Ljungberg had given Arsenal the lead . Manchester United qualified by way of winning the 2000 – 01 FA Premier League , their third successive league championship . They finished 10 points clear of second placed Arsenal .
Liverpool were appearing in their 19th match in the competition . They had won seven outright ( 1966 , 1976 , 1979 , 1980 , 1982 , 1988 , 1989 ) , shared five ( 1964 , 1965 , 1974 , 1977 , 1986 , 1990 ) and lost five ( 1922 , 1971 , 1983 , 1984 , 1992 ) . This was Manchester United 's 21st appearance in the competition , they had won 10 ( 1908 , 1911 , 1952 , 1956 , 1957 , 1983 , 1993 , 1994 , 1996 , 1997 ) , shared four ( 1965 , 1967 , 1977 , 1990 ) and lost six ( 1948 , 1963 , 1985 , 1998 , 1999 , 2000 ) . Liverpool and United had previously contested the Shield four times , with United winning in 1983 and the Shield being shared on the other three occasions in 1965 , 1977 and 1990 .
Before the match , the decision was taken to close the roof on the Millennium Stadium , the first time this had happened in the United Kingdom . Liverpool lined up in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation , with new signing John Arne Riise included in the team , while midfielder Steven Gerrard was absent with an ankle injury . There was also no place for striker Robbie Fowler , who was expected to captain the side . Manchester United lined up in a 4 – 4 – 1 – 1 formation , with Paul Scholes playing just off the main striker , Ruud van Nistelrooy , who made his debut for the club . Van Nistelrooy 's fellow new signing , Juan Sebastián Verón , was on international duty with the Argentina national team ; his place in midfield was taken by Nicky Butt .
= = Match = =
= = = First half = = =
Manchester United kicked off the match , but within the first two minutes they had conceded a goal . A foul on Liverpool midfielder Danny Murphy by United captain Roy Keane resulted in a Liverpool penalty , which Gary McAllister subsequently scored to give Liverpool a 1 – 0 lead . Minutes later , Liverpool were awarded a free kick , but McAllister was unable to score , hitting Manchester United 's defensive wall . United had their first chance two minutes later , but Van Nistelrooy miscued his shot in front of goal . In the 11th minute , Liverpool 's lead was almost extended as United midfielder Nicky Butt almost diverted a cross from Riise into his own goal . Five minutes later , Liverpool did extend their lead ; United defender Jaap Stam slipped after Liverpool striker Emile Heskey headed the ball down to Michael Owen , allowing Owen to sidestep Gary Neville and place his shot into the United goal to make the score 2 – 0 . The frustration of the United players was beginning to show and immediately after the goal , Paul Scholes was shown a yellow card for a challenge on Dietmar Hamann .
United 's best chance of the half so far came in the 25th minute . Keane met a free kick from David Beckham with a header , which was saved by Liverpool goalkeeper Sander Westerveld . Three minutes later , United felt they should have had a penalty when Mikaël Silvestre 's shot hit the arm of Liverpool defender Stéphane Henchoz , but referee Andy D 'Urso did not award a penalty . Liverpool continued to be dangerous on the attack and came close to extending their lead in the 34th minute ; United goalkeeper Fabien Barthez failed to claim a cross from McAllister and the ball fell to Nick Barmby , but his shot was cleared off the line by Denis Irwin . United came closest to scoring in the 36th minute , but Keane 's shot from 25 yards ( 23 m ) hit the crossbar with Westerveld beaten . United continued to enjoy the majority of the possession , but were unable to make it count as they could not find a way past Liverpool 's defence .
= = = Second half = = =
Manchester United started the second half in attacking fashion , as they had chances immediately . A Silvestre run down the pitch resulted in a pass that found Van Nistelrooy on the edge of the Liverpool penalty area , but his shot went high and wide of the goal . He had another chance a minute later , but despite beating the offside trap set by the Liverpool defence , he could not beat Westerveld , who saved his shot . United 's attacking start to the half was underlined by a third chance in as many minutes , but Scholes ' shot went wide of the Liverpool goal . However , two minutes later , United 's pressure told and they scored . A move that involved Beckham , Keane and Ryan Giggs resulted in the ball being played to Van Nistelrooy , who went around Westerveld and subsequently scored to reduce Liverpool 's lead to 2 – 1 . Beckham came close to levelling the match in the 62nd minute when he had two chances to score ; he was unable to get his shot on target after Liverpool failed to clear a cross from Giggs and he was unable to score with a long @-@ range shot .
In an effort to find the equalising goal , United manager Alex Ferguson moved Giggs from the centre of midfield to the left in order to restore the width of his team and brought on striker Dwight Yorke for Butt . Yorke would spearhead the attack with Van Nistelrooy , a partnership that worked on the club 's pre @-@ season tour of Asia . United had another chance in the 68th minute , but Scholes was unable to beat Westerveld , who saved his shot . Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier made his first substitutions of the match soon after ; in an attempt to regain control of possession , he brought on Igor Bišćan and Patrik Berger to replace Barmby and Murphy . Liverpool 's first chance of the half came in the 81st minute , Bišćan and Owen exchanged passes , before Bišćan shot wide of the goal . United went straight on the attack and a goal @-@ bound shot by Keane was saved by Westerveld . Liverpool replaced Riise with defender Jamie Carragher minutes later in order to see out the game . A minute later , referee D 'Urso declined to award United a penalty for the second time when Van Nistelrooy 's shot appeared to be blocked by the arm of Henchoz . United continued to push forward for an equaliser , but a long @-@ range shot by Irwin , which went wide , was their only notable chance before the match ended . Liverpool won 2 – 1 to win the Shield for the 14th time .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
The win marked Liverpool 's third consecutive victory against Manchester United , but despite this , manager Houllier refused to get carried away : " At the moment I am worried because the team which has won the Charity Shield in recent years has not won the title , I don 't think you can draw conclusions from this match . " Man of the match Sander Westerveld echoed similar sentiments : " It doesn 't say too much about the season . Last year Chelsea beat them 2 @-@ 0 and had high expectations . We played well and it 's a good result but it doesn 't say anything about the Championship . " Questions were asked about the exclusion of striker Robbie Fowler from the match @-@ day squad , with Houllier confirming the striker had been left out after a training ground bust @-@ up with assistant manager Phil Thompson : " It is a regrettable moment for the team and the club but I 'm sure at some stage common sense will prevail . I am leaving it to him . I brokered a get @-@ together between Phil and Robbie , which I attended at the beginning . Then I left the two Scousers together . But so far it has been unsuccessful . " Houllier added that he had tried to resolve the issue before the start of the match : " I waited until the Sunday lunchtime before the Charity Shield game . I again insisted yesterday . I took them together again . I think at some stage it will be solved . I am a patient man . "
Manchester United manager Ferguson was critical of the performance of referee D 'Urso : " I felt sorry for the referee today , it doesn 't matter how much training you have in any job . It 's about temperament , and I just think the lad was too nervous for that today . " Despite losing their fourth consecutive Charity Shield match , Ferguson did not believe it would affect his team heading into the start of the season : " We certainly hope we can go on to win the title again like we have in previous years . We just need to keep the standards up and show the desire we did in the second half . " He was also unsure whether Liverpool would be able to challenge for the Premier League : " It 's difficult to assess Liverpool at the moment . They started with confidence , but then you would expect that from a team that won three trophies a few months ago . You would also expect us to be sluggish at the start , because we are bloody good at it . "
The match was marred by a series of hooligan incidents occurring near the stadium . It was being played the day before a Cardiff City game ; a group of Cardiff City fans entered the Prince of Wales public house in the city to find it occupied by Manchester United fans staying in the city overnight . A series of running battles between fans of the two clubs followed , resulting in 22 arrests ( including two boys aged just 11 and 13 ) as well as a man suffering stab wounds and a police officer suffering a broken arm . On the day of the game , an army of around 50 Cardiff and Liverpool hooligans were seen attacking United supporters in the Wood Street area .
= Pearl Jam =
Pearl Jam is an American rock band formed in Seattle , Washington in 1990 . Since its inception , the band 's line @-@ up has comprised Eddie Vedder ( lead vocals ) , Mike McCready ( lead guitar ) , Stone Gossard ( rhythm guitar ) and Jeff Ament ( bass ) . The band 's fifth member is drummer Matt Cameron ( also of Soundgarden ) , who has been with the band since 1998 . Boom Gaspar ( piano ) has also been a session / touring member with the band since 2002 . Drummers Dave Krusen , Matt Chamberlain , Dave Abbruzzese and Jack Irons are former members of the band .
Formed after the demise of Gossard and Ament 's previous band , Mother Love Bone , Pearl Jam broke into the mainstream with its debut album , Ten , in 1991 . One of the key bands in the grunge movement of the early 1990s , over the course of the band 's career , its members became noted for their refusal to adhere to traditional music industry practices , including refusing to make proper music videos or give interviews , and engaging in a much @-@ publicized boycott of Ticketmaster . In 2006 , Rolling Stone described the band as having " spent much of the past decade deliberately tearing apart their own fame . "
To date , the band has sold nearly 32 million records in the United States and an estimated 60 million worldwide . Pearl Jam has outlasted and outsold many of its contemporaries from the alternative rock breakthrough of the early 1990s , and is considered one of the most influential bands of that decade . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic referred to Pearl Jam as " the most popular American rock
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black @-@ backed gull are hardly able to bring down a healthy adult puffin . They stride through the colony taking any eggs that have rolled towards burrow entrances or recently hatched chicks that have ventured too far towards the daylight . They will also steal fish from puffins returning to feed their young . Where it nests on the tundra in the far north , the Arctic skua ( Stercorarius parasiticus ) is a terrestrial predator , but at lower latitudes it is a specialised kleptoparasite , concentrating on auks and other seabirds . It harasses puffins while they are airborne forcing them to drop their catch which it then snatches up .
Both the guillemot tick Ixodes uriae and the flea Ornithopsylla laetitiae ( probably originally a rabbit flea ) have been recorded from the nests of puffins . Other fleas which have been found on the birds include Ceratophyllus borealis , Ceratophyllus gallinae , Ceratophyllus garei , Ceratophyllus vagabunda and the common rabbit flea Spilopsyllus cuniculi .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Status and conservation = = =
In its Red List of Threatened Species , the International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the Atlantic puffin as vulnerable . It has a very large total population and an extensive range which covers over 1 @,@ 620 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 630 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Although the number of birds seems to be decreasing , the decline does not reach the threshold for " vulnerable " status . Some of the causes of population decline may be increased predation by gulls and skuas , the introduction of rats , cats , dogs and foxes onto some islands used for nesting , contamination by toxic residues , drowning in fishing nets , declining food supplies and climate change . On the island of Lundy the number of puffins decreased from 3 @,@ 500 pairs in 1939 to 10 pairs in 2000 . This was mainly due to the rats that had proliferated on the island and were eating eggs and young chicks . Following the elimination of the rats , it is hoped that populations will recover , and in 2005 , a juvenile was seen , believed to be the first chick raised on the island for thirty years .
On the other hand , puffin numbers increased considerably in the late twentieth century in the North Sea , including on the Isle of May and the Farne Islands where numbers have been increasing by about 10 % per year . In the 2013 breeding season , nearly 40 @,@ 000 pairs were recorded on the Farne Islands , a slight increase on the 2008 census and on the previous year 's poor season when some of the burrows flooded . This number is dwarfed by the Icelandic colonies with five million pairs breeding , the Atlantic puffin being the most populous bird on the island . In the Westman Islands , where about half Iceland 's puffins breed , the birds were almost driven to extinction by overharvesting around 1900 and a thirty @-@ year ban on hunting was put in place . When stocks recovered , a different method of harvesting was used and now hunting is maintained at a sustainable level . Nevertheless , a further hunting ban covering the whole of Iceland was called for in 2011 , although the puffin 's lack of recent breeding success was being blamed on a diminution in food supply rather than overharvesting .
SOS Puffin is a conservation project at the Scottish Seabird Centre at North Berwick to save the puffins on islands in the Firth of Forth . Puffin numbers on the island of Craigleith , once one of the largest colonies in Scotland with 28 @,@ 000 pairs , have declined dramatically to just a few thousand due to the invasion of a large introduced plant , the tree mallow ( Lavatera arborea ) . This has spread across the island in dense thickets and prevents the puffins from finding suitable sites for burrowing and breeding . The project has the support of over 700 volunteers and progress has been made in cutting back the plants , with puffins returning in greater numbers to breed . Another conservation measure undertaken by the Centre is to encourage motorists to check under their cars in late summer before driving off as young puffins , disorientated by the street lights , may land in the town and take shelter underneath the vehicles .
Project Puffin is an effort initiated in 1973 by Dr. Stephen W. Kress of the National Audubon Society to restore Atlantic puffins to nesting islands in the Gulf of Maine . Eastern Egg Rock Island in Muscongus Bay , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) away from Pemaquid Point , had been occupied by nesting puffins until 1885 , when the birds disappeared because of overhunting . Counting on the fact young puffins usually return to breed on the same island where they fledged , a team of biologists and volunteers translocated 10 – 14 days old nestlings from Great Island in Newfoundland to Eastern Egg Rock . The young were placed into artificial sod burrows , and fed with vitamin @-@ fortified fish daily for about one month . Such yearly translocations took place until 1986 , with 954 young puffins being moved in total . Each year before fledging , the young were individually tagged . The first adults returned to the island by 1977 . Puffin decoys had been installed on the island to fool the puffins into thinking they were part of an established colony . This did not catch on at first , but in 1981 four pairs nested on the island . In 2014 , 148 nesting pairs were counted on the island . In addition to demonstrating the feasibility of re @-@ establishing a seabird colony , the project showed the usefulness of using decoys , and eventually call recordings and mirrors , to facilitate such reestablishment .
= = = Pollution = = =
Since the Atlantic puffin spends its winters on the open ocean , it is susceptible to human actions and catastrophes such as oil spills . Oiled plumage has a reduced ability to insulate and makes the bird more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and less buoyant in the water . Many birds die , and others , while attempting to remove the oil by preening , ingest and inhale toxins . This leads to inflammation of the airways and gut and in the longer term , damage to liver and kidneys . This trauma can contribute to a loss of reproductive success and harm to developing embryos . An oil spill occurring in winter , when the puffins are far out at sea , may affect them less than inshore birds as the crude oil slicks soon get broken up and dispersed by the churning of the waves . When oiled birds get washed up on beaches around Atlantic coasts , only about 1 @.@ 5 % of the dead auks are puffins , but many others may have died far from land and sunk . After the oil tanker Torrey Canyon shipwreck and oil spill in 1967 , few dead puffins were recovered , but the number of puffins breeding in France the following year was reduced to 16 % of its previous level .
The Atlantic puffin and other pelagic birds are excellent bioindicators of the environment as they occupy a high trophic level . Heavy metals and other pollutants are concentrated through the food chain and , as fish are the primary food source for Atlantic puffins , there is great potential for them to bioaccumulate heavy metals such as mercury and arsenic . Measurements can be made on eggs , feathers or internal organs and beached bird surveys , accompanied by chemical analysis of feathers , can be effective indicators of marine pollution by lipophilic substances as well as metals . In fact these surveys can be used to provide evidence of the adverse effects of a particular pollutant , using fingerprinting techniques to provide evidence suitable for the prosecution of offenders .
= = = Climate change = = =
Climate change may well affect populations of seabirds in the northern Atlantic . The most important demographic may be an increase in the sea surface temperature which may have benefits for some northerly Atlantic puffin colonies . Breeding success depends on there being ample supplies of food at the time of maximum demand , as the chick grows . In northern Norway the main food item fed to the chick is the young herring . The success of the newly hatched fish larvae during the previous year was governed by the water temperature , which controlled plankton abundance and this in turn influenced the growth and survival of the first @-@ year herring . The breeding success of Atlantic puffin colonies has been found to correlate in this way with the water surface temperatures of the previous year .
In Maine , on the other side of the Atlantic , shifting fish populations due to changes in sea temperature are being blamed for the lack of availability of the herring which is the staple diet of the puffins in the area . Some adult birds have become emaciated and died . Others have been provisioning the nest with butterfish ( Peprilus triacanthus ) but these are often too large and deep @-@ bodied for the chick to swallow , causing it to die from starvation . Maine is on the southerly edge of the bird 's breeding range and with changing weather patterns , this may be set to contract northwards .
= = = Tourism = = =
Breeding colonies of Atlantic puffins provide an interesting spectacle for both bird watchers and tourists . For example , four thousand puffins nest each year on islands off the coast of Maine and visitors can view them from tour boats which operate during the summer months . There is a Project Puffin Visitor Centre in Rockland providing information on the birds and their lives , and on the other conservation projects being undertaken by the National Audubon Society who run the centre . Similar tours operate in Iceland , the Hebrides , and Newfoundland .
= = = Hunting = = =
Puffins have been hunted by man since time immemorial . Coastal communities and island dwellers with few natural resources at their disposal , made good use of the seafoods that they found on their cliffs and shores . Puffins were caught and eaten fresh , salted in brine or smoked and dried . Their feathers were used in bedding and their eggs were eaten , but not to the same extent as those of some other seabirds , being more difficult to extract from the nest . In most countries , Atlantic puffins are now protected by legislation , and in the countries where hunting is still permitted , strict laws prevent over @-@ exploitation . They are still caught and eaten in Iceland and the Faroe Islands , but there have been calls for an outright ban on hunting them in Iceland because of concern over the dwindling number of birds successfully raising chicks .
Traditional means of capture varied across the birds ' range and nets and rods were used in various ingenious ways . A typical device used in the Faroes was a " fleyg " . This was a long pole with a net on the end laid flat on the ground . A few dead puffins were strewn around to entice incoming birds to land , and the net was flicked upwards to scoop a bird from the air as it slowed before alighting . Most of the birds caught were sub @-@ adults , and a skilled hunter could gather two or three hundred in a day . Another method of capture , used in St Kilda , involved the use of a flexible pole with a noose on the end . This was pushed along the ground towards the intended target , which advanced to inspect the noose as its curiosity overcame its caution . A flick of the wrist would flip the noose over the victim 's head and it was promptly killed , before its struggles could alarm other birds nearby .
= = = In culture = = =
The Atlantic puffin is the official bird symbol of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador , Canada . In August 2007 , the Atlantic puffin was proposed as the official symbol of the Liberal Party of Canada by its deputy leader Michael Ignatieff , after he observed a colony of these birds and became fascinated by their behaviour . The Norwegian municipality of Værøy has an Atlantic puffin as its civic emblem . Puffins are viewed with affection because they are colourful and full of character . They have been given a number of endearing names including " clowns of the sea " and " sea parrots " , and juvenile puffins may be called " pufflings " .
A number of islands have been named after the bird . The island of Lundy in the United Kingdom is reputed to derive its name from the Norse lund @-@ ey or " puffin island " . An alternative explanation has been suggested connected with another meaning of the word lund referring to a copse or wooded area . The Vikings might have found the island a useful refuge and restocking point after their depredations on the mainland . The island issued its own coins and , in 1929 , its own stamps with denominations in " puffins " . Other countries and dependencies which have depicted Atlantic puffins on their stamps include Alderney , Canada , the Faroe Islands , France , Gibraltar , Guernsey , Iceland , Ireland , the Isle of Man , Jersey , Norway , Portugal , Russia , Slovenia , St Pierre et Miquelon and the United Kingdom . The LPO , a French biodiversity charity focussing on the protection of birds , uses a pair of Atlantic puffins as its emblem .
The publisher of paperbacks , Penguin Books , introduced a range of books for children under the Puffin Books brand in 1939 . At first these were non @-@ fiction titles but these were soon followed by a fiction list of well @-@ known authors . The demand was so great that Puffin Book Clubs were introduced in schools to encourage reading , and a children 's magazine Puffin Post was established . There is a tradition on the Icelandic island of Heimaey for the children to rescue young puffins , a fact recorded in Bruce McMillan 's photo @-@ illustrated children 's book Nights of the Pufflings ( 1995 ) . The fledglings emerge from the nest and try to make their way to the sea but sometimes get confused , perhaps by the street lighting , ending up by landing in the village . The children collect them and liberate them to the safety of the sea .
= Ohio State Route 249 =
State Route 249 ( SR 249 ) is an Ohio State Route that runs between the Indiana state line and Ney in the US state of Ohio . The 14 @.@ 45 miles ( 23 @.@ 26 km ) of SR 249 that lie within the state serve as a minor highway . None of the highway is listed on the National Highway System . The whole route is a rural two @-@ lane highway and passes through farmland . The highway was first signed in 1925 and was a north – south route , a route that later became U.S. Route 127 ( US 127 ) . SR 249 was given its current route in 1927 , as a replacement for SR 22 . The route was completely paved by 1942 .
= = Route description = =
SR 249 heads southeast from the Indiana – Ohio state line , as a two @-@ lane highway passing through farmland , with some houses . The route passes over the St. Joseph River and turns due east . The highway has an intersection at SR 49 , in rural Defiance County . After the intersection with SR 49 the highway enters farmland and woodland , with a few houses . The route has an intersection with SR 2 , this intersection is the western terminus of the SR 2 concurrency . The concurrency heads east , passing through farmland , until SR 2 turns north in the community of Farmer . SR 249 heads east having an intersection with US 127 . The route turns southeast , before ending at an intersection with SR 15 in Ney .
There is no section of SR 249 that is included as a part of the National Highway System , a system of routes determined to be the most important for the nation 's economy , mobility and defense . The highway is maintained by the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) like all other state routes in the state . The department tracks the traffic volumes along all state highways as a part of its maintenance responsibilities using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This measurement is a calculation of the traffic level along a segment of roadway for any average day of the year . In 2009 , ODOT figured that the lowest traffic level was 820 vehicles on the section that is concurrent with SR 2 , and the peak traffic volume was 6 @,@ 720 vehicles between US 127 and SR 15 .
= = History = =
The route that became SR 249 was first signed as SR 22 in 1923 following all of SR 249 as it is today and heading as far east @-@ southeast as Marion . Also in this year the route east of Farmer was paved . SR 249 made its debut in 1925 , as a north – south route , on a section of road that is now US 127 . The route went from SR 22 , now SR 249 , north to SR 9 , now SR 15 . In 1927 , SR 249 replaced part of SR 22 , from the Indiana state line to Ney . The rest of the route from the Indiana state line to Farmer was paved in 1942 . No significant changes have taken place to this state route since 1942 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Defiance County .
= Operation Uranus =
Operation Uranus ( Russian : Операция « Уран » , romanised : Operatsiya " Uran " ) was the codename of the Soviet 19 – 23 November 1942 strategic operation in World War II which led to the encirclement of the German Sixth Army , the Third and Fourth Romanian armies , and portions of the German Fourth Panzer Army . The operation formed part of the ongoing Battle of Stalingrad , and was aimed at destroying German forces in and around Stalingrad . Planning for Operation Uranus had commenced in September 1942 , and was developed simultaneously with plans to envelop and destroy German Army Group Center and German forces in the Caucasus . The Red Army took advantage of the German army 's poor preparation for winter , and the fact that its forces in the southern Soviet Union were overstretched near Stalingrad , using weaker Romanian troops to guard their flanks ; the offensives ' starting points were established along the section of the front directly opposite Romanian forces . These Axis armies lacked heavy equipment to deal with Soviet armor .
Due to the length of the front created by the German summer offensive , aimed at taking the Caucasus oil fields and the city of Stalingrad , German and other Axis forces were forced to guard sectors beyond the length they were meant to occupy . The situation was exacerbated by the German decision to relocate several mechanized divisions from the Soviet Union to Western Europe . Furthermore , units in the area were depleted after months of fighting , especially those which took part in the fighting in Stalingrad . The Germans could only count on the 48th Panzer Corps , which had the strength of a single panzer division , and the 29th Panzergrenadier Division as reserves to bolster their Romanian allies on the German Sixth Army 's flanks . In comparison , the Red Army deployed over one million personnel for the purpose of beginning the offensive in and around Stalingrad . Soviet troop movements were not without problems , due to the difficulties of concealing their build @-@ up , and to Soviet units commonly arriving late due to logistical issues . Operation Uranus was first postponed from 8 to 17 November , then to 19 November .
At 07 : 20 Moscow time on 19 November , Soviet forces on the northern flank of the Axis forces at Stalingrad began their offensive ; forces in the south began on 20 November . Although Romanian units were able to repel the first attacks , by the end of 20 November the Third and Fourth Romanian armies were in headlong retreat , as the Red Army bypassed several German infantry divisions . German mobile reserves were not strong enough to parry the Soviet mechanized spearheads , while the Sixth Army did not react quickly enough nor decisively enough to disengage German armored forces in Stalingrad and reorient them to defeat the impending threat . By late 22 November Soviet forces linked up at the town of Kalach , encircling some 290 @,@ 000 men east of the Don River . Instead of attempting to break out of the encirclement , German dictator Adolf Hitler decided to keep Axis forces in Stalingrad and resupply them by air . In the meantime , Soviet and German commanders began to plan their next movements .
= = Background = =
On 28 June 1942 , the Wehrmacht began its offensive against Soviet forces opposite of Army Group South , codenamed Case Blue . After breaking through Red Army forces by 13 July , German forces encircled and captured the city of Rostov . Following the fall of Rostov , Hitler split German forces operating in the southern extremity of the southern Russian SFSR in an effort to simultaneously capture the city of Stalingrad and the Caucasus oil fields . The responsibility to take Stalingrad was given to the Sixth Army , which immediately turned towards the Volga River and began its advance with heavy air support from the Luftwaffe 's Luftflotte 4 . On 7 August , two German panzer corps were able to flank and encircle a Soviet force of 50 @,@ 000 personnel and approximately 1 @,@ 000 tanks , and on 22 August German forces began to cross the Don River to complete the advance towards the Volga . The following day , the Battle of Stalingrad began when vanguards of the Sixth Army penetrated the suburbs of the city .
By November the Sixth Army had occupied most of Stalingrad , pushing the defending Red Army to the banks of the Volga River . By this stage , there were indications of an impending Soviet offensive which would target Wehrmacht forces around the city , including increased Soviet activity opposite the Sixth Army 's flanks , and information gained through the interrogation of Soviet prisoners . However , the German command was intent upon finalizing its capture of Stalingrad . In fact , head of Army General Staff General Franz Halder had been dismissed in September after his efforts to warn about the danger which was developing along the over @-@ extended flanks of the Sixth Army and the Fourth Panzer Army . As early as September the Soviet Stavka ( high command ) began planning a series of counteroffensives to encompass the destruction of German forces in the south , fighting in Stalingrad and in the Caucasus , and against Army Group Center . Ultimately , command of Soviet efforts to relieve Stalingrad was put under the leadership of General Aleksandr Vasilevsky .
The Stavka developed two major operations to be conducted against Axis forces near Stalingrad , Uranus and Saturn , and also planned for Operation Mars designed to engage German Army Group Center in an effort to distract reinforcements and to inflict as much damage as possible . Operation Uranus involved the use of large Soviet mechanized and infantry forces to encircle German and other Axis forces directly around Stalingrad . As preparations for the offensive commenced , the attack 's starting points were positioned on stretches of front to the rear of the German Sixth Army , largely preventing the Germans from reinforcing those sectors quickly where Axis units were too overstretched to occupy effectively . The offensive was a double envelopment ; Soviet mechanized forces would penetrate deep into the German rear , while another attack would be made closer to the German Sixth Army in an effort to attack German units there directly in the rear . While the Red Army prepared , the German high commanders — influenced by their belief that the Red Army , building up opposite Germany Army Group Center to the north , was incapable of mounting a simultaneous offensive in the south — continued to deny the possibility of an impending Soviet offensive .
= = Comparison of forces = =
= = = Axis forces involved = = =
Case Blue involved German and other Axis forces sprawled out across a front over 480 kilometers ( 300 mi ) wide and several hundred kilometers deep , while the decision to conquer Stalingrad had stretched Axis forces even more thinly by drawing away personnel eastwards . For example , in early July the Sixth Army was defending a 160 @-@ kilometer ( 99 mi ) line , while also committing to an offensive which involved a distance of around 400 kilometers ( 250 mi ) . Army Group B , which was split from Army Group South ( the forces operating around the Caucasus were named Army Group A ) , seemed strong on paper : it included the Second and Sixth German , Fourth Panzer , Fourth and Third Romanian , Eighth Italian , and Second Hungarian Armies . Army Group B had the 48th Panzer Corps , which had the strength of a weakened panzer division , and a single infantry division as reserves . For the most part the German flanks were held by arriving non @-@ German Axis armies , while German forces were used to spearhead continued operations in Stalingrad and in the Caucasus .
While Adolf Hitler expressed confidence in the ability of non @-@ German Axis units to protect German flanks , in reality these units relied on largely obsolete equipment and horse @-@ drawn artillery , while in many cases the harsh treatment of enlisted personnel by officers caused poor morale . In regard to mechanization , the First Romanian Armored Division was equipped with around 100 Czech @-@ built Panzer 35 ( t ) tanks , armed with a 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) gun ineffective against the armor of Soviet T @-@ 34 tanks . Similarly , their 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) PaK anti @-@ tank guns were also antiquated and they were largely short of ammunition . Only after repeated requests did the Germans send the Romanian units 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) PaK guns ; six per division . These units were extended over very large sections of front ; for example , the Third Romanian Army occupied a line 140 kilometers ( 87 mi ) long , while the Fourth Romanian Army protected a line no less than 270 kilometers ( 170 mi ) long . The Italians and Hungarians were positioned at the Don west of the Third Romanian Army , but the German commanders did not hold in high regard the capability of those units to fight .
Generally , German forces were in no better shape ; they were weakened by months of fighting the Red Army , and , while Stavka raised new armies , the German high command attempted to maintain its existing mechanized units . Furthermore , during the course of the German offensive between May and November 1942 , two motorized divisions , the elite Leibstandarte and the Großdeutschland , were redeployed from Army Group A to the West , to provide a mechanized reserve in case of an Allied landing in France . The Sixth Army had also suffered many casualties during the fighting in the city of Stalingrad proper . In some cases , such as that of the 22nd Panzer Division , their equipment was no better than that of the First Romanian Armored Division . German formations were also overextended along large stretches of front ; the XI Army Corps , for example , had to defend a front around 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) long .
= = = Soviet forces involved = = =
The Red Army allocated an estimated 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 personnel , 804 tanks , 13 @,@ 400 artillery pieces and over 1 @,@ 000 aircraft for the upcoming offensive . Across the Third Romanian Army , the Soviets placed the redeployed 5th Tank Army , as well as the 21st and 65th Armies , in order to penetrate and overrun the German flanks . The German southern flank was targeted by the Stalingrad Front 's 51st and 57th Armies , led by the 13th and 4th Mechanized Corps ; these would punch through the Fourth Romanian Army , in order to link up with the 5th Tank Army near the town of Kalach . In total , the Soviets had amassed 11 armies and various independent tank brigades and corps .
Preparations for the offensive were , however , far from perfect ; on 8 November , Stavka issued orders to postpone the launch date of the operation , because transportation delays had prevented many units from being able to move into place . In the meantime , units at the front went through a number of war games to practice repelling an enemy counterattack and exploiting a breakthrough with mechanized forces . These movements were masked through a deception campaign by the Soviets , including the decrease of radio traffic , camouflage , operational security , using couriers for communication instead of radio , and active deception , such as increasing troop movements around Moscow . Troops were ordered to build defensive fortifications , to offer false impressions to the Germans , while fake bridges were put up to divert attention from the real bridges being built across the Don River . The Red Army also stepped up attacks against Army Group Center and set up dummy formations to maintain the idea of a main offensive against German forces in the center of the Soviet Union .
The Soviet Stalingrad Front forces were subject to heavy bombardment , making mobilization more difficult . The 38 engineer battalions allocated to the front were responsible for ferrying ammunition , personnel and tanks across the Volga River while carrying out minor reconnaissance along sections of the front which were to be the breakthrough points of the impending offensive . In three weeks the Red Army transported around 111 @,@ 000 soldiers , 420 tanks and 556 artillery pieces across the Volga .
On 17 November Vasilevsky was recalled to Moscow , where he was shown a letter written to Stalin by General Volsky , commander of the 4th Mechanized Corps , who urged calling off the offensive . Volsky believed the offensive as planned was doomed to failure due to the state of the forces earmarked for the operation ; he suggested postponing the offensive and redesigning it entirely . Many Soviet soldiers had not been issued with winter garments , and many died of frostbite , " due to the irresponsible attitude of commanders " . Although Soviet intelligence made honest efforts to collect as much information as possible on the disposition of the Axis forces arrayed in front of them , there was not much information on the state of the German Sixth Army . The Soviet commanders , overruling Vasilevsky , agreed the offensive would not be called off , and Stalin personally rang Volsky , who reiterated his intention to carry out the operation if ordered to do so .
= = Soviet offensive = =
Operation Uranus , postponed until 17 November , was again postponed for two days when Soviet General Georgy Zhukov was told the air units allotted to the operation were not ready ; it was finally launched on 19 November . Shortly after 5 a.m. Lieutenant Gerhard Stöck , posted with the Romanian IV Army Corps on the Kletskaya sector called Sixth Army headquarters housed in Golubinsky , offering intelligence on a pending attack which would occur after 05 : 00 that morning ; however , because his call had come in after five and false alarms were common during this time , the duty officer on the other end of the line was not keen on waking the Army Chief of Staff , General Arthur Schmidt . Although Soviet commanders suggested postponing the bombardment due to poor visibility due to thick fog , front headquarters decided to proceed . At 07 : 20 Moscow time ( 05 : 20 German time ) Soviet artillery commanders received the codeword " Siren " , prompting an 80 @-@ minute artillery bombardment directed almost entirely against the non @-@ German Axis units protecting the German flanks . Some 3 @,@ 500 guns opened up against the Third Romanian Army and the northern shoulder of the German Sixth Army 's flank . Although thick fog prevented the Soviet artillery from correcting their aim , their weeks of preparation and ranging allowed them to lay down accurate fire on enemy positions along the front . The effect was devastating , as communication lines were breached , ammunition dumps destroyed and forward observation points shattered . Many Romanian personnel who survived the bombardment began to flee to the rear . Soviet heavy artillery aimed at Romanian artillery positions and second @-@ echelon formations also caught the retreating Romanian soldiers .
= = = Against the Third Romanian Army : 19 November = = =
The offensive against the Third Romanian Army began at 08 : 50 , led by the 21st and 65th Soviet Armies and the 5th Tank Army . The first two assaults were repulsed by the Romanian defenders , and the effects of the heavy artillery bombardment had actually made it more difficult for Soviet armor to navigate through the minefields and terrain . However , the lack of heavy anti @-@ tank artillery caused the Romanian defense to collapse ; a breakthrough by the 4th Tank Corps and 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps was established by noon . Soon after , the 5th Tank Army was able to gain a breakthrough against the Second Romanian Corps , followed by the Eighth Cavalry Corps . As Soviet armor navigated through the thick fog by compass , overrunning Romanian and German artillery positions , three Romanian infantry divisions began to fall back in disarray ; the Third Romanian Army had been outflanked to the West and East . After receiving the news of the Soviet attack , Sixth Army headquarters failed to order the 16th and 24th Panzer Divisions , hitherto engaged in Stalingrad , to reorient themselves to bolster the Romanian defenses ; instead the task was given to the seriously understrength and poorly equipped 48th Panzer Corps .
The 48th Panzer Corps had fewer than 100 serviceable modern tanks to combat Soviet armor . Furthermore , they lacked fuel , and the shortage of tanks forced commanders to organize tank crews into infantry companies ; the 22nd Panzer Division , which formed part of the corps , was almost completely destroyed in the fighting that ensued . The 22nd had entered the fighting with fewer than thirty working tanks , and left with a company of tanks . The Romanian 1st Armored Division , attached to the 48th Panzer Corps , engaged the Soviet 26th Tank Corps after having lost communications with their German corps commanders , and were defeated by 20 November . As the Soviets continued to advance southwards , many Soviet tank crews began to suffer from the worsening blizzard , which affected men and equipment , and blocked gunsights . It was not uncommon for tanks to lose traction on the ground , and for a crew member to have an arm broken as he was thrown around inside the hull . However , the blizzard also neutralized the German corps ' coordination .
The rout of the Third Romanian Army began by the end of 19 November . The Soviet 21st Army and 5th Tank Army were able to capture some 27 @,@ 000 Romanian prisoners — the bulk of three divisions — and then continue their advance southwards . Soviet cavalry was used to exploit the breakthrough , sever communications between the Romanians and the Italian 8th Army , and to block any possible counterattack against the Soviet flank . While the Red Air Force strafed retreating Romanian soldiers , the Luftwaffe provided only negligible opposition . The withdrawal of the 1st Romanian Cavalry Division , originally positioned on the German 376th Infantry Division 's flank , allowed the 65th Army to bypass German defenses . As German forces began to react late on 19 November , another attack developed on the Sixth Army 's flank to the south .
= = = Against the German southern flank : 20 November = = =
In the early morning of 20 November Stavka telephoned Stalingrad Front commander Andrei Yeremenko asking if he would begin his portion of the offensive on schedule , at 08 : 00 . He responded he would do so only if the fog lifted ; although the 51st Army opened its artillery barrage on time because front headquarters could not contact the division , the rest of the forces prepared for the operation received orders to postpone the attack until 10 : 00 . The 51st Army engaged the Romanian 6th Corps , taking many prisoners . As the 57th Army joined the attack at 10 : 00 , the situation developed in such a way that the Stalingrad Front could throw its armored corps into battle . The German 297th Infantry Division watched as its Romanian support failed to put up resistance against the Red Army . However , confusion and lack of control caused the Soviet 4th and 13th Mechanized Corps to stumble as they began to exploit the breakthroughs achieved by the opening offensive .
The Germans responded quickly by redeploying their only reserve in the area , the 29th Panzergrenadier Division . Despite initial victories against Soviet armored forces , the Romanian collapse forced the division to again redeploy in an attempt to shore up defenses to the south . The 29th Panzergrenadier Division 's counterattack had cost the Red Army around fifty tanks , and caused Soviet commanders to worry about the safety of their left flank . However , the German division 's redeployment meant that by the end of the day only the 6th Romanian Cavalry Regiment was positioned between advancing Soviet forces and the Don River .
= = = Continued operations : 20 – 23 November = = =
While the Stalingrad Front launched its offensive on 20 November , the 65th Soviet Army continued to apply pressure to the German 11th Corps along the northern shoulder of the Sixth Army 's flank . The Red Army 's 4th Tank Corps advanced beyond the German 11th Corps , while the 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps crashed into the German unit 's rear . The German 376th Infantry Division and the Austrian 44th Infantry Division began to redeploy to face the enemy on their flanks , but were hindered by shortage of fuel . The 14th Panzer Division 's remaining panzer regiment destroyed a flanking regiment of the Soviet 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps , but its anti @-@ tank artillery suffered heavy casualties when it was overrun by Soviet forces . By the end of the day the Soviet 1st Tank Corps was chasing the retreating 48th Panzer Corps , while the Soviet 26th Tank Corps had captured the town of Perelazovsky , almost 130 kilometers ( 81 mi ) to the northwest of Stalingrad .
The Red Army 's offensive continued on 21 November , with forces of the Stalingrad Front achieving penetrations of up to 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) . By this time remaining Romanian units in the north were being destroyed in isolated battles , while the Red Army began to engage flanking portions of the German Fourth Panzer and Sixth Armies . The German 22nd Panzer Division , despite attempting a short counterattack , was reduced to little more than a tank company and forced to withdraw to the southwest . The Soviet 26th Tank Corps , having destroyed a large portion of the Romanian 1st Armored Division , continued its advance to the southeast , avoiding engaging enemy left behind , although remnants of the Romanian 5th Corps were able to reorganize and put up a hastily constructed defense in the hope that it would be aided by the German 48th Panzer Corps . That day German General Friedrich Paulus , commander of the Sixth Army , received reports that the Soviets were less than 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) from his headquarters ; furthermore , there were no remaining units which could contest the Soviet advance . In the south , after a brief halt , the Soviet 4th Mechanized Corps continued its advance north , removing German defenders from several towns in the area , towards Stalingrad . As German forces in and around Stalingrad were at risk , Hitler ordered German forces in the area to establish an " all @-@ around defensive position " and designated forces between the Don and Volga rivers as " Fortress Stalingrad " , rather than allow the Sixth Army to attempt to break out . The Sixth Army , other Axis units , and most of the Fourth Panzer Army 's German units were caught inside the growing Soviet encirclement . Only the 16th Panzergrenadier Division began to fight its way out . Lack of coordination between Soviet tanks and infantry as the Red Army 's tank corps attempted to exploit the breakthrough along the Germans ' southern flank allowed much of the Fourth Romanian Army to escape destruction .
On 22 November Soviet forces began to cross the Don River and continued their advance towards the town of Kalach . German forces defending Kalach , mostly composed of maintenance and supply personnel , were not aware of the Soviet offensive until 21 November , and even then did not know in what strength the Red Army was approaching . The task of taking the bridge at Kalach was given to the Soviet 26th Tank Corps , which used two captured German tanks and a reconnaissance vehicle to approach it and fire on the guards . Soviet forces broke into the town by mid @-@ morning and drove the defenders out , allowing themselves and the 4th Tank Corps to link up with the Red Army 's 4th Mechanized Corps approaching from the south . The encirclement of German forces in Stalingrad was completed on 22 November 1942 . That day Soviet formations also continued to fight pockets of Romanian resistance , such as that put up by the Romanian 5th Corps .
Fighting continued on 23 November as the Germans attempted in vain to mount local counterattacks to break the encirclement . By this time Axis personnel inside the encirclement moved east towards Stalingrad to avoid Soviet tanks , while those that managed to escape the encirclement moved west toward German and other Axis forces .
= = Aftermath = =
Operation Uranus trapped between 250 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 Axis soldiers within an area stretching 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) from east to west and 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) north to south . The pocket contained four infantry corps , a panzer corps belonging to the Fourth Panzer and Sixth Armies , and surviving elements of two Romanian divisions , a Croat infantry regiment and other specialist units . Trapped equipment included around 100 tanks , 2 @,@ 000 artillery pieces and mortars and 10 @,@ 000 trucks . The withdrawal to Stalingrad left lines of retreat littered with helmets , weapons and other equipment , and heavy equipment which had been destroyed was left on the side of the road . Bridges spanning the Don River were jammed with traffic , as surviving Axis soldiers hastily made their way eastwards in the cold weather , attempting to escape Soviet armor and infantry threatening to cut them off from Stalingrad . Many wounded Axis personnel were trampled , and many of those who attempted to cross the river on foot on the ice fell through and drowned . Hungry soldiers filled Russian villages scouring for supplies , while supply dumps were often looted in search of cans of food . The last stragglers crossed the Don River by 24 November , and demolished the bridges to seal off the Fourth Panzer and Sixth Armies from the Soviets in Stalingrad .
The Sixth Army , in the midst of chaos , began to build defensive lines , hampered by the lack of fuel , ammunition and rations , and further burdened by the advancing Russian winter . It was also tasked with plugging gaps in the line caused by the disintegrating Romanian forces . On 23 November , some German units destroyed or burned everything not necessary for a breakout operation and began to pull back towards the northern end of Stalingrad . However , after the Germans had abandoned their winter bunkers , the Soviet 62nd Army was able to destroy the German 94th Infantry Division on the open ground ; survivors of the German division were attached to the 16th and 24th Panzer Divisions . Although German military commanders were of the opinion that Wehrmacht forces caught in the encirclement should break out , between 23 and 24 November Hitler decided instead to hold the position and attempt to resupply the Sixth Army by air . The personnel trapped in Stalingrad would require at least 680 metric tons ( 750 short tons ) of supplies per day , a task which the depleted Luftwaffe was actually in no condition to carry out . Furthermore , the revived Red Air Force was a threat to German aircraft attempting to fly over the encirclement . Although by December the Luftwaffe had assembled a fleet of around 500 aircraft , this was still insufficient to supply the Sixth Army and elements of the Fourth Panzer Army with the required supplies . During the first half of December the Sixth Army received less than 20 % of their daily requirements .
In the meantime , the Red Army strengthened its outer encirclement with the intention of destroying the encircled German units . Soviet armies would attack German units to the east and the south , aiming to split German units into smaller groups . These orders became effective on 24 November , and were to be executed without a major regrouping or movement of reserves . The outer encirclement ran for an estimated 320 kilometers ( 200 mi ) , although only three @-@ quarters of that distance was actually covered by Soviet troops ; the distance between the outer and inner encirclements was around 16 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) . The Soviet high command also began planning for Operation Saturn , which was aimed at destroying the Italian Eighth Army and cutting off German forces in the Caucasus . The Soviet Stavka planned Saturn to start on about 1
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apply for re @-@ election at the annual general meeting of shareholders held on 23 April 2008 , and was succeeded by Peter Kurer , who was general counsel . On 15 April 2009 , Peter Kurer was succeeded by Kaspar Villiger . Former Bundesbank president Axel A. Weber was nominated in mid @-@ 2011 for election to the board at the annual meeting 2012 and , at that time , intended to be elected as a chairman of the board after Villiger 's retirement in 2013 . However , in May 2012 , Villiger and board member Bruno Gehrig stepped down .
= = = Group Executive Board = = =
With Oswald Grübel 's resignation as CEO and Ermotti 's interim appointment on 24 September 2011 , The Wall Street Journal reported that the succession process appeared to be a two @-@ person race between Ermotti from EMEA and Kengeter from the investment bank . Ermotti , who had spent many years at what is now Bank of America Merrill Lynch , had joined UBS in April from UniCredit Group ; Kengeter is a German national who joined UBS from Goldman Sachs in 2008 and who had reportedly disagreed with some UBS investment bankers over pay and other matters , the journal also said .
Previously , on 29 February 2009 , Marcel Rohner had resigned and was succeeded by Grübel . On 1 April 2009 , Grübel hired Ulrich Körner in a newly established role as Chief operating officer ( COO ) and CEO of Corporate Center . Körner 's task was to cut administrative expenses and boost profits . After the last Annual General Meeting in May 2016 , Robert W. Scully and Dieter Wemmer were elected as new members of the Board . It has been decided that Martin Blessing will assume the role as President Personal & Corporate Banking and President UBS Switzerland , replacing Lukas Gaehwiler , who himself will take the new role as Chairman of the Region Switzerland . This will be effective on 1 September 2016 .
= = = Shareholders = = =
The most significant shareholders of UBS are GIC Private Limited , BlackRock Inc and Norges Bank with 7 @.@ 07 % , 4 @.@ 89 % and 3 @.@ 30 % of total share capital respectively . In 2008 during the subprime mortgage crisis , GIC Private Limited invested CHF 11 billion into UBS to help bail it out , thus becoming the largest single shareholder .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Holocaust assets ( 1930s – 1998 ) = = =
In January 1997 , Christoph Meili , a night guard at the Union Bank of Switzerland ( precursor of UBS ) in Zürich , Switzerland , discovered that bank officials were destroying documents about orphaned assets , believed to be the credit balances of deceased Jewish clients whose heirs ' whereabouts were unknown , as well as books from the Nazi German Reichsbank . The books listed real @-@ estate records for Berlin property that had been seized by the Nazis , placed in Swiss accounts , and then claimed to be owned by UBS . The destruction of such documents is illegal under Swiss law . This edict was the legal basis and foundation of the Bergier commission , constituted on 19 December 1996 . Articles 4 , 5 , and 7 made the destruction or withholding of documents relating to orphaned assets illegal .
Meili took some of the bank files home , then handed them over to a local Jewish organization , which brought the documents to the police and eventually to the press that subsequently revealed the document destruction . Zurich 's authorities opened a judicial investigation against Meili for suspected violations of the Swiss laws on banking secrecy , which is a prosecutable offense ex officio in Switzerland . After Meili and his family reported receiving death threats , they fled to the United States and were granted political asylum .
After a US $ 2 @.@ 56 billion lawsuit was filed against UBS and other Swiss banks on behalf of the Jewish victims of the Holocaust , a settlement was reached between UBS and other Swiss banks that had laundered Nazi assets totaling US $ 1 @.@ 25 billion in August 1998 .
In his book Imperfect Justice , Stuart Eizenstat claimed the " Meili Affair " was important in the decision of Swiss banks to participate in the process of reparations for victims of Nazi looting during World War II . He wrote that the affair " did more than anything to turn the Swiss banks into international pariahs by linking their dubious behavior during and after the war to the discovery of a seemingly unapologetic attempt to cover it up now by destroying documents . " Eizenstat believes that the affair influenced the Swiss Bankers Association ( SBA ) decision to create a Humanitarian Fund for the Victims of the Holocaust , as well as being one of a series of events that influenced the calling of the 1997 London Conference on Nazi Gold .
= = = U.S. trade embargoes ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = =
On 10 May 2004 , UBS was fined US $ 100 million by the U.S. Federal Reserve for illegally transferring funds from an account set up by the Federal Reserve at UBS to Iran , Cuba , and other countries under U.S. trade embargoes .
= = = Indian stock market crash ( 2004 – 2009 ) = = =
The Indian securities regulator Securities and Exchange Board of India ( SEBI ) alleged that UBS had played a role in the 2004 " Black Monday " stock market crash which followed the National Democratic Alliance government ’ s defeat in the general elections . SEBI 's ruling of 17 May 2005 barred UBS from issuing or renewing participatory notes for one year . The ban was later lifted on appeal , as a result of a Securities Appellate Tribunal ( SAT ) ruling on 9 September 2005 . SEBI challenged SAT 's order in the Supreme Court of India . On 9 February 2009 , the Supreme Court disposed of the case after SEBI and UBS said they had reached a settlement under which UBS agreed to pay an amount of about ₹ 50 lakh ( US $ 74 @,@ 000 ) .
= = = U.S. discrimination lawsuits ( 2001 – 2005 ) = = =
In April 2005 , UBS lost the landmark discrimination and sexual harassment case , Zubulake v. UBS Warburg . The plaintiff , Laura Zubulake , was a former institutional equities salesperson at the company 's Stamford office . The jury found that her manager , Matthew Chapin , had denied her important accounts and mocked her appearance to co @-@ workers . She claimed that several sexist policies in place , such as entertaining clients at strip clubs , made it difficult for women to socialize and foster business contacts with clients . The jury found that UBS had destroyed relevant e @-@ mail evidence after the litigation hold had been in place . UBS was ordered to pay the plaintiff US $ 9 @.@ 1 million in compensatory damages ( including back pay and professional damage ) , and US $ 20 @.@ 2 million in punitive damages .
On 18 October 2005 , three African @-@ American employees filed a class action lawsuit against the company in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York alleging racial discrimination in hiring , promotion , and other employment practices . The three plaintiffs in Freddie H. Cook , Sylvester L. Flaming Jr . , and Timothy J. Gandy v. UBS Financial Services , Inc . , claimed that segregation and discrimination in job assignments and compensation were widespread and the firm had done nothing to diversify its workforce . The lawsuit also claimed that offices operating in Largo , Maryland and Flushing , New York were illegally created to serve African @-@ Americans and Asian @-@ Americans respectively , and that the firm ’ s management frequently ridiculed the Largo branch office and its staff , referring to it as a “ diversity ” office . On 23 April 2007 , U.S. District Judge , Peter J. Messitte , granted plaintiff 's request to dismiss the class allegations without prejudice . As a result of this dismissal , the case now comprises the individual claims of three plaintiffs .
= = = U.S. tax evasion ( 2005 – ) = = =
In 2005 , Bradley Birkenfeld , a Geneva @-@ based employee who worked in the bank 's North American wealth management business , claimed that UBS 's dealings with American clients violated an agreement between the bank and the U.S. Internal Revenue Service . He said that he was disturbed by an internal legal document that he believed was prepared to give UBS legal cover should bank @-@ sanctioned illegal activities be uncovered . The bank could then shift the blame to its employees . He subsequently complained to UBS compliance officials about the bank 's " unfair and deceptive business practices " . When he received no response after three months , he wrote to UBS General Counsel Peter Kurer about the illegal practices . Subsequently , Birkenfeld resigned from UBS in October 2005 .
In 2007 , Birkenfeld , a U.S. citizen , decided to tell the U.S. Department of Justice ( DOJ ) what he knew about UBS 's practices . At the same time , he planned to take advantage of the Tax Relief and Health Care Act of 2006 that could pay him up to 30 % of any tax revenue recouped by the IRS as a result of Birkenfeld 's information . In April 2007 , Birkenfeld 's attorney arranged for Birkenfeld to be cooperating with the DOJ , though the relationship between the department and the whistleblower were troubled . Birkenfeld also met with the Securities and Exchange Commission , the IRS , and the U.S. Senate .
In June 2008 , based on Birkenfeld 's revelations , the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation made a formal request to enter Switzerland to probe a multimillion @-@ dollar tax evasion case involving UBS . That same month , the United States Senate panel that Birkenfeld had communicated with accused Swiss banks , including UBS , of helping wealthy Americans evade taxes through offshore accounts , and estimated the total cost of this practice to be in excess of US $ 100 billion annually . According to the findings , U.S. clients held about 19 @,@ 000 accounts at UBS , with an estimated US $ 18 billion to US $ 20 billion in assets , in Switzerland .
In response to the report and the FBI investigation , UBS announced that it would cease providing cross @-@ border private banking services to US @-@ domiciled clients through its non @-@ US regulated units as of July 2008 . In November 2008 , a U.S. federal grand jury indicted Raoul Weil , Chairman and CEO of UBS Global Wealth Management and Business Banking and member of UBS 's Group Executive Board , in connection with the ongoing investigation of UBS 's US cross @-@ border business . UBS would eventually cut ties to Weil in May 2009 and he would face charges after UBS had settled its criminal case with the government . The U.S. issued an international arrest warrant for Weil , and he was extradited to the United States after being arrested in Italy in 2013 . In January 2014 , Weil pleaded not @-@ guilty in federal court to helping U.S. taxpayers evade taxes on $ 20 billion in offshore assets .
On 18 February 2009 , UBS agreed to pay a fine of US $ 780 million to the U.S. government and entered into a deferred prosecution agreement ( DPA ) on charges of conspiring to defraud the United States by impeding the Internal Revenue Service . The DPA obliged UBS to pay US $ 780 million to settle criminal charges , and criminal charges were dismissed . The figures include interest , penalties , restitution for unpaid taxes and disgorgement of profits . As part of the deal , UBS also settled Securities and Exchange Commission charges of having acted as an unregistered broker / dealer and investment adviser for Americans .
The day after settling its criminal case on 19 February 2009 , the U.S. government filed a civil suit against UBS to reveal the names of all 52 @,@ 000 American customers , alleging that the bank and these customers conspired to defraud the IRS and federal government of the legitimately owed tax revenue . The Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority ( FINMA ) had provided to the United States government the identities of , and account information for , certain United States customers of UBS ’ s cross @-@ border business as part of its criminal investigation in 2009 . On 12 August 2009 , UBS announced a settlement deal that ended its litigation with the IRS . However , this settlement set up a showdown between the U.S. and Swiss governments over the secrecy of Swiss bank accounts . It was not until June 2010 that Swiss lawmakers approved a deal to reveal client data and account details of U.S. clients who were suspected of tax evasion .
In February 2015 , UBS announced to be investigated by the federal government over new charges stating that UBS facilitated tax evasion by its U.S. clients . The focus of the investigation lies on the possible sale of bearer bonds , a type of unregistered security that provides anonymity to the owner . UBS announced that it was cooperating with the investigators .
UBS employees allegedly discussed the legal ramifications of the use of bearer bonds with their clients , a type of security that has been virtually illegal in the U.S. The government investigation is trying to determine whether there was a criminal conspiracy to evade taxes and conceal what had allegedly already been done . The investigation , which was launched in January 2015 , also aims to determine whether bearer bonds were provided as investment vehicles to UBS clients before the expiration of its 2009 deferred prosecution agreement with the U.S. Department of Justice . The agreement lapsed in October 2010 . Should UBS have violated the agreement , the federal government can make new allegations against UBS on charges stemming from the violation . In such a case , prosecutors would likely ask for significant fines and for UBS to be put under regulatory oversight .
= = = Rogue trader scandal ( 2008 – 2012 ) = = =
On 15 September 2011 , UBS became aware of a massive loss , originally estimated at US $ 2 billion , allegedly due to unauthorized trading by Kweku Adoboli , a then 31 @-@ year @-@ old trader on the Delta One desk of the firm ’ s investment bank . Adoboli was arrested and later charged with fraud by abuse of position and false accounting dating as far back as 2008 .
UBS 's actual losses were subsequently confirmed as US $ 2 @.@ 3 billion , and according to the prosecutor in Adoboli 's trial he " was a gamble or two from destroying Switzerland 's largest bank for his own benefit . "
The bank stated that no client positions had been affected and its CEO Oswald Grübel initially dismissed calls for his resignation , commenting that “ if someone acts with criminal intent , you can ’ t do anything . ”
However , UBS 's management was subsequently criticized for its " lapses " by the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation , the bank 's largest shareholder , in a rare press statement on 20 September 2011 . On 24 September 2011 UBS announced Grübel 's resignation , and the appointment of Sergio Ermotti as a Group CEO on an interim basis .
On 5 October 2011 , Francois Gouws and Yassine Bouhara , co @-@ heads of UBS 's Global Equities franchise , also resigned .
The scale of UBS 's losses led to renewed calls for the global separation of commercial banking from investment banking , while media commentators suggested UBS should consider downsizing its investment bank and potentially rebranding it under the resurrected S.G. Warburg name .
In Switzerland , where the Government had bailed out UBS in 2008 , particular concern was voiced about the nature of the alleged trading which , it was suggested , might have been directed against the interests of the Swiss economy . Christian Levrat , the President of the SP @-@ Party said , " Should it prove true that UBS , having been rescued by the state in 2008 , has speculated against the Swiss franc , [ UBS Chairman ] Villiger must take the consequences . "
If found guilty , Abodoli will have generated the third @-@ largest loss by a rogue trader in history , after Jerome Kerviel of Société Générale ( who also worked on a Delta One desk ) and Yasuo Hamanaka , a copper trader at Sumitomo Corporation .
= = = Lehman Brothers notes ( 2007 – 2013 ) = = =
In 2011 , UBS was fined US $ 2 @.@ 5 million by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority connected to the sale of Lehman Brothers Holdings structured notes for omissions and misleading statements it made to investors . UBS underwrote and marketed $ 900 million worth of 100 % Principal @-@ Protection Notes between March 2007 and September 2008 ; Lehman Bros. went bankrupt in September 2008 . UBS also agreed to pay US $ 8 @.@ 25 million in restitution and interest to American investors .
In August 2013 , UBS settled a class action lawsuit filed by holders of Lehman notes . The lawsuit alleged that UBS 's depiction of the financial condition of Lehman Bros. was misleading . UBS settled the lawsuit with a payout of US $ 120 million .
= = = U.S. municipal bond market rigging ( 2001 – 2013 ) = = =
In 2011 , UBS agreed to pay US $ 160 million in restitution , penalties and disgorgement of profits for rigging bids in the U.S. municipal bond market , after the bank and three of its employees were charged by the U.S. Department of Justice in 2010 . In July 2013 , the three employees were convicted of conspiracy in the muni market fraud : former UBS Vice President Gary Heinz was sentenced to 27 months in prison and fined US $ 400 @,@ 000 ; former UBS global commodities chief Peter Ghavami was sentenced to 18 months and fined US $ 1 million ; and former UBS VP Michael Welty received a 16 @-@ month sentence and fined US $ 300 @,@ 000 . In addition to conspiracy , Ghavami and Heinz also were convicted of wire fraud . Federal prosecutors had asked for much harsher sentences , but U.S. District Judge Kimba Wood rebuffed the request . Wood said that the criminal behavior of the three was an aberration from their normal law @-@ abiding lives .
= = = Arms sales and Indian money laundering ( 2003 – 2011 ) = = =
UBS was implicated in a money laundering case involving Saudi arms dealer Adnan Khashoggi and an Indian citizen introduced to UBS by Khashoggi . In 2011 , Hasan Ali Khan , owner of a Pune , India stud farm , was arrested by India 's Enforcement Directorate and charged with serving as a front man for Khashoggi . Khan and Kolkata businessman Kashinath Tapuriah were charged under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act . Allegedly , in 2003 , Khan helped launder US $ 300 million of money Khashoggi made through arms sales via the Zurich branch of UBS .
Introduced to UBS by Khashoggi in 1982 , Khan enabled the arms dealer to launder funds held in American accounts through UBS Geneva . One of Khan 's accounts eventually was frozen when it was determined that the source of the funds came from Khashoggi 's arms sales .
India Today reported that Mr Khan allegedly had US $ 8 billion in " black money " ( laundered money ) in a UBS account . The figures were reported to be verified by India Today , based on a letter written by UBS Zurich . The government of India reportedly verified the existence of this account in UBS .
UBS denied Indian media reports alleging that it maintained a business relationship with or had any assets or accounts for Hasan Ali Khan . Upon formal request by the Indian and Swiss government authorities , the bank announced that the documentation corroborating such allegations was forged and numerous media reports claiming he had US $ 8 billion in black money at the bank were false .
= = = Libor benchmark rigging ( 2005 – 2012 ) = = =
In December 2012 , UBS agreed to pay US $ 1 @.@ 5 billion to settle a case filed by the U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission alleging that UBS engaged in a criminal conspiracy to rig the London Interbank Offered Rate ( Libor ) benchmarks used on loans via company 's Japan @-@ based subsidiary . UBS has also been charged by British and Swiss financial regulators for its Libor manipulation scheme . In settling the case , the bank acknowledged wrongdoing . UBS Chief Executive Sergio Ermotti said , " We are taking responsibility for what happened , " and said that all the employees linked to the scam had already left the bank . The U.S. fine would contribute to the bank 's loss of US $ 2 @.@ 7 billion in the fourth quarter .
UBS also paid a fine of £ 160 million ( US $ 0 @.@ 3 billion ) to the Financial Conduct Authority ( FCA ) , the largest fine issued by the U.K. regulator for Libor rigging .
The UBS scheme involved multiple banks , brokers and traders to manipulate interest rates to generate a profit on trades . The scheme lasted for six years before it was broken up . UBS entered into a deferred prosecution agreement with the U.S. Department of Justice , following which it was not a subject of criminal charges , except for company 's subsidiary , UBS Securities Japan , which was not exempt . The subsidiary pleaded guilty to wire fraud .
The scheme 's ringleader was former UBS trader Thomas Hayes , who was indicted by U.S. prosecutors along with a Swiss national , Roger Darin .
= = = Currency benchmark rigging ( 2003 – ) = = =
Market regulators in Asia , Switzerland , the United Kingdom , and the United States began to investigate the $ 5 trillion @-@ a @-@ day foreign @-@ exchange market after Bloomberg News reported in June 2013 that several of the world 's largest currency trading banks had been front @-@ running client orders and rigging the foreign exchange benchmark WM / Reuters rates by colluding with counterparts . The behavior occurred daily in the spot foreign @-@ exchange market and went on for at least a decade according to currency traders .
At the center of the investigation were the transcripts of electronic chatrooms in which senior currency traders discussed with their competitors at other banks the types and volume of the trades they planned to place . The electronic chatrooms had names such as " The Cartel , " " The Bandits ' Club , " " One Team , One Dream " and " The Mafia " .
UBS set aside approximately US $ 2 billion in expected liability for alleged charges in currency rigging and French tax evasion cases .
For the currency rigging charges , UBS paid US $ 800 million to American , British , and Swiss regulators .
= = = U.S. mortgage @-@ backed securities ( 2004 – 2015 ) = = =
In July 2013 , UBS settled a lawsuit filed against it and 17 other banks by Federal Housing Finance Agency ( FHFA ) , the U.S. federal agency that oversees Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac , with a payout of US $ 885 million , but without UBS having to admit any wrongdoing . At the time of the settlement , the agency already settle with two other institutions , but UBS settlement was the first where the amount paid was released to public .
On behalf of Fannie and Freddie , the FHFA had sued UBS and 17 other banks in July 2011 over mortgage @-@ backed securities sold to the two government @-@ sponsored enterprises that buy mortgages in the secondary market and repackage them as securities to boost liquidity in the mortgage business . The lawsuit claimed that UBS misrepresented the quality of mortgages sold to the two housing agencies for US $ 4 @.@ 5 billion .
In February 2015 , UBS along with Citigroup and Goldman Sachs Group agreed to a $ 235 million settlement stemming from residential mortgage @-@ backed securities ( RMBS ) issued by the defunct Residential Capital LLC ( ResCap ) and underwritten by the three financial institutions .
The ResCap RMBS were issued before the sub @-@ prime mortgage crisis , and the lawsuit dates from 2008 . The lawsuit alleged that the prospectuses and registration statements issued by UBS , Citigroup and Goldman Sachs did not adequately disclose the risks of the RMBS and were , in fact , misleading to investors , who sustained heavy losses . The lawsuit alleged that the behavior of the three defendants violated securities laws .
= = = French tax evasion ( 2002 – ) = = =
In 2013 , France launched an investigation into UBS France 's alleged abetting of tax evasion by French taxpayers .
The investigation was spurred by the March 2012 publication of a muckraking book about UBS , Ces 600 milliards qui manquent à la France – Enquête au cœur de l ’ évasion fiscale ( " Those 600 billion which France is missing – Inquiry into the heart of tax evasion " ) , which estimated the amount of tax income lost to UBS @-@ controlled offshore accounts at € 600 billion .
UBS France executive Patrick de Fayet was among three local branch executives being investigated . UBS wealth management bankers allegedly broke the law by enabling French taxpayers to hide their assets in UBS @-@ controlled offshore assets to avoid paying taxes . The bankers undertook to direct their French clients ' assets to UBS 's Switzerland operation , rather than keep the money in France . UBS set aside approximately US $ 2 billion in expected liability for its currency rigging and French tax evasion cases .
UBS is facing fines of up to five billion euros for its alleged role in tax fraud , according to the French newspaper Le Temps .
In July 2014 , the bank was required to post a bond of 1 @.@ 1 billion euros , which UBS complied with while making multiple appeals in the French court system , finally losing its appeal at the Cour de Cassation , France 's highest court . UBS may appeal that ruling at the European Court of Human Rights .
In February 2015 , U.S. whistleblower Bradley Birkenfeld , the key figure in the UBS tax evasion scandal in the U.S. , was subpoenaed by French magistrate investigating the case .
The U.S. Department of Justice approved the request for Birkenfeld , who is still on parole after being convicted of one count of conspiracy to abet tax evasion by his UBS client Igor Olenicoff , to visit France to testify in the UBS case .
Federal Judge William Zloch granted Birkenfeld permission to travel to France from 27 February to 1 March 2015 to appear before the French court .
In 2014 , UBS accused the French government of engaging in a " highly politicized process " in its investigation of the bank and its French subsidiary . The crackdown on UBS France that began in mid @-@ 2013 where it came to light that Jerome Cahuzac , who served as budget director in the government of President Francois Hollande , had a secret Swiss bank account . A former marketing manager of UBS France , Stephanie Gibaud had to testify several times after UBS filed several libel cases against her in this case .
= = = German tax evasion ( 2004 – ) = = =
UBS Deutschland AG came under investigation by prosecutors in Mannheim , Germany , after a tax probe revealed suspicious funds transfers from Germany to Switzerland allegedly facilitated by UBS Deutschland 's Frankfurt office . Prosecutors have investigated UBS 's abetting of tax evasion by German taxpayers from 2004 to 2012 . The investigation was expected to lessen the chances of a German @-@ Swiss tax treaty .
UBS Deutschland 's Frankfurt office was raided by tax investigators in May 2012 , and over 100 @,@ 000 computer files and records were seized for evidence . The bank , which claims it is cooperating with the investigators , said that " an internal investigation into the specific allegations has not identified any evidence of misbehavior by UBS Deutschland AG . "
In July 2014 , the bank paid approximately US $ 400 million to settle similar charges in Bochum , Germany .
= = = Belgian tax evasion ( 2004 – ) = = =
In June 2014 , the chief executive of UBS Belgium , Marcel Brühwiler , was arrested on suspicion of fraud , while UBS ' offices and Brühwiler 's residence were searched by police . It is alleged that UBS Belgium actively recruited rich Belgians , proposing to funnel funds to secret Swiss accounts , enabling tax avoidance .
= = = Timber corruption and Malaysian money laundering ( 2006 – ) = = =
Swiss authorities are conducting criminal investigations on charges against UBS for laundering $ 90 million associated with timber businesses and government officials in Malaysia .
= = = Forex manipulation scandal ( 1991 @-@ 2015 ) = = =
UBS is one of several major banks found guilty in a scheme to manipulate foreign currencies around the world .
On 20 May 2015 , US authorities ruled that UBS was to pay $ 545 million in order to end an investigation into the manipulation of currency rates . UBS was the first among other fraudulent banks to report the misconduct and was thus able to escape prosecution by the US Department of Justice .
$ 203 million in fines is due to UBS ’ s forex activities breaching a previous deal made with the US over the rigging of the London interbank offered rate ( Libor ) . This agreement was dependent on the bank adhering to US laws and staying out of trouble with the US authorities for two years . The deal was struck in 2012 , and forex investigations started less than a year later , resulting in the non @-@ prosecution status being scrapped . On top of the $ 203 million fine , UBS has had to plead guilty to one count of wire fraud in the previous Libor case as part of the deal with the US Department of Justice to end investigations into its conduct in the current forex scandal . As of May 2015 , UBS is in a three @-@ year probation period with the justice department .
= = = Puerto Rico bond funds = = =
UBS sold a lot of the Puerto Rico funds , which were mostly concentrated in the debt of the Caribbean island 's government . The funds have declined as much as 75 percent from their initial prices from 2008 . Losses began in mid @-@ 2013 and were linked to a general weakness in municipal bond markets and Puerto Rican debt . UBS is facing trials against hundreds of arbitration claims by investors filed with FINRA ( Financial Industry Regulatory Authority ) asking for a total of more than $ 900 million in damages . The bond funds had already landed UBS Puerto Rico in trouble before in 2012 .
= = = Panama Papers ( 2016 – ) = = =
Several banks ( UBS , Barclays , HSBC , Deutsche Bank ) and many high profile names have been involved in a recently disclosed scandal concerning secret offshore financial dealings in the so @-@ called Panama Papers scandal .
= = Corporate social responsibility = =
In January 2010 , UBS issued a new code of conduct and business ethics which all employees were encouraged to sign . The code addressed issues such as financial crime , competition , confidentiality , as well as human rights and environmental issues . The eight @-@ page code also lays out potential sanctions against employees who violate it , including warnings , demotions , or dismissal . According to Kaspar Villiger , former Chairman of the Board , and Oswald J. Grübel , former Group CEO , the code is " an integral part of changing the way UBS conducts business " .
In 2011 , UBS expanded its global compliance database to include information on environmental and social issues provided by RepRisk , a global research firm specialized in environmental , social and corporate governance ( ESG ) risk analytics and metrics . This was done in an effort to mitigate environmental and social risks that could impact the bank ’ s reputation or financial performance and to simultaneously help globally standardize and systematically implement the firm ’ s due diligence processes . RepRisk data is used in the on @-@ boarding process to screen potential new clients and sourcing partners , alongside periodic client reviews and , also , to evaluate the risks related to transactions in investment banking and institutional lending .
= = Recognition = =
In 2006 for the fourth consecutive year UBS was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers living in the U.S. by Working Mother magazine .
It is a member of the Stonewall Diversity Champions scheme and has active gay and lesbian , ethnic minority , and women 's networking groups . UBS was included on Business Week 's The Best Places to Launch a Career 2008 , and ranked No. 96 out of the 119 total companies listed .
On 2 February 2010 , UBS topped the charts for the ninth year in a row in Institutional Investor 's annual ranking of Europe 's most highly regarded equity analysts . In a year of extremes for equity markets , money managers say that no firm did a better job than UBS to keep them informed about which European sectors , countries , and industries offered the greatest potential .
On 4 May 2010 , UBS Investment Bank was voted the leading pan @-@ European brokerage firm for equity and equity linked research for a record tenth successive year . A Thomson Reuters Extel survey ranked UBS number one in all three of the key disciplines of research : Research ( tenth year ) ; Sales ( ninth year running ) ; and Equity Trading and Execution ( up from second place in 2009 ) . UBS was also named as the number one leading pan @-@ European brokerage firm for economics and strategy research .
On 31 October 2013 , UBS Wealth Management was voted the Best Global Private Bank by Professional Wealth Management , retaining the title in 2014 while also being recognised as the Best Private Bank for Philanthropy Services , and Best Global Brand in Private Banking .
= = Sponsorship = =
According to Brad Birkenfeld , the whistleblower who revealed the bank 's abetting of tax evasion by its clients , UBS sponsored events like yacht races in the United States to attract wealthy people as potential clients .
The events gave its Switzerland @-@ based bankers a chance to network with the rich in order to cement business deals , which was illegal under U.S. banking laws .
= = = Sports = = =
UBS is particularly active in sponsoring various golf tournaments , cross @-@ country skiing in Switzerland , ice hockey , and a range of other events around the world .
UBS was the sponsor of the Alinghi sailing ship , winner of the Americas Cup in 2003 .
UBS has been or currently is a sponsor of the following sporting events and organizations :
= = = Culture = = =
UBS 's cultural sponsorships are typically related to classical music and contemporary art , although the company also sponsors a range of film festivals , music festivals , and other cultural events and organizations .
UBS has previously been or currently is a sponsor of the following cultural events and organizations :
= = Recent developments and outlook = =
Effective on 15 January 2015 , the Swiss National Bank ( SNB ) discontinued the minimum targeted exchange rate for the Swiss franc versus the euro of 1 @.@ 20 CHF / EUR , set forth in September 2011 , and it also moved the target range for three @-@ month LIBOR to between negative 1 @.@ 25 % and negative 0 @.@ 25 % ( previously negative 0 @.@ 75 % to positive 0 @.@ 25 % ) .
This resulted in a massive strengthening of the Swiss franc against the Euro , US dollar , British pound , Japanese yen and several other currencies , as well as a reduction in Swiss franc interest rates .
A significant portion of UBS 's foreign operations and Basel III risk @-@ weighted assets ( RWA ) are denominated in foreign currencies .
The UBS 's Basel III capital ratio concerned benefited from the appreciation of the Swiss franc . At the same time , since the portion of UBS 's operating income denominated in foreign currencies is greater than the portion of operating expenses so denominated , the UBS was also adversely affected , with further implications emanating from changes in interest rates as applied to equity and capital .
= Forced abortion of Feng Jianmei =
On June 2 , 2012 , Feng Jianmei ( Chinese : 冯建梅 ; pinyin : Féng Jiànméi ) was forced to have an abortion in Zhenping County , Shaanxi , China , when she was seven months pregnant with her second child . Local officials had demanded that Feng and her husband pay a 40 @,@ 000 yuan fine for violating the nation 's one @-@ child policy . When they were unable to do so , authorities arrested Feng , made her sign an agreement to have an abortion , and held her down while injecting her with an abortifacient . Feng was reportedly traumatized by the incident and in poor health afterwards .
On June 11 , Feng 's family posted graphic pictures of her stillborn child . The images soon became a viral phenomenon , sparking controversy within China and drawing international attention to the issue of forced abortions . In response to national and international attention , the Chinese government launched an investigation . On June 26 , the investigation determined that Feng was not legally entitled to a second child , but that her rights had nonetheless been violated by the local family planning bureau , and as a result , two officials were fired and five others punished . On June 27 , the National Population and Family Planning Commission announced it would send inspection teams across China to review the practices of local family planning divisions . Feng 's husband , Deng Jiyuan ( Chinese : 邓吉元 ; pinyin : Dèng Jíyuán ) , hired a lawyer to pursue criminal charges , but ultimately the family decided to settle out of court .
The incident led to increased scrutiny of China 's one @-@ child policy , both nationally and internationally . Feng 's case has been cited in editorials critical of the one @-@ child policy , and has also been used as an example of how the Internet is empowering ordinary people in an environment of government censorship . On July 5 , European Parliament passed a resolution condemning both Feng 's case and forced abortion in general . On January 1 , 2016 , after months of discussion , China 's one @-@ child policy was replaced with a two @-@ child policy .
= = Background = =
= = = One @-@ child law = = =
Since 1979 , Chinese couples have been limited to one child by law in order to control the country 's population . Families living in rural areas , as well as those with an ethnic minority background , can often receive an exemption from the law and have a second child without penalty . Otherwise , couples who have two or more children are required to pay a fine to the government . According to He Yafu , an independent demographer , such fines are common and " have become a major source of profit for family planning authorities " in recent years . The demographer He adds that the fines allow wealthy families to have extra children while forcing poorer families into involuntary abortions . The fines generate an estimated 20 billion yuan per year in revenue for the government . He Yafu estimates that over 2 trillion yuan ( ~ $ 314 billion USD ) has been collected since 1980 .
China 's Population and Family Planning Law prohibits infringement on people 's personal rights and property for family planning purposes . Moreover , a 2001 law prohibited abortions after the sixth month of pregnancy . Nevertheless , human rights groups and critics of the one @-@ child policy say that these laws are inconsistently enforced , and the local officials in many areas still carry out forced sterilizations and / or coerced abortions , sometimes in the third trimester after the fetus has reached viability . In ten Chinese provinces , including Shaanxi , authorities are permitted to take " remedial measures " to ensure that birth quotas are not exceeded . In eight other provinces , authorities are required to terminate unauthorized pregnancies . Activists such as Chen Guangcheng have been jailed by the Chinese government for bringing to light evidence of forced abortions . In 2005 , Chen filed a class @-@ action lawsuit on behalf of women forced into sterilization or abortions and subsequently spent seven years in jail or under house arrest before emigrating to the United States in 2012 .
= = = Feng Jianmei = = =
In October 2011 , Feng Jianmei , who was a 22 @-@ year @-@ old woman from the small village of Yuping in Zeng Jia Township , Shaanxi province , became pregnant with her second child . She had married in 2006 and given birth to a girl in 2007 . After listening to the advice of relatives , Feng and her husband , Deng Jiyuan , had believed they would be allowed to have a second child since they had waited five years between children and lived in a rural area . According to Zhenping County officials , authorities had contacted Feng in March 2012 and told her that she needed to obtain documentation , including a new household registration ( referred to as hukou ) , in order to file an application to have the child . Her family denies this , saying that officials did not notify them until several days before the abortion was induced .
= = Abortion = =
Around May 28 , local family planning officials phoned Feng to try to persuade her to have an abortion . The attempt was unsuccessful , so on May 30 they visited the family house while Feng 's husband was away at work . At first , authorities tried to persuade her to voluntarily have an abortion . After several hours , she told the officials she was going out to buy food , and left them in her living room . Instead , she went to an aunt 's house , but around 15 officials followed her . They did not immediately arrest Feng , instead setting up shifts to keep watch over her at the aunt 's house . Early the next morning , Feng escaped , causing the guards to panic . She flagged down a van and persuaded the driver to help her . The driver let her out down the road , and Feng hid in hillside brush for the next 14 hours , waiting for the cover of darkness in the cold and rainy weather . When night came , she went to a relative 's house in the countryside , where she hid under the bed . Authorities from the family planning office found her regardless , and allegedly assaulted her . They let her get a night 's sleep before taking her to the hospital on June 2 . Several witnesses reported that four men carried Feng out of the house with a pillowcase over her head .
Simultaneously , family planning officials were in communication with Feng 's husband , Deng Jiyuan . On June 1 , they demanded that Deng either transfer his wife 's residency status on the next day or pay 100 @,@ 000 yuan ( US $ 15 @,@ 700 ) to the birth @-@ planning social security fund . Transferring the residency status in one day was impossible , but Deng negotiated the payment down to 30 @,@ 000 yuan before returning to Zhenping County ( he actually only had 18 @,@ 000 yuan that he had borrowed from work , but hoped an IOU would cover the balance ) . On his way back , Deng received a text message that demanded that he immediately pay the fee , which was now 40 @,@ 000 yuan , and " not a penny less . " Other family members received similar text messages .
At the hospital , two men forced Feng to apply her thumbprint to a consent form and sign a document authorizing the abortion . She was taken into an operating room and restrained by two men as she was injected with a poison to kill the fetus . Feng later told All Girls Allowed , an American group campaigning against the one @-@ child policy , " I could feel the baby jumping around inside me all the time , but then she went still . " She had been seven months pregnant at the time , so the abortion , voluntary or not , was illegal under Chinese law . No family members were allowed to be present for the procedure . After the child died of hypoxia , Feng underwent induced labor and delivered a stillborn girl on June 4 . Feng later told All Girls Allowed : " It was much more painful than my first childbirth . The baby was lifeless , and she was all purple and blue . " The corpse was then placed next to Feng on her bed for her family to dispose of when they arrived .
Feng was traumatized by the procedure and smashed the door and cabinetry of a nurse 's office in a fit of rage . A week later , Deng told The South China Morning Post , " My wife is not well . She is sad and distressed . Sometimes she becomes emotional and confused . " Feng reportedly had a severe headache for several weeks after the abortion and attempted suicide multiple times . On June 15 , an uncle told reporters Feng was in poor health and unable to eat . On June 26 , Feng was still in the hospital and suffering from headaches . She told reporters that she wanted to go home , but that hospital staff would not allow her to leave . On June 29 , her family reported that Feng would be released the next day . However , her condition worsened , and she did not return home until July 10 .
Deng filed an official complaint with Ankang 's petition office . A deputy mayor allegedly told Deng that they would investigate , but when nothing appeared to be happening , Deng posted his family 's story online. later telling CNN that " I 'm angry and want justice . " Meanwhile , the township officials had prepared a statement that said Feng was of sound mind and body when she signed the consent form authorizing the abortion .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Story goes viral = = =
Feng 's sister @-@ in @-@ law and Deng Jiyuan 's sister , Deng Jicai ( Chinese : 邓吉彩 ; pinyin : Dèng Jícǎi ) , came back from Hubei the day after the abortion and brought a video camera with her to film Feng . A family planning official , who discovered the tape , then demanded that it be erased . However , Jicai was able to capture several pictures with her cell phone . On June 11 , a picture of Feng lying in a hospital bed " staring at the ceiling with dull eyes " next to the bloody corpse was posted on Chinese social media website Sina Weibo , along with an image of a threatening text message sent by authorities . The images prompted outrage , and news of the event spread quickly . Angry comments from around China poured in , with people calling the authorities ' actions " an atrocity " , " the same as murder . " Many comments called for an end to the one @-@ child policy , or tied the case to other controversial topics such as the corruption of local officials or the country 's rural @-@ urban divide . Many posts were quickly deleted by government censors . Nonetheless , by June 13 , more than 40 @,@ 000 comments about the photos were present on Sina Weibo , and by June 15 , images of Feng were among the most forwarded . " Seven @-@ months pregnant forced abortion " was the website 's top search term , and more than one million user comments were logged on the topic . Discussion also spread to other social media outlets , including NetEase , where threads critical of the government were quickly locked to prevent further discussion .
Zhang Kai ( Chinese : 张凯 ; pinyin : Zhāng Kǎi ) , a lawyer known for his representation of the disadvantaged , posted the story on his blog . Li Chengpeng , a Chinese blogger with more than five million followers , learned of the story and wrote " the purpose of family planning was to control population , but now it has become murder population ... If this evil policy is not stopped , this country will have no humanity . " Zhao Chu , a writer decried the one @-@ child policy as a " profit @-@ oriented activity that everyone hates , " writing " this is not about enforcing the policy , it is about depriving someone ’ s right to live . " Liang Jianzhang , chief executive of Ctrip , called Feng 's case " outrageous and violent " and " not unique to Shaanxi , " saying that " abolition of the absurd family @-@ planning policy is the only way to root out this kind of evil . "
Local newspaper Hua Shang Bao ran a story on Feng.On June 12 , human rights activist Huang Qi also posted the story and images . The story was then picked up by major media outlets throughout China . On June 14 , state @-@ backed newspaper Global Times reported that " online posts about Feng 's forced abortion had triggered a torrent of criticism directed at the Zhenping government and sparked debate about the national family planning policy . " On his personal Weibo account , chief editor Hu Xijin wrote , " I strongly oppose the barbarous forced abortion , " saying the country 's family planning enforcement needed to change . However , he stated that overall the one @-@ child policy was a good thing , writing that " the world resources cannot afford to feed a China with billions of people . "
On June 13 , French news agency Agence France @-@ Presse reported that the graphic images of Feng and her stillborn child " have caused an uproar in China . " Al Jazeera also ran a story about Feng that day . The next day , BBC , CNN , The Age , and other major media outlets around the world ran articles on the topic .
= = = Chinese government response = = =
After the story of Feng Jianmei 's abortion gained widespread domestic and international exposure , Zhenping County officials denied the allegations , saying that the abortion was legal and that Feng had requested it . " Feng agreed to go through an operation to end the pregnancy on June 2 following repeated mediation by the township officials , " read the county 's website . They further stated that she did not have a local hukou registration and that the couple was not entitled to a second child . The statement was later removed , with a search for Feng 's name causing an " error " message . A few days later , local family planning official Yuan Fang stated the request for 40 @,@ 000 yuan was " a deposit " that would have been returned after Feng filed the necessary paperwork .
A hospital employee acknowledged that Feng was staying there and that the hospital " implements " family planning policy and " provides services " to that effect , but denied that forced abortion was a part of what they do . He said he didn 't know the details of Feng 's case but stated that " she is probably just exaggerating things on the Internet . " It was soon revealed that the Zeng Jia Township had failed to reach its enforcement quotas under the one @-@ child policy for the past two years , so it had received a " yellow card " warning . Desiring to remove the warning , town officials decided to crack down on enforcement in June 2012 .
Approximately ten days after the forced abortion occurred , the Shaanxi Provincial Population and Family Planning Commission launched an investigation . On June 13 , Yu Yanmei , the deputy head of Ankang , visited the Deng household . Two days later , the commission concluded that Feng had indeed been forced into an illegal abortion , writing , " Such practice has seriously violated the relevant policies ... harmed the image of our family planning work , and caused extremely poor effects in society . " Three officials , including the head of the local family @-@ planning department , were suspended from their jobs on June 14 . An employee of the Ankang Family Planning Bureau said that " grass @-@ roots comrades aren 't stupid , but this is what they 're forced to do ... This is a problem with the entire system . "
The Ankang city government promised to " pursue strict legal and disciplinary action " once the investigation was finished . On June 14 , the city issued a formal apology . " Since the illegal actions by some officials have seriously hurt Feng Jianmei and her family , we want to offer our deep apologies to them and to the generic public , " read the statement . The same day , deputy mayor Du Shouping visited Feng in the hospital to express the city 's " sincere apologies . " " I hope we can earn your forgiveness , " he said in a statement published on the city 's webpage . The Chinese government also said it had released a pamphlet emphasizing that late term abortion is prohibited and that the legal rights of pregnant women should be maintained .
On June 26 , the results of the investigation were announced . The investigation concluded that Feng was not entitled to have a second child due to her non @-@ agricultural hukou , and that she had been told to fix her registration in March . However , Feng 's rights were violated by county officials and there was no legal basis for the demanded 40 @,@ 000 yuan fee . " The incident showed that some officials at the grassroots level have a weak sense of the law and show little concern for the well @-@ being of the people , " the report said . The head of the family planning bureau of Zhenping , Jiang Nenghai , and one other official were fired . Five other government and hospital employees received some form of punishment . Additionally , the county government was ordered to provide Feng with a living stipend .
= = = Litigation = = =
Of the government 's actions , Deng Jicai said , " Of course we 're not satisfied with the result . " She added , " all they 've done is punish a few leaders , but they haven 't done anything to the people directly responsible for dragging my sister @-@ in @-@ law [ Feng ] in to have an abortion . They haven 't pursued a single person for criminal liability . " Jicai also noted that no mention was made of the people who later harassed the family , nor was there any mention of an incident where her brother was attacked and beaten .
Zhang Kai , a lawyer from Beijing , told Deng Jiyuan he would look into filing a lawsuit against the township government . " To force a woman who is seven months pregnant to have an abortion is a serious violation of the law , " he said . " At the very least it should be considered willful and malicious injury . " Zhang said he hoped the case would cause people to rethink China 's population control policies . On June 29 , he announced that he was officially representing the family and would seek the help of other lawyers to get the case heard in criminal court . However , he acknowledged that doing so would be difficult . " China 's family planning departments are above the law , " he explained . " Even when they do something illegal it is rare for them to be held responsible . " In response to the lawsuit threats , local officials cancelled a planned meeting to discuss the living stipend , saying they would wait for Jiyuan 's return to Zeng Jia Township .
Judge Xie Xue told reporters that forced abortion would not be classified as homicide or kidnapping , but could qualify as an intentional injury crime . In cases where complications arose after the abortion , such as Feng 's , the injury could be considered a serious offense bearing a possible penalty of three to ten years in prison . However , The Wall Street Journal said a legal remedy was unlikely , noting that a 2008 decision by the Supreme People 's Court indicated that litigation could not be based on specific provisions of the constitution . Furthermore , family planning law does not have any provision for damages awarded to victims of abuse by government officials .
On July 2 , Zhang submitted an official request for the Ankang police to file a case and investigate the officials involved . Subsequently , Deng returned home and decided to negotiate with local authorities . On July 10 , the family agreed to settle out of court for 70 @,@ 600 yuan ( ~ $ 11 @,@ 200 USD ) . Additionally , the township agreed to pay Feng 's medical bills if she contracted a disease from the abortion . " I 've given up legal appeals and agreed to take the compensation offered by the township government , " Deng remarked . " We just want our normal life back . " He added , " It has never been about the money . As ordinary people , we can no longer take the pressure from all sides of the society " . Zhang said the family gave up on pursuing criminal charges because local law enforcement was uncooperative , explaining that " if the prosecutors don 't fulfill their responsibilities [ to press charges ] , it 's impossible to do . " An official told Xinhua , China 's official state news agency , that the government was committed to providing for the family 's financial needs if they should encounter future financial difficulties and that the government would also provide medical care for the Dengs ' ailing mother .
Zhang said the compensation could not make up for a lifetime of " spiritual pain " and remarked that 70 @,@ 000 yuan could not compensate for a lost life . " In terms of compensation , the word satisfaction doesn ’ t even enter the equation , " Jiyuan remarked . " But this is the result , so we just have to accept it . " Reactions on Chinese social media were mixed , and some commented that the government had gotten too lenient a consequence . International activists said the settlement of Feng 's case was just the beginning of the fight to end the one @-@ child policy , with Bob Fu of ChinaAid remarking , " The bottom line is there are hundreds and thousands of [ cases like ] Feng Jianmei . " As of July 13 , the family had not received the promised compensation and Jiyuan told reporters he was not sure if it would ever come .
= = = Harassment and surveillance of family members = = =
In the weeks after Feng Jianmei 's story went public , the family suffered from what Zhang called " state @-@ backed harassment . " The harassment started when Deng Jiyuan attempted to go to Beijing to talk with a lawyer and do a television interview . Jiyuan 's travel attempt was stopped by " more than 100 people and a dozen cars , " according to Deng Jicai . Then , " a man suddenly appeared and kicked my brother in the stomach . " After Jiyuan was interviewed by Stern magazine on June 22 , the harassment from the government became worse , with Jiyuan stating that he was subsequently followed by " local officials and thugs " everywhere he went , even the bathroom . He then disappeared from public sight on June 24 , only phoning home on June 26 to say he was safe , but his whereabouts remained unknown .
On June 29 , Jiyuan reappeared in Beijing , telling reporters , " I came to Beijing in search of help . " He said that he had made two unsuccessful attempts to flee from custody before succeeding on his third try . While his official monitors were on the phone , Jiyuan fled to a friend 's home , where he remained for two days . He removed the sim card and battery from his cell phone to prevent being tracked . " I did not sleep or get any new clothes , I could not risk being arrested , " he recalled . They rented a car and drove to Beijing , and Jiyuan recalled that " I assumed there would be government people at the train station . " Whenever they neared police officers , he would get out of the car and walk to prevent being spotted .
Other family members were also reportedly followed and harassed by government officials . Protestors converged outside the hospital where Feng was staying , carrying a banner that read " severely beat the traitors and expel them . " Local media reported that the local government had organized the protest . About a dozen guards patrolled outside Feng 's hospital room for two weeks , following family members wherever they went . " We feel like prisoners , " remarked Deng Jicai . Supporters of the family allege that local officials were also engaged in an online smear campaign against the family . " The whole family feels very depressed and pressured , " said Jicai . On June 26 , a visiting family member had their tires slashed . A spokesperson for the Shaanxi provincial government called the allegations of harassment unfounded rumors . However , Liang Zhongtang , an independent researcher , said it was common for people who seek outside help to be harassed by local governments . He speculated that the township government was trying to prevent further media coverage of the case . On July 13 , Jiyuan said that he remained concerned over his family 's future safety , noting : " There are rumors on the street that after this thing calms down , when people are not paying attention to us anymore , they [ the officials who were punished for approving the abortion ] will kill my family . "
Later , when asked if she still wanted to have another child , Feng told The New York Times , " That depends on how my body recovers . Yes , if I can get my health back . "
= = Domestic and international response = =
= = = Official response and calls to reform in China = = =
On June 27 , the National Population and Family Planning Commission announced it would conduct a review of family planning enforcement country @-@ wide . As part of the review , ten inspection teams would be sent to nineteen different provinces to review the practices of local offices , and that the teams would be charged with settling disputes and would distribute contraceptives . Commission director Wang Xia said the inspection was of great importance , remarking that " even slight carelessness in law enforcement [ damages ] the image of the Party and the country . " Xia said the review would aim to " strengthen the day @-@ to @-@ day management of services , avoid the use of violence and prevent abuses of administrative enforcement " ; he placed a special emphasis on the " social maintenance fees " collected from policy violators . Simultaneously , the commission declared that fines collected for future violations could no longer be spent at the local level , but instead would go into a general fund . He Yafu described the campaign as an attempt by the commission to restore public trust that had been badly damaged by Feng 's forced abortion .
On July 3 , 2012 , an open letter by three members of the Development Research Center of the State Council , a think tank that advises the Chinese ruling cabinet , was published in the group 's newspaper , China Economic Times . In the letter they called for " adjustments " to be made to the one @-@ child policy " as soon as possible " . The group advised that " an opening up of the two @-@ child option to all should be considered . " Demographer Liang Zhongtang said the letter was likely the start of a gradual shift in policy , but that a sudden shift was very unlikely . Although there was no explicit mention of Feng Jianmei in the letter , multiple news sources drew a connection between the timing of the two events . Writing for The New Yorker , Evan Osnos said that " pressure for change of China ’ s one @-@ child policy seems to be mounting " in the wake of Feng 's case . On July 5 , a group of fifteen scholars released an own open letter to the National People 's Congress arguing that change to family planning law was " imperative " . The letter mentioned research indicating economic consequences of continuing the one @-@ child policy , but focused on human rights issues , mentioning Feng by name . " Behind these incidents are clear limitations and defects in the nation 's family planning laws , " read the letter . Liang Jianzhang , one of the letter 's signers , told a reporter " From an economic perspective , the one @-@ child policy is irrational . From a human @-@ rights perspective , it 's even less rational . "
= = = International reaction = = =
Feng Jianmei 's ordeal brought increased scrutiny to China 's abortion and population @-@ control policies . International commentators were highly critical of the government 's role in Feng 's abortion . " Feng Jianmei 's story demonstrates how the One
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@-@ Child Policy continues to sanction violence against women every day , " said Chai Ling of the NGO All Girls Allowed . Women 's Rights Without Frontiers ' president Reggie Littlejohn stated " no legitimate government would commit or tolerate such an act . Those who are responsible should be prosecuted for crimes against humanity . " In a press release , the Christian Alliance Defense Fund called Feng 's case " nothing less than a crime against humanity " and asked American political leaders to formally condemn the act . The World Evangelical Alliance said it was " outraged " by the incident and asked the Chinese government to " ensure that these tragic incidents are prevented from happening in the future . "
On July 5 , European Parliament passed a resolution condemning both the treatment of Feng and forced abortions in general , " especially in the context of the one @-@ child policy . " The resolution also requested that forced abortion be added the agenda for the next bilateral human rights dialogue with China . Additionally , some Members of the European Parliament ( MEPs ) requested an independent investigation into forced abortion and infanticide in China . A few days later , MEP Lojze Peterle opined that Chinese family planning law violates provisions outlined by the United Nations in the International Conference on Population and Development . He said the resolution passed by parliament gives the European Commission a " clear mandate " to withdraw funds from any organization potentially involved in aiding coercive practices in China , citing the International Planned Parenthood Federation and Marie Stopes International as two potential targets .
On July 9 , the Human Rights Subcommittee of the United States House of Representatives convened a hearing on the one @-@ child policy prompted by Feng 's story . In his opening remarks , chairman Chris Smith called the one @-@ child policy " a nightmarish ' brave new world ' ... where women are psychologically wounded , girls fall victim to sex @-@ selective abortion ... and most children grow up without brothers or sisters , aunts or uncles or cousins . " He said that because of Feng , people were " finally seeing the gruesome reality of China ’ s one @-@ child policy . " Congressman Joseph R. Pitts agreed , saying " It now seems that consensus in China is building towards reforming the policy . " Committee witnesses called for a number of responses such as restricting United Nations Population Fund outlays and encouraging U.S. corporations doing business in China to reject the country 's family @-@ planning practices at their facilities .
= = = International media coverage = = =
Feng 's case became a focal point for newspaper editorials against China 's one @-@ child policy and abortion in general . Opponents of the one @-@ child policy said the case is a potential turning point in the efforts to end the rule . On June 26 , Reuters said the story had sparked " a firestorm domestically and around the world , " explaining that " Feng Jianmei 's abortion was portrayed in the Chinese and international press as an example of the extreme measures some officials would take to control China 's population , even if it meant breaking Chinese law . " A story in The Wall Street Journal remarked that the case " dramatize [ s ] the harshness of the one @-@ child policy . " The incident prompted Evan Osnos , the New Yorker writer , to create a feature piece titled " Abortion and Politics in China . " Osnos said that " the Feng case is emblematic of some of the most inflammatory issues on Chinese public life , " including money , government corruption , the household registration system , and of course family planning , and that " the case is a dramatic demonstration of exactly why the Communist Party had reason to be afraid of the Internet . "
On June 23 , The Economist featured a story on China ’ s one @-@ child policy , focusing on Feng 's forced abortion and how the internet was changing power dynamics in China . " Three years ago , Ms. Feng ’ s suffering might have gone unnoticed ... But her relatives uploaded the graphic pictures onto the internet , and soon microblogs had flashed them to millions of people across the country , " writes the article 's author . Wang Songlian , a researcher for Chinese Human Rights Defenders , said it was certain that the internet had made discussion of Feng 's case possible , but she called the officials ' punishments " isolated " and said " government officials are virtually immune in using violence and carrying out the policy by force . We 've not seen any significant [ change ] in holding officials accountable . "
A June 22 editorial in The Australian argued against the one @-@ child policy , stating that Feng 's case " one small example of the terrible costs of China 's longstanding population control regime . " A June 25 editorial in the Herald Sun , which examined family planning in general , said that Feng " personifies the end game of forced population limits . "
Several commentators have compared Feng Jianmei to Liu Yang , who was in the news at roughly the same time for becoming the first Chinese female in space . On June 17 , the Tea Leaf Nation blog published a story entitled " Netizens Reflect As One Chinese Woman Touches Heaven , Another Hell . " The story , focused on a widely distributed Sina Weibo post , features pictures of Feng and Liu side by side , and the blogger wrote in the caption " The stark contrast between the fates of [ the ] two women ... is the clearest illustration of the torn state of this nation . " The post was quickly re @-@ tweeted by famous blogger Han Han . By the time the government deleted both posts , the information had already been shared 70 @,@ 000 times in the first 24 hours . The International Herald Tribune immediately picked up the story , stating , " The gruesome abortion incident was cast this weekend against China ’ s successful launching of its first female astronaut . The sad irony of the two women ’ s situations was not lost on Chinese netizens . " Two days later , the Global Post published the story and commented , " leave it to Sina Weibo to point out what 's important , " explaining that the juxtaposition of the two new stories " [ highlights ] China 's current troubled and contradictory state ... Some Chinese women get launched into space , others receive injections that kill their unborn child . "
Journalist Andrew Bolt used Feng 's case to editorialize against abortion in Australia , writing , " Deng Jiyuan has shamed the tyrants of Beijing . But ... he shames us here as well . " He compared Feng 's abortion to famous cases in Australia and concluded that the main difference was the graphic pictures of Feng 's baby .
Asia Times Online featured Feng 's story in an editorial titled " China 's addiction to birth planning " . Author Peter Lee remarked that it was " disturbing " how many resources the township devoted to persuading Feng , quoting an official as saying " On that day , pretty much all of the township leadership and relevant staff all went [ to get Feng to the hospital ] . " He concluded that the way the case was handled provides strong evidence that at least some of China 's leaders are anxious to end the one @-@ child policy . In contrast , an editorial published in The Peninsula argued that the case showed China 's leaders were losing their ability to control local authorities .
He Yafu says the controversy has damaged the public image of one @-@ child policy in China . Journalist Fareed Zakaria suggested there were signs that the Chinese government was softening its rules , noting the large number of prominent citizens who spoke out against Feng 's abortion . Zakaria wrote , " Even a few years ago , it would have taken a very brave Chinese thinker to pose that question in public . " However , he said that formal change would be impossible before a change in leadership occurred , and even then would " take much courage " .
A July 17 piece in The Huffington Post said that the case " captured the public imagination in China because it exemplifies broader systemic issues . " Feng 's case had been cited by both pro @-@ life and pro @-@ choice advocates in the United States in support of their causes ; for pro @-@ life advocates , the case represented " the kind of ' federally endorsed ' abortions that they fear may lie in store for the United States , " while for pro @-@ choice advocates , " [ Feng ] should have been granted a choice in the first place . "
= Neither Here nor There ( Fringe ) =
" Neither Here nor There " is the fourth season premiere of the Fox science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode depicts the aftermath of the third season finale in which Peter Bishop disappears from his timeline . In the new , altered timeline , Olivia Dunham is joined by FBI agent Lincoln Lee after the latter 's partner is murdered . The two work to investigate his death , which revolves around shape @-@ shifting technology .
The episode was co @-@ written by J.H. Wyman , Jeff Pinkner , and Akiva Goldsman . Joe Chappelle directed the installment . Wyman and Pinkner approached it as a new pilot and used the character of Lee to help introduce viewers to the series . As a result of Lee 's inclusion , " Neither Here nor There " is the first episode to introduce his portrayer Seth Gabel , formerly a recurring actor , as a main cast member . Joe Flanigan guest @-@ starred as his partner , Robert Danzig . The episode is also the first to briefly feature recurring actress Michelle Krusiec as Nadine Park .
" Neither Here nor There " was originally broadcast on September 23 , 2011 on the Fox network to an estimated 3 @.@ 5 million viewers . It scored a 1 @.@ 5 / 5 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 . Critical reception towards the episode was mixed , with several praising its special effects and Anna Torv 's acting but criticizing elements of its story .
= = Plot = =
At the end of " The Day We Died " , Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) uses the Machine to create a " bridge " between the prime and parallel universe allowing the two sides to work together to resolve the instabilities in both universes ; but in doing so , Peter vanishes . Because of this , Observer September ( Michael Cerveris ) says Peter never existed . Despite this , the Observers are aware of changes in the original timeline , with echoes of Peter appearing . December ( Eugene Lipinski ) charges September with assuring that the last memories of Peter are wiped out . Both universes have created a secure airlock @-@ like system around the shared room housing the Machine within the bridge . At the start of the episode , the two Olivias ( Anna Torv ) , still somewhat distrusting of the other , help to share relevant Fringe files between the two universes .
FBI agent Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) and his partner of five years , Robert Danzig ( Joe Flanigan ) , are pursuing an arms dealer ; while Lee apprehends the man , his partner is killed by a second , mysterious man with translucent skin and seemingly superhuman abilities . The skin of Danzig 's body also becomes translucent after he dies . When forensics comes on the scene , Olivia and Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) appear and take the agent 's body without revealing their intentions . Lincoln follows Olivia to the lab , where he is introduced to the Fringe division . Despite Olivia attempting to keep Lincoln away , he continues to follow the investigation as they discover another victim killed in a similar manner . From a witness , they learn about the appearance of the killer , but are unable to identify him by name .
Olivia agrees to bring Lincoln onto the case , and shows him that there have been roughly thirty victims in the last several days , who have had no obvious connection or signs of death , other than that their hearts stopped . Lincoln reveals that Danzig suffered from Crohn 's disease and was taking iron supplements , which leads Walter ( John Noble ) to realize that all of the victims were suffering from heavy metal poisoning , and that their killer extracted substances from their blood . Recognizing that several of the victims use commuter rail , Olivia initiates a manhunt at a nearby rail station . She and her team are then informed of the suspect 's location , and after a chase , in which one of the pursuing FBI agents is killed and another shot in the leg , Olivia is able to kill the suspect , who also had translucent skin and had been experimenting on himself . Lincoln kills a second man with the same condition . As the FBI cleans up the area , a woman ( Michelle Krusiec ) , also with translucent skin , watches from afar .
In examining the bodies , Walter discovers a bio @-@ mechanical module similar to those they had previously seen in the shapeshifters that Walternate used . Olivia and Lincoln take the module to the Machine room . As Lincoln is stunned by the technology , Olivia gives the module to Fauxlivia , who promises to take it to Walternate to investigate .
During the episode , Walter is shown to be agoraphobic and unwilling to leave his lab after Olivia arranged his release from a mental asylum . He becomes panicked when he briefly sees images of a man , Peter , in the lab ; Olivia attributes this to Walter lacking any foothold in reality . That evening , Walter is preparing for bed while September , outside , readies a device he has assembled to wipe out the remains of Peter 's existence . But at the last moment September disarms the device and walks away . Later Walter sees yet another image of Peter on his television and is terrified .
= = Production = =
The episode was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners J.H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman . Executive producer Joe Chappelle directed . Pinkner and Wyman approached the episode " like a new pilot " to draw in viewers who wanted to watch the show but did not know when to start . They used Lincoln Lee as a tool to acquaint viewers with the new changes . Former guest actor Seth Gabel , who played Lee , joined the cast as a series regular for the fourth season . He believed his character allowed the audience to see Fringe Division from a new perspective . He explained , " You need a layman 's perspective from time to time . The show has gotten so deep into this crazy , surreal scientific world that you need someone to enter every now and then to remind you this is not the common experience . You need someone to show you how far down the rabbit hole you ’ ve gone , so you don 't become desensitized to it . I think Lincoln serves that for a while . "
The showrunners had the episode center around the idea that " Peter no longer exists " , and intended it to " set up the season arc from numerous characters ' perspectives " to show viewers what to expect from the season . When discussing the season 's arc , Fox and Warner Brothers wished to have Peter return as soon as possible , as they knew he was popular with fans . Pinkner and Wyman responded that to " really establish his absence [ it ] will take a little while " , but knew that a longer wait would lead to audience frustration .
The fourth season premiere was initially called " A Sort of Homecoming " , also the name of a song by rock band U2 . The episode 's opening credits featured a new amber @-@ tinted sequence , which listed new fringe science terms like " Psychometry " , " Gravitons " , and " Existence " . Pinkner said the new color of the credits " clearly [ indicates ] a universe without Peter in it . " " Neither Here nor There " marked the first appearance of recurring guest actress Michelle Krusiec . Her casting was confirmed in July 2011 . The episode also featured a one @-@ time guest appearance by actor Joe Flanigan , who played Lee 's partner Robert Danzig . Flanigan shot his scenes in July 2011 .
= = Cultural references = =
The scene in the diner where the Observers discuss Peter 's existence featured " California Dreamin ' " by vocal group The Mamas & the Papas . Other songs featured in the episode included " Rockin ' Robin " by Bobby Day and " Cinderella in the Palace " by Sergei Prokofiev , the latter performed by the National Symphony Orchestra of Ukraine . Walter later quotes a line from the 1963 John le Carre novel The Spy Who Came In From The Cold .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Neither Here nor There " originally broadcast in the United States on September 23 , 2011 to an estimated 3 @.@ 5 millions viewers . It scored a 1 @.@ 5 / 5 ratings share among viewers 18 – 49 , meaning that it was seen by 1 @.@ 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . This ratings share was up 25 percent from the third season finale but down 21 percent from the season 's premiere . Despite its low ratings , the episode was the highest @-@ rated Friday premiere on Fox in six years . Among total viewers it came in fourth for the night but finished third among adults .
= = = Reviews = = =
Writing for The Onion 's A.V. Club , Noel Murray gave the episode a " B " , remarking that he " enjoyed the episode overall — largely because it 's just such a treat to have be [ sic ] back in this world with these people — I 'm not sure it was wholly successful in its attempt to play by the old rules . " He added that after the opening exchange between Olivia and Fauxlivia , the episode " settles into a fairly typical " Fringe formula involving a " villain of the week " and a freakish event . Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times praised Anna Torv 's two performances and believed " the containment built around ' the Machine ' " may " have been my favorite part of the episode . "
Den of Geek selected the episode 's special effects as a positive element , but was more critical of the episode as a whole . " As Fringe goes , " the website explained , " this ended up a rather lightweight narrative , which was more about getting Lincoln established with Fringe , and providing a few new plotlines that the subsequent stories can expand on . " IGN 's Ramsey Isler was equally ambivalent , and gave the episode a score of 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 . He observed , " It isn 't a bad episode . It 's a good addition to the Fringe lore . It 's well @-@ written , has plenty of action , and the actors are great as usual . But it just doesn 't feel like a fulfilling continuation of last season 's cliffhanger , nor does it strike me as a fantastic new direction for the season . "
Richard Edwards of SFX gave the episode 4 out of 5 stars , writing that it " chooses to mostly ignore exploring the implications [ of Peter 's disappearance ] on the overall story arc in favour of a fairly run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill ( by Fringe standards , at least ) case of the week . Even the potentially scintillating scenes between the alternate incarnations of the characters fail to materialise , aside from a couple of stilted encounters between the two Olivias . " Edwards did however praise the premiere for its special effects , and for doing an effective job presenting the characteristics of a world without Peter , especially highlighting Lincoln 's newcomer role as a lens for the audience .
= Bix Beiderbecke =
Leon Bismark " Bix " Beiderbecke ( March 10 , 1903 – August 6 , 1931 ) was an American jazz cornetist , jazz pianist , and composer .
With Louis Armstrong and Muggsy Spanier , Beiderbecke was one of the most influential jazz soloists of the 1920s . His turns on " Singin ' the Blues " and " I 'm Coming , Virginia " ( both 1927 ) , in particular , demonstrated an unusual purity of tone and a gift for improvisation . With these two recordings , especially , he helped to invent the jazz ballad style and hinted at what , in the 1950s , would become cool jazz . " In a Mist " ( 1927 ) , one of a handful of his piano compositions and one of only two he recorded , mixed classical ( Impressionist ) influences with jazz syncopation .
A native of Davenport , Iowa , Beiderbecke taught himself to play cornet largely by ear , leading him to adopt a non @-@ standard fingering some critics have connected to his original sound . He first recorded with Midwestern jazz ensembles , The Wolverines and The Bucktown Five in 1924 , after which he played briefly for the Detroit @-@ based Jean Goldkette Orchestra before joining Frankie " Tram " Trumbauer for an extended gig at the Arcadia Ballroom in St. Louis . Beiderbecke and Trumbauer joined Goldkette in 1926 . The band toured widely and famously played a set opposite Fletcher Henderson at the Roseland Ballroom in New York City in October 1926 . He made his greatest recordings in 1927 ( see above ) . In 1928 , Trumbauer and Beiderbecke left Detroit to join the best @-@ known and most prestigious dance orchestra in the country : the New @-@ York @-@ based Paul Whiteman Orchestra .
Beiderbecke 's most influential recordings date from his time with Goldkette and Whiteman , although they were generally recorded under his own name or Trumbauer 's . The Whiteman period also marked a precipitous decline in Beiderbecke 's health , brought on by the demand of the bandleader 's relentless touring and recording schedule in combination with Beiderbecke 's persistent alcoholism . A few stints in rehabilitation centers , as well as the support of Whiteman and the Beiderbecke family in Davenport , did not check Beiderbecke 's decline in health . He left the Whiteman band in 1930 and the following summer died in his Queens apartment at the age of 28 .
His death , in turn , gave rise to one of the original legends of jazz . In magazine articles , musicians ' memoirs , novels , and Hollywood films , Beiderbecke has been reincarnated as a Romantic hero , the " Young Man with a Horn " . His life has been portrayed as a battle against such common obstacles to art as family and commerce , while his death has been seen as a martyrdom for the sake of art . The musician @-@ critic Benny Green sarcastically called Beiderbecke " jazz 's Number One Saint , " while Ralph Berton compared him to Jesus . Beiderbecke remains the subject of scholarly controversy regarding his true name , the cause of his death , and the importance of his contributions to jazz .
= = Early life = =
Beiderbecke was born on March 10 , 1903 , in Davenport , Iowa , the son of Bismark Herman and Agatha Jane ( Hilton ) Beiderbecke . There is disagreement over whether Beiderbecke was christened Leon Bismark ( and nicknamed " Bix " ) or Leon Bix . His father was nicknamed " Bix " , as , for a time , was his older brother , Charles Burnette " Burnie " Beiderbecke . Burnie Beiderbecke claimed that the boy was named Leon Bix and subsequent biographers have reproduced birth certificates to that effect . However , more recent research — which takes into account church and school records in addition to the will of a relative — has suggested that he was originally named Leon Bismark . Regardless , his parents called him Bix , which seems to have been his preference . In a letter to his mother when he was nine years old , Beiderbecke signed off , " frome your Leon Bix Beiderbecke not Bismark Remeber [ sic ] " .
Beiderbecke 's father , the son of German immigrants , was a well @-@ to @-@ do coal and lumber merchant , named after the Iron Chancellor of his native Germany . Beiderbecke 's mother was the daughter of a Mississippi riverboat captain . She played the organ at Davenport 's First Presbyterian Church , and encouraged young Bix 's interest in the piano . Beiderbecke was the youngest of three children . His brother , Burnie , was born in 1895 , and his sister , Mary Louise , in 1898 . He began playing piano at age two or three . His sister recalls that he stood on the floor and played it with his hands over his head . Five years later , he was the subject of an admiring article in the Davenport Daily Democrat that proclaimed : " Seven @-@ year @-@ old boy musical wonder ! Little Bickie Beiderbecke plays any selection he hears . "
At age ten , his older brother Burnie recalled that he stopped coming home for supper , instead hurrying down to the riverfront and slipping aboard one or another of the excursion boats to play the Calliope . A friend remembered that the plots of the silent matinees Bix and his friends watched on Saturdays didn 't interest him much , but as soon as the lights came on he would rush home to see if he could duplicate the melodies the accompanist had played during the action .
When his brother Burnie returned to Davenport at the end of 1918 after serving stateside during World War I , he brought with him a Victrola phonograph and several records , including " Tiger Rag " and " Skeleton Jangle " by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band . From these records , Bix first learned to love hot jazz ; he taught himself to play cornet by listening to Nick LaRocca 's horn lines . Beiderbecke also listened to jazz music off the riverboats that docked in downtown Davenport . Louis Armstrong and the drummer Baby Dodds claimed to have met Beiderbecke when their New @-@ Orleans @-@ based excursion boat stopped in Davenport . Historians disagree over whether that is true .
Beiderbecke attended Davenport High School from 1919 to 1921 . During this time , he sat in and played professionally with various bands , including those of Wilbur Hatch , Floyd Bean and Carlisle Evans . In the spring of 1920 he performed for the school 's Vaudeville Night , singing in a vocal quintet called the Black Jazz Babies and playing his horn . He also performed , at the invitation of his friend Fritz Putzier , in Neal Buckley 's Novelty Orchestra . The group was hired for a gig in December 1920 , but a complaint was lodged with the American Federation of Musicians , Local 67 , that the boys did not have union cards . In an audition before a union executive , Beiderbecke was forced to sight read and failed . He did not earn his card .
On April 22 , 1921 , a month after he turned 18 , Beiderbecke was arrested by two Davenport police officers on a charge brought by the father of a young girl . According to biographer Jean Pierre Lion , " Bix was accused of having taken this man 's five @-@ year @-@ old daughter into a garage and committing on her an act qualified by the police report as ' lewd and lascivious . ' " Although Beiderbecke was briefly taken into custody and held on a $ 1 @,@ 500 bond , the charge was dropped after the girl was not made available to testify . According to an affidavit submitted by her father , this was because " of the child 's age and the harm that would result to her in going over this case . " It is not clear from the father 's affidavit if the girl had identified Beiderbecke . Until recently , biographers have largely ignored this incident in Beiderbecke 's life , and Lion was the first , in 2005 , to print the police blotter and affidavit associated with the arrest . He dismissed the seriousness of the charge , but speculated that the arrest nevertheless might have led Beiderbecke to " feel abandoned and ashamed : he saw himself as suspect of perversion . "
Beiderbecke 's parents enrolled him in the exclusive Lake Forest Academy , north of Chicago in Lake Forest , Illinois . While historians have traditionally suggested that his parents sent him to Lake Forest to discourage his interest in jazz , others have begun to doubt this version of events , believing that he may have been sent away in response to his arrest . Regardless , Mr. and Mrs. Beiderbecke apparently felt that a boarding school would provide their son with both the necessary faculty attention and discipline to improve his academic performance . His interests , however , remained limited to music and sports . In pursuit of the former , Beiderbecke took the train into Chicago to catch the hot jazz bands at clubs and speakeasies , including the infamous Friar 's Inn , where he listened to and sometimes sat in with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings . He also traveled to the predominantly African @-@ American South Side to listen to what he called " real " jazz musicians . " Don 't think I 'm getting hard , Burnie , " he wrote to his brother , " but I 'd go to hell to hear a good band . " On campus , he helped organize the Cy @-@ Bix Orchestra with drummer Walter " Cy " Welge and almost immediately got into trouble with the Lake Forest headmaster for performing indecorously at a school dance .
Beiderbecke often failed to return to his dormitory before curfew , and sometimes stayed off @-@ campus the next day . In the early morning hours of May 20 , he was caught on the fire escape to his dormitory , attempting to climb back into his room . The faculty voted to expel him the next day , due both to his academic failings and his extracurricular activities , which included drinking . The headmaster informed Beiderbecke 's parents by letter that following his expulsion school officials confirmed that Beiderbecke " was drinking himself and was responsible , in part at least , in having liquor brought into the School . " Soon after , Beiderbecke began pursuing a career in music .
He returned to Davenport briefly in the summer of 1922 , then moved to Chicago to join the Cascades Band , working that summer on Lake Michigan excursion boats . He gigged around Chicago until the fall of 1923 , at times returning to Davenport to work for his father .
= = Career = =
= = = Wolverines = = =
Beiderbecke joined the Wolverine Orchestra late in 1923 , and the seven @-@ man group first played a speakeasy called the Stockton Club near Hamilton , Ohio . Specializing in hot jazz and recoiling from so @-@ called sweet music , the band took its name from one of its most frequent numbers , Jelly Roll Morton 's " Wolverine Blues . " During this time , Beiderbecke also took piano lessons from a young woman who introduced him to the works of Eastwood Lane . Lane 's piano suites and orchestral arrangements were both self @-@ consciously American and influenced by the French Impressionists , and it is said to have greatly influenced Beiderbecke 's style , especially on " In a Mist . " A subsequent gig at Doyle 's Dance Academy in Cincinnati became the occasion for a series of band and individual photographs that resulted in the most famous image of Beiderbecke — sitting fresh @-@ faced , his hair perfectly combed , his horn resting on his right knee .
On February 18 , 1924 , the Wolverines first recorded at Gennett Records in Richmond , Indiana . Their two sides that day included " Fidgety Feet " , written by Nick LaRocca and Larry Shields from the Original Dixieland Jazz Band , and " Jazz Me Blues . " Beiderbecke 's solo on the latter suggested something new and significant in jazz , according to biographers Richard M. Sudhalter and Philip R. Evans :
Both qualities — complementary or " correlated " phrasing and cultivation of the vocal , " singing " middle @-@ range of the cornet — are on display in Bix 's " Jazz Me Blues " solo , along with an already discernible inclination for unusual accidentals and inner chordal voices . It is a pioneer record , introducing a musician of great originality with a pace @-@ setting band . And it astonished even the Wolverines themselves .
The Wolverines recorded 15 sides for Gennett Records between February and October 1924 . The titles revealed a tough and well @-@ formed cornet talent . His lip had toughened from earlier , more tentative years ; on nine of the Wolverines ' recorded titles he proceeds commandingly from lead to opening solo without any need for a respite from playing .
Beiderbecke made his first recordings 21 months before Armstrong recorded as a leader with the Hot Five . Beiderbecke 's style was very different from that of Louis Armstrong according to The Oxford Companion to Jazz :
Where Armstrong 's playing was bravura , regularly optimistic , and openly emotional , Beiderbecke 's conveyed a range of intellectual alternatives . Where Armstrong , at the head of an ensemble , played it hard , straight , and true , Beiderbecke , like a shadowboxer , invented his own way of phrasing " around the lead . " Where Armstrong 's superior strength delighted in the sheer power of what a cornet could produce , Beiderbecke 's cool approach invited rather than commanded you to listen .
Where Armstrong emphasized showmanship and virtuosity , Beiderbecke emphasized melody , even when improvising , and — different from Armstrong and contrary to how the Bix Beiderbecke of legend would be portrayed — he rarely strayed into the upper reaches of the register . Paul Mares of the New Orleans Rhythm Kings insisted that Beiderbecke 's chief influence was the New Orleans cornetist Emmett Hardy , who died in 1925 at the age of 23 . Indeed , Beiderbecke had met Hardy and the clarinetist Leon Roppolo in Davenport in 1921 when the two joined a local band and played in town for three months . Beiderbecke apparently spent time with them , but the degree to which Hardy 's style influenced Beiderbecke 's is difficult to know because Hardy never recorded . In some respects , Beiderbecke 's playing was sui generis , but he nevertheless listened to and studied the music around him : from Armstrong and Joe " King " Oliver to the Original Dixieland Jazz Band and the New Orleans Rhythm Kings to Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel .
Soon , he was listening to Hoagy Carmichael , too . A law student and aspiring pianist and songwriter , Carmichael invited the Wolverines to Bloomington , Indiana , late in April 1924 . Beiderbecke had met Carmichael a couple of times before and the two became friends . On May 6 , 1924 , the Wolverines recorded a tune Carmichael had written especially for Beiderbecke and his colleagues : " Riverboat Shuffle " .
Beiderbecke left the Wolverines in October 1924 for a spot with Jean Goldkette in Detroit , but the job didn 't last long . Goldkette recorded for the Victor Talking Machine Company , whose musical director , Eddie King , objected to Beiderbecke 's hot @-@ jazz style of soloing ; it wasn 't copacetic with the commercial obligations that came with the band 's recording contract . King also was frustrated by the cornetist 's inability to deftly sight read . After a few weeks , Beiderbecke was bounced from the Goldkette band , but soon arranged a recording session back in Richmond with some of its members . On January 26 , 1925 , Bix and His Rhythm Jugglers set two tunes to wax : " Toddlin ' Blues " , another number by LaRocca and Shields , and Beiderbecke 's own composition , " Davenport Blues " . Beiderbecke biographer Lion has complained that the second number was marred by the alcohol consumed by the musicians . In subsequent years , " Davenport Blues " has been recorded by musicians from Bunny Berigan to Ry Cooder to Geoff Muldaur .
The following month , Beiderbecke enrolled at the University of Iowa in Iowa City , Iowa . His stint in academia was even briefer than his time in Detroit , however . When he attempted to pack his course schedule with music , his guidance counselor forced him instead to take religion , ethics , physical education , and military training . It was an institutional blunder that Benny Green described as being , in retrospect , " comical , " " fatuous , " and " a parody . " Beiderbecke promptly began to skip classes , and after he participated in a drunken bar fight , he was expelled . That summer he played with his friends Don Murray and Howdy Quicksell at a lake resort in Michigan . The band was run by Goldkette , and it put Beiderbecke in touch with another musician he had met before : the C @-@ melody saxophone player Frankie Trumbauer . The two hit it off , both personally and musically , despite Trumbauer having been warned by other musicians : " Look out , he 's trouble . He drinks and you 'll have a hard time handling him . " They were inseparable for much of the rest of Beiderbecke 's career , with Trumbauer acting as a father figure to Beiderbecke . When Trumbauer organized a band for an extended run at the Arcadia Ballroom in St. Louis , Beiderbecke joined him . There he also played alongside the clarinetist Pee Wee Russell , who praised Beiderbecke 's ability to drive the band . " He more or less made you play whether you wanted to or not , " Russell said . " If you had any talent at all he made you play better . "
= = = Goldkette = = =
In the spring of 1926 , Trumbauer closed up shop in St. Louis and , with Beiderbecke , moved to Detroit , this time to play with Goldkette 's headline ensemble . They played the summer at Hudson Lake , a resort in northern Indiana , and split the next year between touring , recording , and performing at Detroit 's Graystone Ballroom . In October 1926 , Goldkette 's " Famous Fourteen " , as they came to be called , opened at the Roseland Ballroom in New York City opposite the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra , one of the East Coast 's outstanding African American big bands . The Roseland promoted a " Battle of the Bands " in the local press and , on October 12 , after a night of furious playing , Goldkette 's men were declared the winners . " We [ … ] were amazed , angry , morose , and bewildered , " Rex Stewart , Fletcher 's lead trumpeter , said of listening to Beiderbecke and his colleagues play . He called the experience " most humiliating " .
Although the band recorded numerous sides for Victor during this period , none of them showcases Beiderbecke 's most famous solos . Much of Goldkette 's money was made through these records , but they were subject — as Eddie King had well understood — to the forces of the commercial market . As a result , their sound was often " sweeter " than what many of the hot jazz musicians would have preferred . In addition to their sessions with Goldkette , Beiderbecke and his friends recorded under their own names for the Okeh label . For instance , on February 4 , 1927 , Frank Trumbauer and His Orchestra recorded " Trumbology " , " Clarinet Marmalade " , and " Singin ' the Blues " , all three of which featured some of Beiderbecke 's best work . Again with Trumbauer , Beiderbecke re @-@ recorded Carmichael 's " Riverboat Shuffle " in May and delivered two of his best known solos a few days later on " I 'm Coming , Virginia " and " Way Down Yonder in New Orleans " . Beiderbecke earned co @-@ writing credit with Trumbauer on " For No Reason at All in C " , recorded under the name Tram , Bix and Eddie ( in their Three Piece Band ) . Beiderbecke switched between cornet and piano on that number , and then in September played only piano for his recording of " In A Mist " . This was perhaps the most fruitful year of his short career .
Under financial pressure , Goldkette folded his premier band in September in New York . Paul Whiteman hoped to snatch up Goldkette 's best musicians for his traveling orchestra , but Beiderbecke , Trumbauer , Murray , Bill Rank , Eddie Lang , Joe Venuti , Chauncey Morehouse , and Frank Signorelli instead joined the bass saxophone player Adrian Rollini at the Club New Yorker . When that job ended sooner than expected , in October 1927 , Beiderbecke and Trumbauer signed on with Whiteman . They joined his orchestra in Indianapolis on October 27 .
= = = Whiteman = = =
The Paul Whiteman Orchestra was the most popular and highest paid band of the day . In spite of Whiteman 's nickname , " The King of Jazz " , his was not a jazz ensemble , but a popular music outfit that played bits of jazz and classical music according to the demands of its record @-@ buying and concert @-@ going audience . Whiteman was perhaps best known for having premiered George Gershwin 's Rhapsody in Blue in New York in 1924 , and the orchestrator of that piece , Ferde Grofé , continued to be an important part of the band in 1928 . At three hundred pounds , Whiteman was huge both physically and culturally — " a man flabby , virile , quick , coarse , untidy and sleek , with a hard core of shrewdness in an envelope of sentimentalism , " according to a 1926 New Yorker profile . And many Beiderbecke partisans have turned Whiteman into a villain in the years since .
Benny Green , in particular , derided Whiteman for being a mere " mediocre vaudeville act , " and suggesting that " today we only tolerate the horrors of Whiteman 's recordings at all in the hope that here and there a Bixian fragment will redeem the mess . " Richard Sudhalter has responded by suggesting that Beiderbecke saw Whiteman as an opportunity to pursue musical ambitions that did not stop at jazz :
Colleagues have testified that , far from feeling bound or stifled by the Whiteman orchestra , as Green and others have suggested , Bix often felt a sense of exhilaration . It was like attending a music school , learning and broadening : formal music , especially the synthesis of the American vernacular idiom with a more classical orientation , so much sought @-@ after in the 1920s , were calling out to him .
The education that Beiderbecke did not receive from the University of Iowa , in other words , he sought through Whiteman . In the meantime , Beiderbecke played on four number @-@ one records in 1928 , all under the Whiteman name : " Together " , " Ramona " , " My Angel " , and " Ol ' Man River " , which featured Bing Crosby on vocals . This accomplishment says less about the jazz excellence of these records than it does about the tastes of the largely white , record @-@ buying public to which Whiteman ( and Goldkette before him ) catered .
For Beiderbecke , the downside of being with Whiteman was the relentless touring and recording schedule , exacerbated by Beiderbecke 's alcoholism . On November 30 , 1928 , in Cleveland , Beiderbecke suffered what Lion terms " a severe nervous crisis " and Sudhalter and Evans suggest " was in all probability an acute attack of delirium tremens , " presumably triggered by Beiderbecke 's attempt to curb his alcohol intake . " He cracked up , that 's all , " trombonist Bill Rank said . " Just went to pieces ; broke up a roomful of furniture in the hotel . "
In February 1929 , Beiderbecke returned home to Davenport to convalesce and was hailed by the local press as " the world 's hottest cornetist . " He then spent the summer with Whiteman 's band in Hollywood in preparation for the shooting of a new talking picture , The King of Jazz . Production delays prevented any real work from being done on the film , leaving Beiderbecke and his pals plenty of time to drink heavily . By September , he was back in Davenport , where his parents helped him to seek treatment . He spent a month , from October 14 until November 18 , at the Keeley Institute in Dwight , Illinois .
While he was away , Whiteman famously kept a chair empty in Beiderbecke 's honor . But when he returned to New York at the end of January 1930 , the renowned soloist did not rejoin Whiteman and performed only sparingly . On his last recording session , in New York , on September 15 , 1930 , Beiderbecke played on the original recording of Hoagy Carmichael 's new song , " Georgia on My Mind " , with Carmichael doing the vocal , Eddie Lang on guitar , Joe Venuti on violin , Jimmy Dorsey on clarinet and alto saxophone , Jack Teagarden on trombone , and Bud Freeman on tenor saxophone . The song would go on to become a jazz and popular music standard . In 2014 , the 1930 recording of " Georgia on My Mind " was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame .
Two years earlier , Beiderbecke had influenced another Carmichael standard , " Star Dust " . A Beiderbecke riff caught in Carmichael 's head and became the tune 's chorus . Bing Crosby , who sang with Whiteman , also cited Beiderbecke as an important influence . " Bix and all the rest would play and exchange ideas on the piano , " he said .
With all the noise [ of a New York pub ] going on , I don 't know how they heard themselves , but they did . I didn 't contribute anything , but I listened and learned [ … ] I was now being influenced by these musicians , particularly horn men . I could hum and sing all of the jazz choruses from the recordings made by Bix , Phil Napoleon , and the rest .
Following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , the once @-@ booming music industry contracted and work became more difficult to find . For a while , Beiderbecke 's only income came from a radio show booked by Whiteman , The Camel Pleasure Hour . However , during a live broadcast on October 8 , 1930 , Beiderbecke 's seemingly limitless gift for improvisation finally failed him : " He stood up to take his solo , but his mind went blank and nothing happened , " recalled a fellow musician , Frankie Cush . Whiteman finally let Beiderbecke go . The cornetist spent the rest of the year at home in Davenport and then , in February 1931 , he returned to New York one last time .
= = Death = =
Beiderbecke died in his apartment , No. 1G , 43 @-@ 30 46th Street , in Sunnyside , Queens , on August 6 , 1931 . The week had been quite hot , making sleep difficult , and late into the evenings , Beiderbecke had played piano , both to the annoyance and to the delight of his neighbors . On the evening of August 6 , at about 9 @.@ 30 pm , his rental agent , George Kraslow , heard noises coming from across the hallway . " His hysterical shouts brought me to his apartment on the run , " Kraslow told Philip Evans in 1959 .
He pulled me in and pointed to the bed . His whole body was trembling violently . He was screaming there were two Mexicans hiding under his bed with long daggers . To humor him , I looked under the bed and when I rose to assure him there was no one hiding there , he staggered and fell , a dead weight , in my arms . I ran across the hall and called in a woman doctor , Dr. Haberski , to examine him . She pronounced him dead .
Historians have disagreed over the identity of the doctor who pronounced Beiderbecke dead . The official cause of death , meanwhile , was lobar pneumonia , with scholars continuing to debate the extent to which his alcoholism was also a factor . Beiderbecke 's mother and brother took the train to New York and brought his body home to Davenport . He was buried there on August 11 in the family plot at Oakdale Cemetery .
= = Legend and legacy = =
At the time of his death Beiderbecke was little known except among fellow musicians , and for several years critics paid little attention to his music . As Jean Pierre Lion has pointed out , " The only serious and analytical obituary to have been published in the months " after his death was by a Frenchman , Hugues Panassié . The notice appeared in October 1931 and began with a bit of hyperbole and an incorrect fact , two hallmarks of much of the subsequent writing about Beiderbecke : " The announcement of Bix Beiderbecke 's death plunged all jazz musicians into despair . We first believed it was a false alarm , as we had heard so often before about Bix . Unfortunately , precise information has been forthcoming , and we even know the day — August 7 — when he passed away . "
The New Republic critic Otis Ferguson wrote two short articles for the magazine , " Young Man with a Horn " ( July 29 , 1936 ) and " Young Man with a Horn Again " ( November 18 , 1940 ) , that worked to revive interest not only in Beiderbecke 's music but also in his biography . Beiderbecke " lived very briefly [ … ] in what might be called the servants ' entrance to art , " Ferguson wrote . " His story is a good story , quite humble and right . " The romantic notion of the short @-@ lived , doomed jazz genius can be traced back at least as far as Beiderbecke , and lived on in Glenn Miller , Charlie Parker , Billie Holiday , Jaco Pastorius and many more .
Ferguson 's sense of what was " right " became the basis for the Beiderbecke Romantic legend , which has traditionally emphasized the musician 's Iowa roots , his often careless dress , his difficulty sight reading , the purity of his tone , his drinking , and his early death . These themes were repeated by Beiderbecke 's friends in various memoirs , including The Stardust Road ( 1946 ) and Sometimes I Wonder ( 1965 ) by Hoagy Carmichael , Really the Blues ( 1946 ) by Mezz Mezzrow , and We Called It Music ( 1947 ) by Eddie Condon . Beiderbecke was portrayed as a tragic genius along the lines of Ludwig van Beethoven . " For his talent there were no conservatories to get stuffy in , no high @-@ trumpet didoes to be learned doggedly , note @-@ perfect as written , " Ferguson wrote , " because in his chosen form the only writing of any account was traced in the close shouting air of Royal Gardens , Grand Pavilions , honkeytonks , etc . " He was " this big overgrown kid , who looked like he 'd been snatched out of a cradle in the cornfields , " Mezzrow wrote . " The guy didn 't have an enemy in the world , " recalled Beiderbecke 's friend Russ Morgan , " [ b ] ut he was out of this world most of the time . " According to Ralph Berton , he was " as usual gazing off into his private astronomy , " but his cornet , Condon famously quipped , sounded " like a girl saying yes . "
In 1938 , Dorothy Baker borrowed the titles of her friend Otis Ferguson 's two articles and published the novel Young Man with a Horn . Her story of the doomed trumpet player Rick Martin was inspired , she wrote , by " the music , but not the life " of Beiderbecke , but the image of Martin quickly became the image of Beiderbecke : His story is about " the gap between the man 's musical ability and his ability to fit it to his own life . " In 1950 , Michael Curtiz directed the film Young Man with a Horn , starring Kirk Douglas , Lauren Bacall , and Doris Day . In this version , in which Hoagy Carmichael also plays a role , the Rick Martin character lives .
In Blackboard Jungle , a 1955 film starring Glenn Ford and Sidney Poitier , Beiderbecke 's music is briefly featured , but as a symbol of cultural conservatism in a nation on the cusp of the rock and roll revolution .
In 1971 , on the 40th anniversary of Beiderbecke 's death , the Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Jazz Festival was founded in Davenport , Iowa , to honor the musician . In 1974 , Sudhalter and Evans published their biography , Bix : Man and Legend , which was nominated for a National Book Award . In 1977 , the Beiderbecke childhood home at 1934 Grand Avenue in Davenport was added to the National Register of Historic Places .
Beiderbecke 's music was featured in three British comedy drama television series , all written by Alan Plater : The Beiderbecke Affair ( 1984 ) , The Beiderbecke Tapes ( 1987 ) , and The Beiderbecke Connection ( 1988 ) . In 1991 , the Italian director Pupi Avati released Bix : An Interpretation of a Legend . Filmed partially in the Beiderbecke home , which Avati had purchased and renovated , Bix was screened at the Cannes Film Festival .
At the beginning of the 21st century , Beiderbecke 's music continues to reside mostly out of the mainstream and some of the facts of his life are still debated , but scholars largely agree — due in part to the influence of Sudhalter and Evans — that he was an important innovator in early jazz ; jazz cornetists , including Sudhalter ( before his death in 2008 ) , and Tom Pletcher , closely emulate his style . In 2003 , to mark the hundredth anniversary of his birth , the Greater Astoria Historical Society and other community organizations , spearheaded by Paul Maringelli and The Bix Beiderbecke Sunnyside Memorial Committee , erected a plaque in Beiderbecke 's honor at the apartment building in which he died in Queens . That same year , Frederick Turner published his novel 1929 , which followed the facts of Beiderbecke 's life fairly closely , focusing on his summer in Hollywood and featuring appearances by Al Capone and Clara Bow . The critic and musician Digby Fairweather sums up Beiderbecke 's musical legacy , arguing that " with Louis Armstrong , Bix Beiderbecke was the most striking of jazz 's cornet ( and of course , trumpet ) fathers ; a player who first captivated his 1920s generation and after his premature death , founded a dynasty of distinguished followers beginning with Jimmy McPartland and moving on down from there . "
= = Music = =
= = = Style and influence = = =
Bix Beiderbecke and Louis Armstrong were among jazz 's first soloists . In New Orleans , jazz had been ensemble playing , with the various instruments weaving their parts into a single and coherent aural tapestry . There had been soloists , to be sure , with the clarinetist Sidney Bechet the best known among them , but these players " lacked the technical resources and , even more , the creative depth to make the solo the compelling centerpiece of jazz music . " That changed in 1924 when Beiderbecke and Armstrong began to make their most important records . According to the critic Terry Teachout , they are " the two most influential figures in the early history of jazz " and " the twin lines of descent from which most of today 's jazz can be traced . "
Beiderbecke 's cornet style is often described by contrasting it with Armstrong 's markedly different approach . Armstrong was a virtuoso on his instrument , and his solos often took advantage of that fact . Beiderbecke was largely , although not completely , self @-@ taught , and the constraints imposed by that fact were evident in his music . While Armstrong often soared into the upper register , Beiderbecke stayed in the middle range , more interested in exploring the melody and harmonies than in dazzling the audience . Armstrong often emphasized the performance aspect of his playing , while Beiderbecke tended to stare at his feet while playing , uninterested in personally engaging his listeners . Armstrong was deeply influenced by the blues , while Beiderbecke was influenced as much by modernist composers such as Debussy and Ravel as by his fellow jazzmen .
Beiderbecke 's most famous solo was on " Singin ' the Blues " , recorded February 4 , 1927 . It has been hailed as an important example of the " jazz ballad style " — " a slow or medium @-@ tempo piece played gently and sweetly , but not cloyingly , with no loss of muscle . " The tune 's laid @-@ back emotions hinted at what would become , in the 1950s , the cool jazz style , personified by Chet Baker and Bill Evans . More than that , though , " Singin ' the Blues " has been noted for the way its improvisations feel less improvised than composed , with each phrase building on the last in a logical fashion . Benny Green describes the solo 's effect on practiced ears :
When a musician hears Bix 's solo on ' Singing the Blues ' , he becomes aware after two bars that the soloist knows exactly what he is doing and that he has an exquisite sense of discord and resolution . He knows also that this player is endowed with the rarest jazz gift of all , a sense of form which lends to an improvised performance a coherence which no amount of teaching can produce . The listening musician , whatever his generation or his style , recognizes Bix as a modern , modernism being not a style but an attitude .
Like Green , who made particular mention of Beiderbecke 's " amount of teaching , " the jazz historian Ted Gioia also has emphasized Beiderbecke 's lack of formal instruction , suggesting that it caused him to adopt " an unusual , dry embouchure " and " unconventional fingerings , " which he retained for the rest of his life . Gioia points to " a characteristic streak of obstinacy " in Beiderbecke that provokes " this chronic disregard of the tried @-@ and @-@ true . " He argues that this stubbornness was behind Beiderbecke 's decision not to switch from cornet to trumpet when many other musicians , including Armstrong , did so . In addition , Gioia highlights Beiderbecke 's precise timing , relaxed delivery , and pure tone , which contrasted with " the dirty , rough @-@ edged sound " of King Oliver and his protégé Armstrong , whose playing was often more energetic and whose style held more sway early in the 1920s than Beiderbecke 's . Gioia further wonders whether the many hyperbolic and quasi @-@ poetic descriptions of Beiderbecke 's style — most notably Condon 's " like a girl saying yes " — may indicate that Beiderbecke 's sound was muddled on recordings .
Eddie Condon , Hoagy Carmichael , and Mezz Mezzrow , all of whom hyperbolically raved about his playing , also saw Beiderbecke play live or performed alongside him . Condon , for instance , wrote of being amazed by Beiderbecke 's piano playing : " All my life I had been listening to music [ … ] But I had never heard anything remotely like what Beiderbecke played . For the first time I realized music isn 't all the same , it had become an entirely new set of sounds " " I tried to explain Bix to the gang , " Carmichael wrote , but " [ i ] t was no good , like the telling of a vivid , personal dream [ … ] the emotion couldn 't be transmitted . "
Mezzrow described Beiderbecke 's tone as being " pickled in alcohol [ … ] I have never heard a tone like he got before or since . He played mostly open horn , every note full , big , rich and round , standing out like a pearl , loud but never irritating or jangling , with a powerful drive that few white musicians had in those days . "
Some critics have highlighted " Jazz Me Blues " , recorded with the Wolverines on February 18 , 1924 , as being particularly important to understanding Beiderbecke 's style . Although it was one of his earliest recordings , the hallmarks of his playing were evident . " The overall impression we get from this solo , as in all of Bix at his best , " writes the trumpeter Randy Sandke , " is that every note is spontaneous yet inevitable . " Richard Hadlock describes Beiderbecke 's contribution to " Jazz Me Blues " as " an ordered solo that seems more inspired by clarinetists Larry Shields of the ODJB and Leon Roppolo of the NORK than by other trumpet players . " He goes on to suggest that clarinetists , by virtue of their not being tied to the melody as much as cornetists and trumpet players , could explore harmonies .
" Jazz Me Blues " was also important because it introduced what has been called the " correlated chorus " , a method of improvising that Beiderbecke 's Davenport friend Est
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In the end of the war some vehicles were equipped with a triple @-@ mount ( " Drilling " in German ) of MG151 autocannon on a conical pivot . It was the same mount as was used in Sd.Kfz. 251 / 21 .
= = Deployment and use = =
Initially it was planned to use the Sd.Kfz. 10 as a towing vehicle for various light guns and trailers , but it was authorized as a substitute for the Sd.Kfz. 250 light armored personnel carrier in 1939 . The Ausf . B model saw its use broadened to tow heavier weapons like the 5 cm PaK 38 as well as their ammunition trailers . They also served in the maintenance and supply companies of motorized and tank units . Nine were delivered to Romania in 1942 as tractors for anti @-@ tank guns .
For the Chemical Troops ( Nebeltruppen ) each decontamination battery ( Entgiftungs @-@ Batterie ) was authorized six Sd.Kfz. 10 / 1 and six Sd.Kfz. 10 / 2 . Eighteen Sd.Kfz. 10 / 3 were held at the battalion level for issue to the batteries in lieu of their Sd.Kfz. 10 / 2s if needed . If necessary they could be substituted for Sd.Kfz. 11s of the appropriate type . When the decontamination units were authorized to be re @-@ equipped with heavy rocket launchers in November 1941 seven Sd.Kfz. 10 / 1s were used to tow the 28 / 32 cm Nebelwerfer 41 launchers and another was used by the platoon leader to tow an anti @-@ tank gun . Similarly decontamination units usually retained their Sd.Kfz. 10 / 2s and used them just like the 10 / 1s after removing their special equipment . However , it seems that the 10 / 3s were turned in when the unit was reorganized .
An early @-@ war Army anti @-@ aircraft company ( Flugabwehr @-@ Kompanie ) was organized in three platoons with a total of eighteen Sd.Kfz. 10 / 4s , twelve with guns and six carrying ammunition . When the four @-@ barrel 2 cm Flakvierling 38 was fielded in 1941 each platoon had four Sd.Kfz. 10 / 4s towing the guns and another for ammunition . Later these companies were reorganized with a total of eight Sd.Kfz. 10 / 4s carrying guns , two towing Flakvierlings and three carrying ammunition . These are just examples of some of the Army organizations which differed depending on the unit and the period . Sd.Kfz. 10 / 5s were substituted for 10 / 4s on a one for one basis . Detailed records do not survive for the Luftwaffe light anti @-@ aircraft units , but they appear to have been organized into batteries of nine or twelve guns .
= = = Usage in Sweden = = =
When war broke out in September 1939 , Sweden maintained a policy of neutrality . To support this policy a rapid upgrade of aging military equipment was necessary . Guns , vehicles and aircraft was both manufactured domestically and purchased abroad . Artillery guns , 10 @.@ 5 cm leFH 18 and towing vehicles was purchased from Germany in the winter of 1939 / 1940 and deliveries started in 1940 . The towing vehicles were partly Klöckner @-@ Deutz A330 4x4 trucks and partly Demag D7 halftracks . The halftracks were would be used in sub @-@ arctic climate and all twelve Demags were , in the autumn of 1940 , delivered along with twelve guns to the 8th Artillery regiment ( A8 ) in the northern city of Boden , close to the arctic -circle . Noteworthy is that the 10 @.@ 5 cm leFH 18 ( " Haubits m / 39 " in Swedish terms ) is a significantly heavier gun than the ones the German army towed with this vehicle . In Sweden the Demag was called " Artilleritraktor m / 40 " or " Arttrak m / 40 " for short .
Already in 1941 Sweden tried to purchase more Demags , but the ongoing war made this impossible . Orders then went to Volvo to make a " copy " ( the " Artilleritraktor m / 43 " or " Volvo HBT " ) , were the only specific requirement from the Swedish army was that the track links had to be interchangeable with the Demag . This Volvo was never in use at A8 .
After the war another twelve Sdkfz 10 , bought as surplus from Norway and elsewhere , were delivered to A8 . The total of 24 Sdkfz 10 were used in training gun crews all through the 1950s and early 1960s . 1966 all were sold to the highest bidders at Kalix airfield and they ended up in the villages surrounding Kalix and Boden . In the mid 1970s they were traced down and sold abroad . The last known one left Sweden in 1992 . Of the 24 sold in 1966 , as of 2014 fourteen have known locations with collectors and in museums all over the world .
= The Wife of His Youth =
" The Wife of His Youth " is a short story by American author Charles W. Chesnutt , first published in July 1898 . It later served as the title story of the collection The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color @-@ Line . That book was first published in 1899 , the same year Chesnutt published his short story collection The Conjure Woman .
" The Wife of His Youth " features an upwardly mobile , light @-@ skinned mulatto man , a respected member of the Blue Veins Society in a Midwestern city . He is preparing to marry another light @-@ skinned mulatto woman when a much darker woman comes to him seeking her husband , whom she has not seen in 25 years . The story , which was met positively upon its publication , has become Chesnutt 's most anthologized work .
The story has been read as an analysis of race relations , not between black and white but within the black community , exploring its own color and class prejudices . The main character dreams of becoming white but ultimately seems to accept being black and the full history of African Americans in the United States . The ending of the story , however , has been called ambiguous and leaves several questions unanswered .
= = Plot = =
" The Wife of His Youth " follows Mr. Ryder , a bi @-@ racial man who was born and reared free before the Civil War . He heads the " Blue Veins Society " , a social organization for colored people in a northern town ; the membership consists of people with a high proportion of European ancestry , who look more white than black . The organization 's name stemmed from the joke that one would have to be so white ( to be a member ) that veins could be seen through the skin .
Ryder is sought after by the town 's women but begins courting a very light mixed @-@ race woman from Washington , DC named Molly Dixon . He plans to propose to her at the next Blue Vein ball , for which he is giving a speech . Before the talk , he meets an older , plain @-@ looking black woman . Her name is ' Liza Jane , and she is searching for her husband Sam Taylor , whom she has not seen in 25 years . She says she was married to Sam before the Civil War , when she was enslaved and he was a hired apprentice to the family of her master . Despite Taylor 's being a free black , the family tried to sell him into slavery . She assisted Sam in escaping , and he promised to return and free her , but she was sold to a different master . Ryder says that Taylor could have died , may have outgrown her , or could have remarried . However , she persists in saying that her husband has remained faithful , and refuses to stop looking . Ryder advises her that slave marriages did not count after the war ; marriages had to be officially made legal . She shows him an old picture of Sam and leaves .
At the ball Ryder addresses the members and tells them ' Liza Jane 's story . At the conclusion , he asks the attendees whether or not they think the man should acknowledge his wife . Everyone urges yes . He brings out ' Liza and says , " Ladies and gentlemen , this is the woman , and I am the man , whose story I have told you . Permit me to introduce to you the wife of my youth . "
= = Publication and response = =
" The Wife of His Youth " was first published in the July 1898 issue of The Atlantic Monthly , without reference to the author 's own racial background ( he was African American , with majority @-@ white ancestry ) . Reviews were positive . After Chesnutt read several compliments from friends and in various newspaper reviews , he wrote to editor Walter Hines Page , " taking it all in all , I have had a slight glimpse of what it means , I imagine , to be a successful author . "
One later review by influential critic William Dean Howells particularly praised Chesnutt . In " The Wife of His Youth " , Howells was impressed that the main character offered up a Christ @-@ like sacrifice , unimpeded by his being African American . In the 20th century , " The Wife of His Youth " became Chesnutt 's most anthologized short story .
Chesnutt had published " The Goophered Grapevine " in the August 1887 issue of the Atlantic during the editorship of Thomas Bailey Aldrich . It was his first nationally distributed story . He published two others under Aldrich , marking the beginning of a 20 @-@ year association with the magazine . In 1891 , Chesnutt contacted Aldrich 's successor Horace Scudder about publishing a book of his tales and revealed his African @-@ American heritage . Scudder advised against trying a book at that time , and suggested Chesnutt wait until he earned a broader reputation . Seven years later , Scudder endorsed Chesnutt to Page , who had taken his role as editor of the Atlantic .
With the support of both Scudder and Page , Houghton Mifflin published The Wife of his Youth and Other Stories of the Color Line in 1899 , which included " The Passing of Grandison " , which turned slave narratives around . That year , he also published his The Conjure Woman , a collection of his dialect or local color stories . The next year , Chesnutt 's first novel The House Behind the Cedars was published by the same company . Chesnutt advised his editor Harry D. Robins of his intentions with The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color Line :
" The book was written with the distinct hope that it might have its influence in directing attention to certain aspects of the race question which are quite familiar to those on the unfortunate side of it ; and I should be glad to have that view of it emphasized if in your opinion the book is strong enough to stand it ; for a sermon that is labeled a sermon must be a good one to get a hearing " .
Many years later , Carl Van Vechten , who corresponded with Chesnutt , included a character in his novel , Nigger Heaven ( 1926 ) , who reads " The Wife of His Youth " and its accompanying stories . The character despairingly realizes he will never write as well as Chesnutt . From the book :
He lifted The Wife of his Youth from its place on the table and opened its pages for the hundredth time . How much he admired the cool deliberation of its style , the sense of form , but more than all the civilized mind of this man who had surveyed the problems of his race from an Olympian height and had turned them into living and artistic drama . Nothing seemed to have escaped his attention , from the lowly life of the worker on the Southern plantation to the snobbery of the near whites of the north . Chesnutt had surveyed the entire field , calmly setting down what he saw , what he thought and felt about it .
= = Analysis = =
In " The Wife of His Youth " , Charles Chesnutt does not explore the relationship between whites and mulattoes ; instead , the story is concerned with race consciousness among those of mixed race , both from the North and South . Scholar William L. Andrews notes that this story , and others like it including " A Matter of Principle " , were unprecedented . Chesnutt " broke the ice in the American fiction of manners . " Like the other Blue Veins , Ryder has idealized whiteness and dreams of becoming white or , as Chesnutt writes it , " [ his ] absorption by the white race . " This is symbolized by his reading " A Dream of Fair Women " by Alfred , Lord Tennyson when his wife first appears in the story .
White readers , such as William Dean Howells , considered this a realistic portrayal of mixed @-@ race Americans , revealed by Chesnutt as an " insider " , much as Paul Laurence Dunbar had shown whites the lyrical side of blacks . Howells wrote :
We had known the nethermost world of the grotesque and comical negro and the terrible and tragic negro through the white observer on the outside , and the black character in its lyrical moods we had known from such an inside witness as Mr. Paul Dunbar ; but it had remained for Mr. Chesnutt to acquaint us with those regions where the paler shades dwell as hopelessly , with relation to ourselves [ i.e. whites ] , as the blackest negro .
Ultimately , Chesnutt is challenging the idea of two " races . " The story serves as an allegory of the changing relationship of freeborn and freedmen , mixed race and blacks , in a post @-@ Reconstruction Era . Such differences are expressed in language used by the characters , which also reflects differing education and class levels . Ryder speaks in the high rhetoric of " white " English ( emulating the Tennyson he reads ) while ' Liza uses a thick black dialect . That difference is further emphasized by Ryder 's writing ' Liza 's address in the flyleaf of his Tennyson book and , when recounting her story , switching into his own " soft dialect " . Ann duCille suggests the story questions the legality of marriage during enslavement . Ryder / Taylor 's decision is about choosing to accept or negate " the old plantation past " , or , as duCille writes , " between moral obligation and romantic desire " .
Cynthia Wachtell considers the story as a social satire . Ryder is pretentious and uppity , concerned about the delineations in class based on skin color , and promotes advancement of lighter @-@ skinned people , some of whom were already educated before the war . That his wife is revealed to be a dark @-@ skinned , unrefined cook is his " just desserts [ sic ] " . Dean McWilliams notes the ambiguity about whether Ryder really is Sam Taylor . Certainly , writes McWilliams , the drawing room image of Ryder at the beginning of the story seems nothing like the plantation worker described by ' Liza .
Even if he is Taylor , Tess Chakkalal questions if the reader should be certain that Ryder has made the " right " decision . There is an uncomfortable tension in his attempt to abandon the past and racial definitions in order to move into the future . Though the story has been traditionally read as having a happy ending , Wachtell emphasizes that ' Liza has no final lines which show her response to the husband who had forgotten her . Henry B. Wonham notes a significance to Ryder 's referring to ' Liza not simply as wife but " the wife of my youth " , as if dissociating from her even as he acknowledges her .
= Australian cricket team in England in 1884 =
The Australia national cricket team toured England in 1884 . The team is officially termed the Fourth Australians , following three previous tours in the 1878 , 1880 and 1882 seasons . The 1884 tour was a private venture by the thirteen players who each invested an agreed sum to provide funding , none of Australia 's colonial cricket associations being involved . Billy Murdoch captained the team and George Alexander acted as player @-@ manager . The Australians played a total of 32 matches in England , 31 of which are recognised by CricketArchive as first @-@ class .
1884 was the first English season to feature more than a single Test match . A three @-@ match series was scheduled which included the inaugural Tests at both Old Trafford and Lord 's . The third Test was played at the Oval which had staged the Tests in 1880 and 1882 . England won the Test series 1 – 0 with an innings victory in the second Test at Lord 's , while the first and third Tests were drawn . The 1884 series was the first Ashes series in England , following publication of the mock " ashes " obituary after the 1882 Test .
The tour was dogged by financial controversy with the Australians accused by the British press of being interested only in money . The allegations were refuted by the Australian press but it later became clear , when an England team arrived in Australia the following winter , that there had been a financial dispute between Alexander and the English team manager James Lillywhite , resulting in the two teams at first boycotting each other . The dispute was never evident while Murdoch 's team was in England as they completed all their scheduled fixtures , winning eighteen matches and losing seven with seven drawn .
= = Australian squad = =
Australia had a 13 @-@ man squad captained by Billy Murdoch while George Alexander was player @-@ manager . Squad details below state the player 's colonial team at the time , his age at the beginning of the tour , his batting hand and his type of bowling :
The 1884 squad was very similar to the 1882 squad with Alexander , Cooper , Midwinter and Scott replacing Tom Garrett , Tom Horan , Sammy Jones and Hugh Massie . Cooper and Scott were making their first visit to England .
Australia used the same eleven players in all three Tests , Scott making his debut in the first Test , and in the majority of their first @-@ class matches as Alexander was effectively a reserve who made only five appearances on the tour and Cooper , who also made just five appearances , suffered a long @-@ term injury .
= = England Test selections = =
England selected a total of 16 players in the three Tests . Six players ( Barlow , Grace , Peate , Shrewsbury , Steel and Ulyett ) played in all three matches . O 'Brien ( first Test ) and Christopherson ( second Test ) made their Test debuts . Hornby captained England in the first Test and Harris in the other two .
Details of the England players include their ages at the beginning of the 1884 season , their batting and bowling styles , and the county club they represented in 1884 :
= = Tour preparations and voyages = =
The Fourth Australian team was selected after Christmas 1883 at which time Victoria were playing New South Wales at the Melbourne Cricket Ground ( MCG ) in a match which ended on New Year 's Eve with a three wicket win by Victoria . Another match was arranged to start on New Year 's Day , also at the MCG , between the Fourth Australians and a Combined XI . All the tour selections except Spofforth were playing , though Scott played for the Combined XI . Murdoch scored a career @-@ high 279 not out and McDonnell 111 in a total of 619 , the result being a draw . A return match with the Combined XI was arranged in February at the Association Ground in Sydney . Scott played for the Fourth Australians , replacing Alexander , and Spofforth played for the Combined XI , the Fourth Australians winning by 9 wickets .
Unlike other Australian touring teams , the 1884 team organised the project themselves and so it was a private business venture which involved none of the Australian colonial cricket associations . The players invested agreed sums to fund their travel and cover any losses .
After one final match in Adelaide , which was the last time South Australia needed odds ( i.e. , extra men ) to compete , the tourists left Melbourne on 11 March 1884 aboard the P & O steamer Sutlej and arrived at Plymouth on 29 April . With a programme of 32 fixtures arranged , the first game in England began on 12 May at Sheffield Park , Uckfield and the last game against the South of England was completed on 12 September . The team travelled home on the SS Mirzapore and reached Melbourne again in early November . Murdoch enjoyed a shipboard romance on the return voyage with an heiress called Jemima Watson whom he married at Fitzroy , Victoria in December , only a few weeks after the Mirzapore berthed .
The outward bound voyage had a short stopover at Colombo where the Australians played a drawn game on Galle Face Green against a Ceylon XVIII in a one @-@ day match on 1 April . The return voyage also stopped off in Colombo and the team played another odds match , again on Galle Face Green and drawn , on 23 October .
= = Tour itinerary = =
The following is a list of the matches played by the Fourth Australians , all but one of which are recognised by CricketArchive as first @-@ class fixtures :
= = Test series = =
= = = First Test = = =
This was the inaugural Old Trafford Test and , as Chris Harte described it , " the first time that a match of such importance had been staged outside of London " . Selection of an England home Test team in the 19th century was the privilege of the host club and Lancashire selected five local players in their squad of twelve , although Jack Crossland missed out and was made twelfth man . Barlow , Hornby , Pilling and Steel all played as it was believed their presence would boost the gate receipts .
Chris Harte commented that the match was also the origin of Old Trafford 's " reputation for wet weather " , the game being drawn after rain had made the first day unplayable . The match was therefore reduced to two days play and it was reported that the wicket dried much quicker than expected and conditions were never difficult for batting . Even so , England were all out for 95 in their first innings , Boyle taking six wickets for 42 runs conceded ( i.e. , 6 / 42 ) with his medium @-@ paced spin and Spofforth 4 / 42 . Shrewsbury , displaying " masterly technique " , scored 43 to save his team from real embarrassment . In their first innings , Australia " hit with more vigour and confidence than their opponents " and scored 182 , a lead of 87 . Their top scorer was Midwinter with 37 . The wicket had dried out on the final day and England were able to bat out time and secure the draw , scoring 180 for the loss of 9 wickets ( i.e. , 180 / 9 ) . Grace was top scorer with a patient 31 and Joey Palmer was the best of the Australian bowlers " with his controlled off- and leg @-@ cutters " .
= = = Second Test = = =
This was the inaugural Lord 's Test and England won by an innings after a century by A. G. Steel and fine bowling by Ted Peate and George Ulyett . The game ended just after lunch on the third day .
Wisden recorded that the main elements of England 's success were " the magnificent batting of A. G. Steel and the bowling of Ulyett " . Batting first , Australia were reduced to 160 / 9 despite an innings of 63 by Giffen ; but then Scott and Boyle added 69 for the final wicket , Wisden reporting that Scott played " cool , confident , skilful cricket " in an innings of 75 . At close of play on the first day , England were 90 / 3 so the match was evenly poised , with Lucas on 28 and Shrewsbury on 27 . Steel commenced his innings on the second morning and shared successful partnerships with Ulyett , Barlow and Lyttelton . While Steel was in , 261 runs were added and he made 148 including thirteen boundaries . It was the highest score made against the Australians during the season . By close of play , Australia had lost four wickets in their second innings for only 73 runs . Barlow later recorded that the score was 135 / 5 when he went out to join Steel and recalled Lord Harris , the England captain , saying to him : " For Heaven 's sake , Barlow , stop this rot ! " Barlow and Steel added 98 for the sixth wicket . Despite another good effort by Scott on the final day , Australia failed to avoid the innings defeat . Ulyett bowled very well but may have been helped by the state of the ground . However , Ulyett is best remembered in this match for taking what Pelham Warner called " one of the historic catches of cricket " when he caught and bowled Bonnor , noted for his powerful hitting . Warner recorded of Steel 's innings that George Giffen talked about it most enthusiastically as late as 1911 , when the two were in conversation at Adelaide . When Scott was dismissed for 75 in the Australian first innings , he was caught by his own captain Murdoch off the bowling of Steel . Murdoch was on as a substitute for an injured English player and this was the first time in Test cricket that a batsman was dismissed by a catch taken by a substitute fielder .
Soon afterwards , the London press reported that the entire proceeds of the match , a sum of £ 1 @,@ 334 , had been awarded to the Australians . This had been agreed beforehand by Alexander and Harris to enable the tourists to cover their costs , but the press disapproved and accused the Australians of being mercenary and acting outside the spirit of the game . Harte commented on the extreme bias of the press as , in all their other games , the Australians received only a share of the gate money , " an arrangement appreciated by the county clubs as the visitors ' popularity always boosted takings " .
= = = Third Test = = =
The final Test at the Oval was played in hot weather and Murdoch created a then @-@ record score of 211 , the first double @-@ century in Test cricket . Murdoch was helped by three missed chances off the bowling of Ulyett when he had made 46 , 171 and 205 . England followed on but had only lost two wickets when time ran out and the match was drawn .
After McDonnell had made 103 out of 158 , Murdoch and Scott completed the first double @-@ century partnership in Test cricket . England , as the score mounted , used 11 bowlers : the first time in Test cricket that an entire team including the wicketkeeper was called upon to bowl . On this occasion , the wicketkeeper Lyttelton was the most successful bowler , taking 4 / 19 . Grace , keeping wicket to Lyttelton , took a catch to dismiss Midwinter .
The two main features of England 's first innings were Scotton 's " stonewalling " and Read 's ( batting at number ten ) " hard and rapid hitting " . Scotton 's 90 in six hours and Read 's 117 in two enabled England to reach a respectable 346 but they still had to follow on , 205 runs behind . But the time taken by Scotton 's innings left Australia with not enough time to bowl England out again and the result was a draw .
= = Other matches = =
The tour began well for the Australians with an innings victory in their opening match at Uckfield against a team chosen by Lord Sheffield which included W. G. Grace , George Ulyett , Billy Barnes , Alfred Shaw and Arthur Shrewsbury . Although Fred Spofforth , Harry Boyle and Billy Midwinter were all playing , the Australian bowling was performed by George Giffen and Joey Palmer only , and they both took ten wickets in the match . However , the key performance in conditions that helped the bowling was Alick Bannerman 's innings of 94 which alone outscored the Sheffield XI 's first innings total of 86 .
The Australians had mixed success in their next five matches , winning against Surrey and an All @-@ England XI but losing to Oxford , MCC and the Gentlemen . An innings of 71 by Tup Scott in a low @-@ scoring match was the key to defeating Surrey by 8 wickets . Centuries by Grace , A. G. Steel and Barnes gave MCC an innings victory at Lord 's and Warner described this feat as " remarkable " .
The next ten matches prior to the Old Trafford Test were played mainly in the north of England and the Australians did very well in this period , through June and into early July . They lost only to the North by an innings at Old Trafford when their batting struggled against Ted Peate and Ulyett while good scores by A. N. Hornby and Barnes ensured the North 's victory . Giffen had a memorable game when the Australians played Lancashire at Old Trafford , taking a hat trick in the Lancashire innings and then scoring 113 . That match was drawn but the Australians defeated both Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire by the same three @-@ wicket margin . Spofforth , Palmer , Peate and Tom Emmett dominated the match at Bradford in which only 255 runs were scored in total . At Trent Bridge , the bowling of Giffen and Palmer enabled the Australians to recover from a first innings deficit of 39 and win . In the return match against the Gentlemen at the Oval , the last three English batsmen including Lord Harris were all stumped by Jack Blackham .
Between the first and second Tests , the Australian victory over Middlesex , whose batting could not cope with Spofforth , was their only win in four matches at Lord 's . The Australians struggled in a drawn game against Sussex for whom George Wyatt and Henry Phillips both scored centuries . Spofforth with 14 wickets and George Bonnor with an innings of 68 in a low @-@ scoring match put the Australians back on track when they easily defeated a strong Players XI at the Oval .
An innings of 60 by Lord Harris helped Kent recover from a first innings deficit before the Australians , batting last , collapsed to lose by 96 runs at Canterbury . The first match against Gloucestershire was drawn , W. G. Grace scoring 116 not out for his county . The Australians won the second match convincingly with an innings total of 402 ( Giffen 91 , Billy Murdoch 89 ) before dismissing Gloucestershire for only 83 . This began a good finish to the tour as the Australians won five of the last seven matches following the third Test . They twice defeated the South by an innings , Spofforth taking a total of 24 wickets in these two matches , but were again beaten by the North , for whom Dick Barlow scored a century and took ten wickets in the match .
= = Statistical summary = =
Murdoch , Percy McDonnell and Giffen all scored 1 @,@ 000 runs for the Australians in the 1884 season while Scott , Bannerman and Bonnor topped 900 . Murdoch scored two centuries including his 211 at the Oval ; Giffen , McDonnell and Scott one apiece . The outstanding bowler , as on previous tours , was Spofforth who took 205 wickets for the Australians at an average of 12 @.@ 50 with a best performance of 8 / 62 . Palmer took 130 wickets at 16 @.@ 14 and the other main bowlers were Giffen ( 81 wickets ) and Boyle ( 62 ) . Midwinter took 15 wickets while the other players bowled occasionally only . Blackham was the wicket @-@ keeper in 28 out of the 31 first @-@ class matches , Murdoch standing in for him in the other three . Blackham held 23 catches and completed 16 stumpings . Eight fielders held more than twenty catches each , the most being Bonnor 's 31 .
Putting the Australian performances into perspective , only eight Englishmen made 1 @,@ 000 runs and only Harris scored more than Murdoch . Louis Hall with four completed the most centuries while Harris , Grace , Ulyett and Billy Bates made three apiece . Spofforth was easily the highest wicket @-@ taker , beating the best English bowler Ted Peate by 70 while Palmer was third overall . Seven other Englishmen managed 100 wickets in the season .
In his history , Harry Altham wrote that the 1884 Australians have been equated with the 1882 team but he himself disagreed with that assessment . He added that George Giffen considered England 's team in the final Test to have been the strongest of the nineteenth century .
= = Controversy and aftermath = =
The bad feeling about the proceeds from the Lord 's Test lingered and , at the end of their tour , the Fourth Australians faced more recriminations from the British press . Among other things , they were accused of " introducing a bloodthirsty spirit " and " playing too obviously for money 's sake " . This criticism was countered by The Australasian of 11 October , whose cricket writer Tom Horan , though himself no supporter of Murdoch 's team , objected to the " spiteful criticism from certain portions of the English press " and pointed out the " narrow @-@ minded and insulting abuse levelled at the Australian cricketers " . However , in his history of Lord 's , Warner stated that the Australians had " evidently come into favour " and that " the rows and bickerings of the past were happily over and done with " .
The problems spilled over into the next Australian season when an English team formed by Alfred Shaw , James Lillywhite and Arthur Shrewsbury toured . A disagreement between Alexander and Lillywhite led to members of the Fourth Australians refusing to play against the tourists in certain matches and then being banned by the colonial authorities from playing in others . Having agreed contracts for matches with the colonial authorities , Lillywhite offered Alexander 30 % of the gate receipts from the first two Tests , but Murdoch and the rest of the team insisted on 50 % . One outcome was that Australia had to make eleven changes to their team for the second Test after terms could not be agreed with the Fourth Australians . The Fourth Australians had made up the team in the first Test but refused to play in the second Test in which nine debutants were necessary alongside Tom Horan and Sammy Jones .
When the Fifth Australians toured England in 1886 , the team was selected and managed by the Melbourne Club which was mindful of the past controversy . As a result , Murdoch , McDonnell and Bannerman were omitted despite still being leading batsmen . Boyle was unavailable , as were Horan and Massie who had toured in 1882 , while Alexander , Cooper and Midwinter were no longer in contention for places . Scott was appointed captain and the other survivors of 1884 were Blackham , Bonnor , Giffen , Palmer and Spofforth .
= Appaloosa =
The Appaloosa is an American horse breed best known for its colorful spotted coat pattern . There is a wide range of body types within the breed , stemming from the influence of multiple breeds of horses throughout its history . Each horse 's color pattern is genetically the result of various spotting patterns overlaid on top of one of several recognized base coat colors . The color pattern of the Appaloosa is of interest to those who study equine coat color genetics , as it and several other physical characteristics are linked to the leopard complex mutation ( LP ) . Appaloosas are prone to develop equine recurrent uveitis and congenital stationary night blindness ; the latter has been linked to the leopard complex .
Artwork depicting prehistoric horses with leopard spotting exists in prehistoric cave paintings in Europe . Images of domesticated horses with leopard spotting patterns appeared in artwork from Ancient Greece and Han dynasty China through the early modern period ; the Nez Perce people of what today is the United States Pacific Northwest developed the original American breed . Appaloosas were once referred to by settlers as the " Palouse horse " , possibly after the Palouse River , which ran through the heart of Nez Perce country . Gradually , the name evolved into " Appaloosa " .
The Nez Perce lost most of their horses after the Nez Perce War in 1877 , and the breed fell into decline for several decades . A small number of dedicated breeders preserved the Appaloosa as a distinct breed until the Appaloosa Horse Club ( ApHC ) was formed as the breed registry in 1938 . The modern breed maintains bloodlines tracing to the foundation bloodstock of the registry ; its partially open stud book allows the addition of some Thoroughbred , American Quarter Horse and Arabian blood .
Today , the Appaloosa is one of the most popular breeds in the United States ; it was named the official state horse of Idaho in 1975 . It is best known as a stock horse used in a number of western riding disciplines , but is also a versatile breed with representatives seen in many other types of equestrian activity . Appaloosas have been used in many movies ; an Appaloosa is the mascot for the Florida State Seminoles . Appaloosa bloodlines have influenced other horse breeds , including the Pony of the Americas , the Nez Perce Horse , and several gaited horse breeds .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The Appaloosa is best known for its distinctive , preferred leopard complex spotted coat . Spotting occurs in several overlay patterns on one of several recognized base coat colors . There are three other distinctive , " core " characteristics : mottled skin , striped hooves , and eyes with a white sclera . Skin mottling is usually seen around the muzzle , eyes , anus , and genitalia . Striped hooves are a common trait , quite noticeable on Appaloosas , but not unique to the breed . The sclera is the part of the eye surrounding the iris ; although all horses show white around the eye if the eye is rolled back , to have a readily visible white sclera with the eye in a normal position is a distinctive characteristic seen more often in Appaloosas than in other breeds . Because the occasional individual is born with little or no visible spotting pattern , the ApHC allows " regular " registration of horses with mottled skin plus at least one of the other core characteristics . Horses with two ApHC parents but no " identifiable Appaloosa characteristics " are registered as " non @-@ characteristic , " a limited special registration status .
There is a wide range of body types in the Appaloosa , in part because the leopard complex characteristics are its primary identifying factors , and also because several different horse breeds influenced its development . The weight range varies from 950 to 1 @,@ 250 pounds ( 430 to 570 kg ) , and heights from 14 to 16 hands ( 56 to 64 inches , 142 to 163 cm ) . However , the ApHC does not allow pony or draft breeding .
The original " old time " or " old type " Appaloosa was a tall , narrow @-@ bodied , rangy horse . The body style reflected a mix that started with the traditional Spanish horses already common on the plains of America before 1700 . Then , 18th @-@ century European bloodlines were added , particularly those of the " pied " horses popular in that period and shipped en masse to the Americas once the color had become unfashionable in Europe . These horses were similar to a tall , slim Thoroughbred @-@ Andalusian type of horse popular in Bourbon @-@ era Spain . The original Appaloosa tended to have a convex facial profile that resembled that of the warmblood @-@ Jennet crosses first developed in the 16th century during the reign of Charles V. The old @-@ type Appaloosa was later modified by the addition of draft horse blood after the 1877 defeat of the Nez Perce , when U.S. Government policy forced the Indians to become farmers and provided them with draft horse mares to breed to existing stallions . The original Appaloosas frequently had a sparse mane and tail , but that was not a primary characteristic as many early Appaloosas did have full manes and tails . There is a possible genetic link between the leopard complex and sparse mane and tail growth , although the precise relationship is unknown .
After the formation of the Appaloosa Horse Club in 1938 , a more modern type developed after the addition of American Quarter Horse and Arabian bloodlines . The addition of Quarter Horse lines produced Appaloosas that performed better in sprint racing and in halter competition . Many cutting and reining horses resulted from old @-@ type Appaloosas crossed on Arabian bloodlines , particularly via the Appaloosa foundation stallion Red Eagle . An infusion of Thoroughbred blood was added during the 1970s to produce horses more suited for racing . Many current breeders also attempt to breed away from the sparse , " rat tail " trait , and therefore modern Appaloosas have fuller manes and tails .
= = Color and spotting patterns = =
The coat color of an Appaloosa is a combination of a base color with an overlaid spotting pattern . The base colors recognized by the Appaloosa Horse Club include bay , black , chestnut , palomino , buckskin , cremello or perlino , roan , gray , dun and grulla . Appaloosa markings have several pattern variations . It is this unique group of spotting patterns , collectively called the " leopard complex " , that most people associate with the Appaloosa horse . Spots overlay darker skin , and are often surrounded by a " halo " , where the skin next to the spot is also dark but the overlying hair coat is white .
It is not always easy to predict a grown Appaloosa 's color at birth . Foals of any breed tend to be born with coats that darken when they shed their baby hair . In addition , Appaloosa foals do not always show classic leopard complex characteristics . Patterns sometimes change over the course of the horse 's life although some , such as the blanket and leopard patterns , tend to be stable . Horses with the varnish roan and snowflake patterns are especially prone to show very little color pattern at birth , developing more visible spotting as they get older .
The ApHC also recognizes the concept of a " solid " horse , which has a base color " but no contrasting color in the form of an Appaloosa coat pattern " . Solid horses can be registered if they have mottled skin and one other leopard complex characteristic .
Base colors are overlain by various spotting patterns , which are variable and often do not fit neatly into a specific category . These patterns are described as follows :
= = = Color genetics = = =
Any horse that shows Appaloosa core characteristics of coat pattern , mottled skin , striped hooves , and a visible white sclera , carries at least one allele of the dominant " leopard complex " ( LP ) gene . The use of the word " complex " is used to refer to the large group of visible patterns that may occur when LP is present . LP is an autosomal incomplete dominant mutation in the TRPM1 gene located at horse chromosome 1 ( ECA 1 ) . All horses with at least one copy of LP show leopard characteristics , and it is hypothesized that LP acts together with other patterning genes ( PATN ) that have not yet been identified to produce the different coat patterns . Horses that are heterozygous for LP tend to be darker than homozygous horses , but this is not consistent .
Three single @-@ nucleotide polymorphisms ( SNPs ) in the TRPM1 gene have been identified as closely associated with the LP mutation , although the mechanism by which the pattern is produced remains unclear . A commercially available DNA based test is likely to be developed in the near future , which breeders can use to determine if LP is present in horses that do not have visible Appaloosa characteristics .
Not every Appaloosa exhibits visible coat spotting , but even apparently solid @-@ colored horses that carry at least one dominant LP allele will exhibit characteristics such as vertically striped hooves , white sclera of the eye , and mottled skin around the eyes , lips , and genitalia . Appaloosas may also exhibit sabino or pinto type markings , but because pinto genes may cover @-@ up or obscure Appaloosa patterns , pinto breeding is discouraged by the ApHC , which will deny registration to horses with excessive white markings . The genes that create these different patterns can all be present in the same horse . The Appaloosa Project , a genetic study group , has researched the interactions of Appaloosa and pinto genes and how they affect each other .
= = History = =
Recent research has suggested that Eurasian prehistoric cave paintings depicting leopard @-@ spotted horses may have accurately reflected a phenotype of ancient wild horse . Domesticated horses with leopard complex spotting patterns have been depicted in art dating as far back as Ancient Greece , Ancient Persia , and the Han Dynasty in China ; later depictions appeared in 11th @-@ century France and 12th @-@ century England . French paintings from the 16th and 17th centuries show horses with spotted coats being used as riding horses , and other records indicate they were also used as coach horses at the court of Louis XIV of France . In mid @-@ 18th @-@ century Europe , there was a great demand for horses with the leopard complex spotting pattern among the nobility and royalty . These horses were used in the schools of horsemanship , for parade use , and other forms of display . Modern horse breeds in Europe today that have leopard complex spotting include the Knabstrupper and the Pinzgau , or Noriker horse .
The Spanish probably obtained spotted horses through trade with southern Austria and Hungary , where the color pattern was known to exist . The Conquistadors and Spanish settlers then brought some vividly marked horses to the Americas when they first arrived in the early 16th century . One horse with snowflake patterning was listed with the 16 horses brought to Mexico by Cortez , and additional spotted horses were mentioned by Spanish writers by 1604 . Others arrived in the western hemisphere when spotted horses went out of style in late 18th @-@ century Europe , and were shipped to Mexico , California and Oregon .
= = = Nez Perce people = = =
The Nez Perce people lived in what today is eastern Washington , Oregon , and western Idaho , where they engaged in agriculture as well as horse breeding . The Nez Perce first obtained horses from the Shoshone around 1730 . They took advantage of the fact that they lived in excellent horse @-@ breeding country , relatively safe from the raids of other tribes , and developed strict breeding selection practices for their animals , establishing breeding herds by 1750 . They were one of the few tribes that actively used the practice of gelding inferior male horses and trading away poorer stock to remove unsuitable animals from the gene pool , and thus were notable as horse breeders by the early 19th century .
Early Nez Perce horses were considered to be of high quality . Meriwether Lewis of the Lewis and Clark Expedition wrote in his February 15 , 1806 , journal entry : " Their horses appear to be of an excellent race ; they are lofty , eligantly [ sic ] formed , active and durable : in short many of them look like fine English coarsers [ sic ] and would make a figure in any country . " Lewis did note spotting patterns , saying , " ... some of these horses are pided [ pied ] with large spots of white irregularly scattered and intermixed with the black brown bey [ sic ] or some other dark colour " . By " pied " , Lewis may have been referring to leopard @-@ spotted patterns seen in the modern Appaloosa , though Lewis also noted that " much the larger portion are of a uniform colour " . The Appaloosa Horse Club estimates that only about ten percent of the horses owned by the Nez Perce at the time were spotted . While the Nez Perce originally had many solid @-@ colored horses and only began to emphasize color in their breeding some time after the visit of Lewis and Clark , by the late 19th century they had many spotted horses . As white settlers moved into traditional Nez Perce lands , a successful trade in horses enriched the Nez Perce , who in 1861 bred horses described as " elegant chargers , fit to mount a prince . " At a time when ordinary horses could be purchased for $ 15 , non @-@ Indians who had purchased Appaloosa horses from the Nez Perce turned down offers of as much as $ 600 .
= = = Nez Perce War = = =
Peace with the United States dated back to an alliance arranged by Lewis and Clark , but the encroachment of gold miners in the 1860s and settlers in the 1870s put pressure on the Nez Perce . Although a treaty of 1855 originally allowed them to keep most of their traditional land , another in 1863 reduced the land allotted to them by 90 percent . The Nez Perce who refused to give up their land under the 1863 treaty included a band living in the Wallowa Valley of Oregon , led by Heinmot Tooyalakekt , widely known as Chief Joseph . Tensions rose , and in May 1877 , General Oliver Howard called a council and ordered the non @-@ treaty bands to move to the reservation . Chief Joseph considered military resistance futile , and by June 14 , 1877 , had gathered about 600 people at a site near present @-@ day Grangeville , Idaho . But on that day a small group of warriors staged an attack on nearby white settlers , which led to the Nez Perce War . After several small battles in Idaho , more than 800 Nez Perce , mostly non @-@ warriors , took 2000 head of various livestock including horses and fled into Montana , then traveled southeast , dipping into Yellowstone National Park . A small number of Nez Perce fighters , probably fewer than 200 , successfully held off larger forces of the U.S. Army in several skirmishes , including the two @-@ day Battle of the Big Hole in southwestern Montana . They then moved northeast and attempted to seek refuge with the Crow Nation ; rebuffed , they headed for safety in Canada .
Throughout this journey of about 1 @,@ 400 miles ( 2 @,@ 300 km ) the Nez Perce relied heavily on their fast , agile and hardy Appaloosa horses . The journey came to an end when they stopped to rest near the Bears Paw Mountains in Montana , 40 miles ( 64 km ) from the Canadian border . Unbeknownst to the Nez Perce , Colonel Nelson A. Miles had led an infantry @-@ cavalry column from Fort Keogh in pursuit . On October 5 , 1877 , after a five @-@ day fight , Joseph surrendered . The battle — and the war — was over . With most of the war chiefs dead , and the noncombatants cold and starving , Joseph declared that he would " fight no more forever " .
= = = Aftermath of the Nez Perce War = = =
When the U.S. 7th Cavalry accepted the surrender of Chief Joseph and the remaining Nez Perce , they immediately took more than 1 @,@ 000 of the tribe 's horses , sold what they could and shot many of the rest . But a significant population of horses had been left behind in the Wallowa valley when the Nez Perce began their retreat , and additional animals escaped or were abandoned along the way . The Nez Perce were ultimately settled on reservation lands in north central Idaho , were allowed few horses , and were required by the Army to crossbreed to draft horses in an attempt to create farm horses . The Nez Perce tribe never regained its former position as breeders of Appaloosas . In the late 20th century , they began a program to develop a new horse breed , the Nez Perce horse , with the intent to resurrect their horse culture , tradition of selective breeding , and horsemanship .
Although a remnant population of Appaloosa horses remained after 1877 , they were virtually forgotten as a distinct breed for almost 60 years . A few quality horses continued to be bred , mostly those captured or purchased by settlers and used as working ranch horses . Others were used in circuses and related forms of entertainment , such as Buffalo Bill 's Wild West Show . The horses were originally called " Palouse horses " by settlers , a reference to the Palouse River that ran through the heart of what was once Nez Perce country . Gradually , the name evolved into " Apalouse " , and then " Appaloosa " . Other early variations of the name included " Appalucy " , " Apalousey " and " Appaloosie " . In one 1948 book , the breed was called the " Opelousa horse " , described as a " hardy tough breed of Indian and Spanish horse " used by backwoodsmen of the late 18th century to transport goods to New Orleans for sale . By the 1950s , " Appaloosa " was regarded as the correct spelling .
= = = Revitalization = = =
The Appaloosa came to the attention of the general public in January 1937 in Western Horseman magazine when Francis D. Haines , a history professor from Lewiston , Idaho , published an article describing the breed 's history and urging its preservation . Haines had performed extensive research , traveling with a friend and Appaloosa aficionado named George Hatley , visiting numerous Nez Perce villages , collecting history , and taking photographs . The article generated strong interest in the horse breed , and led to the founding of the Appaloosa Horse Club ( ApHC ) by Claude Thompson and a small group of other dedicated breeders in 1938 . The registry was originally housed in Moro , Oregon ; but in 1947 the organization moved to Moscow , Idaho , under the leadership of George Hatley . The Appaloosa Museum foundation was formed in 1975 to preserve the history of the Appaloosa horse . The Western Horseman magazine , and particularly its longtime publisher , Dick Spencer , continued to support and promote the breed through many subsequent articles .
A significant crossbreeding influence used to revitalize the Appaloosa was the Arabian horse , as evidenced by early registration lists that show Arabian @-@ Appaloosa crossbreeds as ten of the first fifteen horses registered with the ApHC . For example , one of Claude Thompson 's major herd sires was Ferras , an Arabian stallion bred by W.K. Kellogg from horses imported from the Crabbet Arabian Stud of England . Ferras sired Red Eagle , a prominent Appaloosa stallion added to the Appaloosa Hall of Fame in 1988 . Later , Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse lines were added , as well as crosses from other breeds , including Morgans and Standardbreds . In 1983 the ApHC reduced the number of allowable outcrosses to three main breeds : the Arabian horse , the American Quarter Horse and the Thoroughbred .
By 1978 the ApHC was the third largest horse registry for light horse breeds . From 1938 to 2007 more than 670 @,@ 000 Appaloosas were registered by the ApHC . The state of Idaho adopted the Appaloosa as its official state horse on March 25 , 1975 , when Idaho Governor Cecil Andrus signed the enabling legislation . Idaho offers a custom license plate featuring an Appaloosa horse , the first state to offer a plate featuring a state horse .
= = Registration = =
Located in Moscow , Idaho , the ApHC is the principal body for the promotion and preservation of the Appaloosa breed and is an international organization . Affiliate Appaloosa organizations exist in many South American and European countries , as well as South Africa , Australia , New Zealand , Canada , Mexico and Israel . The Appaloosa Horse Club has 33 @,@ 000 members as of 2010 , circulation of the Appaloosa Journal , which is included with most types of membership , was at 32 , ; 00 in 2008 . The American Appaloosa Association was founded in 1983 by members opposed to the registration of plain @-@ colored horses , as a result of the color rule controversy . Based in Missouri , it has a membership of more than 2 @,@ 000 as of 2008 . Other " Appaloosa " registries have been founded for horses with leopard complex genetics that are not affiliated with the ApHC . These registries tend to have different foundation breeding and histories than the North American Appaloosa . The ApHC is by far the largest Appaloosa horse registry , and it hosts one of the world 's largest breed shows .
The Appaloosa is " a breed defined by ApHC bloodline requirements and preferred characteristics , including coat pattern " . In other words , the Appaloosa is a distinct breed from limited bloodlines with distinct physical traits and a desired color , referred to as a " color preference " . Appaloosas are not strictly a " color breed " . All ApHC @-@ registered Appaloosas must be the offspring of two registered Appaloosa parents or a registered Appaloosa and a horse from an approved breed registry , which includes Arabian horses , Quarter Horses , and Thoroughbreds . In all cases , one parent must always be a regular registered Appaloosa . The only exception to the bloodline requirements is in the case of Appaloosa @-@ colored geldings or spayed mares with unknown pedigrees ; owners may apply for " hardship registration " for these non @-@ breeding horses . The ApHC does not accept horses with draft , pony , Pinto , or Paint breeding , and requires mature Appaloosas to stand , unshod , at least 14 hands ( 56 inches , 142 cm ) . If a horse has excessive white markings not associated with the Appaloosa pattern ( such as those characteristic of a pinto ) it cannot be registered unless it is verified through DNA testing that both parents have ApHC registration .
Certain other characteristics are used to determine if a horse receives " regular " registration : striped hooves , white sclera visible when the eye is in a normal position , and mottled ( spotted ) skin around the eyes , lips , and genitalia . As the Appaloosa is one of the few horse breeds to exhibit skin mottling , this characteristic " ... is a very basic and decisive indication of an Appaloosa . " Appaloosas born with visible coat pattern , or mottled skin and at least one other characteristic , are registered with " regular " papers and have full show and breeding privileges . A horse that meets bloodline requirements but is born without the recognized color pattern and characteristics can still be registered with the ApHC as a " non @-@ characteristic " Appaloosa . These solid @-@ colored , " non @-@ characteristic " Appaloosas may not be shown at ApHC events unless the owner verifies the parentage through DNA testing and pays a supplementary fee to enter the horse into the ApHC
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's Performance Permit Program ( PPP ) . Solid @-@ colored Appaloosas are restricted in breeding .
= = = Color rule controversy = = =
During the 1940s and 1950s , when both the Appaloosa Horse Club ( ApHC ) and the American Quarter Horse Association ( AQHA ) were in their formative years , minimally marked or roan Appaloosas were sometimes used in Quarter Horse breeding programs . At the same time , it was noted that two solid @-@ colored registered Quarter Horse parents would sometimes produce what Quarter Horse aficionados call a " cropout " , a foal with white coloration similar to that of an Appaloosa or Pinto . For a considerable time , until DNA testing could verify parentage , the AQHA refused to register such horses . The ApHC did accept cropout horses that exhibited proper Appaloosa traits , while cropout pintos became the core of the American Paint Horse Association . Famous Appaloosas who were cropouts included Colida , Joker B , Bright Eyes Brother and Wapiti .
In the late 1970s , the color controversy went in the opposite direction within the Appaloosa registry . The ApHC 's decision in 1982 to allow solid @-@ colored or " non @-@ characteristic " Appaloosas to be registered resulted in substantial debate within the Appaloosa breeding community . Until then , a foal of Appaloosa parents that had insufficient color was often denied registration , although non @-@ characteristic Appaloosas were allowed into the registry . But breeder experience had shown that some solid Appaloosas could throw a spotted foal in a subsequent generation , at least when bred to a spotted Appaloosa . In addition , many horses with a solid coat exhibited secondary characteristics such as skin mottling , the white sclera , and striped hooves . The controversy stirred by the ApHC 's decision was intense . In 1983 a number of Appaloosa breeders opposed to the registration of solid @-@ colored horses formed the American Appaloosa Association , a breakaway organization .
= = Uses = =
Appaloosas are used extensively for both Western and English riding . Western competitions include cutting , reining , roping and O @-@ Mok @-@ See sports such as barrel racing ( known as the Camas Prairie Stump Race in Appaloosa @-@ only competition ) and pole bending ( called the Nez Percé Stake Race at breed shows ) . English disciplines they are used in include eventing , show jumping , and fox hunting . They are common in endurance riding competitions , as well as in casual trail riding . Appaloosas are also bred for horse racing , with an active breed racing association promoting the sport . They are generally used for middle @-@ distance racing at distances between 350 yards ( 320 m ) and 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) ; an Appaloosa holds the all @-@ breed record for the 4 @.@ 5 furlongs ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ; 910 m ) distance , set in 1989 .
Appaloosas are often used in Western movies and television series . Examples include " Cojo Rojo " in the Marlon Brando film The Appaloosa , " Zip Cochise " ridden by John Wayne in the 1966 film El Dorado and " Cowboy " , the mount of Matt Damon in True Grit . An Appaloosa horse is part of the controversial mascot team for the Florida State Seminoles , Chief Osceola and Renegade , even though the Seminole people were not directly associated with Appaloosa horses .
= = = Influence = = =
There are several American horse breeds with leopard coloring and Appaloosa ancestry . These include the Pony of the Americas and the Colorado Ranger . Appaloosas are crossbred with gaited horse breeds in an attempt to create a leopard @-@ spotted ambling horse . Because such crossbred offspring are not eligible for ApHC registration , their owners have formed breed registries for horses with leopard complex patterns and gaited ability . In 1995 the Nez Perce tribe began a program to develop a new and distinct horse breed , the Nez Perce Horse , based on crossbreeding the Appaloosa with the Akhal @-@ Teke breed from Central Asia . Appaloosa stallions have been exported to Denmark , to add new blood to the Knabstrup breed .
= = Health issues = =
= = = Genetically linked blindness = = =
Appaloosas have an eightfold greater risk of developing Equine Recurrent Uveitis ( ERU ) than all other breeds combined . Up to 25 percent of all horses with ERU may be Appaloosas . Uveitis in horses has many causes , including eye trauma , disease , and bacterial , parasitic and viral infections , but ERU is characterized by recurring episodes of uveitis , rather than a single incident . If not treated , ERU can lead to blindness , which occurs more often in Appaloosas than in other breeds . Eighty percent of all uveitis cases are found in Appaloosas with physical characteristics including roan or light @-@ colored coat patterns , little pigment around the eyelids and sparse hair in the mane and tail denoting the most at @-@ risk individuals . Researchers may have identified a gene region containing an allele that makes the breed more susceptible to the disease .
Appaloosas that are homozygous for the leopard complex ( LP ) gene are also at risk for congenital stationary night blindness ( CSNB ) . This form of night blindness has been linked with the leopard complex since the 1970s , and in 2007 a " significant association " between LP and CSNB was identified . CSNB is a disorder that causes an affected animal to lack night vision , although day vision is normal . It is an inherited disorder , present from birth , and does not progress over time . Studies in 2008 and 2010 indicate that both CSNB and leopard complex spotting patterns are linked to TRPM1 .
= = = Drug rules = = =
In 2007 the ApHC implemented new drug rules allowing Appaloosas to show with the drugs furosemide , known by the trade name of Lasix , and acetazolamide . Furosemide is used to prevent horses who bleed from the nose when subjected to strenuous work from having bleeding episodes when in competition , and is widely used in horse racing . Acetazolamide ( " Acet " ) is used for treating horses with the genetic disease hyperkalemic periodic paralysis ( HYPP ) , and prevents affected animals from having seizures . Acet is only allowed for horses that test positive for HYPP and have HYPP status noted on their registration papers . The ApHC recommends that Appaloosas that trace to certain American Quarter Horse bloodlines be tested for HYPP , and owners have the option to choose to place HYPP testing results on registration papers . Foals of AQHA @-@ registered stallions and mares born on or after January 1 , 2007 that carry HYPP will be required to be HYPP tested and have their HYPP status designated on their registration papers .
Both drugs are controversial , in part because they are considered drug maskers and diuretics that can make it difficult to detect the presence of other drugs in the horse 's system . On one side , it is argued that the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) , which sponsors show competition for many different horse breeds , and the International Federation for Equestrian Sports ( FEI ) , which governs international and Olympic equestrian competition , ban the use of furosemide . On the other side of the controversy , several major stock horse registries that sanction their own shows , including the American Quarter Horse Association , American Paint Horse Association , and the Palomino Horse Breeders of America , allow acetazolamide and furosemide to be used within 24 hours of showing under certain circumstances .
= Abantiades latipennis =
Abantiades latipennis , known as the Pindi moth , is a species of moth in the Hepialidae family . It may also be referred to as a swift moth or a ghost moth , as this is a common name associated with Hepialidae . Endemic to Australia and identified in 1932 , it is most populous in temperate rainforest where eucalypti are prevalent , as the larvae feed primarily on the roots of these trees . Females lay eggs during flight in a scattering fashion . The larvae live for over eighteen months underground , while adult moths survive for approximately one week , as they have no mouthparts with which to feed . The moths are preyed upon by a number of predators , including bats and owls . Brown in colour overall , males are paler and the identifying silver bars of the male 's wings are more prominent than those of the female 's , with dark margins . Male adults are generally smaller .
Established clearfelling practices have been shown to favour the Pindi moth , and could lead to it being considered a pest due to opportunistic proliferation of the species . The resulting damage caused to the trees on which it feeds may be considered significant .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Abantiades latipennis is one of fourteen species currently identified within the genus Abantiades , all of which are found exclusively in Australia . The species was first described in 1932 by Norman Tindale , an Australian entomologist and anthropologist . Tindale described the species , under its current name , but provided no etymology for the specific epithet latipennis . He based the species description on specimens from Lorne ( including the holotype male and allotype female ) , Pomonal and Mount Mistake ( in the Langi Ghiran State Park ) , Victoria , and from Zeehan , Eaglehawk Neck and Launceston , Tasmania .
Being a member of the Hepialiade family , A. latipennis is considered phylogenetically primitive , possessing several features that are indicative of earlier evolutionary development . The jugum on the forewings of the adult is an archaic wing coupling mechanism ; further primitive characteristics include , as adults , the lack of mouthparts , large spacing between the fore- and hindwings , and the arrangement of the female genitalia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
A. latipennis is endemic to the Australasian region . More specifically , the moths inhabit New South Wales , Tasmania , Victoria , and Australian Capital Territory . As with other Abantiades species , the moth 's habitat is temperate rainforest , both primary and secondary . During its larval stage , the moth feeds on the roots of trees , and its prospering is thought to have an economic impact on the timber industry .
= = Life cycle and behaviour = =
Female moths " lay " their eggs by scattering them during flight ; up to 10 @,@ 000 eggs are released at once . Larvae then hatch from the eggs in the leaf litter on the forest floor and begin tunnelling , in search of suitable host roots . The number of instars and the period of the larval stage is yet unknown , with field observations suggesting a larval stage of more than eighteen months .
The phytophagous larvae of A. latipennis feed primarily on the root systems of two species of tree , Eucalyptus obliqua ( messmate stringybark ) and Eucalyptus regnans ( mountain ash ) . Both of these species are present in old growth forests and dominant in regrowth forests , contributing to the moth 's success in its own habitat . Forming simple and vertical tunnels , lined with silk , the caterpillars are subterranean before and during pupation , emerging for their metamorphosis . The tunnel entrances , 6 to 10 millimetres in diameter , are covered with silk webbing and leaf litter , and can be up to 60 centimetres ( 2 ft ) deep , although depth is more usually 12 to 35 cm .
By chewing the tap and lateral roots of trees , caterpillars feed on the cambium growth , produced by the tree at the site of the injury . The larvae may girdle a root , thereby causing its death , or the lesions may be only partial , allowing the root to continue functioning , albeit with some deformity .
The subterranean habitat of the larvae generally provides protection from predation , but the larvae are sometimes parasitised by tachina flies . The parasitoid larvae of the tachinid Rutilotrixa diversa , usually hosted by scarab beetles , have been discovered infecting A. latipennis .
Adult A. latipennis are crepuscular and males are strongly attracted to lights , forming leks at dusk , most notably after rains in autumn and late summer . Females use pheromones to attract males for mating . As a primitive species , they lack mouthparts as adults and are therefore unable to feed . Their lifespan as winged creatures is understandably short , lasting approximately a week , barring predation . Predation is commonly by bats , owls , and possums , though several other animals , from spiders to cats , occasionally consume them and contribute to the brief lifespan of the metamorphosed moths .
= = Ecology = =
As part of a study measuring the impact that the practice of clearfelling has on biodiversity in the Weld Valley of Tasmania , it was found that A. latipennis was one of the few species that thrived in regrowth forests that were previously clearfelled . An earlier study , conducted in other regions of southern Tasmania , examined the relationship between the moth and Eucalyptus regnans and E. obliqua and reached the same conclusion . The tunnelling and feeding habit of A. latipennis larvae on the roots of these two eucalypt species is mostly responsible for its abundance in clearfelled forests , as the trees are the typical regrowth of logged areas . This success may also be due in part to the caterpillar 's lack of dependence on decaying vegetation , a characteristic of the Abantiades genus and dissimilar to other Tasmanian genera — such as Eudonia and Barea — that have not fared as well in clearfelled forest .
The crowns of the eucalypts infected by A. latipennis have exhibited no consistent indication of root disturbance , with most trees studied appearing healthy and of average size for secondary forest . E. regnans and E. obliqua have demonstrated slow growth in regrowth stands , but this tendency has been attributed to significant root and crown competition . Some trees appeared chlorotic ( a yellowing effect in plants , caused by a reduction in chlorophyll ) , but this was not a reliable indicator of root infestation , and may be the result of other influences . Well @-@ established clearfelling practices in Tasmania could exacerbate the favouring of this species , and its proliferation could lead to extensive eucalypt damage and pest concerns , though the potential effect of this threat is as yet undetermined .
Lesions on the roots caused by the larval feeding provide ideal sites for the establishment of root rot @-@ causing fungi , once the larvae depart the root system for pupation . Areas on the roots with past feeding damage were found to have Armillaria sp. flourishing in the lesions . In rarer cases , the pathogen Perenniporia medulla @-@ panis was also found attacking the roots at the damaged locations . Other cases of decay and discolouration were noted , but attributed to unidentified microorganisms .
= = Morphology and identification = =
A. latipennis larvae vary in size and colour during growth , but can be grouped small and large . The small caterpillars are generally 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 inches ) long and an overall milky grey , with a light brown head capsule that is about 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) wide . Large caterpillars may be milky grey or a dark green @-@ brown , 60 to 90 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 5 in ) long , with a 6 to 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 to 0 @.@ 35 in ) wide brown head capsule .
Females are larger than males , with the wingspan of the male adult approximately 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) . A female specimen collected in 1979 had a wingspan of 108 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) , but Tindale recorded female wingspans at 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in 1932 . The forewings of both males and females feature silvery @-@ white bars , although the bars of the male moth 's wings are more prominent and with dark margins . The female 's body colour is usually a darker brown than the male 's pale brown , as noted by Tindale , although a grey @-@ brown female was collected in 1979 .
Hepialidae have short , pectinate antennae and , unusually primitive for Lepidoptera , lack a functional proboscis or retinaculum and are therefore non @-@ feeding . The moths possess several other morphological features that are considered phylogenetically primitive . The gap between the fore- and hindwing is distinct and the wings are covered in scale @-@ like hairs . At the base of the forewing is a jugum , a small lobe that joins the fore- and hindwings during flight . In females , the configuration of the genitalia is exoporian , typified by an external groove along which spermatophores are transferred after mating , from the copulatory opening ( the ostium bursae ) , to the ovipore for fertilisation .
= Bayan @-@ class cruiser =
The Bayan class was a group of four armored cruisers built for the Imperial Russian Navy around the beginning of the 20th century . Two of the ships were built in France , as Russian shipyards had no spare capacity . The lead ship , Bayan , was built several years earlier than the later three . The ship participated in several of the early naval battles of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , and provided naval gunfire support for the Imperial Russian Army until she struck a mine . Bayan was trapped in harbor during the subsequent Siege of Port Arthur , and was sunk by Japanese artillery . She was salvaged and put into service with the Imperial Japanese Navy with the name of Aso . She mostly served as a training ship before she was converted into a minelayer in 1920 . The ship was sunk as a target in 1932 .
Her three sisters were all assigned to the Baltic Fleet . Pallada was the first ship lost by the Russians during World War I when she was sunk by a German submarine in October 1914 . The two surviving ships were modified to lay mines , and participated in the Battle of Åland Islands in 1915 and the German invasion of the Estonian islands in 1917 . They were decommissioned in 1918 and sold for scrap in 1922 .
= = Background = =
The Bayan class marked a departure from the previous Russian armored cruisers , as they were smaller ships designed to serve as scouts for the fleet rather than as commerce raiders . Authorized in the 1896 – 1902 building program , the design was outsourced to a French shipyard , Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée , because Russian shipyards were already at full capacity . Negotiations began in March 1897 , and a contract was signed in May 1898 for one ship with delivery in 36 months .
The Navy was reasonably pleased with the first ship , Bayan , and decided to order another cruiser after the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in February 1904 . Russian shipyards were still unavailable , so the Navy decided to simply order a repeat with minor modifications based on war experience . This was an attempt to minimize the work load on the Naval Technical Committee ( Morskoi tekhnicheskii komitet ) , but they proved to require more attention than planned and a contract was not signed until 20 April 1905 . The contract specified that all drawings would be turned over to allow for the construction of two identical ships in St. Petersburg , using newly available slipways . These changes generally added weight and the armor was reduced in thickness to compensate , although the change from Harvey armor to more resistant Krupp armor meant that there was little actual loss in protection .
= = Description = =
The Bayan @-@ class ships were 449 feet 7 inches ( 137 @.@ 0 m ) long overall and 443 feet ( 135 @.@ 0 m ) between perpendiculars . They had a maximum beam of 57 feet 6 inches ( 17 @.@ 5 m ) , a draft of 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) and displaced 7 @,@ 750 – 7 @,@ 802 long tons ( 7 @,@ 874 – 7 @,@ 927 t ) . The ships had a crew of 573 officers and men .
They had two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft , using steam provided by 26 Belleville boilers . Designed for a total of 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 304 kW ) intended to propel the cruisers at 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , the engines actually developed 17 @,@ 400 – 19 @,@ 320 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 980 – 14 @,@ 410 kW ) during their sea trials and drove the ships to maximum speeds of 20 @.@ 9 – 22 @.@ 55 knots ( 38 @.@ 71 – 41 @.@ 76 km / h ; 24 @.@ 05 – 25 @.@ 95 mph ) . They could carry a maximum of 1 @,@ 100 – 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 118 – 1 @,@ 219 t ) of coal , which gave the first Bayan a range of 3 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 200 km ; 4 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament of the Bayan @-@ class ships consisted of two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 45 @-@ caliber guns in single @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The guns fired a 194 @-@ pound ( 87 @.@ 8 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 920 ft / s ( 891 m / s ) . At an elevation of + 15 ° , they had a range of 12 @,@ 208 yards ( 11 @,@ 163 m ) . The ships ' eight 45 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Canet Model 1891 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns were mounted in casemates on the sides of the ship 's hull . They fired shells that weighed 91 pounds ( 41 @.@ 4 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 792 @.@ 5 m / s ) . They had a range of 12 @,@ 602 yards ( 11 @,@ 523 m ) when fired at an elevation of + 20 ° .
A number of smaller guns were carried for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . These included twenty 50 @-@ caliber 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Canet Model 1891 QF guns . Eight of these were mounted in casemates in the side of the hull and in the superstructure . The remaining guns were located above the 6 @-@ inch gun casemates in pivot mounts with gun shields . The gun fired 10 @.@ 8 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 91 kg ) shells to a range of about 8 @,@ 606 yards ( 7 @,@ 869 m ) , at an elevation of + 20 ° degrees with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 830 ft / s ( 862 m / s ) . The Bayan class also mounted eight ( Bayan ) or four 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns in the three later ships . They fired a 3 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell . In addition , Bayan was fitted with two 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns that fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 540 ft / s ( 470 m / s ) .
Bayan was equipped with two submerged 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside , while those of the three later ships were 18 inches ( 457 mm ) in size .
= = = Protection = = =
The waterline belt of the Bayan @-@ class ships was 6 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 – 200 mm ) thick over her machinery spaces . Fore and aft , it reduced to 3 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 9 inches ( 90 – 100 mm ) . The upper armor strake and the armor protecting the casemates was 2 @.@ 4 inches ( 60 mm ) thick . The thickness of the armored deck was 2 inches ( 50 mm ) ; over the central battery it was a single plate , but elsewhere it consisted of a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 30 mm ) plate over two 0 @.@ 39 @-@ inch ( 10 mm ) plates . The gun turret sides were protected by 5 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 9 inches ( 132 – 150 mm ) of armor and their roofs were 1 @.@ 2 inches thick . The barbettes were protected by armor plates 6 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 170 mm ) thick . The sides of the conning tower were 5 @.@ 4 – 6 @.@ 3 inches ( 136 – 160 mm ) thick .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Bayan was assigned to the First Pacific Squadron after completion , and based at Port Arthur from the end of 1903 . She suffered minor damage during the Battle of Port Arthur at the beginning of the Russo @-@ Japanese War and participated in the action of 13 April 1904 , when Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō successfully lured out a portion of the Pacific Squadron , including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov 's flagship , the battleship Petropavlovsk . When Makarov spotted the five Japanese battleships , he turned back for Port Arthur , and Petropavlovsk struck a minefield and quickly sank after a mine detonated one of her magazines . After bombarding Imperial Japanese Army positions on 27 July , Bayan struck a mine and was under repair for the next month or so . She was subsequently trapped in Port Arthur and sunk at her mooring by Japanese howitzer shells on 8 December .
The ship was refloated by Japanese engineers the following year ; repairs , re @-@ boilering , and the replacement of her armament with Japanese weapons took until 1908 to complete . Renamed Aso in Japanese service , she initially served as a training ship before she was converted into a minelayer in 1920 . Aso was decommissioned on 1 April 1930 and renamed Hai Kan No. 4 . She was sunk as a target on 4 August 1932 by two submarine torpedoes .
All three of the later ships were assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion , although Admiral Makarov was detached to the Mediterranean several times before the start of World War I in 1914 . During the first month of the war , Pallada captured codebooks from the German cruiser Magdeburg that had run aground . She was torpedoed by the German submarine SM U @-@ 26 on 11 October 1914 and was lost with all hands . Her wreck was discovered in 2000 .
The surviving sisters were modified to lay mines shortly after the war began . They laid mines themselves during the war and provided cover for other ships laying minefields . Admiral Makarov and Bayan fought several inconclusive battles with German ships during the war , including the Battle of Åland Islands in mid – 1915 , and they also defended Moon Sound during the German invasion of the Estonian islands in late 1917 , where Bayan was badly damaged . Their 75 mm guns were removed in 1916 – 17 and replaced by one 8 @-@ inch and four 6 @-@ inch guns . A pair of anti @-@ aircraft guns were also added . Admiral Makarov was in Helsingfors when Finland declared independence in March 1918 , and was forced to evacuate even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . She reached Kronstadt after what became known as the " Ice Voyage " . The sisters were decommissioned in 1918 and sold for scrap in 1922 .
= Lê Duẩn =
Lê Duẩn ( 7 April 1907 – 10 July 1986 ) was a Vietnamese communist politician . He rose in the party hierarchy in the late 1950s and became General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam ( VCP ) at the 3rd National Congress in 1960 . He continued Hồ Chí Minh 's policy of ruling through collective leadership . From the mid @-@ 1960s , when Hồ 's health was failing , until his own death in 1986 , he was the top decision @-@ maker in Vietnam .
He was born into a lower @-@ class family in Quảng Trị Province , in the southern part of French Indochina as Lê Văn Nhuận . Little is known about his family and childhood . He first came in contact with Marxist literature in the 1920s through his work as a railway clerk . Lê Duẩn was a founding member of the Indochina Communist Party ( the future Communist Party of Vietnam ) in 1930 . He was imprisoned in 1931 and released in 1937 . From 1937 to 1939 he climbed the party ladder . He was rearrested in 1939 , this time for fomenting an uprising in the South . Lê Duẩn was released from jail following the successful communist @-@ led August Revolution .
During the First Indochina War , Lê Duẩn was an active communist cadre in the South . He headed the Central Office of South Vietnam , a party organ , from 1951 until 1954 . During the 1950s Lê Duẩn became increasingly aggressive towards the South and called for reunification through war . By the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1950s Lê Duẩn had become the second @-@ most powerful policy @-@ maker within the Party , eclipsing former party First Secretary Trường Chinh . By 1960 , he was officially the second @-@ most powerful party member , after party chairman Hồ . Throughout the 1960s Hồ 's health declined and Lê Duẩn assumed more of his responsibilities . On 2 September 1969 , Hồ died and Lê Duẩn became the most powerful figure in the North .
Throughout the Vietnam War , Lê Duẩn took an aggressive posture . He saw attack as the key to victory . When the North finally won the war in 1975 , Lê Duẩn and his associates were overly optimistic about the future . The Second Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1976 – 1980 ) was a failure and left the Vietnamese economy in crisis . Vietnam was then headed by a gerontocracy ( in which the rulers are much older than the average adult ) . Vietnam became internationally isolated during Lê Duẩn 's rule . In 1979 the country had invaded Kampuchea and ousted Pol Pot , fought a war with China and became dependent on Soviet economic aid . Lê Duẩn died in 1986 and was succeeded by Trường Chinh in July .
= = Early life and career = =
Lê Duẩn was born in Dai Hao village , Quảng Trị Province on 7 April 1907 ( although some sources cite 1908 ) as Lê Văn Nhuận . Little is known about his family and youth.Locals from his generation say that Duan 's parents were metal scrap collectors and blacksmiths . The son of a railway clerk , he became active in revolutionary politics as a young man . He received a French colonial education before working as a clerk for the Vietnam Railway Company in Hanoi during the 1920s . Through his job , he came into contact with several communists . In this period he became a Marxist .
Lê Duẩn became a member of the Revolutionary Youth League in 1928 . He cofounded the Indochina Communist Party in 1930 . Lê Duẩn was imprisoned the next year . He was released six years later , in 1937 . From 1937 to 1939 he advanced in the party hierarchy and at the 2nd National Congress , he joined its Central Committee . He was imprisoned again the following year for fomenting an uprising . After five years he was released , shortly after the 1945 August Revolution , in which the Indochinese Communist Party took power . Following his release , he became a trusted associate of Hồ Chí Minh , the leading Vietnamese communist .
During the First Indochina War Lê Duẩn served as the Secretary of the Regional Committee of South Vietnam , at first in Cochinchina in 1946 , but was reassigned to head the Central Office of South Vietnam from 1951 until 1954 . The Viet Minh 's position in the South became increasingly tenuous by the early to mid @-@ 1950s and in 1953 Lê Duẩn was replaced by his deputy Lê Đức Thọ and moved to North Vietnam .
= = = The road to the South = = =
In the aftermath of the 1954 Geneva Accords , which indirectly split Vietnam into North and South , Lê Duẩn was responsible for reorganising the combatants who had fought in South and Central Vietnam . In 1956 , he wrote " The Road to the South " , calling for a non violent revolution to achieve reunification . His thesis became the blueprint for action at the 11th Central Committee Plenum in 1956 . Although " The Road to the South " was formally accepted , its implementation waited until 1959 .
In 1956 Lê Duẩn was appointed to the Secretariat . Lê Duẩn was ordered by the Politburo in August 1956 to guide the revolutionary struggle in South Vietnam . The same month he traveled from U Minh to Bến Tre and instructed the southern communists to stop fighting in the name of religious sects . Throughout the year , the party had been split by factional rivalry between party boss Trường Chinh and President Hồ , who was supported by Võ Nguyên Giáp . This rivalry focused on the issue of land reform in the North . Lê Duẩn remained neutral , allowing him to act as the First Secretary ( head of the Communist Party ) on Hồ 's behalf in late 1956 . In 1957 , he was given a seat in the Politburo .
At the 1957 May Day parade , Trường Chinh was still seated as the country 's second most powerful figure . Lê Duẩn was gradually able to place his supporters , notably Lê Ðức Thọ , in top positions and outmaneuver his rivals . He visited Moscow in November 1957 and received approval for his war plans . In December 1957 , Hồ told the 13th Plenary Session of a " dual revolution " ; Trường Chinh became responsible for the socialist transformation of the north , while Lê Duẩn focused on planning the offensive in the south .
By 1958 , Lê Duẩn ranked second only to Hồ in the party hierarchy , although Trường Chinh remained powerful . Lê Duẩn was a party man and never held a post in the government . He made a brief , secret visit to South Vietnam in 1958 , writing a report , The Path to Revolution in the South , in which he stated that the North Vietnamese had to do more to assist the southern fighters . The Central Committee decided to initiate the revolution in January 1959 .
= = = First Secretary = = =
Lê Duẩn was informally chosen as the party 's First Secretary ( later known as the General Secretary ) by Hồ in 1959 , at the January plenum of the Central Committee and was elected to the post de jure at the 3rd National Congress . Lê Duẩn was not Hồ 's original choice for First Secretary according to Bùi Tín ; his preferred candidate was Võ Nguyên Giáp , but since Lê Duẩn was supported by the influential Lê Đức Thọ , the Head of the Party Organisational Department , Lê Duẩn was picked for the post . Lê Duẩn was considered a safe choice because of his time in prison during French rule , his thesis The Road to the South and his strong belief in Vietnamese reunification . Hoàng Văn Hoan claimed , after being sent into exile , that the 3rd National Congress also purged several party members . Indeed , three former ambassadors lost their Central Committee seats .
= = General Secretaryship = =
= = = Political infighting and power = = =
Lê Duẩn was officially named party leader in 1960 , leaving Hồ a figurehead . Hồ maintained influence in the government : Lê Duẩn , Tố Hữu , Trường Chinh and Phạm Văn Đồng often shared dinner with him . Later , throughout and after the war , they all remained important figures . In 1963 , Hồ purportedly corresponded with South Vietnamese President Ngô Đình Diệm in the hope of achieving a negotiated peace . Together with Lê Đức Thọ , Head of the Party Organisational Department and Nguyễn Chí Thanh , a military general , Lê Duẩn tried to monopolise the decision @-@ making process – this became even more evident following Hồ 's death . In 1964 , Hồ 's health began to fail and Lê Duẩn , as his trusted underling , more visibly took on day @-@ to @-@ day decision @-@ making responsibilities . Some analysts claim that by 1965 Hồ and Lê Duẩn had split and that " for all intents and purposes " Lê Duẩn had sidelined Hồ . Lê Duẩn , Lê Đức Thọ and Phạm Hùng " progressively tried to neutralise Hồ Chí Minh " and Phạm Văn Đồng .
By the late @-@ 1960s , Hồ 's declining health had weakened his position within the leadership . While Hồ was still consulted on important decisions , Lê Duẩn dominated the party . When Hồ died on 2 September 1969 , the collective leadership he had espoused continued , but Lê Duẩn was first among equals . The Central Committee 's first resolution following Hồ 's death pledged to uphold the collective leadership . Lê Duẩn chaired Hồ 's funeral committee and gave the event 's final speech .
From the beginning the party leadership had split into pro @-@ Soviet , pro @-@ Chinese and moderate factions . Under Hồ the party had followed a policy of neutrality between the Soviet Union and the People 's Republic of China in the aftermath of the Sino – Soviet split . This policy continued until reunification . In the aftermath of the war , a power struggle began between Lê Duẩn 's pro @-@ Soviet and its rival pro @-@ Chinese factions . Former rivals Lê Duẩn and Lê Đức Thọ formed a coalition and purged the pro @-@ Chinese faction . Their first victims were Hoàng Văn Hoan and Chu Văn Tấn . While the Politburo made decisions through consensus , Lê Duẩn , through his post as General Secretary , was the most powerful figure and was able to increase his power via his alliance with Lê Đức Thọ , Trần Quốc Hoàn and Võ Nguyên Giáp . Together with Lê Đức Thọ , Lê Duẩn controlled personnel appointments in the Ministry of Internal Affairs , the State Planning Commission , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , the General Political Directorate of the Vietnam People 's Army ( VPA ) , the General Logistics Department of the VPA and the Ministry of Transport .
To strengthen their hold on power , Lê Duẩn and Lê Đức Thọ established a patronage network . For instance Lê Đức Thọ 's brother , Đinh Đức Thiện was appointed Minister of Communications and Transport ; in April 1982 Đồng Sĩ Nguyên , a protégé of Lê Duẩn , became Minister of Transport . Mai Chí Thọ , brother of Lê Đức Thọ , was Chairman of the People 's Committee of Hồ Chí Minh City ( equivalent to a Mayor ) from 1978 to 1985 . Several of Lê Duẩn 's relatives were appointed to offices in the propaganda and culture sector . However , with the exception of Mai Chí Thọ none of these figures reached the pinnacles of power in Vietnamese politics .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
At the 3rd National Congress , Lê Duẩn called for the establishment of a South Vietnamese people 's front . The Central Committee supported the proposal . A Central Committee resolution stated that " The common task of the Vietnamese revolution at present is to accelerate the socialist revolution in North Vietnam whilst at the same time stepping up the National People 's Democratic Revolution in South Vietnam . " On 20 December 1960 , three months later , the National Front for the Liberation of the South , better known as Việt Cộng , was established . Lê Duẩn claimed that the Việt Cộng would " rally ' all patriotic forces ' to overthrow the Diệm government [ in the South ] and thus ensure ' conditions for the peaceful reunification of the Fatherland ' " .
After the Sino – Soviet split , the Vietnamese communist leadership divided into pro @-@ China and pro @-@ Soviet factions . Initially Lê Duẩn was labeled pro @-@ China , because of his hawkish policies towards South Vietnam . After reunification he was referred to as pro @-@ Soviet . From 1956 – 63 , Lê Duẩn played a moderating role between the two factions , but with the death of Diệm and the Gulf of Tonkin incident , he became considerably more radical . The Chinese continued to support them throughout the war , with Liu Shaoqi , the President of the People 's Republic , in 1965 stating , " it is our policy that we will do our best to support you . " Unlike Hồ , who wanted a peaceful resolution , Lê Duẩn was far more militant . He wanted , in his own words , " final victory " . He dismissed Hồ 's position , as did the majority of the Politburo , calling him " naive " . When Hồ called for the establishment of a neutral South Vietnamese state in 1963 , Lê Duẩn responded by making overtures to the Chinese , who rejected the Soviet position of peaceful coexistence .
With the increased involvement of the United States military in 1965 , the North 's military strategy was forced to change . As Lê Duẩn noted in a letter to Nguyễn Chí Thanh , the war would become " fiercer and longer " . He believed the fundamentals of the conflict had not changed ; the South Vietnamese regime 's unpopularity remained its " Achilles ' heel " and he continued to advocate a combination of guerrilla warfare and NVA offensives . The communist commanders in the South were to avoid large attacks on the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) , but instead focus on many small attacks to demoralize the enemy . Lê Duẩn believed that the key to victory was for the NVA had to keep the initiative . He dismissed the possibility of an attack against North Vietnam by American forces , claiming that an attack on North Vietnam would be an attack on the entire socialist camp .
By July 1974 , following the cut @-@ off of US aid to the South , the North Vietnamese leadership had decided to abrogate the ceasefire and to invade in 1975 , instead of 1976 as previously planned , because they believed an earlier Vietnamese unification would put Vietnam in a stronger position against Chinese and Soviet influence . In his victory speech , Lê Duẩn stated : " Our party is the unique and single leader that organised , controlled and governed the entire struggle of the Vietnamese people from the first day of the revolution . " In his speech he congratulated the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam ( PRGRSV ) , the underground South Vietnamese government established in 1969 , for liberating South Vietnam from imperialism . PRGRSV @-@ ruled South Vietnam did not last long however and in 1976 the reunified Socialist Republic of Vietnam was established . Lê Duẩn purged South Vietnamese who had fought against the North , imprisoning over one million people and setting off a mass exodus and humanitarian disaster ( see Vietnamese boat people ) . A 1983 United States Department of State annual human rights survey called Vietnam under Lê Duẩn " the single most repressive government in the world . "
= = = Economy = = =
Vietnam developed little during the war years ; industry was nearly non @-@ existent in both North and South and both countries were dependent on foreign donor countries . Worse , the country 's critical agricultural infrastructure had been badly damaged . The South had roughly 20 @,@ 000 bomb craters , 10 million refugees , 362 @,@ 000 war invalids , 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 widows , 880 @,@ 000 orphans , 250 @,@ 000 drug addicts , 300 @,@ 000 prostitutes and 3 million unemployed .
Having won the war and defeated South Vietnam , Lê Duẩn 's mood in April 1975 was optimistic . As one Central Committee member put it , " Now nothing more can happen . The problems we face now are trifles compared to those in the past . " Lê Duẩn promised the Vietnamese people in 1976 that each family would own a radio set , refrigerator and TV within ten years ; he seemed to believe he could easily integrate the South Vietnamese consumer society with agrarian North Vietnam . In 1976 the 4th National Congress declared Vietnam would complete its socialist transformation within twenty years . This optimism proved unfounded ; instead Vietnam staggered from one economic crisis to another .
After the war , per @-@ capita income stood at US $ 101 ; it decreased to $ 91 in 1980 and then increased to $ 99 by 1982 , according to United Nations figures . Phạm Văn Đồng admitted that per @-@ capita income " had not increased compared to what it was ten years ago " . Physical health declined and malnutrition increased under Lê Duẩn , according to the Ministry of Health . According to the The International Herald Tribune , an estimated 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Vietnamese were suffering from malnutrition , leading the government to request aid from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization . Lê Duẩn 's policies led to an abrupt decline in the standard of living ; monthly per capita income in the North declined from $ 82 in 1976 to $ 58 in 1980 .
The main goals of the Second Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1976 – 80 ) , which was initiated at the 4th National Congress , were as follows ;
" Concentrate the forces of the whole country to achieve a leap forward in agriculture ; vigorously develop light industry " .
" [ T ] urn to full account existing heavy industry capacity and build many new industrial installations , especially in the machine industry , so as to support primary agriculture and light industry " .
" [ V ] irtually complete socialist transformation in the South " .
The Vietnamese leadership expected to reach these targets with economic aid from the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ( COMECON ) and loans from international agencies of the capitalist world . The 4th National Congress made it clear that agriculture would be socialised ; however , during the Second Five @-@ Year Plan the socialisation measures went so badly that Võ Chí Công , a Politburo member and Chairman of the Committee for the Socialist Transformation of Agriculture , claimed it would be impossible to meet the targets set by the plan by 1980 . An estimated 10 @,@ 000 out of 13 @,@ 246 socialist cooperatives , established during the plan , had collapsed in the South by 1980 . Politburo member Lê Thanh Nghị attacked lower @-@ level cadres for the failure of the socialist agriculture transformation . The collectivisation process led to an abrupt drop in food production in 1977 and 1978 , leading the 6th Plenum of the Central Committee to completely overhaul the Party 's agricultural policies .
With regard to heavy industry , the leadership 's position was muddled . In his Fourth Political Report Lê Duẩn stated that during the transition to socialism , priority would be given to heavy industry " on the basis of developing agriculture and light industry " . In another section of the report , Lê Duẩn stated that light industry would be prioritised ahead of heavy industry . The position of Phạm Văn Đồng , the Chairman of the Council of Ministers ( the head of government ) , was just as confused as Lê Duẩn 's . In practice Lê Duẩn prioritised heavy industry : 21 @.@ 4 % of state investment was in heavy industry in the Second Five @-@ Year Plan and 29 @.@ 7 percent in the Third Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1981 – 85 ) . Light industry only received 10 @.@ 5 and 11 @.@ 5 , respectively . From 1976 to 1978 industry grew , but from 1979 to 1980 industrial production fell substantially . During the Second Five @-@ Year Plan industry grew just 0 @.@ 1 percent . The 6th Plenum of the Central Committee criticised the policy that the state had to own everything .
Before the 5th Central Committee Plenum , Lê Duẩn believed that Vietnam was in a perilous position , although no talk of reforms followed . Beginning in 1979 , Lê Duẩn acknowledged that economic policy mistakes had been made by the national Party and State leadership .
Until the 6th plenum , the planners prevailed . That plenum condemned the old ways and promised that from then on the economy would be governed by " objective laws " . The roles of the plan and the market were openly discussed for the first time and the roles of the family and the private economy were enhanced and certain market prices were officially supported by the Party . Lê Duẩn endorsed the reforms at the 1982 5th National Congress . Lê Duẩn talked about the need to strengthen both the central planned economy and the local economy at once . In his report Lê Duẩn admitted that the Second Five @-@ Year Plan had been a failure economically .
At the beginning these changes had little practical effect , possibly due to opposition by the planners and confusion or fear among cadres . From 1981 – 84 agricultural production grew substantially , but the government did not use this opportunity to increase production of such crucial farm inputs as fertilizer , pesticide and fuel , nor of consumer goods . By the end of Lê Duẩn 's rule , in 1985 – 1986 , inflation had reached over 100 % annually , complicating economic policy @-@ making .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
= = = = Relations with the Eastern Bloc = = = =
Lê Duẩn visited the Soviet Union in October 1975 . The result of the visit was an official communique , which stated that the Soviets would send qualified experts to the country to educate and train economic , scientific , technical and cultural personnel . The Soviet Union gave Vietnam economic assistance and supported several national economic projects on most favoured terms . The communique stated that cooperation was within the " frameworks of multilateral cooperation of socialist countries . " Such a statement would normally have meant membership in COMECON , but Vietnam was not a member , wanting to establish its sovereignty . Phạm Văn Đồng snubbed the Soviet ambassador during the anniversary of the October Revolution and rejected key Soviet foreign policies . Despite continued pressure from the Soviets to join COMECON , Vietnam declined . Instead Vietnam joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank , moves the Soviet Union opposed .
Vietnam relented in 1978 , seeking economic aid to fund the Second Five @-@ Year Plan . In 1978 Lê Duẩn and Phạm Văn Đồng signed a 25 @-@ year Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Cooperation with the USSR . Under Soviet protection , Vietnam invaded Kampuchea . In reaction China invaded Vietnam . Vietnam leased several bases to the Soviet Union to protect its territory from China . It was rumored that one of China 's demands for peace was the ending of Soviet assistance to Vietnam . In Asia Vietnam played a role similar to Cuba 's in Latin America : it supported local revolutionary groups and was a headquarters for Soviet @-@ style communism . Vietnam supported the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and received $ 3 million a day in military aid .
At the 5th National Congress , Lê Duẩn reaffirmed Vietnam 's relations with the USSR . He stated , " Solidarity and co @-@ operation with the USSR : such is the corner stone of the external policy of our Party and of our State . " He further noted that their alliance was " a guarantee of the victory of the defense of the motherland and the socialist edification of our people . " Soviet official Mikhail Gorbachev echoed Lê Duẩn 's sentiments and said " Vietnam can count on the solidarity and the support of the USSR . "
Lê Duẩn 's foreign policy was criticised by Hoàng Văn Hoan , who accused him of sacrificing the country 's sovereignty . A delegation led by Vitaly Vorotnikov , visited Vietnam during its National Day , the holiday that celebrated the establishment of North Vietnam after the August Revolution and met with Lê Duẩn . Lê Duẩn attended the 27th Communist Party Congress and later met with Gorbachev . Soviet Premier Nikolai Ryzhkov and Anatoly Dobrynin attended Lê Duẩn 's funeral .
= = = = Relations with China = = = =
During the Vietnam War , the Chinese claimed that the Soviet Union would betray Vietnam . Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai told Lê Duẩn that the Soviets would lie to them to improve its relationship with the United States . According to Zhou this policy was enacted following Alexei Kosygin 's departure from Vietnam in 1965 . Lê Duẩn did not accept this view and at the 23rd Party Congress ( which China boycotted ) he referred to the Soviet Union as a " second motherland " . Because of his statement , China immediately began to cut its aid to Vietnam . According to the first secretary at the Soviet embassy to China , the Vietnamese saw the Chinese actions as an attack on them . At the Chinese Communist Party 's 45th anniversary , instead of a communique by Hồ Chí Minh , Phạm Văn Đồng and Lê Duẩn as had happened at the 44th anniversary , the Vietnamese Central Committee offered official greetings , but without signatures from top @-@ level officials .
Relations between the two countries further deteriorated following the China / US rapprochement . The Vietnamese , who were still fighting the Americans , felt betrayed . At the CPV Politburo meeting on 16 July 1971 , the Vietnamese agreed that Chinese policy towards the United States was like a " torpedo " directed against Vietnam . Zhou was told by Phạm Văn Đồng and Lê Duẩn that US President Richard Nixon 's , upcoming visit to China was " against the interests of Vietnam " . Later , in November , Phạm asked the Chinese to cancel Nixon 's visit ; the Chinese refused . The Vietnamese began to doubt China and they hid information about Vietnam 's next planned military offensive . The Sino / US rapprochement did not hurt Sino / Vietnamese relations in the long run , because the Soviet Union also eventually reconciled with the US .
Chinese and Vietnamese documents state that relations between them worsened in 1973 – 75 . A Vietnamese document claimed that China hindered the eventual reunification , while Chinese documents claimed that the source of the conflict was Vietnamese policy towards the Spratly and the Paracel Islands . However , the core issue for the Chinese was to minimize Vietnam 's cooperation with the Soviets . Increasing Soviet / Vietnamese cooperation left China ambivalent about reunification .
During Lê Duẩn 's China visit in June 1973 , Zhou told him that Vietnam should adhere to the Paris Peace Accords . Following the signing , Lê Thanh Nghị stated that the direction of Vietnam 's communism was directly linked to its relations with the Soviet Union . The Chinese opposed immediate reunification and to that end , began making economic agreements with the Provisional Revolutionary ( Communist ) Government of South Vietnam ( PRGSV ) . PRGSV head Nguyễn Hữu Thọ was treated well by the Chinese . This policy further damaged relations . China and Vietnam drifted further apart ; eventual Chinese aid did not improve relations .
Lê Thanh , unsuccessfully visited China in August 1975 to seek aid . On 22 – 28 September , Lê Duẩn and Lê Duẩn Thanh visited China in a second attempt . During the visit the Vietnamese wanted to assure the Chinese they were interested in maintaining good relations with both China and the Soviet Union . Deng Xiaoping stated that both superpowers acted as imperialists and sought hegemony . Lê Duẩn in a speech did not mention the Soviet Union by name , but noted that Vietnam had succeeded because of help from other socialist countries , meaning the Eastern bloc . Two agreements were signed , but no non @-@ refundable aid agreement was made . No joint communique was issued and Lê Duẩn left earlier than planned . According to Anne Gilks , the Sino / Vietnamese alliance effectively ended with the Fall of Saigon . Relations with China further deteriorated ; several leading pro @-@ Chinese communists were purged from the party .
Lê Duẩn visited China from 20 – 25 November 1977 to seek aid . CPC Chairman Hua Guofeng stated that Sino / Vietnamese relations had deteriorated because they held different principles . Hua insisted that China could not help Vietnam because of its own economic difficulties and differences in principles . Lê Duẩn countered that the only difference was how they viewed the Soviet Union and the United States . Following his visit , China ( Xinhua ) condemned COMECON . China halted all economic development projects between May and July 1978 . During this period total Chinese aid to Vietnam amounted to $ 300 million .
= = = = = Chinese invasion = = = = =
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979 , the Chinese People 's Liberation Army crossed the Vietnamese border , withdrawing on 5 March after a two @-@ week campaign which devastated northern Vietnam and briefly threatened Hanoi . Both China ( 40 @,@ 000 ) and Vietnam ( over 20 @,@ 000 ) suffered heavy losses . Peace talks broke down in December 1979 and both China ( 400 @,@ 000 ) and Vietnam ( 600 @,@ 000 ) began a major build @-@ up of forces along the border . Sporadic fighting on the border occurred throughout the 1980s and China threatened to force Vietnam 's exit from Kampuchea .
= = = = Vietnamese invasion and occupation of Cambodia = = = =
The independent Kampuchean Communist Party ( KCP ) was established alongside the Vietnamese and Laotian parties following the dissolution of the Indochinese Communist Party in 1955 . The Kampuchean movement was the weakest of the three . When the Vietnamese began formal military aid to the Khmer Rouge in 1970 , the Khmer leadership remained skeptical . On the orders of Võ Chí Công two regiments were sent into Kampuchea . Võ Chí Công promised Khmer leader Ieng Sary that Vietnamese troops would withdraw when the conflict had been won by the communists . The entry of Vietnamese troops led many Vietnamese officials to believe that Khmer Rouge officials had begun " to fear something " . In a conversation with Phạm Hùng , Lê Duẩn told him that despite some differences in opinions , the " authentic internationalism and attitude " of the sides would strengthen their party @-@ to @-@ party relations . However , by reading reports by Võ Chí Công , Lê Duẩn probably concluded that " authentic internationalism " in Kampuchea was in trouble . At the time , the Vietnamese leadership hoped this situation would change , but privately they understood that the Kampuchean situation was different from the Lao situation .
After Pol Pot and his supporters seized control of KCP in 1973 , KCP / VCP relations deteriorated sharply . North Vietnamese formations that were active in Kampuchea during the civil war were thereafter regularly attacked by their allies . By 1976 while it appeared that Kampuchea / Vietnam relations were normalizing , private suspicions within the respective leaderships grew . Lê Duẩn , Tôn Đức Thắng , Trường Chinh and Phạm Văn Đồng sent messages congratulating the ascension of Pol Pot , Khieu Samphan and Nuon Chea as Premier , President of the Presidium and President of the Assembly of the People 's Representative , respectively . In turn , KCP sent a congratulatory message to the PRGRSV on its seventh anniversary . On 21 September 1976 a Vietnamese women 's delegation visited Kampuchea and the KCP sent public greetings to the 4th National Congress . The Vietnamese leadership hoped that pro @-@ Vietnamese elements would develop within the KCP . When Kampuchean radio announced Pol Pot 's resignation , Lê Duẩn and the Vietnamese leadership took it seriously . During a meeting with the Soviet ambassador , Lê Duẩn told him that Pol Pot and Ieng Sary had been removed from the KCP leadership . The change was welcome to Vietnam , since the two were a " pro @-@ Chinese sect conducting a crude and severe policy . " Lê Duẩn added that " these were bad people [ the KCP leadership headed by Pol Pot ] " , but that Nuon Chea was " our man and is my personal friend . " However , all @-@ out confrontation was not planned and Lê Duẩn still believed that state @-@ to @-@ state relations could improve . He further noted that Kampuchea would eventually become like Laos , a socialist state and value its relationship with Vietnam and the Soviet Union .
On 30 April 1977 Democratic Kampuchea attacked several Vietnamese villages in An Giang Province , most notably in the Ba Chúc massacre . The Vietnamese leadership was shocked by this unprovoked attack and counterattacked . Vietnam still sought improved relations and when Pol Pot , on 27 September 1977 , announced the existence of the KCP , Vietnam sent a congratulatory note . In a conversation with the Soviet ambassador on 6 October , Lê Duẩn had no explanation for Kampuchea 's actions . He described the leadership as " strongly nationalistic and under strong influence of Peking [ China ] . " Lê Duẩn called Pol Pot a Trotskyist while claiming that Ieng Sary was " a fierce nationalist and pro @-@ Chinese . " He , however , erroneously believed that Nuon Chea and Son Sen harbored pro @-@ Vietnamese views .
On 31 December 1977 Kampuchea broke relations with Vietnam , stating that the " aggressor forces " from Vietnam sent had to be withdrawn . This was needed to " restore the friendly atmosphere between the two countries . " While they accused Vietnam of aggression , the real problem all along was the Vietnamese leadership ' plan , or ideal , of establishing a Vietnamese @-@ dominated Indochinese Federation . Vietnamese troops withdrew from the country in January , taking thousands of prisoners and civilian refugees . While the point of the Vietnamese attack had been to dampen the Kampuchean leadership 's aggressive stance , it had the opposite effect – the Kampuchean leadership treated it as a major victory over Vietnam , matching their victory over the Americans . Kampuchea did not respond to diplomatic overtures and began another attack . In response Vietnam began to promote an uprising against Pol Pot 's rule and invaded .
On 15 June 1978 the VCP Politburo sent a request to the Soviet Union to allow a delegation headed by Lê Duẩn to meet with Leonid Brezhnev and the Soviet leadership in general . In a meeting with the Soviet ambassador in September , Lê Duẩn said that Vietnam intended " to solve fully this question [ of Kampuchea ] by the beginning of 1979 . " Lê Duẩn did not believe that China would retaliate because it would have to send its forces by sea . However , China did attack in 1979 , but chose Vietnam as its target . He further claimed that Vietnam had little time and that waiting would benefit China . He further claimed that Vietnam had established nine battalions of Khmer deserters and that it was seeking Sao Pheum to lead them . However , he had been dead for three months . Lê Duẩn still believed that Nuon Chea was a friend of Vietnam , despite his largely anti @-@ Vietnam speech . Nuon Chea and Son Sen remained staunch Pol Pot supporters until the 1990s .
Vietnam sent 13 divisions into the country on 25 December 1978 , with an estimated 150 @,@ 000 soldiers supported by heavy artillery and air power . Kampuchea attempted a conventional defense , but this tactic led to the loss of half of its army within two weeks . The defeats prompted much of the Kampuchean leadership to evacuate towards the western region of the country . On 7 January 1979 , the Vietnamese Army entered Phnom Penh along with the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation . On the following day , a pro @-@ Vietnamese state , known as the People 's Republic of Kampuchea ( PRK ) , was established , with Heng Samrin as head of state and Pen Sovan as General Secretary of the Kampuchean People 's Revolutionary Party . The struggle between the Khmer Rouge and the PRK ended only with Vietnam 's withdrawal in 1989 .
= = = Last years and death = = =
By the time of the 5th National Congress , the party leadership had turned into a veritable gerontocracy . The five most powerful Politburo members were all over the age of 70 ; Lê Duẩn was 74 , Trường Chinh was 75 , Phạm Văn Đồng was 76 , Phạm Hùng was 70 and Lê Đức Thọ was 72 . Lê Duẩn is believed to have been in bad health during this period ; he had travelled to the Soviet Union on several occasions for medical treatment during the late @-@ 1970s and early 1980s . It was reported that Lê Duẩn did not lead the party delegates of the 5th National Congress to the Hồ Chí Minh Mausoleum because of his deteriorating health . Lê Duẩn looked both feeble and old ; he had problems reading his report to the Congress .
At the 5th National Congress , the Lê Duẩn / Lê Đức Thọ clique amassed considerable power by staffing the 5th Central Committee , the 5th Secretariat and the 5th Politburo with their own supporters . Several moderates and old companions of Hồ Chí Minh , as well as pro @-@ Chinese communists ( labelled dismissively as Maoists ) and followers of Trường Chinh , were removed from the Politburo and the Central Committee . The most prominent ouster was that of Võ Nguyên Giáp , the commander at the Battle of Diên Biên Phu . Giáp 's removal signaled more the defeat of a rival than of an ideological tendency . Nguyễn Duy Trinh and Lê Thanh Nghị were removed from the Politburo because of their moderate stances , while Trần Quốc Hoàn , Lê Văn Lương and Nguyễn Văn Linh were removed because of their alignment with Trường Chinh . In their place Lê Duẩn and Lê Đức Thọ appointed military men , including Đỗ Mười , Lê Đức Anh and General Đồng Sĩ Nguyên . The appointment of Nguyễn Đức Tâm and Nguyễn Cơ Thach strengthened Lê Đức Thọ . The Lê Duẩn / Lê Đức Thọ clique thereafter had a clear majority within the 5th Secretariat .
Lê Duẩn 's report to the 5th National Congress was a biting self @-@ criticism of his leadership and the party 's management . He criticised political and economic corruption and the gerontocracy itself . The 5th Central Committee contained only one member under 60 . During this period the Central Committee was disrupted by factional infighting between pragmatists and conservatives . This struggle would lead to economic reform . Lê Duẩn and his supporters began the effort to open the economy .
Apparently Lê Duẩn suffered a heart attack after the Congress and was hospitalized in the Soviet Union . He remained General Secretary until on 10 July 1986 at age 79 , he died of natural causes in Hanoi . He was temporarily succeeded by Trường Chinh , who was deposed and replaced by Nguyễn Văn Linh at the December 6th National Congress .
= = Political beliefs = =
Lê Duẩn was a nationalist and during the war he claimed that the " nation and socialism were one " . He stressed the importance of building socialism politically , economically and culturally and of defending the socialist fatherland . Ideologically he was often referred to as a pragmatist . He often broke with Marxism – Leninism to stress Vietnam 's uniqueness , most notably in agriculture . Lê Duẩn 's view of socialism was statist , highly centralised and managerial .
In one of his own works , Lê Duẩn talked about " the right of collective mastery " , but in practice he opposed this . For instance , party cadres who presented the peasants ' demands for higher prices for their products at the National Congress were criticised by Lê Duẩn . His ideas of collective mastery were hierarchical : " Management by the state aims at ensuring the right of the masses to be the collective masters of the country . How then will the state manage its affairs so as to ensure this right of collective mastery ? " His answer to this problem was managerial and statist .
Lê Duẩn 's concept of " collective mastery " was featured in the 1980 Vietnamese Constitution as was his concept of " collective mastery " of society . The concept was Lê Duẩn 's version of popular sovereignty that advocated an active role for the people , so that they could become their own masters as well as masters of society , nature and the nation . It stated that the people 's collective mastery in all fields was assured by the state and was implemented by permitting their participation in state affairs and in mass organisations . On paper , these organisations , to which almost all citizens belong , play an active role in government and have the right to introduce bills before the National Assembly .
Lê Duẩn said that land ownership entailed a " struggle between the two roads – collective production and private production ; large @-@ scale socialist production and small scattered production . " This quote could easily have been taken from Joseph Stalin , Mao Zedong or Trường Chinh in his radical years . His views had a direct impact on Vietnam . Since it was believed that collective ownership was the only alternative to capitalism , it was introduced without controversy by the country 's leadership .
Subcontracting cooperatives to peasants became the norm by the late @-@ 1970s and was legalised in 1981 . For conservatives this policy was similar to that of Lenin 's New Economic Policy , a temporary break from hardline socialist development . However , those who supported reforms saw subcontracting as another way of implementing socialism in agriculture , which was justified by the ideological tenet of the " three interests " . This was an important ideological innovation and broke with Lê Duẩn 's " two roads " theory .
Lê Duẩn departed from Marxist / Leninist orthodoxy when it came to practical policy and stated that the country had to " carry out agricultural cooperation immediately , even before having built large industry . " While he acknowledged that his view was heresy , Lê Duẩn insisted that Vietnam was in a unique situation ; " It seems that no country so far in history has been in a situation such as ours . We must lead the peasantry and agriculture immediately to socialism , without waiting for a developed industry , though we know very well that without the strong impact of industry , agriculture cannot achieve large @-@ scale production and new relations of agriculture cannot be consolidated ... To proceed from small @-@ scale production to large @-@ scale production is a new one . " According to Lê Duẩn the key to socialism was not mechanisation and industrialisation , but a new division of labour . He also believed that cooperatives did not need to be autarkic , but rather " organically connected , through the process of production itself , with other cooperatives and with the state economic sector . " Vietnam could achieve this through state intervention and control . He saw the economy as one whole directed by the state and not many parts intertwined .
In his victory speech after the 1976 parliamentary election , Lê Duẩn talked about perfecting socialism in the North by eliminating private ownership and the last vestiges of capitalism and of the need to initiate socialist transformation in the South . In the South the Party , according to Lê Duẩn , would focus on abolishing the comprador bourgeoisie and the last " remnants of the feudal landlord classes " . " Comprador bourgeoisie " was their term for the bourgeois classes , who made a living by financial dealings and through transactions with Westerners . Lê Duẩn did not reveal that in addition to removing the comprador bourgeoisie and the feudal landlord classes from the South , he intended to obliterate the entire bourgeois class .
= SMS Sankt Georg =
SMS Sankt Georg was the third and final armored cruiser of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . She was built at the Pola Arsenal ; her keel was laid in March 1901 , she was launched in December 1903 , and completed in July 1905 . Her design was based on the previous armored cruiser Kaiser Karl VI , with the primary improvement being a stronger armament . Sankt Georg , named for Saint George , was armed with a main battery of two 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns , five 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns .
Sankt Georg served in the training and reserve squadrons during her peacetime career , usually alternating with Kaiser Karl VI . In April – May 1907 , Sankt Georg participated in the Jamestown Exposition in the United States , to commemorate the first English colony in North America . During World War I , the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet largely remained inactive as a fleet in being , though she did bombard the Italian coast in May 1915 following the latter 's declaration of war on Austria @-@ Hungary . In 1917 , she supported the Austro @-@ Hungarian forces that raided the Otranto Barrage ; in the ensuing Battle of the Strait of Otranto , Sankt Georg 's arrival on the scene was sufficient to force the Anglo @-@ Italian forces to break off the engagement and retreat .
By February 1918 , the crews of Sankt Georg and several other warships grew weary of the war and the long periods of inactivity , which led to the Cattaro Mutiny . The mutiny was quickly suppressed , but Sankt Georg and several other ships were subsequently decommissioned . Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , Sankt Georg was awarded as a war prize to Britain . In 1920 , she was sold to Italian ship breakers and scrapped thereafter .
= = Design = =
In the 1890s , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy began to build armored cruisers to support the battle fleet and to perform some of the roles then reserved only for battleships . The first vessel , Kaiserin und Königin Maria Theresia , was built as an enlarged version of the protected cruiser Kaiserin Elisabeth , with a more powerful armament and heavier armor . She was followed by an improved cruiser , Kaiser Karl VI , which provided the basis for an even larger ship , which was named Sankt Georg . Each iteration carried a heavier armament and had a higher top speed than the preceding design .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Sankt Georg was 123 @.@ 23 meters ( 404 ft 4 in ) long at the waterline and was 124 @.@ 3 m ( 407 ft 10 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 19 @.@ 01 m ( 62 ft 4 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 83 m ( 22 ft 5 in ) . She displaced 7 @,@ 289 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 174 long tons ) as designed and up to 8 @,@ 070 t ( 7 @,@ 940 long tons ) at full load . Her crew numbered 630 officers and men . Sankt Georg was fitted with two pole masts for observation .
The ship 's propulsion system consisted of two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion engines that drove a pair of screw propellers . Steam was provided by eight coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers that were trunked into three funnels on the centerline . The engines were rated at 15 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 000 kW ) and produced a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . On her full power trials , she reached 15 @,@ 271 ihp ( 11 @,@ 388 kW ) and 22 @.@ 01 kn ( 40 @.@ 76 km / h ; 25 @.@ 33 mph ) . Steering was controlled by a single rudder .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Sankt Georg was armed with a main battery of two large @-@ caliber guns and several medium @-@ caliber pieces . She carried two 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) G. L / 40 S. guns in single gun turret on the centerline forward . These guns fired a 229 @-@ kilogram ( 505 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 725 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 380 ft / s ) , at a maximum range of 10 @,@ 000 m ( 11 @,@ 000 yd ) . Each gun , manufactured by Škoda Works , was supplied with forty high @-@ explosive and forty armor @-@ piercing shells . The guns were housed in electrically trained turrets that allowed elevation to 20 ° and depression to − 4 ° . Five 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) G. L / 42 guns and four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns , all mounted individually in casemates with one of the 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) G. L / 42 on a single turret aft , rounded out her offensive armament . Sankt Georg carried 120 rounds for each of the 19 cm guns and 180 rounds for the 15 cm pieces .
A battery of nine 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) L / 45 guns , six 4 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) L / 44 quick @-@ firing guns ( QF ) and two 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 33 QF guns provided close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . The 7 cm guns had an actual caliber of 6 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) . They had a rate of fire of twenty rounds per minute , and each gun was supplied with 400 rounds of ammunition . The 4 @.@ 7 cm guns had a rate of fire of 25 rounds per minute , and were typically stocked with 500 rounds . She carried several smaller weapons , including a pair of 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine guns and two 7 cm landing guns . One 7 cm L / 50 antiaircraft gun was installed in 1916 . Sankt Georg was also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside .
The ship was protected by a main armored belt that was 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) thick in the central portion that protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces , and reduced to 165 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) on either end . Transverse armored bulkheads that were 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) thick capped the armored belt on either end . She had an armored deck that was 36 – 50 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Her two gun turrets had 210 mm thick faces , and the conning tower had 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
On 11 March 1901 , the keel for Sankt Georg was laid down at the Pola Arsenal . She was launched on 8 December 1903 , and completed on 21 July 1905 . Starting from her commissioning , Sankt Georg frequently served in the training squadron , along with the three Habsburg @-@ class battleships , though she alternated in the squadron with the armored cruiser Kaiser Karl VI . Once the summer training schedule was completed each year , the ships of the training squadron were demobilized in the reserve squadron , which was held in a state of partial readiness .
In April 1907 , Sankt Georg and the light cruiser Aspern were sent to the United States to represent Austria @-@ Hungary at the Jamestown Exposition , the commemoration of the 300th anniversary of the Jamestown colony , the first permanent English settlement in the Americas . In addition to the celebration at Jamestown , Sankt Georg also visited Annapolis and New York City while on the trip . In addition to the Austro @-@ Hungarian delegation , the international fleet consisted of warships from Great Britain , Japan , Germany , France , Italy , and several other nations . The event started on 26 April , and over the following two weeks , the crews from many of the ships , including Sankt Georg , competed in various sailing and rowing races . Of eighteen races , Sankt Georg 's crew placed in six , winning two .
= = = World War I = = =
On 28 June 1914 , Archduke Franz Ferdinand , the heir to the Austro @-@ Hungarian throne , was assassinated in Sarajevo ; the assassination sparked the July Crisis and ultimately the First World War , which broke out a month later on 28 July . The German battlecruiser SMS Goeben , which had been assigned to the Mediterranean Division , sought the protection of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , and so Admiral Anton Haus sent the fleet , including Sankt Georg , south on 7 August to assist his German ally . Goeben 's commander , Admiral Wilhelm Souchon , intended to use the Austro @-@ Hungarian move as a feint to distract the British Mediterranean Fleet which was pursuing Goeben ; Souchon instead took his ship to Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire . Their decoy mission complete , Sankt Georg and the rest of the fleet returned to port without engaging any British forces .
Following the Italian declaration of war against the Central Powers on 23 May 1915 , the entire Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet sortied to bombard Italian coastal targets . Sankt Georg took part in the operation ; escorted by a pair of torpedo boats , she shelled the city of Rimini . She damaged a railroad bridge and was not engaged by Italian forces . Thereafter , the Austro @-@ Hungarians returned to their strategy of serving as a fleet in being , which would tie down Allied naval forces . Haus hoped that torpedo boats and mines could be used to reduce the numerical superiority of the Italian fleet before a decisive battle could be fought . For most of the war , Sankt Georg was assigned to the Cruiser Flotilla and based at Cattaro , though she was too slow to operate with the newer Novara @-@ class cruisers that carried out the bulk of offensive operations .
= = = = Battle of the Strait of Otranto = = = =
During the Battle of the Strait of Otranto on 15 May 1917 , Sankt Georg was deployed to support the three light cruisers commanded by Captain Miklós Horthy — Novara , Saida , and Helgoland — that had raided the Otranto Barrage in the southern Adriatic . After completing their attack on the Allied defenses , the three cruisers turned north before being engaged by British and Italian warships , including the British cruiser HMS Dartmouth . Horthy called for reinforcements , which led Sankt Georg to sortie , accompanied by two destroyers and four torpedo boats . The Austro @-@ Hungarians hoped that Sankt Georg might cut off the weaker Allied cruisers and destroy them .
While Sankt Georg was steaming to join the battle , Novara was hit by shells from Dartmouth that damaged her boilers , significantly reducing her speed . She soon broke down but at the same time , shortly after 11 : 00 , most of the Allied warships broke off the engagement , having spotted smoke on the horizon from Austro @-@ Hungarian reinforcements . By that time , Sankt Georg was still about 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ; 29 mi ) away . While Dartmouth and the other Allied ships were withdrawing , several Italian destroyers closed to attack the stricken Novara and her sister ships . Heavy Austro @-@ Hungarian fire drove them off and by 12 : 07 they had retreated with the rest of the Anglo @-@ Italian ships . Sankt Georg arrived and Saida took Novara under tow for the voyage back to port . The four cruisers assembled in line @-@ ahead formation , with Sankt Georg the last vessel in the line , to cover the other three ships . Later in the afternoon , the old coastal defense ship Budapest and three more torpedo boats joined the ships to strengthen the escort .
= = = = Cattaro Mutiny = = = =
By early 1918 , the long periods of inactivity had begun to wear on the crews of several warships at Cattaro , including Sankt Georg . At this time , Sankt Georg was the flagship of the Cruiser Flotilla , commanded by Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Alexander Hansa . On 1 February , the Cattaro Mutiny broke out , starting aboard Sankt Georg . An enlisted man shot the ship 's commander in the head , badly injuring him , when mutineers seized control of the ship . They then rapidly gained control of Kaiser Karl VI and most of the other major warships in the harbor . There was some resistance to the mutiny by crewmembers ; the wireless operators aboard Sankt Georg prevented a message announcing the mutiny from being sent to the rest of the fleet and the crews of the more active vessels tended to oppose the rebellion . A tense stand @-@ off began between the rebel and loyalist ships in the harbor : the destroyer Csepel steamed out and trained her torpedo tubes at Sankt Georg , before being recalled by Hansa 's chief of staff . Helgoland 's commander , Erich Heyssler , also moved to prepare his ship 's torpedoes but Sankt Georg 's gunners aimed their 24 cm guns at Helgoland , which convinced Heyssler to back down .
The mutineers issued a lengthy list of demands , that ranged from longer periods of leave to and end to the war , based on the United States President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points . The following day , many of the mutinous ships abandoned the effort and rejoined loyalist forces in the inner harbor ; first the light cruisers and most of the torpedo boats escaped from the guns of the mutineers , followed by several of the other larger vessels . By late in the day , only the men aboard Sankt Georg and a handful of destroyers and torpedo boats remained in rebellion . Only on the morning of 3 February , after the arrival of the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships of the III Division , were the last of the mutineers convinced to surrender . Trials on the ringleaders commenced quickly , and four men were executed , including the sailor who had shot Sankt Georg 's commander .
= = = Fate = = =
In the aftermath of the Cattaro Mutiny , most of the obsolete warships of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , including Sankt Georg , were decommissioned to reduce the number of idle warships . On 3 November 1918 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian government signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti with Italy , ending their participation in the conflict . After the end of the war , Sankt Georg was ceded as a war prize to Great Britain , under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye . She was then sold to ship breakers in Italy and broken up for scrap after 1920 .
= St Nicholas , Blakeney =
St Nicholas is the Anglican parish church of Blakeney , Norfolk , in the deanery of Holt and the Diocese of Norwich . The church was founded in the 13th century , but the greater part of the church dates from the 15th century when Blakeney was a seaport of some importance . Of the original structure only the chancel has survived rebuilding , perhaps owing to its link to a nearby Carmelite friary . An unusual architectural feature is a second tower , used as a beacon , at the east end ( the church stands just inland from , and about 30 metres ( 98 ft ) above , the small port ) . Other significant features are the vaulted chancel with a stepped seven @-@ light lancet window , and the hammerbeam roof of the nave . St Nicholas is a nationally important building , with a Grade I listing for its exceptional architectural interest .
Much of the original church furniture was lost in the Reformation , but a late @-@ Victorian restoration recreated something of the original appearance , as well as repairing and refacing the building . The Victorian woodwork was created to match the few older pieces that remained , or to follow a similar style ; thus , the new wooden pulpit follows the themes of the medieval font . Of the stained glass smashed in the Reformation only fragments have been recovered , and these have been incorporated in a window in the north aisle of the church . Nine Arts and Crafts windows by James Powell and Sons are featured on the east and south sides of the church , and the north porch has two modern windows of predominantly blue colour . St Nicholas contains some notable memorials , including several plaques for the Blakeney lifeboats and their crews , and much pre @-@ Reformation graffiti , particularly depictions of ships . The location of the latter suggests that they were votive in nature , although the saint concerned is now unknown .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation to 1547 = = =
St Nicholas is the parish church of Blakeney , Norfolk , a small English town with a history dating back to at least early Neolithic times . It was one of a number of small ports opening onto the sheltered inlet of Blakeney Haven , and exported a range of products including fish , grain , and timber . In the Domesday Book of 1086 the town is recorded under the name " Esnuterle " ( Snitterley ) ; the present @-@ day name first appears in 1340 .
Domesday recorded an early church at Snitterley , but its location is unknown , and it may not have been the present site of St Nicholas . There are scheduled monument and Grade II listed ruins of a medieval building in the salt marshes north of the present town described as " Blakeney Chapel " , but , despite the name , it now seems likely that this was a domestic dwelling rather than a religious edifice . Another possible chapel site east of the Glaven was shown on an 1835 map , but there is no documentation to support that identification .
The nearby Carmelite friary had its own church by 1321 , built on land donated by tenants of William de Roos , " that the Carmelite friars , by the King 's licence , and that of Sir William Roos , might inhabit therein for ever , and might build a chapel " . The friars were also given 100 marks to build their church , in return for which they undertook " to pray for the good estate of the said Sir William Roos and his Lady Maud ... and to have and to hold that lord and lady , and their heirs , for their principal founders " .
The original building on the present site was constructed in the late 13th or early 14th century , at around the same time as the friary , which was founded in about 1296 . Its hilltop location is unusual for the area ; most nearby churches are built on mounds near water . The new church was dedicated to Saint Nicholas , the patron saint of sailors , and the living was first recorded as being in the gift of Sir John de Cockfield , passing to his Bacon descendants before its acquisition by the Abbot and Convent of Langley in 1375 . The abbey controlled more than 60 Norfolk parishes , and the living of Blakeney was within its gift for the next sixty years , ending with the dissolution of the abbey in 1435 . The patronage seems then to have passed to the Earl of Sussex , but quickly transferred to John Calthorpe , a descendant of the original founder , John Cockfield , and it remained with his family until 1922 . Sir Alfred Jodrell then acquired the patronage , bequeathing it to Keble College , Oxford on his death in 1956 . Since 1989 , the benefice has been in the gift of Keble College , and the Bishop of Norwich .
Blakeney gained its market charter in 1222 , and by the early 15th century it was one of the few ports permitted to trade in horses , gold and silver , through " merchants sworn by oath to the king " , which contributed to the town 's growing wealth . Few Early English churches survive in Norfolk owing to extensive rebuilding amid the prosperity of the 15th century , and the thriving port of Blakeney was no exception . Only the chancel avoided major reconstruction in 1434 , probably because of its association with the Carmelite friary ; John Calthorpe specified in his will of 1530 that he was to buried " in the White ffryes of Sniterlie [ Blakeney ] in the myddys of the chancel " . The Perpendicular nave and the 31 m ( 104 ft ) west tower were part of the 1434 rebuilding , but the unusual second , slender , tower at the north @-@ east corner of the church was of a later date .
= = = Reformation and after = = =
The English Reformation inevitably affected St Nicholas . Edward VI 's 1547 injunction decreed that all images in churches were to be dismantled or destroyed , including stained glass , shrines , roods , statues and bells , and altars were to be dismantled and replaced by wooden tables . Blakeney did not escape these changes ; an Inventory of Church Goods of 1552 and official visitations later in the century revealed that the chancel was falling into decay and " the church porche defiled with cattel " . The reports continue " the pavement is much broken ... the walls are in decaie ... east window is much broken ... the chancel needs paving " – it was even alleged that graves were left uncovered . The rector from 1590 to 1621 , Jacob Poynter , and his curate , Mr Aldriche , were keen Puritan reformers who refused to wear the surplice or use the Book of Common Prayer , and seemed to have had little concern for the fabric of the church . One positive outcome of the Reformation was that registers were to be kept in every church to record baptisms , marriages and burials ; the Blakeney registers are very largely complete from 1538 .
By 1717 , the local population seems to have been very homogeneous in terms of belief : " Persons , servants included , above the age of sixteen , the men chiefly sea @-@ faring are supposed to be rather above three hundred . Papist none . Protestant dissenter none " . Nevertheless , in 1854 there were Non @-@ conformist chapels of three denominations , of which only the Methodist remains .
The church was originally constructed of flint with stone dressings , but was substantially refaced with knapped flint in the 1880s ; the tower was restored at the same time . A wall was built behind the altar in 1886 to create a separate sacristy for storing vestments and other items . The west tower was restored again in 1989 , and the current doors to the sacristy were added in the same year .
Electric lighting was installed in 1938 and an outer door for the north porch added in 1962 . Major renovations were carried out from 1981 to 1983 ; these comprised repairs to the north aisle roof and the east tower , plastering and limewashing of the chancel , replacement of the old electrical and heating systems , and minor work on the organ . The most recent round of restoration was the 2000 reflooring of the nave , installation of a vestry , toilet and kitchen , a new heating system with a detached boiler house , and reglazing of the north porch . Because of the remoteness of the altar from the congregation , a second altar was erected between the parclose screens ( extensions forward from the ends of the rood screen ) to enable a more intimate celebration of the Eucharist . St Nicholas was designated as a Grade I listed building in 1959 , which recognizes it as a building of exceptional interest .
The benefice has expanded during the long history of its church . Cockthorpe and Little Langham parish was added in 1606 , Glandford in 1743 , Wiveton in 1922 , and Cley in 1935 . The parish is in the deanery of Holt , the Diocese of Norwich and the Province of Canterbury . The rector originally received tithes to support himself and the church , but this was later replaced by rent from the glebe ( church lands ) . Rector Pointer , for example , received tithes and also had the income from the sales of his corn and saffron crops . The state had supported poorer clergy since the introduction of Queen Anne 's Bounty in 1704 , but since 1947 the Church Commissioners have been responsible for arranging the stipends and pensions of Anglican priests .
= = Description = =
St Nicholas , Blakeney , is a large Gothic parish church with an aisled nave , a deep chancel of two bays , a large tower at the western end , and a smaller tower at the eastern end , to the north of the chancel . The north porch was rebuilt in 1896 .
The west tower is surmounted with crenellations and pinnacles and is supported by stepped buttresses at each corner . The buttresses are constructed from flint and stone , and have arched insets on the faces . They rest on stone plinths , each bearing carved shields , that on the north buttress with an inaccurate rendering of the arms of the see , and the other with a cross and a dolphin . The tower has three Perpendicular windows in the belfry and a large Perpendicular window in its western face , giving light to the west end of the nave .
The nave is 30 m ( 100 ft ) long and 14 m ( 47 ft ) , and is separated from the aisles on north and south sides by arcades of six bays . It is lit by Perpendicular windows , each aisle bay window having four lights apiece , with three @-@ light windows in the clerestory above . The nave 's oak and chestnut hammerbeam roof dates from the 15th century , and features carved angels on the hammers . These rest on arched braces , except above each window , where the hammers rest on corbels instead . The only trace of the earlier 13th @-@ century nave is the reuse of some older stone , mainly in the north aisle , and the raised chancel walls , and some Purbeck Marble fragments beneath the west tower .
The Lady Chapel in the south aisle and St Thomas ' Chapel in the north aisle were dedicated to St Mary and St Thomas of Canterbury respectively . They fell into disuse in the Reformation , but were restored in the 1880s .
The 13th @-@ century chancel has two rib vaulted bays , making it one of only six extant Early English vaulted chancels . Its walls were raised in the 15th century by constructing a chamber above the vaulting using stone from the demolished 13th @-@ century nave , but , from the outside , this end of the church is still lower than the western section . Internally , the chancel vault is much lower than the adjacent nave because of the room above . It has three 15th @-@ century Perpendicular windows down each side , and is notable for the unusual east window with seven stepped lights , a feature found in only two other Early English churches , Lincoln Cathedral and St Martins in Ockham . The chancel contains three simple sedilia , or priest 's seats , with trefoil arches and round columns . The sacristry behind the altar has a small lancet window , and the chamber above the chancel , which is floored only by the curved upper surface of the vault below , is lit by a single two @-@ light window .
The polygonal eastern tower has stepped buttresses at its corners and louvred belfry windows just below the parapet . Its origins are not entirely clear , but it was possibly originally a turret for stairs leading to a room over the chancel , later extended upwards as an aesthetic enhancement and to act as a beacon for mariners . Its date is uncertain , but it is much later than the chancel . Although its lack of height compared to the west tower has led to some questioning of its suitability as a beacon , it has been suggested that lining up the two towers guided ships into the navigable channel between the inlet 's sandbanks ; this is the " leading light " practice later achieved using pairs of lighthouses at different levels .
= = Furnishings and fixtures = =
The octagonal font dates from the 15th century ; its carved panels alternate images of the symbols of the Four Evangelists with seated figures of the Doctors of the Church ( Saint Ambrose , Saint Augustine , Saint Jerome , and Pope Gregory I ) . The central column carries shields depicting the Instruments of the Passion and the Holy Wounds . The eastern shield is unusual in that a sword is shown with an ear stuck to it . This refers to the story of Saint Peter striking off the ear of Malchus , the High Priest 's servant , in the garden of Gethsemane .
Most East Anglian churches lost their medieval furnishings in the upheavals of the Reformation , and Blakeney is no exception . Apart from the hammerbeam roof , there is little original wood work in the nave ; a few benches in the aisles , the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis @-@ decorated beam supporting the rood , and two panels of the rood screen . The chancel retains four of its original choir stalls with their misericords , which are decorated with head and leaf motifs on the arms . St Nicholas benefited from sympathetic restoration in the late 19th and early 20th century . The new stalls and misericords match the style of the old , and the 1886 pulpit echoes the font , with the Instruments of the Passion on the stone stand , and the twelve Apostles carved on the woodwork . The pulpit has been described as " Victorian craftsmanship of matchless quality " . The north porch was restored in 1896 , and in the following year the west tower was repaired , and pews of a 15th @-@ century pattern placed in the nave .
1910 saw the restoration of the rood screen in a style consistent with that of the two ancient panels , the reconstruction of the rood loft , and the installation of a Norman and Beard two @-@ manual organ with more than a thousand pipes . The organ pipes are above the parclose screens ; the bellows , wind chest and electric blower are concealed in the chamber above the chancel . The stalls with their misericords were restored in 1913 . The rood crucifix , flanked by St Mary and St John , came from Germany in 1913 .
Much church plate , such as the chalice and pyx had been confiscated , sold or stolen in the heat of the Reformation . In the more tolerant climate of Elizabethan England , the excesses of extreme Protestantism were curbed by centralised control of the Church of England , the Act of Uniformity and the Book of Common Prayer . Most churches then had to buy a new chalice ; Blakeney 's was purchased in 1567 , and exchanged for another in 1716 . One lost treasure is a " Map of the World " ( Mappa Mundi et Chroniculum Mundi ) , which was recorded as present in the church in 1368 . This is thought more likely to be a version of Ranulf Higdon 's Polychronicon , a geographical text , than a true map like the Hereford Mappa Mundi .
The stained glass is mostly late @-@ 19th @-@ century Arts and Crafts by James Powell and Sons . Powell , coincidentally based at Whitefriars , a former Carmelite friary in London , used leading members of the movement such as Edward Burne @-@ Jones as designers , and his nine windows at Blakeney are regarded as fine examples of his work . The east window dating from 1895 represents the Te Deum , and the south windows , glazed in 1900 , tell the story of the early British church . Some 15th @-@ century fragments of the original Norwich School glass that had been buried in the churchyard during the Reformation were incorporated into one of the otherwise plain windows in the north aisle in 1938 , showing " Christ rising from the tomb " , with six figures above . Five of the figures are angels ; there would have been nine originally , one for each order . The sixth image depicts a female saint wearing a crown . The angel 's legs are clothed in " feather tights " , believed to have been derived from costumes worn in medieval religious plays . The north porch is flanked by two blue @-@ themed modern stained glass windows by Jane Gray from 2002 , one dedicated to the RAF , the other to the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ( RNLI ) . The stained glass , taken as a whole , has been described as showing a " phenomenal standard of composition and artistry ... Few churches contain such a treasury . " The current reredos and altar were erected in 1923 , as was a wooden war memorial in the north aisle .
Most churches prior to the Reformation had painted walls , often with murals ; these were whitewashed by the reformers , and often religious texts or the Ten Commandments replaced the images . These inscriptions were in turn obliterated under the Catholic Queen Mary . At Blakeney , as elsewhere , the formerly coloured walls are now the plain white typical of English churches .
= = Memorials = =
John Calthorpe 's " synfull body " lies at the eastern end of the nave under a marble gravestone and a brass plaque that carries his arms and a Latin inscription describing him as uni fundatorum fratum convent , " a founder [ benefactor ] of the convent of friars " . It is possible that he was originally buried in the chancel of the Carmelite friary , as he requested , but was re @-@ interred in the nave of St Nicholas at the Dissolution . A number of other stones carry standard tags in Latin or English requesting prayers or simply stating the identity of the internee , but Sir John Smyth 's 1460 memorial enjoined " As I am that shall you be , Pray for the sowle of me " .
Blakeney was a lifeboat station from around 1825 to 1924 . Various wall plaques commemorate the boats ' rescues and crew losses from 1862 , when the RNLI took over the running of the service , up to the station 's closure . There are two blue wooden boards from the RNLI listing the earlier lifeboats and their achievements ; the Brightwell ( 1862 ) , another Brightwell ( 1863 ) , the Zaccheus Burroughs ( 1891 ) , and the Hettie ( 1873 ) . Next to these is a stone plaque listing the rescues from 1877 to 1924 , including those of the last lifeboat , the Caroline ( 1908 ) , and further along the north aisle a painting of George Long , coxswain of the Caroline , is placed above the record of its most famous rescues on consecutive days on 7 and 8 January 1918 , when 30 people were saved from two steamers in a storm . A large wooden board acts as a war memorial , listing those locals who died in various military engagements . The clock in the west tower was donated by a Mrs Cooke in 1945 in memory of her late husband and sons .
= = Medieval graffiti = =
The interiors of most Norfolk churches contain much pre @-@ Reformation graffiti , unless they have been heavily limewashed or resurfaced . The churches of the Glaven ports in general , and Blakeney in particular , conform to this pattern . St Nicholas has an extensive array of prayers , merchant 's marks and other symbols , but is notable for the large number of depictions of ships , at least 30 , heavily concentrated in the nave towards the eastern end of the south aisle . There is a side altar there of unknown dedication , and an empty niche that would have once held the image of a saint . The pillars were painted red in the Middle Ages , and ship images scratched into the soft , chalky stone would have been much more conspicuous than they are now . It is likely that the images , mostly of smaller ships , were created as votive offerings by the seafaring inhabitants of the port . The carving of ship graffiti in religious buildings is a tradition in ports going back to the Bronze Age , and has been found across Europe .
Mason 's marks were used by the stonemason to identify his work , and in the days of the medieval craft guilds may also have had mystical or religious significance . In England , the use of these marks became widespread after the Norman Conquest . Similarly , merchants had their own marks to identify their products , and these frequently appeared on houses , gravestones and church walls .
= = People = =
The long patronage of the Calthorpes under their various incarnations as the Lords Calthorpe , Gough @-@ Calthorpes and Anstruther @-@ Gough @-@ Calthorpes has already been noted . A Henry Calthorpe was rector from 1743 to 1781 , and was followed by Richard Thomas Gough , who held the living for 43 years . Gough and Richard Henry Tillard , incumbent from 1858 to 1906 , are commemorated by plaques in the chancel . Of the other rectors , Mowbray O 'Rorke had been Bishop of Accra from 1913 , but accepted the Blakeney living in 1924 , remaining until he retired in 1939 , and Clifford Leofric Purdy ( Jim ) Bishop , rector from 1949 to 1953 , rose to become Bishop of Malmesbury from 1962 .
The graveyard , as in many coastal parish churches , contains mainly local people and seafarers . Several stones bear the surname " Long " , a name carried by five of the crew of the Caroline on its epic rescues in January 1918 . A notable outsider buried here is Sir Henry " Tim " Birkin a leading British racing driver and one of the " Bentley Boys " of the 1920s .
= = Services and congregation = =
The rector of this Church of England parish as of 2011 is the Rev Neil Batcock . The benefice rotates its services among its five constituent churches , with typically five services in total on Sundays , and two mid @-@ week Holy Communions . As with most Anglican churches in England , the congregation is mainly elderly , although there are monthly family services focussed on children . There is also a monthly laying on of hands for healing , and sometimes other variants from the standard format involving music or Taizé @-@ influenced worship . The parish accepts the diocese 's guidance on permitting baptism and marriage in church after a divorce , and claims to work closely with its Catholic and Methodist neighbours .
St Nicholas is also used for non @-@ religious events such as flower festivals , craft workshops and musical performances , and it has won diocesan tourism awards for its in @-@ church information facilities . The church appeared in Simon Jenkins ’ book , 1000 Best Churches , where it was described as having " a sense of vigorous activity " and as " a rare example of what every large parish church should aspire to being , also a community centre , market place and museum " . It was also featured in the Daily Telegraph 's list of 100 favourite churches , and a Norfolk tourism website rated it one of the top ten churches in the county .
= Major General George Henry Thomas =
Major General George Henry Thomas , also known as the Thomas Circle Monument , is an equestrian sculpture in Washington , D.C. that honors Civil War general George Henry Thomas . The monument is located in the center of Thomas Circle , on the border of the downtown and Logan Circle neighborhoods . It was sculpted by John Quincy Adams Ward , best known for his work on the George Washington statue . Attendees at the dedication in 1879 included President Rutherford B. Hayes , Generals Irvin McDowell , Philip Sheridan , and William Tecumseh Sherman , senators and thousands of soldiers .
The sculpture is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , which were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 . It is considered by art critics and historians to be one of the best equestrian statues in the city . The statue , which rests on an oval pedestal , and the surrounding park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
George Henry Thomas was a Union general in the Civil War and a principal commander in the Western Theater . During the Battle of Chickamauga , he was responsible for saving the Union Army from being completely routed , earning him the nickname " Rock of Chickamauga " . The Society of the Army of the Cumberland , composed of veterans , chose to erect a monument to Thomas utilizing bronze cannons captured from Confederate forces . John Quincy Adams Ward was selected to sculpt the statue and began the process in 1875 . The sculpture , which cost $ 40 @,@ 000 , was paid for by the Society . On July 31 , 1876 , Congress appropriated $ 25 @,@ 000 to pay for the pedestal and base , although the final cost was only $ 20 @,@ 000 . The contract for the statue stated three of the horse 's feet had to be touching the ground . This was to make sure it wouldn 't receive the same type of criticism Andrew Jackson 's sculpture in Lafayette Square received and to avoid the " stagey , theatrical animal that poses and postures in so many of the public squares of the United States . " Thomas 's widow , Frances , gave Ward photographs of her husband and lent him Thomas ' uniform and saddle to help with the design . After he finished the plaster model in 1879 , Ward invited Thomas ' family , Society officers , and members of the press to his studio in New York to view the model . The reaction was very positive . The Society was so impressed with Ward 's work , they later selected him to design the James A. Garfield Monument and the Philip Sheridan sculpture as well , though the contract for the latter was eventually cancelled . Architects John L. Smithmeyer and Paul J. Pelz , best known for designing the Thomas Jefferson Building and Healy Hall , were selected to design the monument base . The Bureau Brothers Foundry cast the sculpture while stonework was provided by contractor M. K. Chase . The traffic circle where the monument was erected was previously known as Memorial Circle because nearby residents planted memorial trees in honor of their respective home states . The name was changed to Thomas Circle when the monument was installed .
= = = Dedication = = =
The memorial was dedicated on November 19 , 1879 , with an estimated 50 @,@ 000 people in attendance . Harper 's Weekly described the event as the grandest ceremony ever held in the city The ceremony featured a two @-@ mile 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) military procession , led by General Thomas Turpin Crittenden , of around 500 Army of the Cumberland veterans , 1 @,@ 000 army troops , 1 @,@ 000 marines and sailors , state troops from Maryland , New York , and Pennsylvania , and generals Irvin McDowell , Philip Sheridan , and William Tecumseh Sherman . Music in the procession was performed by seven military bands , with the United States Marine Band in the first position . The procession began east of the U.S. Capitol and marched past President Rutherford B. Hayes at the White House on its way toward the memorial site . Most of the buildings along the line of march , including nearly every building on Pennsylvania Avenue , were decorated with flags , streamers , and other decorations . The most elaborately decorated building along the line of march was the Quartermaster General 's office , located on the corner of 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW , which was decorated with numerous flags and a canvas bearing a portrait of Thomas . The circle and the homes surrounding it were extensively decorated . There were 38 poles , each 33 feet ( 10 m ) high , placed around the edge of the circle , with the flag of every U.S. state at the time . A temporary platform seating 1 @,@ 500 people was erected around part of the circle for special guests and dignitaries .
The ceremony began with a prayer followed by the songs " Hail to the Chief " and " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . The statue was then unveiled accompanied by a thirteen gun salute . After the unveiling , a chorus of 100 men sang hymns with music performed by the Marine Band . General Anson G. McCook , a member of the Fighting McCooks who served under Thomas , delivered the dedication speech . Senator Stanley Matthews also gave a speech which included the presentation of the statue as an offering to the country . The statue was accepted by President Hayes on behalf of the American people . Hayes stated : " In the name of the people of the United States I accept this noble statue , so worthy of its subject , erected in honor of Gen. George H. Thomas by his comrades of the illustrious Army of the Cumberland . " The monument was the sixth equestrian sculpture erected in Washington , D.C.
= = = Influence and historic designation = = =
Art critics , historians , and Civil War monument researchers Kirk Savage and Kathryn Allamong Jacob consider the Thomas monument one of the best equestrian statues in Washington , D.C. According to Savage , it " enhanced the circle 's prestige by giving it a commemorative identity in this rapidly emerging landscape " and " served at once as a national monument honoring a war hero and a real estate amenity for an affluent urban setting . " It increased development at Thomas Circle and the surrounding area , although none of the stately homes around the circle are still standing . Along with seventeen other Civil War monuments , Major General George Henry Thomas was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 20 , 1978 , and the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites on March 3 , 1979 . The sculpture and the surrounding park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = Design and location = =
The monument is located in the center of Thomas Circle , at the intersection of 14th Street , M Street , Massachusetts Avenue and Vermont Avenue NW . Following a reconstruction of Thomas Circle completed in 2006 , new sidewalks and landscaping allowed visitors easier access to the monument and surrounding park . The monument is approximately 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) high while the statue itself is around 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high . The bronze figures of Thomas and the horse are around twice life @-@ size . Thomas is depicted surveying a battlefield while at the top of a hill . He is holding the reins of the horse with his left hand and his right hand is holding his hat and gloves . Thomas is wearing a double @-@ breasted military coat and plain riding boots , while his sword hangs from his left side . The horse looks straight ahead as its mane and tail are blown by the wind . Its " dilated nostrils , erect ears , tense muscles , and waving , bushy tail " demonstrate the horse 's excitement . The horse was originally designed to be a mare . After it was pointed out that Thomas only rode stallions , additions were made to the sculpture , though the slender head and neck are still reminiscent of a mare .
The statue stands on an oval granite pedestal featuring two Baroque scrolls on each end . A bronze badge of the Army of the Cumberland , which Thomas had commanded , and a laurel wreath is also on each side of the pedestal . The circular granite base features four steps and four blocks protruding from the pedestal to the lowest step . Decorative gas lamps previously stood on the base 's four blocks , but these were removed sometime around 1922 .
Inscriptions on the monument include the following :
( pedestal east side ) ERECTED BY HIS COMRADES / OF THE SOCIETY OF / THE ARMY OF THE CUMBERLAND
( pedestal , west side ) MAJ . GEN . GEORGE H. THOMAS / SAN FRANCISCO CAL . / MARCH 28 , 1870
( bottom of sculpture , east side ) J. Q. A. WARD SCULP 1879
( bottom of sculpture , west side ) BUREAU BROS & HEATON / FOUNDERS . PHIL
= Jackie Robinson Day =
Jackie Robinson Day is a traditional event which occurs annually in Major League Baseball , commemorating and honoring the day Jackie Robinson made his major league debut . April 15 was Opening Day in 1947 , Robinson 's first season in the Major Leagues . Initiated for the first time on April 15 , 2004 , Jackie Robinson Day is celebrated each year on that day . The festivity is a result of Robinson 's memorable career , best known for becoming the first black major league baseball player of the modern era in 1947 . His debut with the Brooklyn Dodgers ( today known as the Los Angeles Dodgers ) ended approximately eighty years of baseball segregation , also known as the baseball color line , or color barrier . He also was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962 , remembered for his services with the number 42 jersey .
The gala is celebrated at varied ballparks by Major League team players . On that one day , all players , coaches , and managers on both teams , and the umpires , wear # 42 on their jerseys .
Shea Stadium was one of the prominent venues hosting the event , having commemorated the retirement of Robinson 's number 42 jersey in 1997 . Bob DuPuy , the President and Chief Operating Officer of Major League baseball , described Jackie Robinson Day as a significance " not only for baseball , but for our country in general . "
= = History = =
= = = 2004 = = =
The first Jackie Robinson Day was on April 15 , 2004 . That day was a start to an annual tradition throughout Major League Baseball and an inspirational reminder about what happened on that day exactly fifty @-@ seven years earlier when Jackie Robinson became a Major League Baseball player . The day would be the first official league @-@ wide Jackie Robinson Day
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n times . Then , for large n ( such as a million ) the probability that the gambler will lose every bet is ( approximately ) 1 / e . For n
= 20 it is already approximately 1 / 2 @.@ 79 .
This is an example of a Bernoulli trials process . Each time the gambler plays the slots , there is a one in one million chance of winning . Playing one million times is modelled by the binomial distribution , which is closely related to the binomial theorem . The probability of winning k times out of a million trials is ;
<formula>
In particular , the probability of winning zero times ( k =
0 ) is
<formula>
This is very close to the following limit for 1 / e :
<formula>
= = = Derangements = = =
Another application of e , also discovered in part by Jacob Bernoulli along with Pierre Raymond de Montmort , is in the problem of derangements , also known as the hat check problem : n guests are invited to a party , and at the door each guest checks his hat with the butler who then places them into n boxes , each labelled with the name of one guest . But the butler does not know the identities of the guests , and so he puts the hats into boxes selected at random . The problem of de Montmort is to find the probability that none of the hats gets put into the right box . The answer is :
<formula>
As the number n of guests tends to infinity , pn approaches 1 / e . Furthermore , the number of ways the hats can be placed into the boxes so that none of the hats are in the right box is n ! / e rounded to the nearest integer , for every positive n .
= = = Asymptotics = = =
The number e occurs naturally in connection with many problems involving asymptotics . A prominent example is Stirling 's formula for the asymptotics of the factorial function , in which both the numbers e and π enter :
<formula>
A particular consequence of this is
<formula> .
= = = Standard normal distribution = = =
The simplest case of a normal distribution is known as the standard normal distribution , described by this probability density function :
<formula>
The factor <formula> in this expression ensures that the total area under the curve ϕ ( x ) is equal to one [ proof ] . The 1 / 2 in the exponent ensures that the distribution has unit variance ( and therefore also unit standard deviation ) . This function is symmetric around x = 0 , where it attains its maximum value <formula> ; and has inflection points at + 1 and − 1 .
= = e in calculus = =
The principal motivation for introducing the number e , particularly in calculus , is to perform differential and integral calculus with exponential functions and logarithms . A general exponential function y
= ax has derivative given as the limit :
<formula>
The limit on the far right is independent of the variable x : it depends only on the base a . When the base is e , this limit is equal to 1 , and so e is symbolically defined by the equation :
<formula>
Consequently , the exponential function with base e is particularly suited to doing calculus . Choosing e , as opposed to some other number , as the base of the exponential function makes calculations involving the derivative much simpler .
Another motivation comes from considering the base @-@ a logarithm . Considering the definition of the derivative of loga x as the limit :
<formula>
where the substitution u =
h / x was made in the last step . The last limit appearing in this calculation is again an undetermined limit that depends only on the base a , and if that base is e , the limit is equal to 1 . So symbolically ,
<formula>
The logarithm in this special base is called the natural logarithm and is represented as ln ; it behaves well under differentiation since there is no undetermined limit to carry through the calculations .
There are thus two ways in which to select a special number a = e . One way is to set the derivative of the exponential function ax to ax , and solve for a . The other way is to set the derivative of the base a logarithm to 1 / x and solve for a . In each case , one arrives at a convenient choice of base for doing calculus . In fact , these two solutions for a are actually the same , the number e .
= = = Alternative characterizations = = =
Other characterizations of e are also possible : one is as the limit of a sequence , another is as the sum of an infinite series , and still others rely on integral calculus . So far , the following two ( equivalent ) properties have been introduced :
The number e is the unique positive real number such that
<formula>
The number e is the unique positive real number such that
<formula>
The following three characterizations can be proven equivalent :
The number e is the limit
<formula>
Similarly :
<formula>
The number e is the sum of the infinite series
<formula>
where n ! is the factorial of n .
The number e is the unique positive real number such that
<formula>
= = Properties = =
= = = Calculus = = =
As in the motivation , the exponential function ex is important in part because it is the unique nontrivial function ( up to multiplication by a constant ) which is its own derivative
<formula>
and therefore its own antiderivative as well :
<formula>
= = = Inequalities = = =
The number e is the unique real number such that
<formula>
for all positive x .
Also , we have the inequality
<formula>
for all real x , with equality if and only if x = 0 . Furthermore , e is the unique base of the exponential for which the inequality ax ≥ x + 1 holds for all x .
= = = Exponential @-@ like functions = = =
Steiner 's problem asks to find the global maximum for the function
<formula>
This maximum occurs precisely at x
= e . For proof , the inequality <formula> , from above , evaluated at <formula> and simplifying gives <formula> . So <formula> for all positive x .
Similarly , x =
1 / e is where the global minimum occurs for the function
<formula>
defined for positive x . More generally , for the function
<formula>
the global maximum for positive x occurs at x
= 1 / e for any n < 0 ; and the global minimum occurs at x =
e − 1 / n for any n > 0 .
The infinite tetration
<formula> or <formula>
converges if and only if e − e ≤ x ≤ e1 / e ( or approximately between 0 @.@ 0660 and 1 @.@ 4447 ) , due to a theorem of Leonhard Euler .
= = = Number theory = = =
The real number e is irrational . Euler proved this by showing that its simple continued fraction expansion is infinite . ( See also Fourier 's proof that e is irrational . )
Furthermore , by the Lindemann – Weierstrass theorem , e is transcendental , meaning that it is not a solution of any non @-@ constant polynomial equation with rational coefficients . It was the first number to be proved transcendental without having been specifically constructed for this purpose ( compare with Liouville number ) ; the proof was given by Charles Hermite in 1873 .
It is conjectured that e is normal , meaning that when e is expressed in any base the possible digits in that base are uniformly distributed ( occur with equal probability in any sequence of given length ) .
= = = Complex numbers = = =
The exponential function ex may be written as a Taylor series
<formula>
Because this series keeps many important properties for ex even when x is complex , it is commonly used to extend the definition of ex to the complex numbers . This , with the Taylor series for sin and cos x , allows one to derive Euler 's formula :
<formula>
which holds for all x . The special case with x = π is Euler 's identity :
<formula>
from which it follows that , in the principal branch of the logarithm ,
<formula>
Furthermore , using the laws for exponentiation ,
<formula>
which is de Moivre 's formula .
The expression
<formula>
is sometimes referred to as cis ( x ) .
= = = Differential equations = = =
The general function
<formula>
is the solution to the differential equation :
<formula>
= = Representations = =
The number e can be represented as a real number in a variety of ways : as an infinite series , an infinite product , a continued fraction , or a limit of a sequence . The chief among these representations , particularly in introductory calculus courses is the limit
<formula>
given above , as well as the series
<formula>
given by evaluating the above power series for ex at x = 1 .
Less common is the continued fraction ( sequence A003417 in the OEIS ) .
<formula>
which written out looks like
<formula>
This continued fraction for e converges three times as quickly :
<formula>
which written out looks like
<formula>
Many other series , sequence , continued fraction , and infinite product representations of e have been developed .
= = = Stochastic representations = = =
In addition to exact analytical expressions for representation of e , there are stochastic techniques for estimating e . One such approach begins with an infinite sequence of independent random variables X1 , X2 ... , drawn from the uniform distribution on [ 0 , 1 ] . Let V be the least number n such that the sum of the first n observations exceeds 1 :
<formula>
Then the expected value of V is e : E ( V ) = e .
= = = Known digits = = =
The number of known digits of e has increased substantially during the last decades . This is due both to the increased performance of computers and to algorithmic improvements .
Since that time , the proliferation of modern high @-@ speed desktop computers has made it possible for amateurs to compute billions of digits of e .
= = In computer culture = =
In contemporary internet culture , individuals and organizations frequently pay homage to the number e .
For instance , in the IPO filing for Google in 2004 , rather than a typical round @-@ number amount of money , the company announced its intention to raise $ 2 @,@ 718 @,@ 281 @,@ 828 , which is e billion dollars rounded to the nearest dollar . Google was also responsible for a billboard that appeared in the heart of Silicon Valley , and later in Cambridge , Massachusetts ; Seattle , Washington ; and Austin , Texas . It read " { first 10 @-@ digit prime found in consecutive digits of e } .com " . Solving this problem and visiting the advertised ( now defunct ) web site led to an even more difficult problem to solve , which in turn led to Google Labs where the visitor was invited to submit a resume . The first 10 @-@ digit prime in e is 7427466391 , which starts at the 99th digit .
In another instance , the computer scientist Donald Knuth let the version numbers of his program Metafont approach e . The versions are 2 , 2 @.@ 7 , 2 @.@ 71 , 2 @.@ 718 , and so forth .
= HMS Royal Oak ( 1862 ) =
HMS Royal Oak was a Prince Consort @-@ class armoured frigate built for the Royal Navy in the 1860s . The lead ship of her class , she is sometimes described as a half @-@ sister to the other three ships because of her different engine and boiler arrangements . Like her sisters , she was converted into an ironclad from a wooden ship of the line that was still under construction .
The ship spent most of her career with the Mediterranean Fleet , only briefly serving with the Channel Fleet . Royal Oak returned home in 1871 for a refit , but was instead placed in reserve to save money . Fourteen years later , still in reserve , she was sold for scrap in 1885 .
= = Design and description = =
HMS Royal Oak was 273 feet ( 83 @.@ 2 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 58 feet 6 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 m ) . The ship had a draught of 23 feet 11 inches ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) forward and 25 feet 2 inches ( 7 @.@ 7 m ) aft . She displaced 6 @,@ 366 long tons ( 6 @,@ 468 t ) and had a tonnage of 4 @,@ 056 tons burthen .
Royal Oak had a low centre of gravity which meant that she rolled a lot and was an unsteady gun platform . She was , however , very handy and sailed well in all weathers under sail or steam . Her crew consisted of 585 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Royal Oak had a simple horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine , built by Maudslay , that drove a single propeller shaft using steam that was provided by six rectangular boilers . The engine produced 3 @,@ 704 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 762 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials on 15 June 1863 which gave the ship a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 5 knots ( 23 @.@ 2 km / h ; 14 @.@ 4 mph ) under steam . She carried a maximum of 550 long tons ( 560 t ) of coal , enough to steam 2 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 100 km ; 2 @,@ 500 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) .
The ship was initially barque @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area of 25 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) . Yards were added to the ship 's mizzenmast in June 1866 and Royal Oak was given a full ship rig which she retained for the rest of her career . Her propeller was designed to be disconnected and hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag while under sail , but this was rarely done because there was no bulkhead surrounding the hoisting holes which could have flooded the ship if their covers had been removed in even a moderate sea . To further reduce drag , the funnel was telescopic and could be lowered . Her best speed with the propeller disconnected and under sail alone was 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) , the fastest of any British ironclad , and she was the only ship to exceed her best speed using steam while under sail .
= = = Armament = = =
Royal Oak was initially armed with 24 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 68 @-@ pounder guns on the main deck and 11 rifled breech @-@ loading ( RBL ) Armstrong seven @-@ inch , 110 @-@ pounder guns . Eight of these were also on the main deck and the other three served as chase guns on the upper deck , two at the bow and one aft .
The 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed approximately 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) and had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 12 ° . The seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 110 @-@ pounder Armstrong breech @-@ loader weighed 107 – 110 pounds ( 48 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) and , at an elevation of 11 @.@ 25 ° , a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
The ship 's original armament was replaced during her 1867 refit with 20 seven @-@ inch and 8 eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns , four of the seven @-@ inch guns were chase guns . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre eight @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed nine long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre seven @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell that was able penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) of armour .
= = = Armour = = =
The entire side of the Prince Consort @-@ class ships , from the upper @-@ deck level downwards , was protected by wrought iron armour that tapered from 3 inches ( 76 mm ) at the ends to 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) amidships . The armour extended 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline and was backed by the sides of the hull which were 29 @.@ 5 inches ( 749 mm ) thick .
= = Construction and service = =
Royal Oak , named for the English oak tree within which King Charles II hid to escape after his defeat at Battle of Worcester in 1651 , was laid down on 1 May 1860 at Chatham Dockyard as a 90 @-@ gun Bulwark @-@ class ship of the line . She was ordered to be converted to an ironclad on 14 May 1861 and was launched on 10 September 1862 . The ship was commissioned in April 1863 to run her trials and completed on 28 May , for the price of £ 245 @,@ 537 .
Royal Oak briefly served with the Channel Fleet before she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet . She was paid off for a refit and re @-@ arming in 1867 , and then rejoined the Channel Fleet for six months . She was accidentally rammed by HMS Warrior in heavy weather at night on 14 August 1868 ; the impact sheared off the main and mizzen chainplates as well as all the boats on the starboard side . Three months later the ship returned to the Mediterranean , and was present at the opening of the Suez Canal in November 1869 where she grounded on an uncharted sandbank outside Port Said , Egypt , without sustaining any damage . She paid off for an extensive refit at Portsmouth at the end of 1871 , but was instead laid up as an economy measure . Royal Oak remained in fourth @-@ class reserve for 14 years until she was no longer worth repairing and was sold for breaking up on 30 September 1885 .
= = Memorials = =
A block of housing within the new development at " Rochester Riverside " has been named after this ship .
= Stanisław Lem =
Stanisław Herman Lem ( Polish pronunciation : [ staˈɲiswaf ˈlɛm ] ; 12 September 1921 – 27 March 2006 ) was a Polish writer of science fiction , philosophy , and satire , and a trained physician . Lem 's books have been translated into forty @-@ one languages and have sold over forty @-@ five million copies . From the 1950s to 2000s , he published many books , both science fiction and philosophical / futurological . He is best known as the author of the 1961 novel Solaris , which has been made into a feature film three times . In 1976 , Theodore Sturgeon wrote that Lem was the most widely read science @-@ fiction writer in the world .
Lem 's works explore philosophical themes through speculation on technology , the nature of intelligence , the impossibility of mutual communication and understanding , despair about human limitations , and humanity 's place in the universe . They are sometimes presented as fiction , but others are in the form of essays or philosophical books .
Translations of his works are difficult due to passages with elaborate word formation , alien or robotic poetry , and puns .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life = = =
Lem was born in 1921 in Lwów , Poland ( since 1945 Lviv , Soviet Union ) . He was the son of Sabina née Woller ( 1892 – 1979 ) and Samuel Lem ( 1879 – 1954 ) , a wealthy laryngologist and former physician in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army , and first cousin to Polish poet Marian Hemar ( Lem 's father and Hemar 's mother were brother and sister ) . Though in later years he sometimes claimed to have been raised a Roman Catholic , he went to Jewish religious lessons during his school years , and later became an atheist " for moral reasons . . . the world appears to me to be put together in such a painful way that I prefer to believe that it was not created . . . intentionally " . Lem called himself both an " agnostic " . and an atheist later in life . After the Soviet invasion and occupation of Eastern Poland , he was not allowed to study at the Polytechnic as he wished because of his " bourgeois origin , " and only due to his father 's connections was accepted to study medicine at Lwów University in 1940 . During the subsequent Nazi occupation ( 1941 – 1944 ) , Lem 's family , which had Jewish roots , avoided imprisonment in a ghetto , surviving with false papers . During that time , Lem earned a living as a car mechanic and welder . Lem declared :
During that period , I learned in a very personal , practical way that I was no “ Aryan ” . I knew that my ancestors were Jews , but I knew nothing of the Mosaic faith and , regrettably , nothing at all of Jewish culture . So it was , strictly speaking , only the Nazi legislation that brought home to me the realization that I had Jewish blood in my veins .
In 1945 , Polish eastern Kresy was annexed into Soviet Ukraine and the family , like many other Poles , was resettled to Kraków , where Lem , at his father 's insistence , took up medical studies at the Jagiellonian University . He did not take his final examinations on purpose , so as not to be obliged to become a military doctor . Earlier , he had started working as an assistant in a hospital and writing stories in his spare time .
= = = Rise to fame = = =
Lem made his literary debut in 1946 with a number of works of different genres , including poetry as well as a science fiction novel The Man from Mars ( Człowiek z Marsa ) serialized in Nowy Świat Przygód ( New World of Adventures ) . Between 1948 and 1950 Lem was working as a scientific research assistant at the Jagiellonian University , and published a number of short stories , poems , reviews and similar works , particularly at Tygodnik Powszechny . In 1951 , he published his first book , The Astronauts ( Astronauci ) . In 1954 , he published a short story anthology , Sesame and other stories ( Sezam i inne opowiadania ) . That year he also married Barbara Leśniak . The following year , 1955 , saw the publication of another science fiction novel , The Magellanic Cloud ( Obłok Magellana ) .
During the era of Stalinism , which had begun in Poland in the late ' 40s , all published works had to be directly approved by the communist regime . Thus Astronauci was not , in fact , the first novel Lem finished , just the first that made it past the censors . Going by the date of finished manuscript , Lem 's first book was a partly autobiographical novella Hospital of the Transfiguration ( Szpital Przemienienia ) , finished in 1948 . It would be published seven years later , in 1955 , as a trilogy under a title Czas nieutracony ( Time Not Lost ) . The experience of trying to push Czas .. through the censors was one of the major reasons Lem decided to focus on the less @-@ censored genre of science fiction . Nonetheless , most of Lem 's works published in the 1950s also contain — forced upon him by the censors and editors — various references to socialist realism as well as the " glorious future of communism " . Lem later criticized several of his early pieces as compromised by the ideological pressure .
Lem became truly productive after 1956 , when the de @-@ Stalinization period in the Soviet Union led to the " Polish October " , when Poland experienced an increase in freedom of speech . Between 1956 and 1968 , Lem authored seventeen books . His writing over the next three decades or so was split between science fiction ( primarily prose ) and essays about science and culture .
In 1957 , he published his first non @-@ fiction , philosophical book , Dialogues ( Dialogi ) , as well as a science @-@ fiction anthology , The Star Diaries ( Dzienniki gwiazdowe ) , collecting short stories about one of his most popular characters , Ijon Tichy . 1959 saw the publication of three books : Eden , Śledztwo and the short story anthology , Inwazja z Aldebarana . 1961 saw two more books , the first regarded as being among his top works : Pamiętnik znaleziony w wannie , Solaris , as well as Powrót z gwiazd . This was followed by a collections of his essays and non @-@ fiction prose , Wejście na orbitę ( 1962 ) , and a short @-@ story anthology Noc księżycowa ( 1963 ) . In 1964 , Lem published a large work on the border of philosophy and sociology of science and futurology , Summa Technologiae , as well as a novel , The Invincible ( Niezwyciężony ) .
1965 saw the publication of The Cyberiad ( Cyberiada ) . That year also saw the publication of a short @-@ story anthology , The Hunt ( Polowanie ) . 1966 is the year of " Wysoki Zamek " , and 1968 , " Głos Pana " and " Opowieści o pilocie Pirxie " . " Wysoki Zamek " was another of Lem 's autobiographical works , and touched upon a theme that usually was not favored by the censors : Lem 's youth in the pre @-@ war , then @-@ Polish , Lviv . 1967 and 1970 saw two more non @-@ fiction treatises , " Filozofia przypadku " and " Fantastyka i futurologia " . Ijon Tichy returns in 1971 's The Futurological Congress Kongres futurologiczny , the year of a genre @-@ mixing experiment , " Doskonała próżnia " ( a collection of reviews of non @-@ existent books ) . 1973 sees a similar work , " Wielkość urojona " . In 1976 , Lem published two novels : " Maska " and " Katar " . In 1980 , he published another set of reviews of non @-@ existent works , " Prowokacja " . The following year sees another Tichy novel , " Wizja lokalna " , and Golem XIV . Later in that decade , he published " Pokój na Ziemi " ( 1984 ) and " Fiasko " ( 1986 ) , Lem 's final science @-@ fiction novel .
In the late ' 70s and early ' 80s , Lem cautiously supported the Polish dissident movement , and started publishing essays in Paris @-@ based Kultura . In 1982 , with martial law in Poland declared , Lem moved to West Berlin , where he became a fellow of the Institute for Advanced Study , Berlin ( Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin ) . After that , he settled in Vienna . He returned to Poland in 1988 .
= = = Final years = = =
From the late 1980s onwards , he tended to concentrate on philosophical texts and essays , published in a number of Polish magazines ( Tygodnik Powszechny , Odra , Przegląd , and others ) . They were later collected in a number of anthologies .
In the early 1990s , Lem met with the literary scholar and critic Peter Swirski for a series of extensive interviews , published together with other critical materials and translations as A Stanislaw Lem Reader ( 1997 ) ; in the book , Lem speaks about a range of issues rarely touched on before in any interview . Moreover , the book includes Swirski 's translation of Lem 's retrospective essay " Thirty Years Later " , devoted to Lem 's legendary nonfictional treatise Summa Technologiae . During later interviews in 2005 , Lem expressed his disappointment with the genre of science fiction , and his general pessimism regarding technical progress . He viewed the human body as unsuitable for space travel , held that information technology drowns people in a glut of low @-@ quality information , and considered truly intelligent robots as both undesirable and impossible to construct . Subsequently , Peter Swirski has published a series of in @-@ depth studies of Lem as a writer , philosopher , and futurologist ; notable among them are the recent From Literature to Biterature : Lem , Turing , Darwin ( 2013 ) , Stanislaw Lem : Selected Letters to Michael Kandel ( 2014 ) , Lemography ( 2014 ) , and Stanislaw Lem : Philosopher of the Future ( 2015 ) .
In 1996 , Lem received the prestigious Polish award , the Order of the White Eagle .
Lem died from heart disease in Kraków on 27 March 2006 at the age of 84 .
= = Controversies = =
= = = SFWA = = =
Lem was awarded an honorary membership in the Science Fiction Writers of America ( SFWA ) in 1973 . SFWA Honorary membership is given to people who do not meet the publishing criteria for joining the regular membership , but who would be welcomed as members had their work appeared in the qualifying English @-@ language publications . Lem , however , never had a high opinion of American science fiction , describing it as ill @-@ thought @-@ out , poorly written , and interested more in making money than in ideas or new literary forms . After his eventual American publication , when he became eligible for regular membership , his honorary membership was rescinded , an action that some of the SFWA members apparently intended as a rebuke , and it seems that Lem interpreted it as such . Lem was invited to stay on with the organization with a regular membership , but declined . After many members ( including Ursula K. Le Guin ) protested Lem 's treatment by the SFWA , a member offered to pay his dues . Lem never accepted the offer .
= = = Philip K. Dick = = =
Lem singled out only one American SF writer for praise , Philip K. Dick — see the 1986 English @-@ language anthology of his critical essays , Microworlds . Dick thought that Stanisław Lem was probably a false name used by a composite committee operating on orders of the Communist party to gain control over public opinion , and wrote a letter to the FBI to that effect . Stanisław Lem was also responsible for Polish translation of Dick 's work , and when Dick felt monetarily short @-@ changed by the publisher , he held Lem personally responsible ( see Microworlds ) .
= = Significance = =
Lem has become one of the most highly acclaimed science @-@ fiction writers , hailed by critics as equal to such classic authors as H. G. Wells and Olaf Stapledon . In 1976 , Theodore Sturgeon wrote that Lem was the most widely read science @-@ fiction writer in the world .
In Poland , in the ' 60s and ' 70s , Lem remained under the radar of mainstream critics , who dismissed him as a " mass market " , low @-@ brow , youth @-@ oriented writer ; such dismissal might have given him a form of invisibility from censorship .
The total volume of his published works is over twenty @-@ eight million volumes . His works were widely translated abroad , appearing in over forty languages , though the bulk of them were in Eastern Bloc countries ( Poland , Germany , and the Soviet Union ) . Franz Rottensteiner , Lem 's former agent abroad , had this to say about Lem 's reception on international markets :
With [ number of translations and copies sold ] , Lem is the most successful author in modern Polish fiction ; nevertheless his commercial success in the world is limited , and the bulk of his large editions was due to the special publishing conditions in the Communist countries : Poland , the Soviet Union , and the German Democratic Republic ) . Only in West Germany was Lem really a critical and a commercial success [ . . . and everywhere . . . ] in recent years interest in him has waned .
But he is the only writer of European [ science fiction , most of whose ] books have been translated into English , and [ . . . ] kept in print in the USA . Lem 's critical success in English is due mostly to the excellent translations of Michael Kandel .
His best @-@ known novels include Solaris ( 1961 ) , His Master 's Voice ( Głos pana , 1968 ) , and the late Fiasco ( Fiasko , 1987 ) . Solaris was made into a film in 1968 by Russian director Boris Nirenburg , a film in 1972 by Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky — which won a Special Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival in 1972 — and an American re @-@ adaptation in 2002 by American director Steven Soderbergh , starring George Clooney .
Solaris is not the only work of Lem 's to be made into a movie . Over ten movie , film , and television adaptations of his work exist , such as adaptations of The Astronauts ( First Spaceship on Venus , 1960 ) and The Magellan Nebula ( Ikarie XB @-@ 1 , 1963 ) . Lem himself was , however , critical of most of the screen adaptations , with the sole exception of Przekładaniec in 1968 by Andrzej Wajda . More recently , in 2013 , the Israeli – Polish co @-@ production The Congress was released , inspired by Lem 's novel The Futurological Congress .
Lem 's works have been used in education , for example as teaching texts for philosophy students .
Lem 's works have influenced not only the realm of literature , but that of science as well . For example , Return from the Stars includes the " opton " , which is often cited as the first published appearance of the idea of electronic paper .
In 1981 , the philosophers Douglas R. Hofstadter and Daniel C. Dennett included three extracts from Lem 's fiction in their annotated anthology The Mind 's I , accompanied by Hofstadter 's comment , which says in part that Lem 's " literary and intuitive approach . . . does a better job of convincing readers of his views than any hard @-@ nosed scientific article . . . might do " .
Other influences exerted by Lem 's works include Will Wright 's popular city planning game SimCity , which was partly inspired by Lem 's short story The Seventh Sally .
= = Writings = =
= = = Science fiction = = =
Stanisław Lem works were influenced by such masters of Polish literature as Cyprian Norwid and Stanisław Witkiewicz . His prose show a mastery of numerous genres and themes .
One of Lem 's major recurring themes , beginning from his very first novel , The Man from Mars , was the impossibility of communication between profoundly alien beings , which may have no common ground with human intelligence , and humans . The best known example is the living planetary ocean in Lem 's novel Solaris . Other examples include swarms of mechanical insects ( in The Invincible ) , and strangely ordered societies of more human @-@ like beings in Fiasco and Eden , describing the failure of the first contact . In His Master 's Voice , Lem describes the failure of humanity 's intelligence to decipher and truly comprehend an apparent message from space .
Two overlapping arcs of short stories , Fables for Robots ( Bajki Robotów ) , translated in the collection Mortal Engines ) , and The Cyberiad ( Cyberiada ) provide a commentary on humanity in the form of a series of grotesque , humorous , fairytale @-@ like short stories about a mechanical universe inhabited by robots ( who have occasional contact with biological " slimies " and human " palefaces " ) .
" Śledztwo " and " Katar " are crime novels ( the latter without a murderer ) ; " Pamiętnik . . . " is a psychological drama inspired by Kafka . " Doskonała próżnia " and " Wielkość urojona " are collections of reviews of non @-@ existent books and introductions to them . Similarly , " Prowokacja " purports to review a Holocaust @-@ themed work .
= = = Essays = = =
Lem 's criticism of most science fiction surfaced in literary and philosophical essays Science Fiction and Futurology and interviews . In the 1990s , Lem forswore science fiction and returned to futurological prognostications , most notably those expressed in Blink of an Eye ( Okamgnienie ) . He became increasingly critical of modern technology in his later life , criticizing inventions such as the Internet .
Dialogi and Summa Technologiae ( 1964 ) are Lem 's two most famous philosophical texts . The Summa is notable for being a unique analysis of prospective social , cybernetic , and biological advances ; in this work , Lem discusses philosophical implications of technologies that were completely in the realm of science fiction at the time , but are gaining importance today — for instance , virtual reality and nanotechnology .
= = Honors = =
1957 – City of Kraków 's Prize in Literature ( Nagroda Literacka miasta Krakowa )
1965 – Prize of the Minister of Culture and Art , 2nd Level ( Nagroda Ministra Kultury i Sztuki II stopnia )
1972 – member of commission " Poland 2000 " of the Polish Academy of Sciences
1973
Prize of the Minister of Foreign Affairs for popularization of Polish culture abroad ( nagroda Ministra Spraw Zagranicznych za popularyzację polskiej kultury za granicą )
Literary Prize of the Minister of Culture and Art ( nagroda literacka Ministra Kultury i Sztuki ) and honorary member of Science Fiction Writers of America
1976 – State Prize 1st Level in the area of literature ( Nagroda Państwowa I stopnia w dziedzinie literatury )
1979
Grand Prix de Littérature Policière for his novel Katar .
A minor planet , 3836 Lem , discovered by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh in 1979 , is named after him .
1981 – Doctor honoris causa honorary degree from the Wrocław University of Technology
1986 – Austrian State Prize for European Literature
1991 – Austrian literary Franz Kafka Prize
1994 – member of the Polish Academy of Learning
1996 – recipient of the Order of the White Eagle
1997 – honorary citizen of Kraków
1998 – Doctor honoris causa : University of Opole , Lviv University , Jagiellonian University
2003 – Doctor honoris causa of the University of Bielefeld
2007 – A street in Kraków is to be named in his honour .
2009 – A street in Wieliczka was named in his honour
2011 – An interactive Google logo inspired by The Cyberiad was created and published in his honor for the 60th anniversary of his first published book : The Astronauts .
= Volume 6 , Part 2 =
July 1979
Stanislaw Lem , Jeet Heer , Boston Globe Ideas , 15 December 2004
The writing of Stanislaw Lem – Reviews by Matt McIrvin
Stanislaw Lem Bibliography
" Less Predictable Realities , " translated by Joanna Zylinska , in the journal Scapegoat , issue 05 ( 2013 )
Tsalyk St. Creator of worlds
Lem , Stanisław . Encyclopædia Britannica . 2006 . Retrieved 30 June 2006 .
Obituaries
Life after Lem , Warsaw Voice 5 April 2006 ( cover story )
To Solaris and beyond , Philosopher 's Zone Australian Broadcasting Corporation discussion about Lem 's works ; MP3
Times Online obituary
= Brigitte Boisselier =
Brigitte Boisselier ( born 1956 ) , also known as Brigitte Roehr , is a French chemist and Raëlian religious leader best known for her claim to have overseen the creation of the first human clone . A native of Champagne @-@ Ardenne , she studied chemistry in France and the United States , earning two PhDs . From 1984 to 1997 , she lived near Paris and worked as a research chemist and a sales manager for Air Liquide . She embraced Raëlism in 1992 ; the group was unpopular in France and her conversion led to tensions with those around her . Five years later , she joined Clonaid , a Raëlian organization that sought to clone a human . After her service as their scientific director was publicized , she lost her position with Air Liquide and focused on cloning full @-@ time .
In late 2000 , Clonaid announced that they had received a large donation to fund the cloning of a child , and that Boisselier supervised a team of scientists at a secret laboratory in the United States who would soon produce a human clone . For the next year , the project received media coverage — and regulatory suspicion — as Boisselier promised the imminent birth of a human clone . In late 2001 , she announced that one had been born and that public evidence would soon be offered . This declaration received significant press coverage in the United States , and Boisselier appeared on many television programs . After a court in Florida launched a child welfare investigation , she stated that the cloned child 's parents had withdrawn their offer to provide evidence of the cloning and would have no further public comment . No evidence of the cloning , or subsequent procedures reported by Clonaid , was ever offered , and the announcements were widely perceived to have been a hoax .
In 2003 , impressed with her management of Clonaid and public relations skill , Raël , the founder of Raëlism , announced that Boisselier would succeed him as the group 's leader upon his death . In subsequent years , she has devoted herself to lecturing about the group 's doctrines and serving as their spokesperson .
= = Early life and education = =
Brigitte Boisselier was born to a Catholic family in France in 1956 . She was reared on a farm in Champagne @-@ Ardenne and became interested in science while young . She attended the University of Dijon , earning a master 's degree in biochemistry and a PhD in chemistry . In the 1980s , she moved to Texas , where she received another PhD in chemistry from the University of Houston .
Boisselier returned to France in 1984 to work for Air Liquide , an industrial gas company , where she remained for 13 years . At that time , she lived in Les Loges @-@ en @-@ Josas and worked as a research chemist and a sales manager in Lyon . She married and had three children between the late 1970s and early 1990s .
= = Conversion and new career = =
In 1992 , Boisselier converted to Raëlism , a UFO religion founded by the French journalist Claude Vorilhon , usually known as Raël , in 1973 . After attending a meeting at which Raël spoke , she felt strongly that he was completely honest and joined his movement . She had left her husband , alleging violent behavior , shortly before her conversion ; afterwards , owing to her involvement with Raëlism , he gained sole custody of their youngest child . Boisselier believed that religious intolerance motivated a court to transfer the child 's custody . Although her faith led to tension with her parents , her eldest child converted . In the 1990s , Raëlism was seen as dangerous and viewed with disdain in France , resulting in loss of employment for prominent members . The hostility was fueled in part by public concerns about new religious movements after deaths caused by the Order of the Solar Temple in Europe during the mid @-@ 1990s .
Boisselier became the scientific director of Clonaid , an organization founded by Raël that sought to clone humans , in 1997 . That year , Boisselier was interviewed by Le Monde about her role in Clonaid , and she lost her position with Air Liquide after the company learned of this . Air Liquide stated that her termination was due to her holding dual employment , and that she was strained by her Clonaid service . She filed a lawsuit against Air Liquide , arguing that she was the victim of religious discrimination . Her suit was successful : in 1999 , she won a judgment of about US $ 30 @,@ 000 .
After losing her job , Boisselier moved with her middle child , a son , to Quebec , where her eldest daughter was a student . Boisselier began to travel to discuss Clonaid , eventually becoming a high @-@ profile speaker . Around that time , she reached the rank of Bishop within Raëlism . She was one of the 25 members closest to Raël and joined the group 's Order of Angels , which promoted free love and femininity . She moved to the United States and began teaching at State University of New York at Plattsburgh for a short time before moving to Hamilton College in 2000 to teach chemistry . Her association with Clonaid was publicized in the U.S. in February 2001 , and she resigned her academic position that May , although she had a three @-@ year contract . She was initially popular at Hamilton College , but she felt that she was disrespected after her association with Clonaid was publicized .
= = Cloning = =
= = = Clonaid origins = = =
Raël founded Clonaid in March 1997 , shortly after the Dolly the Sheep cloning , believing that the process was important because the human species had been created by an extraterrestrial cloning project . On a practical level , Raël promoted the practice as a way to develop more desirable genetics and eventually prolong memories in new bodies . Shortly after Clonaid 's launch , Boisselier began publicizing and managing its operations . In 1999 , she announced that she had set up cloning laboratories and had hired a team of six scientists . She said she had limited knowledge of cloning but was skilled in selecting experts .
In August 2000 , Mark Hunt , a politician from West Virginia , asked Boisselier to clone his late son , who had died as a child . Hunt paid Clonaid $ 500 @,@ 000 and helped them rent a science laboratory from a school . Boisselier said that the laboratory would initially be used to clone cattle , before moving on to humans . She planned to use a number of Raëlian surrogates , who were willing to abort abnormal pregnancies , to bear clones ; the high number of women would compensate for the low odds of a healthy child for each implantation . In September 2000 , Raël and Boisselier held a press conference with several aspiring surrogate mothers of clones . At the event , Boisselier announced the construction of a cloning laboratory and vaguely described Hunt , who wished to remain anonymous . Boisselier received significant media attention as an advocate of cloning . Some commentators initially accepted her work as a legitimate attempt at cloning ; Margaret Talbot of the New York Times described her as a more credible spokesperson than Raël , projecting what she described as " an air of cool , academic professionalism " . Boisselier 's striking physical appearance drew particular attention , and she developed an avant @-@ garde , stylish reputation , contrary to popular images of scientists .
= = = Announcements and media coverage = = =
In early 2001 , Boisselier promised the cloning of a human child within a year , drawing further attention to her work . A prosecutor in New York began investigating her compliance with local medical laws . Boisselier said that the Food and Drug Administration also surreptitiously investigated her , and Raël claimed that U.S. President George W. Bush was concerned about Clonaid 's work . The caretaker of the laboratory that Hunt had rented grew suspicious about their work and contacted law enforcement . They spoke with the FDA , who searched the site and persuaded Boisselier to suspend her cloning work pending legal clarification . After Hunt was asked by the laboratory 's caretaker to shut down the cloning operation , he broke with Boisselier and criticized her for seeking media attention . The caretaker also spoke publicly , saying that Boisselier was seldom at the laboratory . Boisselier then announced that she was moving her cloning operations overseas . Boisselier never faced any legal charges in connection with the laboratory .
In March 2001 , Boisselier was invited to speak at a U.S. Congress hearing on human cloning , and at her insistence Raël was permitted to speak as well . The event garnered public attention , in large part because of Raël 's unconventional appearance . On August 7 , 2001 , Boisselier attended a widely publicized human cloning symposium at the National Academy of Sciences in Washington , D.C. , Significant media attention was given to Boisselier , who , along with Severino Antinori and Panayiotis Zavos , was one of three participants actively engaged in efforts to produce a human clone . The rest of the attendees were renowned scientists and ethicists , one of whom , Arthur Caplan , dismissed Boisselier as part of the " loony cloning element " . By May 2002 , Boisselier said that she had facilitated 10 to 20 pregnancies but had been thwarted by miscarriages .
= = = = Claims of success = = = =
Boisselier confidently announced at a press conference in Florida in December 2002 that Clonaid had successfully produced a live @-@ born clone , named Eve , for an infertile couple . Canadian sociologist Susan J. Palmer notes that naming the cloned child " Eve " recalls Raël 's teachings that aliens created the first humans through cloning . After the announcement , Boisselier received abundant press , but the media , particularly late @-@ night comedy programs , criticized her glamorous appearance and mocked Raëlism . Around that time , Boisselier appeared on many U.S. network news broadcasts and on CNN . She did not provide details about the child or its family , although she was often asked to . She hired a science editor from ABC to supervise verification of the cloning . Many scientists doubted that the Raëlians could overcome the difficulties that human cloning posed , or that they would be able to produce a healthy child . Boisselier said a DNA test was forthcoming and announced that five more clones would be born later that winter . As Raël and Boisselier continued to seek media exposure , journalistic animosity towards them grew .
Bernard Siegel , an attorney from Florida , learned of the case and felt that a hearing should be held about Eve 's welfare . In January 2003 , he initiated legal proceedings , seeking to bring the clone 's parents to court so its health could be verified . Raël and Boisselier attacked the filing as an attempt to take a child from loving parents and announced that , in protest , they would not provide DNA for testing . An arraignment occurred on January 24 and was televised live on CNN ; Boisselier and Clonaid 's vice president , Thomas Kaenzig , were subpoenaed in lieu of the child 's parents . In courtroom testimony , the vice president of Clonaid said he knew very little about the clone , and that Boisselier controlled all the information . She did not attend the hearing , and Kaenzig provided little information , angering the judge , who threatened contempt of court charges . Boisselier attended a second hearing on January 29 , telling the court that the child was in Israel . The judge then ruled that the court had no jurisdiction . In late January , the science editor announced that he suspected the cloning announcements were a hoax . Around that time , Boisselier held a press conference at which she announced that the cloned baby 's parents had cut off contact with her and would never speak to the press .
In the following years , Boisselier claimed to have facilitated the cloning of several children in a variety of countries . As of June 2004 , she reported that Clonaid has successfully cloned 13 children . She did not provide evidence to verify the claims . She stated that the a machine called the RMX 2010 was used in the cloning attempts , and exhibited it publicly .
After Boisselier announced that no evidence of the cloning would be provided , journalists became very skeptical of her story . While discussing Boisselier 's management of Clonaid , Palmer notes that it is impossible to know why she stated that a clone was produced but then refused to provide evidence . She argues that her refusal to provide evidence may have been because she organized a hoax , did not wish to publicize the birth of an unhealthy child , or was taken advantage of by a scientist she had hired . American science journalist Steven S. Hall criticized the media for their coverage of Clonaid , believe that they were inarticulately represented as a credible group . He speculates that the coverage of Boisselier and other cloning adherents galvanized sentiment against cloning , leading to its banning in the U.S.
= = Later activism = =
In January 2003 , Raël held a ceremony at which he thanked Boisselier for her service and anointed her as his successor . He praised her for spreading the message of Raëlism internationally while publicizing the cloning . In the Raëlian hierarchy , she is one level below Raël and serves as a spokesperson for the movement . As a leader , she has attempted to rehabilitate the swastika , one of the group 's symbols . She maintains that it is valuable as an ancient symbol of peace , and that it has been unfairly associated with Nazi Germany .
In the mid @-@ 2000s , Boisselier often taught about the Raëlian perspective of the body and sexuality . She discussed these topics from a biological perspective , arguing that humans are essentially robots because they can be reprogrammed . Specifically , she maintained that hormones program the brain , and they provide humans the freedom to choose from many possibilities . Raëlians emphasize sexual stimulation as a way to positively change their members , and Boisselier has stated that she sees the pursuit of femininity as a method of spiritual growth . The group highly values feminine beauty , and Raël has applauded Boisselier for maintaining her appearance , casting her as a role model .
By 2007 , Boisselier had taken the name " Brigitte Roehr " and was living in Los Angeles . That year , she began leading a Raëlian project to fight female genital mutilation . She heads a Raëlian @-@ affiliated group known as Clitoraid , which raises funds to provide restorative surgery to women with damaged clitorises . The project , which has attracted criticism of its effectiveness , aims to build a hospital in Burkina Faso where women can received clitoral surgery .
= Cyclone Manou =
Tropical Cyclone Manou was a relatively rare May tropical cyclone that affected southeastern Madagascar . The final named storm of the 2002 – 03 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season , Manou formed on May 2 to the southwest of Diego Garcia . It moved generally to the southwest for much of its duration , steered by a ridge to the southeast . Manou affected Saint Brandon and Mauritius with gusty winds . After an initial strengthening phase , the storm weakened but later re @-@ intensified as it approached Madagascar . Manou developed a well @-@ defined eye and reached peak winds only 19 km ( 12 mi ) from the eastern Madagascar coastline . For about 12 hours , the cyclone stalled before turning to the south and weakening . Manou became extratropical on May 10 and dissipated three days later .
Damage in Madagascar was heaviest near Vatomandry , where 85 % of buildings were destroyed and 23 people were killed . Manou destroyed about 24 @,@ 500 houses nationwide , leaving 114 @,@ 480 people homeless . The storm destroyed large areas of crops and disrupted transportation , including damaging the road between Vatomandry and Brickaville . Manou injured 85 and killed 89 people throughout Madagascar .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late April , an area of convection persisted southwest of Diego Garcia in the southern Indian Ocean . The system had a low @-@ level circulation and pulsating thunderstorm activity . Located in an area of weak to moderate wind shear , the convection gradually organized while developing outflow . On May 2 , a secondary area of convection , also with an accompanying circulation , formed to the northwest , and also showed signs of development . That day , the original disturbance organized enough for Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) to designate it Tropical Disturbance 16 at 1200 UTC . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued tropical cyclone formation alerts for both systems within a 14 ‑ hour period , and upgraded the original system to Tropical Cyclone 18S on May 3 about 980 km ( 610 mi ) northeast of Mauritius . Due to the disturbance to the northwest , as well as a building ridge to the northeast , the system continued to the southwest . On May 4 , MFR upgraded the disturbance to a tropical depression and later Tropical Storm Manou .
According to the JTWC , the storm quickly reached 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . The secondary disturbance to the west weakened while approaching the storm . Manou also weakened due to ongoing shear , and the windspeeds dropped as the circulation became exposed from the convection . On May 6 , the storm re @-@ intensified and the thunderstorms redeveloped while passing north of Mauritius and Réunion . On May 8 while approaching Madagascar , Manou developed an eye , and as a result , MFR upgraded it to tropical cyclone status , with 10 @-@ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The JTWC also upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane . After becoming a tropical cyclone , Manou intensified further , although its forward motion slowed significantly . MFR estimated peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 155 km / h ( 95 mph ) on May 8 , and JTWC estimated peak 1 @-@ minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , with gusts to 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . This made Manou a rare May tropical cyclone in the basin ; only four other storms that formed in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean in May reached winds of over 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) since satellite coverage began , most recently Cyclone Kesiny in the previous year .
While maintaining its peak intensity and an eye 44 km ( 28 mi ) in diameter , Manou reached a position only 19 km ( 12 mi ) from the eastern Madagascar coastline . At that time , gale force winds extended over 150 km ( 90 mi ) from the center , and MFR estimated a minimum barometric pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 inHg ) . For about 12 hours , Manou drifted off the eastern coast of Madagascar before turning to the south , moving around a ridge to its east . Land interaction and drier air weakened the eye , and on May 9 the cyclone weakened to tropical storm status . The next day Manou weakened to a tropical depression , and the JTWC issued its last advisory . MFR continued tracking the storm until it dissipated on May 13 .
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= = Impact and aftermath = =
Early in its duration , Manou passed just north of Saint Brandon . There , sustained winds reached 74 mph ( 46 mph ) , with gusts to 109 km / h ( 68 mph ) . On Mauritius , the storm produced gusty winds across much of the island , peaking at 107 km / h ( 67 mph ) .
Before affecting Madagascar , officials in the country advised residents to evacuate to shelters , although the storm was not expected to be as severe as it was . When Manou stalled just offshore eastern Madagascar , it produced gusts as strong as 211 km / h ( 131 mph ) in Vatomandry . The same city reported 227 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall in a 15 ‑ hour period . Damage was heaviest in Vatomandry , where 85 % of buildings were destroyed , although the broader region also experienced severe damage and was largely isolated from the rest of the country . In Vatomandry , Manou severely damaged the main hospital , several schools , and the prison . The storm disrupted power and water networks . Strong winds blowing salt spray destroyed the coffee and cloves crops , and rice crops were also damaged , after 80 % of rice fields were flooded in Brickaville and Andevoranto . In those two towns , an official estimated that 95 % of houses were wrecked . The road between Vatomandry and Brickaville was washed out or otherwise blocked by landslides , and the village of Ilaka was isolated after the storm wrecked a bridge . Throughout Madagascar , Manou injured 85 and killed 89 people , including 23 people in Vatomandry and 2 in Brickaville . About 24 @,@ 500 houses were destroyed , leaving 114 @,@ 480 people homeless .
On May 12 , Malagasy Prime Minister Jacques Sylla issued an appeal to the international community for assistance . Due to the damage from Manou , the French Red Cross activated its office in Réunion , providing one ton of medicine . The Malagasy Red Cross had pre @-@ positioned emergency supplies earlier in the cyclone season , and after Manou struck , the agency distributed a water purification unit , medicine , and tents to the affected areas . Due to road damage , supplies had to be delivered by boat , which arrived in Vatomandry on May 13 . The delivery included 4 @,@ 500 kg ( 9 @,@ 900 lb ) of supplies . Workers quickly made repairs to power systems . The Malagasy government provided $ 147 @,@ 000 to restore health centers in Vatomandry and Andevoranto . Japan provided $ 80 @,@ 000 worth of supplies , including tents and jerrycans . Japan , the United States , Norway , and Germany donated about $ 1 @.@ 27 million to Madagascar for relief . The World Food Programme initially provided 90 tons of rice , although ongoing drought conditions and storms caused the agency to continue providing food to residents in southern Madagascar for several months .
= Trial of Thomas Paine =
The trial of Thomas Paine for seditious libel was held on 18 December 1792 , in response to his publication of the second part of the Rights of Man . The government of William Pitt , worried by the possibility that the French Revolution might spread to England , had begun suppressing works that espoused radical philosophies . Paine 's work , which advocated the right of the people to overthrow their government , was duly targeted , with a writ for his arrest issued on 21 May . Paine fled to France in September , having been elected a member of the National Convention in France . He was instead represented in absentia by Thomas Erskine , a noted lawyer and orator who was severely criticised by government supporters in the months leading up to the trial .
At the trial , Archibald Macdonald , representing the prosecution , argued that Paine 's work served only to inflame the populace and distribute radical ideas to those without the experience to understand them in context . Erskine 's reply opened with a defence of the freedom of lawyers to represent whichever clients came to them , and followed with an exposition of his views on the nature of the freedom of the press — arguing that the publication of radical tracts served only to improve the government by highlighting its weaknesses , and could not be seditious if published in good faith . Despite Erskine 's speech later receiving a rapturous response , Paine was found guilty before Macdonald replied . The verdict was seen by the government as legitimising their repression of radicalism , and paved the way for the 1794 Treason Trials , in which Erskine played a prominent role .
= = Background = =
= = = French Revolution = = =
After involving itself in the Seven Years ' War and the American Revolutionary War , France found itself financially ruined . Attempts to pass an economic plan to alleviate this in the Estates @-@ General of 1789 led instead to the third estate — the commoners — forking to form the National Assembly . Succeeded in turn by the National Constituent Assembly and the Legislative Assembly , the various legislative bodies succeeded in rendering the monarchy constitutional , limited by democratic institutions . Attempts to remove the monarch entirely , although thwarted on 20 June 1792 , led to the effective overthrow of Louis XVI on 10 August . On 21 October , France was formally declared a republic .
Britain was initially sympathetic to the revolutionaries of France ; this sympathy dissolved with the execution of Louis XVI , and was replaced by hostility and a growing schism within the Whigs . While the Foxite branch argued for the Revolution as a source of general liberty , the administration of William Pitt became increasingly repressive , fearing the spread of Jacobinism to the United Kingdom and the overthrow of the government . This split was reflected in the behaviour of the people : while some joined societies dedicated to Parliamentary reform , others formed mobs under the banner of " Church and King " , attacking the homes of liberals and those who sympathised with the French revolution , including that of Joseph Priestley . The Association for Preserving Liberty and Property against Republicans and Levellers was formed , serving as " an organised body of private agents engaged in ferreting out sedition wherever it raised its inky head " .
= = = Paine and the Rights of Man = = =
Thomas Paine was a noted writer and political theorist whose work had influenced and helped drive the American Revolution . Having returned to England , he decided to write a book addressing the arguments of Edmund Burke , a prominent conservative strongly fearful of the French Revolution . This was simply titled Rights of Man . The first part was published in 1791 , and attracted no attention from Pitt 's administration . The second , published on 16 February 1792 , advocated , amongst other things , the right of the people to replace their government if they thought it appropriate . The work was an immediate success , selling a million and a half copies , and generated public support for various reform movements . It also brought Paine to the attention of the government and made him a subject to its crackdown . While Paine was visiting an aunt in Kent , Pitt had a writ issued against J.S. Jordan , Paine 's publisher , prosecuting him for seditious libel — a crime based on the concept that the executive was beyond reproach , that made it illegal to criticise the government . Paine returned to London and began to campaign for Jordan , finding him a lawyer and agreeing to pay his legal fees . Jordan , however , most likely frightened for his life , pleaded guilty and turned his files over to the court . With this additional evidence , a writ was issued for Paine on 21 May , charging him with the same crime . His trial date was set for 8 June , and later rescheduled for 18 December .
Paine left England before he could be tried , as he had been elected a member of the National Convention in France , tasked with writing a new constitution . He departed England on 13 September , never to return , although he further infuriated the government remotely by republishing the Rights of Man and writing Letter Addressed to the Addressors of the Late Proclamation , in which he defended his actions and beliefs against those who had chosen to side with the government . Paine was instead represented in absentia by Thomas Erskine , a famous lawyer and orator who served as Attorney General to the Prince of Wales . As the trial date approached , both Erskine and Paine were targeted by vicious personal attacks . Paine 's writ was followed by hundreds of loyal addresses , many of which targeted him , the burning of an effigy in Exeter , and the banning of the sale of any of his books in Chester . Pamphlets slandering him were widely published , and both Paine and Erskine had their personal lives dug into .
= = Trial = =
The trial was finally held on 18 December 1792 , in front of the Court of King 's Bench . Lord Kenyon presided , with Erskine representing the defence , and the government represented by Archibald Macdonald , John Scott and Spencer Perceval . Macdonald opened for the prosecution , expressing outrage at the publication of the Rights of Man , and his concern that it would be made available to so many members of the public who were unfamiliar with political philosophy . He also read excerpts from a letter Paine had written to him after his arrival in Paris , which contained " everything with which to inflame a jury " . He then presented various witnesses , starting with Thomas Haynes , to testify that the works had indeed been published , and following with Thomas Chapman , who had printed the first part of the Rights of Man . Chapman testified that he had intended to print the second part , until he came upon a passage that " appeared of a dangerous tendency " , and , after an argument with a drunken Paine , returned the book .
Erskine offered no evidence , admitting that Paine had written both the Rights of Man and the letter to Macdonald , and instead chose to begin speaking . He opened with a statement against those who had pressured him to refuse Paine 's case , stating , in a " brilliant exposition of the principles involved " , that :
I will for ever , at all hazards , assert the dignity , independence and integrity of the English Bar , without which impartial justice , the most valuable part of the English Constitution , can have no existence . From the moment that any advocate can be permitted to say that he will , or will not , stand between the Crown and the subject arraigned in the court where he daily sits to practise , from that moment the liberties of England are at an end . If the advocate refuses to defend , from what he may think of the charge or of the defence , he assumes the character of the Judge ; nay , he assumes it before the hour of judgment ; and in proportion to his rank and reputation , puts the heavy influence of , perhaps , a mistaken opinion into the scales against the accused , in whose favour the benevolent principle of English law makes all presumptions .
He then moved on to addressing the freedom of the press , and the limits on it , arguing that freedom of speech was necessary to identify the flaws in the structure of the government and the constitution — even if the author was mistaken about those flaws . As long as a writer intended only to enlighten others , prohibiting their speech would serve only to undermine the government by harming the opportunities to improve it . While Macdonald had argued that the book was problematic because it was circulated amongst all classes of society , Erskine argued that this was not the test of whether the Rights of Man was seditious . Instead , the test was whether Paine had exclusively dealt with what he believed to be in the best interests of England , its government , and its people . While Paine 's opinions ran counter to the existing system of government , Erskine argued that " opinion is free and ... conduct alone is amenable to the law " . For a libel claim to succeed , the Libel Act 1792 required that the prosecution show the publication was motivated by malice ; as Paine had intended only to help mankind , and this was a pure motive , he could not be guilty .
Despite this speech , the jury found Paine guilty before Macdonald replied to Erskine 's argument .
= = Aftermath = =
Although it failed to sway the jury , Erskine 's speech was given a rapturous response ; after he left the court , he was confronted by a mob who cheered him and shouted " Damn Tom Paine , but Erskine for ever , and the Liberty of the Press ; the King , the Constitution , and Erskine for ever " . The crowd proceeded to unhitch the horses from his carriage , and carry the carriage ( with him inside ) to his lodgings at Serjeant 's Inn . Over 30 transcripts or reports of the trial were printed , all of which contained Erskine 's speech , and many editions emphasised Erskine 's name and the theme of his speech on the title pages , using it to sell copies . Other reactions were less positive ; William Godwin wrote a letter to Erskine shortly after the trial arguing that his statement that individuals were free to publish works attacking or criticising the Constitution " had a considerable share in prosecuting the verdict of guilty " . Paine himself found Erskine 's speech and conduct during the trial disappointing , expecting him to do more to defend the principles in the Rights of Man than he had .
Pitt 's administration took the guilty verdict in Paine 's trial as a sign that further prosecutions for sedition were possible , and began many . In the 17 months following the trial , 11 publishers of the Rights of Man were prosecuted , receiving prison sentences of up to 4 years . These acted as a prelude to the 1794 Treason Trials , in which a dozen reformers were indicted for allegedly conspiring to bring about a revolution . Erskine played a prominent role in defending many of them , including Thomas Hardy , John Horne Tooke and John Thelwall , all three of whom were acquitted .
= Ruma Maida =
Ruma Maida ( released internationally as Maida 's House ) is a 2009 Indonesian film written by Ayu Utami , directed by Teddy Soeriaatmadja and starring Atiqah Hasiholan , Yama Carlos , Nino Fernandez , and Frans Tumbuan . It details a woman 's struggle to save a historic house from a developer ; it also shows the life of the house 's original owner .
Work on what was to become Ruma Maida began in 2008 , when Utami was approached by Lamp Pictures and asked to write a nationalism @-@ themed script ; she completed the task in six months , with input from Soeriaatmadja . After three months of pre @-@ production , shooting began in Semarang , Central Java , and Kota , Jakarta . Editing took three months , after which the film – with a soundtrack by the band Naif and a song written by Utami – premiered on 28 October 2009 , the anniversary of the 1928 Youth Pledge ; it was later shown in film festivals in Singapore , Australia , and Italy .
Ruma Maida , which uses different filming styles for scenes in the past and present , deals with the importance of education , history , and pluralism . Critical reception to the film was mixed ; reviewers praised the visuals but disapproved of the plot and dialogue . It was nominated for twelve Citra Awards at the 2009 Indonesian Film Festival , of which it won one .
= = Plot = =
A young history student , Maida ( Atiqah Hasiholan ) , a Christian , runs a free school for street children in Jakarta . The school is in a house that once belonged to Ishak Pahing ( Nino Fernandez ) , a Christian Indo composer and pilot , and his Muslim wife Nani Kuddus ( Imelda Soraya ) ; Pahing wrote the song " Pulau Tenggara " ( " The South @-@ Eastern Island " ) , which inspired President Sukarno to help form the Non @-@ Aligned Movement , while living in the house . As Maida learns about Pahing , she decides to write her undergraduate thesis about his life .
One day her class is interrupted by the young Muslim architect Sakera ( Yama Carlos ) , who has been told to evict Maida 's school by his employer , the developer Dasaad Muchlisin ( Frans Tumbuan ) . As Maida and Sakera argue in the streets , rioting breaks out around them . Sakera protects the half @-@ Chinese Maida , then tells her that he will help her keep the house , although it is scheduled to be demolished within a week .
After attempts to persuade Muchlisin to keep the original design fail , Sakera overhears that the house is on disputed land . Maida uses the information , as well as feedback from a traditional musical group distantly related to Pahing , to discover that the house has a secret underground bunker , in which she and Sakera – with whom she has begun to fall in love – find documents showing the history of the house . With the help of her mother 's former lover Kuan ( Henky Solaiman ) , she discovers the true ownership of the house .
Pahing , who had grown up within the nascent independence movement and associated with several historical figures , was arrested for being half @-@ Dutch by the Japanese spy Maruyama ( Verdi Solaiman ) – a man who coveted Pahing 's wife . After being tortured , Pahing was released to discover that his wife had been raped and killed ; their newborn son Fajar had been kidnapped . Pahing later died on a flight carrying medical supplies over Yogyakarta when the flight was shot down . Meanwhile , his son was raised by Maruyama – the kidnapper – and had his name changed to Dasaad Muchlisin .
With this information , Maida , Sakera , and Kuan approach Muchlisin and tell him how the house features in his history . After a short silence , Muchlisin tells them to leave . Several months later , on Maida and Sakera 's wedding day – when they are married at both a mosque and a church – Muchlisin comes to the church and says that he has abandoned his plans to demolish the house . Instead , he renovates the building and dedicates it as a school for street children .
= = Production = =
The screenplay for Ruma Maida was written by Ayu Utami , her first such work ; mainly known for her novels , she had avoided screenplays as she thought they were generally too commercially oriented . She wrote the screenplay over a period of six months beginning in 2008 , when Lamp Pictures – which produced the film with Karuna Pictures – requested that she write a story about nationalism ; according to the director Teddy Soeriaatmadja , who was brought in while the screenplay was still on its first draft , he and Utami read seven drafts of the screenplay before they agreed on the story . Considering the screenplay a way to encourage the younger generation to study Indonesian history , which she said could be fun , Utami decided to focus on education , diversity , and history .
Pre @-@ production for Ruma Maida took three months . The characters were written without any particular actors in mind . Atiqah Hasiholan , who had previously starred in the Academy Award @-@ submitted Jamila dan Sang Presiden ( Jamila and the President , 2009 ) , was cast as Maida . Yama Carlos , who played Sakera , was initially cast for another role but received the leading male role after a last @-@ minute switch . The actor cast as Muchlisin , Frans Tumbuan , was the only one auditioned as Soeriaatmadja thought the role was perfect for him . Soeriaatmadja later recalled that , including extras , Ruma Maida had the largest cast of any film he had made to that point .
Shooting for the film was conducted in Kota , Jakarta , and Semarang , Central Java , over a period of one month . Soeriaatmadja later recalled that the most difficult scenes to shoot were those which happened in modern times , especially the riots ; for set design , however , Indra Tamoron Musu found those that occurred in the past to be the most difficult , owing to the research necessary . The scenes at the house were shot separately ; those occurring in 1998 were shot first and those occurring in the past were shot after the crew had spent a week renovating the house . Hasiholan later recalled that Soeriaatmadja was a controlling director who told the actors exactly what he wanted in a clear manner . However , cinematographer Ical Tanjung said that Soeriaatmadja was still open to feedback from the cast and crew . Editing , which was done by Waluyo Ichwandiardono , took another three months .
The Indonesian band Naif covered several songs for Ruma Maida 's soundtrack , including songs from the 1940s such as " Juwita Malam " ( " Beauty of the Night " , by Ismail Marzuki ) , " Di Bawah Sinar Bulan Purnama " ( " Under the Light of the Full Moon " , by R. Maladi ) , and " Ibu Pertiwi " ( " Motherland " ) . The covers were recorded over a period of five days . Utami wrote " Pulau Tenggara " , which was sung by Imelda Soraya .
= = Themes = =
Benny Benke , writing in Suara Merdeka , noted that the film was a " free interpretation of the formal Indonesian history , [ a history ] which is too arrogant , dominant , and dogmatic " . He wrote that at times the line between fact and fiction was thin . Utami stated that people from the revolutionary period " believed in dreams " and had a " strong sense of heroism and patriotism " , things which she believed Indonesia needed . Soeriaatmadja also noted that the film was meant to address issues of contemporary Indonesia , through the house 's history . Assistant director Azhar Lubis described the house as a microcosm of Indonesia , implying that , if the country was not maintained , it would fall apart .
In Media Indonesia , Yulia Permata Sari wrote that Soeriaatmadja seemed to be promoting the need to remember and respect history through the plot and characterisations . The film showed " Indonesia Raya " composer W.R. Supratman , Japanese admiral Maeda , Vice President Mohammad Hatta , President Sukarno , and Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir . Hasiholan considered the film a warning against repeating past mistakes .
Triwik Kurniasari , writing in The Jakarta Post , described the inclusion of the May 1998 riots and subsequent fall of Suharto as touching on pluralism issues . Utami , in an interview with the Jakarta Globe , stated that she had meant to show diversity by giving the characters different ethnic , religious , and socio @-@ economic backgrounds , and later explained that the film was meant to show Indonesia 's motto Bhinneka Tunggal Ika ( Unity in Diversity ) as it is applied in the country . Another reviewer , Dewi Anggraeni , wrote that Ruma Maida " paints a more realistic picture of Indonesia ’ s society , where people do not necessarily fit into neat social , racial or economic categories " , with its characters not fitting into any traditional stereotypes .
= = Style = =
Ruma Maida uses colours and shooting styles to indicate different time periods . Past events have a soft sepia overlay and are shot with a static camera , while those in 1998 have more natural tones and are shot with a handheld . The use of the handheld was meant to show the present in as " rough and non @-@ sterile " a manner possible , while the past was meant to have a sweet , beautiful , and clean feeling ; this played on the theme of romanticising the past . Events in Pahing 's life are shown in flashbacks interspersed throughout Maida 's struggle to retake the house . The film is paced slowly , and shots are taken from " unique " angles .
In Tempo magazine , Kurie Suditomo wrote that Ruma Maida intertwined several sub @-@ plots , including the depiction of the 1928 Youth Conference , the education of street children , and a scene where Sakera discusses architecture with Muchlisin ; the review stated that these detracted from the film 's comprehensibility . Jakarta Globe reviewer Armando Siahaan noted that several plot lines run parallel , including riots following the Japanese surrender in 1945 and those in May 1998 .
= = Release and reception = =
Ruma Maida premiered on 28 October 2009 , coinciding with events that celebrated the 1928 Youth Pledge – this release date was planned from early in production , because of the date 's historical significance . It received a wide release on the following day . The film was screened at the Singapore International Film Festival in April 2010 . That August Ruma Maida had three screenings in the " Education " category of the Indonesian Film Festival in Melbourne , Australia . In November it was screened at the Asiatica Film Mediale in Rome , Italy , under the title La Casa Di Maida .
Ruma Maida received mixed reception . Kurniasari described the film as " an enjoyable way to learn more about [ Indonesia 's ] long history . " Benke wrote that the film had good visuals , but the dialogue at times " went over viewers ' heads " . Sari called the cinematography well done , but found that the plot could confuse viewers . Suditomo thought that the film was well visualised but lost much of its impact owing to its extraneous subplots .
Anggraeni , covering the Indonesian Film Festival in Australia , described Ruma Maida as cleverly weaving the plot into Indonesia 's independence struggle , although she felt that several plot twists " rather stretch [ ed ] the audience 's imagination " . Siahaan wrote that the film " may have limitations in its execution and presentation , but is highly commendable for its ability to raise social questions and delve into the nation ’ s history . " The review in Republika suggested that the film may be too boring for the general public owing to its slow @-@ moving plot .
The film was released on VCD and DVD in Indonesia on 14 July 2010 by EZY Home Entertainment , after passing through the censorship board in February . The DVD featured English @-@ language subtitles and a behind the scenes documentary .
= = Awards = =
Ruma Maida was nominated for twelve Citra Awards at the 2009 Indonesian Film Festival , winning one .
= New York State Route 9A =
New York State Route 9A ( NY 9A ) is a state highway in the vicinity of New York City in the United States . Its southern terminus is at the northern end of the Brooklyn – Battery Tunnel in New York City , where it intersects with both the unsigned Interstate 478 ( I @-@ 478 ) and FDR Drive . The northern terminus of NY 9A is at U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) in Peekskill . It is predominantly an alternate route of US 9 between New York City and Peekskill ; however , in New York City , it is a major route of its own as it runs along the West Side Highway and Henry Hudson Parkway . In Westchester County , NY 9A follows the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway .
The origins of NY 9A date back to the 1920s when an alternate route of then @-@ NY 6 from Yonkers to Tarrytown was designated as New York State Route 6A . NY 6 was redesignated as US 9 in 1927 ; however , NY 6A was not renumbered to NY 9A until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 9A was extended south into New York City in 1934 and north to Ossining in the late 1930s . In 1933 , the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway opened as New York State Route 404 . All of NY 404 was incorporated into an extended NY 9A on January 1 , 1949 . NY 9A was extended northward to Peekskill in 1967 following the completion of the Croton Expressway and southward to the Brooklyn – Battery Tunnel in the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = Route description = =
NY 9A begins in Lower Manhattan at the north end of the Brooklyn – Battery Tunnel ( unsignedI @-@ 478 ) and heads north on the surface West Side Highway and Henry Hudson Parkway , crossing US 9 for the first time at the east end of the George Washington Bridge . After crossing into the Bronx via the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority @-@ owned Henry Hudson Bridge , NY 9A proceeds to leave the parkway at exit 23 , joining US 9 on Broadway . The portions of NY 9A between 34th and 72nd streets in Manhattan and from the Henry Hudson Parkway to the New York City line in the Bronx is maintained by the New York City Department of Transportation . The concurrency between US 9 and NY 9A runs for 2 @.@ 87 miles ( 4 @.@ 62 km ) within the city of Yonkers . All of NY 9A within Yonkers is maintained by the city .
NY 9A separates from US 9 along Ashburton Avenue and heads north as Saw Mill River Road . It parallels the Saw Mill River Parkway through Ardsley and Elmsford , to the west side of Hawthorne . The route meets the southbound New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 87 ) at a partial interchange and later meets I @-@ 287 ( the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway ) at a full interchange that provides a route to the northbound Thruway ( I @-@ 87 ) . NY 100 merges with NY 9A to form a 3 @.@ 11 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 01 km ) concurrency carrying the names Saw Mill River Road and Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway , parallel to the Taconic State Parkway . NY 9A exits off this highway along the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway , while NY 100 continues straight as Saw Mill River Road . NY 9A merges to form a brief concurrency with US 9 as the Croton Expressway in Ossining just south of the Croton River .
The second concurrency between US 9 and NY 9A runs for 0 @.@ 65 miles ( 1 km ) , with NY 9A leaving the Croton Expressway at Croton Point Avenue in Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson . The highway heads north along Riverside Avenue and eventually joins old Albany Post Road . After crossing US 9 once more in Cortlandt , NY 9A ends at the Welcher Avenue interchange in southern Peekskill .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Prior to the establishment of the U.S. Highway System , US 9 was designated as NY 6 . An alternate route from Yonkers to Tarrytown was assigned the NY 6A designation by 1926 . This ran along the present alignment of NY 9A from Yonkers to north of Elmsford , where it turned west on Old Saw Mill River Road , Neperan Road , County House Road and Bedford Road to end at NY 6 in Tarrytown . NY 6 was redesignated as US 9 when U.S. Highways were first posted in New York in 1927 ; however , NY 6A was not renumbered at this time . It was finally renumbered to NY 9A as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
New York City initially did not mark numbered routes within its limits . In 1932 , the New York Automobile Club drafted a plan establishing alignments for several routes through the city . In this plan , NY 9A went south through the Bronx and into Manhattan on Broadway while US 9 used Riverdale Avenue north of 230th Street . As a result , the two routes would have had a short concurrency across Spuyten Duyvil Creek . NY 9A would have split to the south on Tenth Avenue at 218th Street in order to join the Harlem River Drive via Nagle Avenue and Dyckman Street . From there it would head west on 155th Street to Amsterdam Avenue , where it would head south to 79th Street , heading west there to rejoin US 9 at Riverside Drive . US 9 would have continued south through lower Manhattan to Staten Island via the Staten Island Ferry ; however , it is unclear whether NY 9A would have continued south with US 9 to lower Manhattan .
The New York Automobile Club released another plan in 1933 . This plan made no changes to NY 9A ; however , US 9 was changed to use Broadway all the way through the Bronx and to travel to New Jersey by way of the Holland Tunnel . In the final plan implemented in mid @-@ December 1934 , no route was assigned to the Harlem River Drive – Amsterdam Avenue corridor . Instead , NY 9A used what had been planned as US 9 , splitting at Broadway and Dyckman Street . NY 9A ran south along the west side of Manhattan on Riverside Drive and the West Side Elevated Highway ( detouring around an unfinished section via 57th Street , Eleventh Avenue and 48th Street ) to end at the entrance and exit plazas of the Holland Tunnel . US 9 was shifted northward to enter New Jersey via the George Washington Bridge .
= = = Westchester County = = =
In Westchester County , Saw Mill River Road originally followed the Saw Mill River Parkway corridor from Eastview to Hawthorne . This section of Saw Mill River Road gained a number c . 1931 , becoming part of NY 142 , a route that began at NY 100 on the Greenburgh – Mount Pleasant town line and followed Grasslands Road , NY 9A , and Saw Mill River Road north to Hawthorne , where it rejoined NY 100 . The route went unchanged until it was removed c . 1938 . Its former routing was split into two routes — an extended NY 141 north of NY 9A and the new NY 100C along Grasslands Road — by 1940 . NY 9A was extended northward c . 1939 from Tarrytown to Archville , a small hamlet midway between Tarrytown and Ossining , by way of Sleepy Hollow Road .
Farther north , a new highway was built around Ossining from Saw Mill River Road ( NY 100 ) in Briarcliff Manor to US 9 north of Ossining . The highway , known as the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway , was completed c . 1933 and initially designated as NY 404 . On January 1 , 1949 , NY 9A was altered to continue north along a slightly realigned Saw Mill River Road from NY 100C near Elmsford to the south end of the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway in Briarcliff Manor . At this point , NY 9A left Saw Mill River Road and followed the parkway to its end at US 9 , supplanting NY 404 . The realignment created a 3 @-@ mile ( 5 km ) overlap between NY 9A and NY 100 from Hawthorne to Briarcliff Manor and resulted in the truncation of NY 141 back to its previous terminus in Hawthorne .
Construction on the Croton Expressway , the only piece of the failed Hudson River Expressway project that was ever built , began in the mid @-@ 1960s . It became part of a realigned US 9 when it was completed by 1967 . The former surface routing of US 9 along Albany Post Road between Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson and Buchanan became a northward extension of NY 9A , which reached the old alignment by way of an overlap with US 9 from the north end of the Briarcliff – Peekskill Parkway to Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson .
= = = New York City = = =
As the Henry Hudson Parkway replaced Riverside Drive in the mid @-@ 1930s , NY 9A was moved onto it , eventually using the new parkway to where it crossed US 9 ( Broadway ) in the Bronx . Here , NY 9A exited the parkway and ran concurrent with US 9 to the split in Yonkers . The Brooklyn – Battery Tunnel connecting Manhattan 's Battery Park to Brooklyn was completed in 1950 . By 1960 , an extension of the West Side Elevated Highway south to the Manhattan tunnel portal became part of NY 27A , which had ended in Brooklyn prior to the construction of the tunnel . On January 1 , 1970 , NY 27A was truncated on its western end to eastern Nassau County while NY 27 was extended northward over NY 27A 's former routing through the Battery Tunnel and the West Side Elevated Highway .
However , by 1973 , NY 27 had been cut back to its interchange with the Gowanus Expressway in Brooklyn while unsigned I @-@ 478 was assigned to both the Battery Tunnel and all of the West Side Elevated Highway south of the Lincoln Tunnel . NY 9A was cut back to the Lincoln Tunnel as a result . The extension of I @-@ 478 into Manhattan was eliminated following the collapse of part of the Elevated Highway in 1973 , an event which led to the demolition of the highway south of 59th Street . Demolition was completed in 1989 . NY 9A was shifted onto 12th Avenue , one of the surface streets that the Elevated Highway had run atop of , but was otherwise unaffected as the route 's south end was initially kept at the Lincoln Tunnel .
In the mid @-@ 1990s , NY 9A was extended south to the Battery Tunnel by way of 12th Avenue and two other streets the Elevated Highway had previously run atop of , West Street and 11th Avenue . Construction began in early 1996 on a project to convert the section of NY 9A south of 59th Street into the West Side Highway , a six @-@ lane urban boulevard with a parkway @-@ style median and decorative lightposts . The first of the project 's seven segments — between Clarkson and Horatio streets in the Greenwich Village neighborhood — was completed in 1998 . Completion of the project was originally set for October 2001 ; however , it was delayed for years due to damage caused by the September 11 attacks . It is expected to be finished by the end of 2013 .
= = Major intersections = =
All exits on the Briarcliff – Peeksill Parkway and Croton Expressway are unnumbered .
= Leslie Nielsen =
Leslie William Nielsen , OC ( 11 February 1926 – 28 November 2010 ) was a Canadian actor , comedian , and producer . He appeared in more than 100 films and 150 television programs , portraying more than 220 characters .
Nielsen was born in Regina , Saskatchewan . He enlisted in the Royal Canadian Air Force and later worked as a disc jockey before receiving a scholarship to study theatre at the Neighborhood Playhouse . Making his acting debut in 1948 , he made more than 50 television appearances two years later . Nielsen made his film debut in 1956 , with supporting roles in several drama , western , and romance films produced between the 1950s and the 1970s , with Nielsen crossing genres in both television and films .
Although his notable performances in the films Forbidden Planet and The Poseidon Adventure gave him standing as a serious actor , Nielsen later gained enduring recognition for his deadpan comedy roles during the 1980s and the early 1990s , after being cast against type for the Zucker , Abrahams and Zucker comedy film Airplane ! . Nielsen specialized in his portrayal of characters oblivious to and complicit in their absurd surroundings , which gave him a reputation as a comedian . Airplane ! marked Nielsen 's turning point , which made him " the Olivier of spoofs " according to film critic Roger Ebert ; his work on the film also led to further success in the genre with The Naked Gun film series , which are based on their earlier short @-@ lived television series Police Squad ! , in which he also starred . Nielsen received a variety of awards and was inducted into the Canada and Hollywood Walks of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Nielsen was born on 11 February 1926 in Regina , Saskatchewan . His mother , Mabel Elizabeth ( née Davies ) , was a Welsh immigrant , and his father , Ingvard Eversen Nielsen , was a Danish @-@ born constable in the Royal Canadian Mounted Police . Nielsen had two brothers ; the elder , Erik Nielsen ( 1924 – 2008 ) , was Deputy Prime Minister of Canada from 1984 to 1986 .
His half @-@ uncle , Jean Hersholt , was an actor known for his portrayal of Dr. Christian in a radio series of that name and the subsequent television series and films . In a 1994 Boston Globe article , Nielsen explained , " I did learn very early that when I would mention my uncle , people would look at me as if I were the biggest liar in the world . Then I would take them home and show them 8 @-@ by @-@ 10 glossies , and things changed quite drastically . So I began to think that maybe this acting business was not a bad idea , much as I was very shy about it and certainly without courage regarding it . My uncle died not too long after I was in a position to know him . I regret that I had not a chance to know him better . "
Nielsen lived for several years in Fort Norman ( now Tulita ) , Northwest Territories where his father was with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police . His father was a troubled man who beat his wife and sons , and Leslie longed to escape . When he graduated from high school at 17 , he joined the Royal Canadian Air Force even though he was legally deaf ( he wore hearing aids most of his life ) . Following graduation from Victoria School of Performing and Visual Arts in Edmonton , Nielsen enlisted in the Royal Canadian Air Force and trained as an aerial gunner during World War II . He was too young to be fully trained or sent overseas . He worked briefly as a disc jockey at a Calgary , Alberta , radio station , before enrolling at the Lorne Greene Academy of Radio Arts , Toronto . While studying in Toronto , Nielsen received a scholarship to the Neighborhood Playhouse . He noted , " I couldn 't refuse , but I must say when you come from the land of the snow goose , the moose and wool to New York , you 're bringing every ton of hayseed and country bumpkin that you packed . As long as I didn 't open my mouth , I felt a certain security . But I always thought I was going to be unmasked : ' OK , pack your stuff . ' ' Well , what 's the matter ? ' ' We 've discovered you have no talent ; we 're shipping you back to Canada . ' " He moved to New York City for his scholarship , studying theatre and music at the Neighborhood Playhouse , while performing in summer stock theatre . Afterward , he attended the Actors Studio , until making his first television appearance in 1948 on an episode of Studio One , alongside Charlton Heston , for which he was paid $ 75 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Nielsen 's career began in dramatic roles on television during " Television 's Golden Age " , appearing in almost 50 live programs in 1950 alone . He said there " was very little gold , we only got $ 75 or $ 100 per show . " He narrated documentaries and commercials and most of his early work as a dramatic actor was uneventful . Hal Erickson of Allmovie noted that " much of Nielsen 's early work was undistinguished ; he was merely a handsome leading man in an industry overstocked with handsome leading men . " In 1956 he made his feature film debut in the Michael Curtiz @-@ directed musical film The Vagabond King . In the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , Nielsen remembered Curtiz as " a sadist , a charming sadist , but a sadist " . Nielsen called this film " The Vagabond Turkey " . Though the film was not a success , producer Nicholas Nayfack offered him an audition for the science fiction film Forbidden Planet , resulting in Nielsen 's taking a long contract with Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) .
Forbidden Planet became an instant success , and roles in other MGM films such as Ransom ! ( 1956 ) , The Opposite Sex ( 1956 ) and Hot Summer Night ( 1957 ) followed . In 1957 he won the lead role opposite Debbie Reynolds in the romantic comedy Tammy and the Bachelor , which , as a Chicago Tribune critic wrote in 1998 , made people consider Nielsen a dramatic actor and handsome romantic lead . However , dissatisfied with the films he was offered , calling the studios " a Tiffany , which had forgotten how to make silver " , Nielsen left MGM after auditioning for Messala in the 1959 Ben @-@ Hur . Stephen Boyd got the role . After leaving the studios , Nielsen landed the lead role in the Disney miniseries The Swamp Fox , as American Revolutionary War hero Francis Marion . In a 1988 interview he reflected on the series , saying , " That was a great experience , because the Disney people didn 't do their shows like everyone else , knocking out an episode a week . ... We only had to do an episode a month , and the budgets were extremely high for TV at that time . We had location shooting rather than cheap studio backdrops , and very authentic costumes . " Eight episodes were produced and aired between 1959 and 1961 .
His television appearances include Justice , Alfred Hitchcock Presents , Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea , The Virginian , and The Wild Wild West . In 1961 , he was the lead in a Los Angeles police drama called The New Breed . He guest @-@ starred in a 1964 episode of Daniel Boone with Fess Parker in a minor but credited role . In 1968 , he had a major role in the pilot for the police series Hawaii Five @-@ O , and appeared in one of the seventh @-@ season episodes . In 1969 , he had the leading role as a police officer in The Bold Ones : The Protectors .
In 1972 , Nielsen appeared as the ship 's captain in the The Poseidon Adventure . He also starred in the William Girdler 's 1977 action film , Project : Kill . His last dramatic role before mainly comedy roles was the 1979 Canadian disaster film City on Fire , in which he played a corrupt mayor . In 1980 , he guest @-@ starred as Sinclair on the CBS miniseries The Chisholms .
= = = Airplane ! and The Naked Gun = = =
Nielsen 's supporting role of Dr. Rumack in Zucker , Abrahams and Zucker 's 1980 's Airplane ! was a watershed in his career . The film , a parody of disaster films such as Zero Hour ! and Airport , was based on building a comedy around the actors known for dramatic roles . Other stars included Robert Stack , Peter Graves , and Lloyd Bridges . Nielsen 's deadpan delivery contrasted with the absurdity surrounding him . When asked , " Surely you can 't be serious ? " , he responded with a curt , " I am serious . And don 't call me Shirley . " In several interviews he reflected on the line : " I thought it was amusing , but it never occurred to me that it was going to become a trademark . It 's such a surprise ... the thing comes out , people say , ' What did he say ? ! ' " Nielsen said he was " ... pleased and honored that [ he ] had a chance to deliver that line . " The comedic exchange was at # 79 on the American Film Institute 's AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes . The American Film Institute included the film in its list of the top ten comedy films of all time in 2008 , and a 2007 survey in the United Kingdom judged it the second greatest comedy film of all time , while in 2012 Empire magazine voted it No. 1 in The 50 Funniest Comedies Ever poll . Critics praised the film , which also proved a long @-@ term success with audiences . In 2010 Airplane ! was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress .
The directors cast Nielsen for his ability to play like " a fish in water " , saying " You could have cast funny people and done it with everybody winking , goofing off , and silly ... we wanted people to be oblivious to the comedy . " For Nielsen , Airplane ! marked a shift from dramatic roles to deadpan comedy . When it was suggested his role in Airplane ! was against type , Nielsen protested that he had " always been cast against type before " , and that comedy was what he always wanted to do . The same directors cast Nielsen in a similar style , in their TV series Police Squad ! . The series introduced Nielsen as Frank Drebin , the stereotypical police officer modelled after serious characters in earlier police series .
Police Squad 's opening sequence was based on the 1950s show M Squad , which starred Lee Marvin , which opened with footage of a police car roving through a dark urban setting with a big band playing a jazz song in the background . The voice @-@ over and the show 's organization into acts with an epilogue was homage to Quinn Martin police dramas including The Fugitive , The Streets of San Francisco , Barnaby Jones , The F.B.I. , and Cannon . Nielsen portrayed a serious character whose one @-@ liners appeared accidental next to the pratfalls and sight gags that were happening around him . Although the show lasted only six episodes Nielsen received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series .
Six years after cancellation of Police Squad ! , the film The Naked Gun : From the Files of Police Squad ! returned Nielsen to his role as Frank Drebin . It involved a ruthless drug king trying hypnosis to assassinate Queen Elizabeth II . Drebin , like the doctor in Airplane ! , seemed unaware of the absurdity of the scenes he was in , even while contributing to it . Nielsen did many of his own stunts : " You have an idea of how you 're going to do something , and it 's your vision ... unless you do it , it really doesn 't stand a chance . " This movie grossed over $ 78 million and was well received by critics . Ebert 's 3 ½ – star review ( out of four ) noted , " You laugh , and then you laugh at yourself for laughing . "
The Naked Gun spawned two sequels : The Naked Gun 2 ½ : The Smell of Fear ( 1991 ) and Naked Gun 33 ⅓ : The Final Insult ( 1994 ) . Naked Gun 2 ½ grossed more than the original , with $ 86 @.@ 9 million , while Naked Gun 33 ⅓ grossed $ 51 @.@ 1 million . Nielsen remained open to a fourth Naked Gun film , although he doubted that it would be produced — " I don 't think so " , he said in 2005 . " If there hasn 't been one by now , I doubt it . I think it would be wonderful . "
Nielsen briefly appeared on the World Wrestling Federation program in the summer of 1994 on WWF Monday Night Raw ; capitalizing on Frank Drebin . Nielsen ( and George Kennedy ) were hired as sleuths to unravel the mystery of The Undertaker who had disappeared at January 's Royal Rumble event . At SummerSlam 1994 , in a Naked Gun parody , they were hot on the case ( in fact , they were standing on a case ) . Although they did not find The Undertaker , the case had been closed ( the literal case had been shut ) and thus , they solved the mystery . In 1990 , Nielsen appeared as a Frank Drebin character in advertisements in the United Kingdom for Red Rock Cider .
Non @-@ comedic roles after Airplane ! included Prom Night ( 1980 ) and Creepshow ( 1982 ) , both horror films , and as a dramatic and unsympathetic character in the 1986 comedy Soul Man . His last dramatic role was as Allen Green , a violent client of a prostitute killed in self @-@ defence by Barbra Streisand 's character , Claudia Draper , in Martin Ritt 's courtroom drama Nuts ( 1987 ) .
= = = Later comedies = = =
Subsequent to Airplane ! and The Naked Gun , Nielsen portrayed similar styled roles in a number of other films . These mostly emulated the style of The Naked Gun with varying success and often targeted specific films : many were panned by critics and most performed poorly . Repossessed ( 1990 ) and 2001 : A Space Travesty ( 2001 ) were parodies of The Exorcist and 2001 : A Space Odyssey , respectively . Both attempted absurd comedy but were poorly received . Even a leading role in a Mel Brooks comic horror , Dracula : Dead and Loving It , failed to generate much box office excitement , although it did gain a following later release to video . Both 1996 's Spy Hard and 1998 's Wrongfully Accused , a parody of James Bond films and The Fugitive , were popular on video but not well received by critics .
His attempt at children 's comedies met additional criticism . Surf Ninjas ( 1993 ) and Mr. Magoo ( 1997 ) had scathing reviews . Several critics were disappointed that Nielsen 's role in Surf Ninjas was only " an extended cameo " and Chris Hicks recommended that viewers " avoid any comedy that features Leslie Nielsen outside of the Naked Gun series . " Jeff Miller of the Houston Chronicle panned Mr. Magoo , a live action remake of the 1950s cartoon , by saying , " I 'm supposed to suggest how the film might be better but I can 't think of anything to say other than to make the film again . "
Nielsen 's first major success since The Naked Gun came in a supporting role in Scary Movie 3 ( 2003 ) . His appearance as President Harris led to a second appearance in its sequel , Scary Movie 4 ( 2006 ) . This was the first time Nielsen had reprised a character since Frank Drebin . In one scene , Nielsen appeared almost nude , and one critic referred to the scene as putting " the ' scary ' in Scary Movie 4 . "
= = = Video , stage , and celebrity productions = = =
Nielsen also produced instructional golf videos , which were not presented in a serious style , beginning with 1993 's Bad Golf Made Easier . The videos combined comedy with golf techniques . The series spawned two additional sequels , Bad Golf My Way ( 1994 ) and Stupid Little Golf Video ( 1997 ) . Nielsen also co @-@ wrote a fictional autobiography titled The Naked Truth . The book portrayed Nielsen as a popular actor with a long history of prestigious films .
In his eighties , Nielsen performed serious roles on screen and stage ( such as his one @-@ man theatre show Darrow , in which he played Clarence Darrow ) , as well as providing voice @-@ overs and appearances for commercials ; cartoons like Zeroman where he had the leading role / voice ; children 's shows , such as Pumper Pups , which he narrated , in addition to comedic film roles . The sibling relationship with his elder brother , the Honourable Erik Nielsen , a former Deputy Prime Minister of Canada , served as the premise of an HBO mockumentary entitled The Canadian Conspiracy in which Leslie Nielsen appeared , along with other prominent Canadian @-@ born media personalities . He was a celebrity contestant on CBS 's Gameshow Marathon , where he played The Price Is Right , Let 's Make a Deal , Beat the Clock , and Press Your Luck for charity .
= = = Final acting years = = =
Beginning in February 2007 , Nielsen began playing a small role as a doctor in the humorous yet educational television show Doctor * Ology . The show chronicles real @-@ life medical techniques and technology , on the Discovery Channel . Nielsen said : " There are any number of things that you think about when you ponder if you hadn 't been an actor , what would you be , and I 've always said I 'd like to be an astronaut or a doctor . I have such admiration for doctors . I just don 't know how you go around to thank them enough for coming up with the world 's most remarkable new discoveries . "
In 2007 , Nielsen starred in the drama Music Within . In 2008 , he portrayed a version of Uncle Ben for Superhero Movie , a spoof of superhero films . He then appeared in the 2008 parody An American Carol , which David Zucker directed , produced and co @-@ wrote . He appeared in the 2009 parody Stan Helsing . Nielsen portrayed the Doctor in the Spanish horror comedy Spanish Movie , a spoof comedy like Scary Movie , but making fun of popular Spanish films .
Nielsen appeared in more than 100 films and 1 @,@ 500 television episodes , portraying more than 220 characters .
= = Personal life = =
Nielsen married four times : nightclub singer Monica Boyar ( 1950 – 1956 ) , Alisande Ullman ( 1958 – 1973 ) , Brooks Oliver ( 1981 – 1983 ) and Barbaree Earl ( 2001 – 2010 ) . Nielsen had two daughters from his second marriage , Maura and Thea Nielsen .
Nielsen often played golf . He joked , " I have no goals or ambition . I do , however , wish to work enough to maintain whatever celebrity status I have so that they will continue to invite me to golf tournaments . " His interest in the sport led him to comedic instructional films .
Nielsen was a practical joker , and known for pranking people with a portable hand @-@ controlled fart machine : " he always had that fart machine with him . " His epitaph read : " Let ' er rip " , a final reference to his favourite practical joke .
Nielsen was legally deaf and wore hearing aids for most of his life . Because of this impairment , he supported the Better Hearing Institute . Later in life , Nielsen had knee osteoarthritis . He participated in an educational video from The Arthritis Research Centre of Canada ( ARC ) , demonstrating the physical examination of a patient with knee osteoarthritis .
= = Death = =
In November 2010 , Nielsen was admitted to a Fort Lauderdale , Florida , hospital with pneumonia . On 28 November , Doug Nielsen , Nielsen 's nephew , told the CJOB radio station that 84 @-@ year @-@ old Nielsen had died in his sleep from pneumonia around 5 : 30 pm EST surrounded by family and friends . He was interred in Fort Lauderdale 's Evergreen Cemetery . As a final bit of humor , Nielsen chose " Let ' er rip " as his epitaph .
= = Achievements = =
Among his awards , in 1995 Nielsen received UCLA 's Jack Benny Award . In 1988 , he became the 1,884th personality to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6541 Hollywood Blvd . In 2001 he was inducted into Canada 's Walk of Fame . The following year he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada , although he was also a naturalized US citizen . With his American status , he maintained his Canadian heritage : " There 's no way you can be a Canadian and think you can lose it ... Canadians are a goodly group . They are very aware of caring and helping . " On 19 May 2005 , during the centennial gala of his birth province , Saskatchewan , Leslie Nielsen was introduced to HM Queen Elizabeth II .
In 1997 , a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs , California , Walk of Stars was dedicated to him .
On 20 February 2002 , Nielsen was named an honorary citizen of West Virginia and an Ambassador of Mountain State Goodwill . Nielsen visited the state many times to speak and visit friends . In 2003 , in honour of Nielsen , Grant MacEwan College named its school of communications after him . Also in 2003 , the Alliance of Canadian Cinema , Television and Radio Artists awarded him the ACTRA Award of Excellence .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video = = =
1993 : Bad Golf Made Easier
1994 : Bad Golf My Way
1997 : Stupid Little Golf Video
1997 : National Geographic Video : The Savage Garden
Nielsen also appeared in a promotional video for Layman Allen 's mathematics game called " Equations " and in the Seaworld San Antonio Summer Nights 4 @-@ D show " Pirates 4 @-@ D " .
= = Writings = =
1993 : The Naked Truth
1995 : Leslie Nielsen 's Stupid Little Golf Book with Henry Beard
1996 : Bad Golf My Way with Henry Beard
= Kids Can Say No ! =
Kids Can Say No ! is a 1985 British short educational film produced and directed by Jessica Skippon and written by Anita Bennett . It is intended to teach children between ages five and eight how to avoid situations where they might be sexually abused , how to escape such situations , and how to get help if they are abused . In the film , Australian celebrity Rolf Harris is in a park with a group of four children and tells them about proper and improper physical intimacy , which he calls " yes " and " no " feelings . The film has four role @-@ playing scenes in which children encounter paedophiles , with Harris and the children discussing each scene .
Harris said that he came up with the idea for the film on a 1982 Canadian tour when he saw Vancouver 's Green Thumb Theatre production of Feeling Yes , Feeling No , a play about child sexual abuse . Kids Can Say No ! , released in October 1985 on VHS in the United Kingdom , was the first British children 's film about sexual abuse and was purchased by police forces , educational institutions , and libraries across Europe . Upon the film 's release , The Times obtained opinions from four sexual @-@ abuse experts , who unanimously opposed using Kids Can Say No ! or any other film to teach children about the subject . The Australian Broadcasting Corporation received a positive response to its 1988 broadcast of Kids Can Say No ! and therefore broadcast it a second time that year . Harris and Skippon collaborated on the 1986 sequel Beyond the Scare , which advises teachers about what to do if a child discloses abuse . Showings of Kids Can Say No ! eventually decreased as VHS became less popular .
Kids Can Say No ! resurfaced in 2014 , when Harris was prosecuted for twelve counts of indecently assaulting young girls . The prosecutors found Kids Can Say No ! on YouTube and wanted to show it at trial to illustrate its unintentional irony , but the film was not admitted as evidence . Harris was found guilty of all counts . During the trial , it was learned that , while Harris was filming Kids Can Say No ! , he was in the midst of a casual sexual relationship with his daughter Bindi 's best friend and , by its release , he had committed nine of the twelve assaults . According to Richard Guilliatt and Jacquelin Magnay in an article in The Australian , Harris ' campaign against paedophilia in Kids Can Say No ! can " be seen in retrospect as either monumental self @-@ delusion or a sign of deep , self @-@ lacerating guilt " .
= = Contents = =
In Kids Can Say No ! , Australian celebrity Rolf Harris appears with four children between the ages of seven and eight and warns them about paedophiles . The film begins with its theme song , " My Body " , which has the chorus " My body 's nobody 's body but mine . You run your own body . Let me run mine . " During the song , children ride a seesaw , skip rope and cycle . Harris sits under a tree in a park with the children — two girls and two boys — and tells them about proper and improper physical intimacy , which he calls " yes " and " no " feelings ; a parent 's hug is given as an example of a " yes " feeling . In vox populi segments , children give other examples of " yes " and " no " feelings ; one child says that being tickled by his father is a " yes " feeling , and another says that being squeezed hard is a " no " feeling . Harris leads the children in a chant of " Go away ! " as an exercise in how to respond to " no " feelings . He teaches the children about stranger danger , and that adults they know can also be a threat .
The film includes four role @-@ playing scenes . In the first , a man tells a girl that he will buy her a toy if she goes home with him . In the second , eight @-@ year @-@ old Natasha goes to her friend 's house and finds that only her friend 's father is home ; after he intentionally spills water on her clothes , he tells her to take them off . The film cuts to Harris , who says , " She should look him straight in the eye and tell him to stop , go away " . In the third scene , a group of older boys try to lure young children into their " special club " ; they lead one young boy to a secluded , wooded area and try to convince him to remove his clothes . In the last role @-@ playing scene , Sophie 's father offers her a secret bubble bath ; afterwards , he tells her not to tell anyone because he would go to jail and it would be her fault .
During and after each of the role @-@ playing scenes , Harris and the children discuss the situation and what the child should do . Harris tells the children not to be afraid to tell someone if they have been improperly touched , saying , " Some people don 't act right with kids , and they need help . You can 't protect them from trouble that they themselves have caused , and it 's better to say something so that you and the family can get the help you need . You know nothing gets better by keeping quiet about it . " Harris says that , if it is difficult to explain where they have been touched , they can draw a picture or point to the place on a doll . The film ends with " My Body " sung by a group of people including Harris , two police officers , and some children .
= = Production = =
Kids Can Say No ! is a twenty @-@ minute British short educational film intended to teach children about sexual abuse . Harris said he was naive about the subject and was motivated to make the film by a female teacher who told him that , when she spoke to her students about abuse , a traumatised girl ran out of the room ; the girl later disclosed that she was being abused by a family member . According to Harris , he came up with the idea for the film on a 1982 Canadian tour when he saw Vancouver 's Green Thumb Theatre production of Feeling Yes , Feeling No , a play about child sexual abuse . He was also inspired by a similar Australian production and a Swedish film about two children befriended by a large man on a farm . In an interview , Harris said that , when he saw the Swedish film , he thought the man was going to abuse the children , but that his expectations were incorrect and that " the film was completely innocent ; I was not " .
Harris , then host of Rolf 's Cartoon Time , approached the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children ( NSPCC ) and the Tavistock Clinic with his idea about making a film on child sexual abuse . Both organisations were receptive . Harris had previous connections with the NSPCC , having appeared in films in 1963 and 1973 promoting the NSPCC League of Pity , and a NSPCC official suggested that he use child actors in Kids Can Say No ! Harris approached director Jessica Skippon , with whom he had made a film about water safety , and said that he wanted to make Kids Can Say No ! to protect children . Harris later said that production was hampered by colleagues opposing the idea that children should be told about sexual abuse .
Kids Can Say No ! was made in London with input from Carolyn Okell Jones , an expert on child abuse , and was filmed on Hampstead Heath in 1985 . The child actors were students at the Barbara Speake Stage School . Skippon directed and produced the film . Funding was difficult because neither the Department of Health and Social Security nor the Home Office considered the film under their jurisdiction , and each office referred Skippon to the other . Childwatch , a charitable organisation , donated £ 15 @,@ 000 and technical facilities were provided by Barclays Bank Video . Harris covered the rest of the film 's production costs and American children 's songwriter Peter Alsop wrote the theme song . American Anita Bennett wrote the script , which was reviewed and approved by a NSPCC committee . Kids Can Say No ! was the second film from Rolf Harris Video , an educational video production company Harris founded in 1980 . In an interview , he said that his role of talking with children about sexual abuse in the film was a natural one because " my track record has made me a believable person . I have never betrayed the kids ' trust " .
Kids Can Say No ! was the first British children 's film about sexual abuse . The film is intended to teach children between ages five and eight how to avoid situations where they might be abused , how to get out of such situations , and how to get help if they are abused . Skippon later said that , although the people working on the film tried to keep it from being frightening to children , the task was difficult . She said that the film was not intended for home viewing and that only well @-@ informed adults trained in the subject should present it to children .
In April 1986 , Harris met with Western Australia Police officials and members of several state @-@ government departments in Mount Hawthorn to propose another film for children about how to handle sexual predators . Despite Harris ' offer to work for free , the officials declined and instead developed a broader campaign on the subject without Harris .
= = Release = =
Kids Can Say No ! was released in the United Kingdom in October 1985 on VHS with notes for teachers and two relevant books , and was distributed by Skippon Video , Skippon 's UK @-@ based company . Although several other short children 's educational films about sexual abuse were on the market in the UK including several also released that year , Kids Can Say No ! was the only British film ; the others were made in Australia , Canada and the United States .
In August 1986 , Jones presented the film at the Sydney Opera House in Australia as part of the sixth International Congress on Child Abuse and Neglect , the largest conference in the world on child abuse . The 56 @-@ year @-@ old Harris , who was chosen to be master of ceremonies for the three @-@ day conference 's opening event because of his celebrity and involvement with the film , told the audience that paedophilia was finally " coming out from under its veil of secrecy " .
Copies of Kids Can Say No ! were purchased by police forces , educational institutions , and libraries across Europe . The VHS tapes circulated widely in schools and rape crisis centers in Australia ; although showings began to decrease as VHS became less popular , the film was a significant teaching tool . The Australian Broadcasting Corporation received a positive response to its 1988 broadcast of Kids Can Say No ! and therefore broadcast it a second time that year .
= = = Sequel = = =
After the release of Kids Can Say No ! , many teachers who showed the film to their students reported receiving disclosures of abuse . Because many of the teachers said they were unsure of how to deal with the disclosures , Harris and Skippon collaborated on the 1986 sequel Beyond the Scare . Kids Can Say No ! encourages children to report abuse they experience and Beyond the Scare advises teachers about what to do if a child makes such a disclosure .
Beyond the Scare , filmed in a North London school , consists of role @-@ playing scenes with actual teachers . The film instructs teachers to listen to the child , to discuss the incident with the child 's parents and to contact the appropriate authorities . The Tavistock Clinic helped with the film 's production , and an expert from the organisation appears on @-@ camera to promote child protection projects in schools . Although Harris appears in Beyond the Scare , his role is less prominent than in Kids Can Say No ! and his activism against child abuse ended soon afterwards .
= = Harris ' trial = =
Kids Can Say No ! resurfaced in 2014 when Harris , then 83 years old , was prosecuted for twelve counts of indecent assault between 1968 and 1986 against four young girls ; the youngest was seven years old . The prosecutors found Kids Can Say No ! on YouTube and wanted to show it at trial for its unintentional irony , but the film was ruled irrelevant to the case and not admitted as evidence .
After the trial began , Skippon warned media outlets that it was illegal to use the film without written permission . The director wrote to The
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Independent that no complaints were made against Harris during the making of the film . In an article about the allegations against Harris , The Sunday Telegraph noted that Kids Can Say No ! was commissioned by the NSPCC ; a NSPCC spokesperson responded , " The film was made independently by Rolf Harris and a film company nearly 30 years ago ... We did not commission it , fund it , make it or distribute it " .
Southwark Crown Court found Harris guilty of all twelve counts of indecent assault . During the trial , it was learned that , while making Kids Can Say No ! , Harris was involved in a casual sexual relationship with his daughter Bindi 's best friend ; the relationship began when the victim was 13 years old and lasted for 15 years . Harris had committed nine of the twelve counts by the film 's release , including the assault of fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Tonya Lee in London three months before the release . The first victim was about the age of the children in Kids Can Say No ! The last assault of which Harris was convicted occurred several weeks after his meeting with officials in Western Australia to propose another film about child sexual abuse . A former child actor from the Barbara Speake Stage School who appeared in Kids Can Say No ! said that Harris ' behavior with older girls at the school made Harris ' eventual arrest unsurprising .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of Kids Can Say No ! have generally been negative , with initial reviews doubting the benefit of showing the film to children and later reviews focusing on Harris ' hypocrisy . In a 1985 Times review , Caroline Moorehead writes that the film 's avoidance of an explicit discussion of sexual abuse was both a requirement and the film 's greatest weakness . According to Moorehead , an explicit discussion might have terrified children and prevented parents from consenting to their children 's viewing of the film ; however , its oblique approach prevents children from understanding the issue . She calls the film 's theme song " catchy , one of those irritating snatches of music that is hard to forget " .
The Times obtained opinions from four sexual @-@ abuse experts , who unanimously opposed using Kids Can Say No ! or any other film to teach children about the subject . Northampton social worker Helen Kenward said that she would not show the film to children . Psychiatrist Brendan McCarthy called it simplistic . According to teacher Clare Rankin , children under five would not understand the film . Physician Paula Drummond was concerned that it might inspire children to falsely accuse adults they disliked , although McCarthy said that children were unlikely to make false abuse accusations . McCarthy was especially critical of the film , calling it " no clearer to a child than the Gorbachev @-@ Reagan talks " . Moorehead summarised the experts ' comments as suggesting that Kids Can Say No ! is " muddling , evasive and pussy @-@ footed , best not for children at all , but as ... aids for parents and professional workers to alert them to paedophilia and incest " .
In a 1988 Sydney Morning Herald review , Judith Whelan writes that Harris is more serious in the film than he was when performing " Jake the Peg " . According to Whelan , the film " would best be seen by children in a group , with an adult ( teacher or parent ) nearby who could encourage discussion after the show or answer children 's questions during it " .
When Kids Can Say No ! resurfaced in 2014 , Peter Walker wrote in The Guardian that the film " illustrates with grim eloquence , in retrospect , the prosecution notion that [ Harris ] was a man of two distinct sides : the avuncular and trustworthy public figure , and lurking behind , the groper and abuser " . Walker notes that the scene in which a man assaults his child 's friend mirrors what Harris did to his daughter 's best friend , and that the closing sequence has " an accidental resonance that would only emerge more than 25 years later " because of the two police officers behind Harris .
According to Richard Guilliatt and Jacquelin Magnay in an article in The Australian , Harris ' campaign against paedophilia in Kids Can Say No ! can " be seen in retrospect as either monumental self @-@ delusion or a sign of deep , self @-@ lacerating guilt " . NSPCC chief executive officer Peter Wanless appeared on Good Morning Britain saying that Harris ' appearance in the film was hypocritical . In an Irish Daily Mail article , Paul Bracchi writes that Harris ' work on Kids Can Say No ! at the same time that he was abusing girls was " one of the most sickening examples [ of ] hiding in plain sight " . In 2014 , theme composer Peter Alsop said that Harris may have used the film to groom children because it encouraged trust by parents .
= Deborah Kerr =
Deborah Kerr CBE ( / kɑːr / ; born Deborah Jane Kerr @-@ Trimmer ; 30 September 1921 – 16 October 2007 ) was a Scottish @-@ born film , theatre and television actress . During her career , she won a Golden Globe for her performance as Anna Leonowens in the motion picture The King and I ( 1956 ) and the Sarah Siddons Award for her performance as " Laura Reynolds " in the play Tea and Sympathy ( a role she originated on Broadway ) . She was also a three @-@ time winner of the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress .
Kerr was nominated six times for the Academy Award for Best Actress , more than any other actress without ever winning . In 1994 , however , having already received honorary awards from the Cannes Film Festival and BAFTA , she received an Academy Honorary Award with a citation recognising her as " an artist of impeccable grace and beauty , a dedicated actress whose motion picture career has always stood for perfection , discipline and elegance " . As well as The King and I , her films include An Affair to Remember ; From Here to Eternity ; Quo Vadis ; The Innocents ; Black Narcissus ; Heaven Knows , Mr. Allison ; King Solomon 's Mines ; The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp ; The Sundowners and Separate Tables .
= = Early life = =
Deborah Jane Kerr @-@ Trimmer was born in a private nursing home ( hospital ) in Glasgow , the only daughter of Kathleen Rose ( née Smale ) and Capt. Arthur Charles Kerr @-@ Trimmer , a World War I veteran who lost a leg at the Battle of the Somme and later became a naval architect and civil engineer . She spent the first three years of her life in the nearby town of Helensburgh , where her parents lived with Deborah 's grandparents in a house on West King Street . Kerr had a younger brother , Edmund ( " Teddy " ) , who became a journalist . He was killed in a road rage incident in 2004 .
Kerr was educated at the independent Northumberland House School , Henleaze , and at Rossholme School , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . Kerr originally trained as a ballet dancer , first appearing on stage at Sadler 's Wells in 1938 . After changing careers , she soon found success as an actress . Her first acting teacher was her aunt , Phyllis Smale , who ran the Hicks @-@ Smale Drama School in Bristol . She adopted the name Deborah Kerr on becoming a film actress ( " Kerr " was a family name going back to the maternal grandmother of her grandfather Arthur Kerr @-@ Trimmer ) .
= = Career = =
= = = Theatre = = =
Kerr 's first stage appearance was at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in 1937 , as " Harlequin " in the mime play Harlequin and Columbine . She then went to the Sadler 's Wells ballet school and in 1938 made her début in the corps de ballet in Prometheus . After various walk @-@ on parts in Shakespeare productions at the Open @-@ Air Theatre in Regent 's Park , London , she joined the Oxford Playhouse repertory company in 1940 , playing , inter alia , " Margaret " in Dear Brutus and " Patty Moss " in The Two Bouquets .
In 1943 , aged 21 , Kerr made her West End début as " Ellie Dunn " in a revival of Heartbreak House at the Cambridge Theatre , stealing attention from stalwarts such as Edith Evans and Isabel Jeans . " She has the rare gift " , wrote critic Beverley Baxter , " of thinking her lines , not merely remembering them . The process of development from a romantic , silly girl to a hard , disillusioned woman in three hours was moving and convincing " .
Deborah Kerr returned to the London stage 29 years later , in many productions including the old @-@ fashioned , The Day After the Fair ( Lyric , 1972 ) , a Peter Ustinov comedy , Overheard ( Haymarket , 1981 ) and a revival of Emlyn Williams 's The Corn is Green . After her first London success in 1943 , she toured England and Scotland in Heartbreak House . Near the end of the Second World War , she also toured Holland , France , and Belgium for ENSA as " Mrs Manningham " in Angel Street , and Britain ( with Stewart Granger ) in Gaslight .
Having established herself as a film actress in the meantime , she made her Broadway debut in 1953 , appearing in Robert Anderson 's Tea and Sympathy , for which she received a Tony Award nomination . Kerr repeated her role along with her stage partner John Kerr ( no relation ) in Vincente Minnelli 's film adaptation of the drama . In 1955 , Kerr won the Sarah Siddons Award for her performance in Chicago during a national tour of the play . After her Broadway début in 1953 , she toured the United States with Tea and Sympathy . In 1975 , she returned to Broadway , creating the role of Nancy in Edward Albee 's Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning play Seascape .
In 1977 , she came back to the West End , playing the title role in a production of George Bernard Shaw 's Candida .
The theatre , despite her success in films , was always to remain Kerr 's first love , even though going on stage filled her with trepidation :
I do it because it 's exactly like dressing up for the grown ups . I don 't mean to belittle acting but I 'm like a child when I 'm out there performing — shocking the grownups , enchanting them , making them laugh or cry . It 's an unbelievable terror , a kind of masochistic madness . The older you get , the easier it should be but it isn 't .
= = = Films = = =
Kerr 's first film role was in the British production Contraband in 1940 , but her scenes were left on the cutting room floor . With her next two British films — Major Barbara and Love on the Dole ( both 1941 ) — her screen future seemed assured and her performance , said James Agate of Love on the Dole , " is not within a mile of Wendy Hiller 's in the theatre , but it is a charming piece of work by a very pretty and promising beginner , so pretty and so promising that there is the usual yapping about a new star " . She went on to make Hatter 's Castle ( 1942 ) , in which she starred opposite Robert Newton and James Mason , and then played a Norwegian resistance fighter in The Day Will Dawn ( 1942 ) . She was an immediate hit with the public : British exhibitors voted her the most popular local female star at the box office .
In 1943 , she played three women in Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger 's The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp . During the filming , according to Powell 's autobiography , Powell and she became lovers : " I realised that Deborah was both the ideal and the flesh @-@ and @-@ blood woman whom I had been searching for " . Kerr made clear that her surname should be pronounced the same as " car " . To avoid confusion over pronunciation , Louis B. Mayer of MGM billed her as " Kerr rhymes with Star ! "
Although the British Army refused to co @-@ operate with the producers — and Winston Churchill thought the film would ruin wartime morale — Colonel Blimp confounded critics when it proved to be an artistic and commercial success . Powell hoped to reunite Kerr and lead actor Roger Livesey in his next film , A Canterbury Tale ( 1944 ) , but her agent had sold her contract to MGM . According to Powell , his affair with Kerr ended when she made it clear to him that she would accept an offer to go to Hollywood if one were made .
Her role as a troubled nun in the Powell and Pressburger production of Black Narcissus in 1947 did indeed bring her to the attention of Hollywood producers . The film was a hit in the US , as well as the UK , and Kerr won the New York Film Critics ' Award as Actress of the Year . British exhibitors voted her the eighth @-@ most popular local star at the box office . Soon she received the first of her Academy Award nominations for Edward , My Son , a 1949 drama set in England that co @-@ starred Spencer Tracy .
In Hollywood , Kerr 's British accent and manner led to a succession of roles portraying refined , reserved , and " proper " English ladies . Kerr , nevertheless , used any opportunity to discard her cool exterior . She starred in the 1950 adventure film King Solomon 's Mines , shot on location in Africa with Stewart Granger and Richard Carlson . This was immediately followed by her appearance in the religious epic Quo Vadis ? ( 1951 ) , shot at Cinecittà in Rome , in which she played the indomitable Lygia , a first @-@ century Christian . She then played Princess Flavia in a remake of The Prisoner of Zenda ( 1952 ) . In 1953 , Kerr " showed her theatrical mettle " as Portia in Joseph Mankiewicz 's Julius Caesar ( 1953 ) . She then departed from typecasting with a performance that brought out her sensuality , as " Karen Holmes " , the embittered military wife in Fred Zinnemann 's From Here to Eternity ( 1953 ) , for which she received an Oscar nomination for Best Actress . The American Film Institute acknowledged the iconic status of the scene from that film in which Burt Lancaster and she romped illicitly and passionately amidst crashing waves on a Hawaiian beach . The organisation ranked it 20th in its list of the 100 most romantic films of all time .
Thereafter , Kerr 's career choices would make her known in Hollywood for her versatility as an actress . She played the repressed wife in The End of the Affair ( 1955 ) , with Van Johnson ; a nun in Heaven Knows , Mr. Allison ( 1957 ) opposite her long @-@ time friend Robert Mitchum ; a mama 's girl in Separate Tables ( 1958 ) opposite David Niven ; and a governess in both The Chalk Garden and The Innocents ( 1961 ) . She also portrayed an earthy Australian sheep @-@ herder 's wife in The Sundowners and appeared as lustful and beautiful screen enchantresses in both Beloved Infidel and Bonjour Tristesse .
Among her most famous roles were Anna Leonowens in the film version of the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical The King and I ( 1956 ) ; and opposite Cary Grant as his shipboard romantic interest Terri McKay in the bittersweet love story An Affair to Remember ( 1957 ) . She reunited with Grant and Mitchum for a sophisticated comedy , The Grass Is Greener , and then joined Dean Martin and Frank Sinatra in a love triangle for a romantic comedy , Marriage on the Rocks . In 1966 , the producers of Carry On Screaming ! offered her a fee comparable to that paid to the rest of the cast combined , but she turned it down in favor of appearing in an aborted stage version of Flowers for Algernon .
In 1967 , Kerr starred in the comedy Casino Royale , achieving the distinction of being , at 46 , the oldest " Bond Girl " in any James Bond film , until Monica Bellucci , at the age of 50 , became a " Bond Girl " in Spectre ( 2015 ) . In 1969 , pressure of competition from younger , upcoming actresses made her agree to appear nude in John Frankenheimer 's The Gypsy Moths , the only nude scene in her career . Concern about the parts being offered to her , as well as the increasing amount of nudity included in films , led her to abandon the medium at the end of the 1960s in favour of television and theatre work .
= = = Television = = =
Kerr experienced a career resurgence on television in the early 1980s when she played the role of the nurse — played by Elsa Lanchester in the 1957 movie — in Witness for the Prosecution . Later , Kerr rejoined screen partner Robert Mitchum in Reunion at Fairborough . She also took on the role of the older Emma Harte , a tycoon , in the adaptation of Barbara Taylor Bradford 's A Woman of Substance . For this performance , Kerr was nominated for an Emmy Award .
= = Personal life = =
Kerr 's first marriage was to Squadron Leader Anthony Bartley RAF on 29 November 1945 . They had two daughters , Melanie Jane ( born 27 December 1947 ) and Francesca Ann ( born 20 December 1951 and subsequently married to the actor John Shrapnel ) . The marriage was troubled , owing to Bartley 's jealousy of his wife 's fame and financial success and because her career often took her away from home . They divorced in 1959 .
Her second marriage was to author Peter Viertel on 23 July 1960 . In marrying Viertel , she became stepmother to Viertel 's daughter , Christine Viertel . Although she long resided in Klosters , Switzerland and Marbella , Spain , she moved back to Britain to be closer to her own children as her health began to deteriorate . Her husband , however , continued to live in Marbella .
= = Death = =
Kerr died on 16 October 2007 in Botesdale , a village in Suffolk , England , from the effects of Parkinson 's disease . She was 86 . Less than three weeks later , on 4 November , her husband Peter Viertel died of cancer . At the time of Viertel 's death , director Michael Scheingraber was filming the documentary Peter Viertel : Between the Lines which would include reminiscences concerning Kerr and the Academy Awards . She is buried at Alfold .
= = Honours = =
Deborah Kerr was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in 1998 , but was unable to accept the honour in person because of ill health . She was also honoured in Hollywood , where , for her contributions to the motion picture industry , she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1709 Vine Street .
Kerr won a Golden Globe Award for " Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy " for The King and I in 1957 and a Henrietta Award for " World Film Favorite – Female " . She was the first performer to win the New York Film Critics Circle Award for " Best Actress " three times ( 1947 , 1957 and 1960 ) .
Although she never won a BAFTA , Oscar or Cannes Film Festival award in a competitive category , all three organisations gave Kerr honorary awards : a Cannes Film Festival Tribute in 1984 ; a BAFTA Special Award in 1991 ; and an Academy Honorary Award in 1994 .
In September and October 2010 , Josephine Botting of the British Film Institute curated the " Deborah Kerr Season " , which included around twenty of her feature films and an exhibition of posters , memorabilia and personal items loaned by her family .
Biographies of Kerr have been published by Eric Braun and , in 2010 , by the entertainment journalist Michelangelo Capua , but she has yet to receive an in @-@ depth study of her filmography , artistry or life .
= = Award nominations = =
Deborah Kerr was nominated six times for the Academy Award for Best Actress : Edward , My Son ( 1949 ) , From Here to Eternity ( 1953 ) , The King and I ( 1956 ) , Heaven Knows , Mr. Allison ( 1957 ) , Separate Tables ( 1958 ) and The Sundowners ( 1960 ) . She received one Academy Honorary Award for her career in 1994 .
She was also nominated four times for the BAFTA Award for Best British Actress : The End of the Affair ( 1955 ) , Tea and Sympathy ( 1956 ) , The Sundowners ( 1961 ) and The Chalk Garden ( 1964 ) .
She received one Emmy Award nomination in 1985 for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or a Special for A Woman of Substance . She was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama for Edward , My Son ( 1949 ) , Heaven Knows , Mr. Allison ( 1957 ) and Separate Tables ( 1958 ) .
= = Filmography = =
= = Radio appearances = =
= HMS Caesar ( 1896 ) =
HMS Caesar was a Majestic @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Royal Navy , named after the Roman military and political leader Julius Caesar . The ship was built at the Portsmouth Dockyard , starting with her keel laying in March 1895 . She was launched in September 1896 and was commissioned into the fleet in January 1898 . She was armed with a main battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and a secondary battery of twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns . The ship had a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
Caesar served with the Mediterranean Fleet after a brief stint in the Channel Fleet . In 1905 , she resumed service with a now re @-@ organised Channel Fleet and was also part of the Atlantic Fleet for a time . In the service of the Home Fleet from 1907 , she was placed in reserve in 1912 . Following the outbreak of World War I , Caesar returned to the Channel Fleet before being transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in 1915 after a brief spell as a guard ship at Gibraltar . From 1918 to 1919 she served as a depot ship , firstly in the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas and then the Black Sea , in support of naval operations against the Bolsheviks . In this latter role , she was the last of the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships to see service outside the United Kingdom . Returning to England in 1920 , she was decommissioned and sold for scrap in 1921 .
= = Design = =
Caesar was 421 feet ( 128 m ) long overall and had a beam of 75 ft ( 23 m ) and a draft of 27 ft ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced up to 16 @,@ 060 tonnes ( 15 @,@ 810 long tons ; 17 @,@ 700 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by eight coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . By 1907 – 1908 , she was re @-@ boilered with oil @-@ fired models . Her engines provided a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) at 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . The Majestics were considered to have handled well , with an easy roll , although they suffered from high fuel consumption . She had a crew of 672 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was armed with four BL 12 @-@ inch Mk VIII guns in twin turrets , one forward and one aft . The turrets were placed on circular barbettes , unlike six of her sisters , which retained earlier pear @-@ shaped barbettes . Caesar also carried twelve QF 6 @-@ inch / 40 guns . They were mounted in casemates in two gun decks amidships . She also carried sixteen QF 12 @-@ pounder guns and twelve QF 2 @-@ pounder guns . She was also equipped with five 18 @-@ inch ( 450 @-@ mm ) torpedo tubes , four of which were submerged in the ship 's hull on the broadside , with the last in a deck @-@ mounted launcher on the stern . Caesar and the other ships of her class had 9 inches ( 229 mm ) of Harvey armour , which allowed equal protection with less cost in weight compared to previous types of armour . This allowed Caesar and her sisters to have a deeper and lighter belt than previous battleships without any loss in protection . The barbettes for the main battery were protected with 14 in ( 360 mm ) of armour , and the conning tower had the same thickness of steel on the sides . The ship 's armoured deck was 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 in ( 64 to 114 mm ) thick .
= = Service history = =
HMS Caesar was built at the Portsmouth Dockyard , with her keel laying taking place on 25 March 1895 . She was launched on 2 September 1896 , and completed in January 1898 . The ship was commissioned at Portsmouth on 13 January to serve in the Mediterranean Fleet . Before leaving for the Mediterranean , she was attached temporarily to the Channel Fleet to serve in home waters . In May 1898 , Caesar departed the United Kingdom for her Mediterranean service , undergoing a refit at Malta in 1900 – 01 . Captain George Callaghan was appointed to command her on 21 December 1901 , succeeding Captain John Ferris . She ended her Mediterranean service in October 1903 , paying off at Portsmouth on 6 October 1903 to begin a refit . Her refit completed , Caesar was commissioned at Portsmouth on 2 February 1904 to relieve her sister ship HMS Majestic as flagship of the Channel Fleet . When the Channel Fleet became the Atlantic Fleet as a result of a reorganisation on 1 January 1905 , Caesar became flagship of the Atlantic Fleet . She was relieved of this duty in March 1905 , becoming 2nd Flagship of the new Channel Fleet ( which had been the Home Fleet prior to the reorganisation ) .
On 3 June 1905 , Caesar collided with and sank the barque Afghanistan off Dungeness , suffering significant damage ; her bridge wings were carried away and the boats , davits , and net booms on her port side were badly damaged . Caesar was refitted at Devonport to repair the damage . Caesar became Flagship , Rear Admiral , Home Fleet , in December 1905 . She was relieved of this duty in February 1907 and transferred back to the Atlantic Fleet to become its temporary flagship . She served in this role until May 1907 . On 27 May 1907 , Caesar was recommissioned for service in the Devonport Division of the new Home Fleet , which had been formed in January 1907 . During this service she underwent a refit at Devonport in 1907 – 08 . In May 1909 , Caesar transferred to the Nore , temporarily serving as the flagship of Vice Admiral , 3rd and 4th Divisions , Home Fleet . In April 1911 she transferred to Devonport to serve in the 3rd Division , Home Fleet . On 16 January 1911 , Caesar was rammed by the barque Excelsior in fog at Sheerness , suffering no serious damage . In March 1912 , Caesar was placed in commissioned reserve with a nucleus crew as part of the 4th Division , Home Fleet .
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Caesar was brought back into full commission and transferred to the 7th Battle Squadron of the Channel Fleet ; the squadron was charged with the defence of the English Channel . During this service she helped in transporting the Plymouth Marine Division from Plymouth to Ostend , Belgium , and covered the passage of the British Expeditionary Force from England to France in September 1914 . In December 1914 , Caesar was detached from the 7th Battle Squadron and transferred to Gibraltar to serve as guard ship and gunnery training ship there . In July 1915 , she transferred to the North America and West Indies Station , serving as guard ship and gunnery training ship at Bermuda and patrolling the Atlantic .
Her North America and West Indies Station service ended in September 1918 , when Caesar was transferred to relieve HMS Andromache ( the old second @-@ class cruiser and former minelayer HMS Latona ) as flagship of the Senior Naval Officer , British Adriatic Squadron , at Corfu , the last British pre @-@ dreadnought to serve as a flagship . In September 1918 , Caesar went to Malta for refit as a depot ship , during which she was equipped with repair shops and with leisure facilities such as recreation rooms and reading rooms . This conversion completed , she took up duties in October 1918 at Mudros as depot ship for the British Aegean Squadron . In January 1919 she was transferred to Port Said , Egypt , for service as a depot ship there . In June 1919 , Caesar transited the Dardanelles and transferred to the Black Sea , where she served as a depot ship for British naval forces operating against the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution . In this service she became the last British pre @-@ dreadnought to serve operationally overseas . Caesar returned to the United Kingdom in March 1920 , paid off at Devonport on 23 April 1920 , and was placed on the disposal list . She was sold to a British firm for scrapping on 8 November 1921 , then resold to a German firm in July 1922 and towed from Devonport to Germany to be scrapped .
= = Endnotes = =
= Siege of Godesberg =
The Siege of Godesberg , 18 November – 17 December 1583 , was the first major siege of the Cologne War ( 1583 – 1589 ) . Seeking to wrest control of an important fortification , Bavarian and mercenary soldiers surrounded the Godesberg ( " Wotan 's Mountain " ) , and the village then of the same name , now Bad Godesberg ( " Wotan 's Mountain Spa " ) , located at its foot . On top of the mountain sat a formidable fortress , similarly named Godesburg ( " Wotan 's Castle " ) , built in the early 13th century during a contest over the election of two competing archbishops .
Towering over the Rhine valley , the Godesburg 's strategic position commanded the roads leading to and from Bonn , the Elector of Cologne 's capital city , and Cologne , the region 's economic powerhouse . Over time , the Electors strengthened its walls and heightened its towers . They added a small residence in the 14th century and the donjon ( also called a Bergfried or keep ) developed as a stronghold of the Electoral archives and valuables . By the mid @-@ 16th century , the Godesburg was considered nearly impregnable and had become a symbol of the dual power of the Prince @-@ electors and Archbishops of Cologne , one of the wealthiest ecclesiastical territories in the Holy Roman Empire . The Cologne War , a feud between the Protestant Elector , Gebhard , Truchsess of Waldburg , and the Catholic Elector , Ernst of Bavaria , was yet another schismatic episode in the Electoral and archdiocesan history .
The Godesburg came under attack from Bavarian forces in November 1583 . It resisted a lengthy cannonade by the attacking army ; finally , sappers tunneled into the basalt core of the mountain , placed 680 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) of powder into the tunnel and blew up a significant part of the fortifications . The explosion killed many of the defending troops , but the resulting rubble impeded the attackers ' progress , and the remaining defenders continued to offer staunch resistance . Only when some of the attackers entered the castle 's inner courtyard through the latrine system were the Bavarians able to overcome their opponents . The Godesburg 's commander and some surviving defenders took refuge in the keep ; using prisoners held in the dungeons as hostages , the commander negotiated safe passage for himself , his wife and his lieutenant . The others who were left in the keep — men , women and children — were killed . Nearby Bonn fell to the Bavarians the following month .
= = Background = =
The Cologne War , 1583 – 1589 , was triggered by the 1582 conversion of the Archbishop @-@ Prince Elector of Cologne , Gebhard , Truchsess of Waldburg , to Calvinism , and his subsequent marriage to Agnes of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben in 1583 . When he refused to relinquish the Electorate , a faction of clerics in the Cologne Cathedral chapter elected another archbishop , Ernst of Bavaria , of the House of Wittelsbach .
Initially , troops of the competing Archbishops of Cologne fought for control of the Electorate ; within a few months , the local feud between the two parties expanded to include supporters from the Electorate of the Palatinate on the Protestant side , and the Duchy of Bavaria on the Catholic side . Italian mercenaries hired with papal gold augmented the Catholic force . In 1586 , the conflict expanded further , with direct involvement of the Spanish Netherlands for the Catholic side , and tertiary involvement from Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England on the Protestant side .
At its most fundamental , it was a local feud between two competing dynastic interests — the Seneschals ( Truchsess ) of the House of Waldburg and the dukes of the House of Wittelsbach — that acquired religious overtones . The dispute had broad implications in the political , social , and dynastic balance of the Holy Roman Empire . It tested the principle of ecclesiastical reservation established in the religious Peace of Augsburg ( 1555 ) . The 1555 agreement settled religious problems in the Empire with the principle Cuius regio , eius religio : the subjects of a secular prince followed the religion of their sovereign . Ecclesiastical reservation excluded the territories of the imperial prelates ( bishops , archbishops , abbots or abbesses ) from cuius regio , eius religio . In an ecclesiastical territory , if the prelate changed his religion , his subjects did not have to do so . Instead , the prelate was expected to resign from his post . Problematically , the 1555 agreement did not specify this detail .
= = = Controversy of conversion = = =
Agnes of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben was a Protestant canoness ( meaning that she was a woman living in a religious community , but not bound by a perpetual vow ) at a convent in Gerresheim , today a district of Düsseldorf . After 1579 , she maintained a lengthy liaison with the Archbishop of Cologne , Gebhard of Waldburg @-@ Trauchburg , Truchsess of Waldburg . In defense of her honor , two of her brothers convinced Gebhard to marry her , and Gebhard considered converting to Calvinism for her . Rumors spread throughout the Electorate of his possible conversion , and that he might refuse to relinquish his position . The Electorate had overcome similar problems . Hermann of Wied had converted to Protestantism and resigned in 1547 . Salentin of Isenburg @-@ Grenzau , Gebhard 's immediate predecessor , had resigned upon his marriage . In December 1582 , Gebhard announced his conversion and extended equal religious rights to Protestants in the Electorate . In February , he married Agnes . At the end of March 1583 , the Pope excommunicated him . The Cathedral chapter promptly elected a new archbishop , Ernst of Bavaria .
With two competing archbishops , both claiming the see and the Electorate , the contenders and their supporters gathered the troops . In numbers , Ernst had the advantage . The Pope hired 5 @,@ 000 mercenaries from the Farnese family to support the new Elector . Ernst 's brother , the Duke of Bavaria , provided an army and Ernst arranged for his brother Ferdinand 's army to take possession of the so @-@ called Oberstift , the southern territory of the Electorate ; his troops plundered many of its villages and towns .
With the support of Adolf von Neuenahr and the Count Solms , Gebhard secured some of the northern and eastern portions of the Electorate , where he held a geographical advantage in his proximity to the rebellious Dutch provinces . In the south , however , Ferdinand 's troops hunted the soldiers Gebhard had left in possession of such Oberstift villages as Ahrweiler and Linz ; Gebhard 's troops were forced out of their strongholds , hunted through the countryside , and eventually captured . By the fall of 1583 , most of the Oberstift had fallen to Ferdinand 's army and many of Gebhard 's erstwhile supporters — including his own brother — had returned home . In some cases , they honored parole agreements made after their capture . A strong supporter , Johann Casimir of Simmern , brother of the powerful Louis VI , Elector Palatine , returned to the Palatine when his brother died . Other supporters were frustrated by Gebhard 's chronic inability to pay his troops , or intimidated by threats of Rudolf II , Holy Roman Emperor . By late October 1583 , most of the Oberstift had fallen , although he still held the Godesburg , located near the villages of Godesberg and Friesdorf , the formidable fortress at Bonn , and the fortified village of Poppelsdorf .
= = Fortress = =
The Godesburg foundation stone was laid on 15 October 1210 upon the order of Dietrich of Hengebach , the Archbishop of Cologne , who was himself in disputed possession of the Electorate and fighting to keep his position . Although his competitors deposed Dietrich in 1212 , his successors finished and enlarged the fortress ; it featured in chronicles of the subsequent centuries as both a symbolic and physical embodiment of the power of the archbishop of Cologne in his many struggles for regional authority in secular and ecclesiastical matters . Furthermore , by the late 14th century , the fortress had become the repository of the Elector 's valuables and archives . By the mid @-@ 16th century , with the inclusion of residential facilities , the castle was popularly considered the Lieblingssitz , or the favorite seat ( home ) , of the Electors .
The fortification originally had been constructed in the medieval style . In the reign of Siegfried II of Westerburg ( 1275 – 1295 ) , it successfully resisted a five @-@ week siege by the Count of Cleves . Successive archbishops continued to improve the defenses with stronger walls , adding levels to the central Bergfried , which was cylindrical , not square like many medieval donjons . In addition to the construction of the small residence , these archbishops also expanded the inner works to include dungeons and a chapel ; they fortified the walls with towers and crenelations , added a curtain wall , and improved the roads that led to the entrance in a series of switchbacks . By the 1580s , the Godesburg was not only the favorite residence of the Elector , but also an elaborate stone fortress . Although it retained some of its medieval character , it had been enhanced partially in the style made popular by Italian military architects . The physical location on the mountain did not permit the star @-@ shaped trace italienne ; nevertheless , the Godesburg 's cordons of thick , rounded walls and massive iron @-@ studded gates made its defenders formidable adversaries . Its height , some 120 meters ( 400 ft ) above the Rhine on the peak of a steep hill , made artillery assault difficult . The approach road , with its hairpin turns , made battering rams impractical . The turns , overlooked by the castle wall , made foot assault dangerous and slow . Defenders could fire down on attackers from many angles .
Fortifications such as this , and the star @-@ shaped fortresses more commonly found in the flatter lands of the Dutch Provinces , increasingly made 16th @-@ century warfare both difficult and expensive ; victory was not simply a matter of winning a battle over the enemy 's army . Victory required traveling from one fortified and armed city to another and investing time and money in one of two outcomes . Ideally , a show of extraordinary force convinced city leaders to surrender . If the show of force did not intimidate a city , the alternative was an expensive siege that reduced the city to rubble and ended with storming the ruins . In the case of the former , when a city capitulated , it would have to quarter troops at its own expense , called execution , but the soldiers would not be permitted to plunder . In the case of the latter , no quarter would be given to the defenders and the victorious soldiers were released to pillage , plunder , and sack .
= = Investment of the Godesburg = =
On 13 – 14 November , Ferdinand of Bavaria ( Ernst 's brother ) and the Count of Arenberg took the Elector 's castle at Poppelsdorf ; on 18 November , they moved to attack the Godesburg . This fortress was considerably stronger than the one at Poppelsdorf and of supreme strategic importance for the projected attack on Bonn , the capital city of the Electorate .
The Godesburg was defended by Lieutenant Colonel Felix Buchner , Captain of the Guard Eduard Sudermann , a garrison of soldiers from the Netherlands , and a few cannons . Sudermann was a patrician from Cologne , and the son of Cologne 's Bürgermeister ( mayor ) Dr. Heinrich Sudermann ( 1520 – 1591 ) , a jurist and ambassador , and one of the most influential men in the imperial city and throughout the merchant capitals of the northern German states . According to contemporary sources , around 180 people lived in the facility , including peasants , the Dutch soldiers defending it , and an unknown number of women and children . The fortress was also home to several of Gebhard 's prisoners . The Abbot of Heisterbach , Johann von St. Vith , had been taken prisoner in July 1583 when Sudermann 's troops sacked several villages in the region and plundered the Heisterbach monastery . Other prisoners held in the Godesburg included Gebhard von Bothmer , the suffragan ( auxiliary bishop ) of Hildesheim , and Captain Ranucino from Florence , the captured commander of Deutz , across the Rhine from Cologne . To besiege the fortress , Ferdinand brought more than 400 Fussvolk ( foot soldiers ) and five squadrons of mounted soldiers , plus a half dozen heavy caliber cannons , called culverins . His soldiers , among them Spanish and Italian mercenaries , took up quarters in neighboring villages , a process accompanied by pillage , arson , murder and rape . On 18 November , the first day of the siege , Ferdinand sent a trumpeter and formally asked the fortress to surrender ; the defending garrison replied that they had sworn their allegiance to Gebhard and would fight to the death for him .
= = = Cannonade ( 18 – 28 November 1583 ) = = =
In response , Ferdinand took control of the village at the foot of the mountain and encircled the site . He surveyed the locale for two days to identify the most promising angle of attack . The customary equipage of siege warfare — the siege tower , the trebuchet , and the crossbow — would be ineffective . The distance between the curtain wall and the valley floor and the angle of the hill placed the Godesburg out of range . The besiegers had no choice but to use expensive artillery , although the angle would decrease its effectiveness . Ferdinand initially placed three cannons at the foot of the mountain , in Godesberg village . Daily , cannonballs and mortar shells smashed against the castle 's walls . Nightly , the defenders repaired the damage . At the following sunrise , the assault began anew . Ferdinand 's cannons were ineffective against the fortification , as were his mortars ; in the course of the cannonade , return fire even managed to destroy a few of his own pieces . From his place of safety in the north , Gebhard understood well the potential of the loss of the Godesburg , yet he was relatively helpless to help his garrison . In an effort to garner financial support from the Protestant states , in November 1583 he wrote to the Archbishop of Canterbury , in London : " Verily , the Roman Antichrist moves every stone to oppress us and our churches ... "
Although financial help from the English was not forthcoming , Ferdinand could not break the defenses . On 28 November , ten days after the beginning of the siege , artillery fire had wasted several thousand pounds of powder in the ineffectual bombardment . Ferdinand moved his cannons to an elevated position in a hillside vineyard to the west of the Godesburg . The height offered a more advantageous trajectory with which to fire on the walls of the Godesburg 's outer ward . Within a few hours , his cannonade had breached them . Ferdinand sent three Italian experts to examine the breach and to advise him on the next step ; the Italians , having come under fire during their examination , concluded that storming the castle would incur many casualties . The defenders still had the advantage of height and would be able to shoot at attackers from multiple towers and defensive positions inside the walls . Ferdinand decided not to pursue this tactic . Unable to storm the castle , Ferdinand considered two options : abandon the siege , which he could not do , or blow up the fortress . This option of last resort usually made a fortress unusable . Furthermore while he considered his options , the defenders repaired the breaches caused by the cannonade and reinforced the walls , making them even stronger than they had been . The defenders also removed the roof of the St. Michael 's Chapel in the castle 's outer ward , filled the chapel with dirt to reinforce its walls , and placed some of their artillery pieces within the walls .
= = = Sapping ( completed 16 December 1583 ) = = =
Ferdinand reluctantly ordered saps to be dug into the side of the mountain . The sapping was difficult and dangerous and the sappers worked under continuous attack from the castle 's defenders , who fired on them with small arms and the castle 's artillery and dropped rocks and debris on their heads . The forced labor of local peasants minimized losses among Ferdinand 's own troops , but many of the peasants perished in the effort .
On 6 December , the sappers reached the south @-@ eastern side of the fortress 's outermost wall and then spent another ten days undermining the basalt on which the castle stood ; they completed their work on 16 December and placed 680 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) of powder into the mine . Ferdinand reported on the siege 's progress in a letter to his older brother , Duke Wilhelm , dated 15 December 1583 : " The fortress stands on solid rock . ... [ Y ] esterday we had reached the outer wall of the castle , and in a day or two we hope to send the fortress into the sky . "
= = = Destruction of the fortress ( 17 December 1583 ) = = =
On 17 December , Ferdinand again asked the castle 's defenders to surrender . They replied that they did not know the meaning of the word and would hold the Godesburg to the last
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Capone , a game artist who worked on titles including Gears of War , Kinectimals , and Saints Row , thought that Molyneux 's ambition outweighed his propensity for overstatement , and appreciated the game designer 's moxie in an industry known for safe ideas . Capone viewed Molyneux as a tragicomic character : full of creative ideas that are continually received by an unkind or indifferent audience . Capone did not expect the parody account to last long , but he became drawn to the persona . The parody 's content came to Capone " naturally " from games , game podcasts , and game news websites . He liked that he was able to give away his ideas — good and bad — while actual game designers must protect their ideas and implement them before others .
The account 's early tweets mocked Project Milo , a game Molyneux had introduced at the 2009 Electronic Entertainment Expo days before Capone began to tweet . The original persona 's content was modeled on previous Molyneux speeches . After exhausting Milo and Project Natal material , Capone tweeted clever game design concepts in Molyneux 's signature hyperbolic style . Capone found that the format had currency with his account 's followers . An underlying theme of these proposals is the untapped potential of emotional game experiences , as the tweets ask followers to imagine games that cross over into real life . He later added a " Retrodeux " series , which proposes bold updates for classic games , and video content . Other characters appear in the parody tweets , including mock family members and interns . Capone made Cliff Bleszinski into an adversarial foil for his parody character . The game designer is young , trendy , and supportive of the type of games Molyneux would hate . Capone views his persona as satirical caricature and is mindful of industry politics , especially when some mistake him for Molyneux . Once Capone reached 10 @,@ 000 followers , he set a goal of overtaking Molyneux 's own follower count .
The parody account is in contact with its namesake . Microsoft 's press department first introduced Peter Molyneux to his parody account in mid @-@ 2011 . The game designer was first annoyed at the caricature 's " pathetic " and impotent demeanor , but came to regard the parody as clever , creative , and admirable . The account reminded Molyneux of his energy earlier in his career , and helped convince him to leave Microsoft and pursue another audacious game design idea . Free of restrictions on press activity , Molyneux contacted Capone 's parody account upon leaving Microsoft . The two met later in person at Molyneux 's new studio .
As Capone 's account grew in popularity throughout 2011 , it became a mouthpiece for thousands of dissatisfied game developers who sought greater variety in mainstream games . The Twitter account 's growth was spurred by coverage in video game media . It had 23 @,@ 000 followers by the end of 2011 . The first Flash game based on one of his ideas was created in October 2011 . Capone said that Goodbye , My Love ironically " used the most dated gameplay out there " despite his tweet 's intention " to inspire an incredibly innovative game " . Twitter briefly closed the account near the end of 2011 as an impersonation rather than a parody account , but soon reversed its actions .
In March 2012 , multiple followers of the account began to plan a Molydeux game jam , an event in which game developers would create a game based on one of Molydeux 's tweets over the course of a weekend . Capone supported the effort but limited his participation to the creation of a promotional video . The event , known then as What Would Molydeux ? and later as Molyjam , soon grew from a San Francisco @-@ based affair into an international , multisite event with satellite locations in the Netherlands , New York City , and Melbourne in 32 total locations . The event was held the weekend of March 30 , and around 1 @,@ 000 attendees made around 300 games , of which Capone found 15 games interesting . Professional cameos included David Hellman ( Braid ) in San Francisco and Peter Molyneux himself in London , where he gave an uncharacteristically fiery keynote speech that encouraged developers to " innovate ... come together and do crazy things " . While most games tended to consist of normal game mechanics underneath a bizarre concept , Wired said that their inability to deliver on their promise was the jam 's " most Molyneuxian touch " .
Later that year , Capone created a trailer for one of Molyneux 's upcoming games . Molyneux found the parody " truly amazing " . In 2013 , the parody account proposed a game design school that would emphasize " enlightenment " over marketability and other attributes he attributed to existing game design schools .
= = Content = =
Some of the parody account 's proposals include :
A racing game in which the player controls the road instead of the vehicle
A Kinect game in which the player must cry to open a gate
An eight @-@ person online multiplayer game in which each player controls one leg of an octopus
The final segment of a war game , in which the player pauses in silence at the tombstone of each KIA recruit
A 3D adventure game in which the amnesiac player awakens in a museum with a room dedicated to each year of the character 's life
The player holds a radioactive baby , which acts as a torch in a dark environment ; rocking the baby increases its luminescence
The player pretends to be blind and must walk into objects to avoid suspicion
A bear must hug people in order to live , but crushes the people he hugs
A pigeon carries sentimental objects to businessmen to persuade them not to kill themselves
A divorced father sneaks into his family house to help with chores without alerting them
When the player kills henchmen in one game , the player sees recurring images of those henchmen 's crying children in an unrelated sports video game
A version of Street Fighter in which streets fight other streets
= = Reception = =
After two years , the account went viral in 2011 . While Capone remained anonymous , games journalists , such Kotaku and GameSetWatch , began to cover his tweets and journalists , such as Leigh Alexander ( Gamasutra ) and Alex Navarro ( Giant Bomb ) , reposted his content . Journalists did not view the parody as a mockery but instead as representative of a growing dissatisfaction over clichéd trends in the mainstream games industry . In this way , the account led to greater respect for Molyneux 's temerity . Kotaku wrote that Capone 's account displayed uncharacteristic creativity on his part , but Capone countered by saying that most game designers have endless game ideas and that real skill rests in applying them well .
The Twitter account also reinvigorated Molyneux 's legacy . The tweets established Molyneux as a " grand dreamer " and precipitated his Molyjam keynote address , which made Molyneux into a " patron saint of the indie game movement " . They also affected Molyneux 's own life course as he decided to leave his creative director position at Microsoft Games Studios . Wired suggested that Molyneux 's first game after leaving the company , Curiosity , could itself be based on a tweet from the parody account . Kotaku wrote that the statements of Molyneux and Molydeux are " often ... indistinguishable " . The Twitter account inspired the Molyjam game jam , which was also pivotal in Molyneux 's legacy . Wired wrote that his Molyjam keynote speech channeled the parody account while only a month earlier , Molyneux had been promoting the next Fable game . A second game jam based on quotes from Molyneux himself took place in July 2013 .
Cassandra Khaw of USgamer wrote that Molydeux has a track record of making avant @-@ garde and strange concepts come to life . One Molyjam title , Donut County , continued development and is expected for release in 2016 . Its core premise is a " reverse Katamari " in which the player moves a hole in the ground , which expands upon swallowing items . Eurogamer wrote that the Twitter account continued the tradition of previous Molyneux spoofs , such as a quest in Fable 2 that imitated an idiosyncratic tree @-@ growing mechanic from its predecessor . As of 2012 , Capone 's account had cornered the market .
= Curium =
Curium is a transuranic radioactive chemical element with symbol Cm and atomic number 96 . This element of the actinide series was named after Marie and Pierre Curie – both were known for their research on radioactivity . Curium was first intentionally produced and identified in July 1944 by the group of Glenn T. Seaborg at the University of California , Berkeley . The discovery was kept secret and only released to the public in November 1945 . Most curium is produced by bombarding uranium or plutonium with neutrons in nuclear reactors – one tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 20 grams of curium .
Curium is a hard , dense , silvery metal with a relatively high melting point and boiling point for an actinide . Whereas it is paramagnetic at ambient conditions , it becomes antiferromagnetic upon cooling , and other magnetic transitions are also observed for many curium compounds . In compounds , curium usually exhibits valence + 3 and sometimes + 4 , and the + 3 valence is predominant in solutions . Curium readily oxidizes , and its oxides are a dominant form of this element . It forms strongly fluorescent complexes with various organic compounds , but there is no evidence of its incorporation into bacteria and archaea . When introduced into the human body , curium accumulates in the bones , lungs and liver , where it promotes cancer .
All known isotopes of curium are radioactive and have a small critical mass for a sustained nuclear chain reaction . They predominantly emit α @-@ particles , and the heat released in this process can potentially produce electricity in radioisotope thermoelectric generators . This application is hindered by the scarcity , high cost and radioactivity of curium isotopes . Curium is used in production of heavier actinides and of the 238Pu radionuclide for power sources in artificial pacemakers . It served as the α @-@ source in the alpha particle X @-@ ray spectrometers installed on several space probes , including the Sojourner , Spirit , Opportunity and Curiosity Mars rovers and the Philae lander on comet 67P / Churyumov @-@ Gerasimenko , to analyze the composition and structure of the surface .
= = History = =
Although curium had likely been produced in previous nuclear experiments , it was first intentionally synthesized , isolated and identified in 1944 , at the University of California , Berkeley , by Glenn T. Seaborg , Ralph A. James , and Albert Ghiorso . In their experiments , they used a 60 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) cyclotron .
Curium was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( now Argonne National Laboratory ) at the University of Chicago . It was the third transuranium element to be discovered even though it is the fourth in the series – the lighter element americium was unknown at the time .
The sample was prepared as follows : first plutonium nitrate solution was coated on a platinum foil of about 0 @.@ 5 cm2 area , the solution was evaporated and the residue was converted into plutonium ( IV ) oxide ( PuO2 ) by annealing . Following cyclotron irradiation of the oxide , the coating was dissolved with nitric acid and then precipitated as the hydroxide using concentrated aqueous ammonia solution . The residue was dissolved in perchloric acid , and further separation was carried out by ion exchange to yield a certain isotope of curium . The separation of curium and americium was so painstaking that the Berkeley group initially called those elements pandemonium ( from Greek for all demons or hell ) and delirium ( from Latin for madness ) .
The curium @-@ 242 isotope was produced in July – August 1944 by bombarding 239Pu with α @-@ particles to produce curium with the release of a neutron :
<formula>
Curium @-@ 242 was unambiguously identified by the characteristic energy of the α @-@ particles emitted during the decay :
<formula>
The half @-@ life of this alpha decay was first measured as 150 days and then corrected to 162 @.@ 8 days .
Another isotope 240Cm was produced in a similar reaction in March 1945 :
<formula>
The half @-@ life of the 240Cm α @-@ decay was correctly determined as 26 @.@ 7 days .
The discovery of curium , as well as americium , in 1944 was closely related to the Manhattan Project , the results were confidential and declassified only in 1945 . Seaborg leaked the synthesis of the elements 95 and 96 on the U.S. radio show for children , the Quiz Kids , five days before the official presentation at an American Chemical Society meeting on November 11 , 1945 , when one of the listeners asked whether any new transuranium element beside plutonium and neptunium had been discovered during the war . The discovery of curium ( 242Cm and 240Cm ) , their production and compounds were later patented listing only Seaborg as the inventor .
The new element was named after Marie Skłodowska @-@ Curie and her husband Pierre Curie who are noted for discovering radium and for their work in radioactivity . It followed the example of gadolinium , a lanthanide element above curium in the periodic table , which was named after the explorer of the rare earth elements Johan Gadolin :
" As the name for the element of atomic number 96 we should like to propose " curium " , with symbol Cm . The evidence indicates that element 96 contains seven 5f electrons and is thus analogous to the element gadolinium with its seven 4f electrons in the regular rare earth series . On this base element 96 is named after the Curies in a manner analogous to the naming of gadolinium , in which the chemist Gadolin was honored . "
The first curium samples were barely visible , and were identified by their radioactivity . Louis Werner and Isadore Perlman created the first substantial sample of 30 µg curium @-@ 242 hydroxide at the University of California in 1947 by bombarding americium @-@ 241 with neutrons . Macroscopic amounts of curium ( III ) fluoride were obtained in 1950 by W. W. T. Crane , J. C. Wallmann and B. B. Cunningham . Its magnetic susceptibility was very close to that of GdF3 providing the first experimental evidence for the + 3 valence of curium in its compounds . Curium metal was produced only in 1951 by reduction of CmF3 with barium .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical = = =
A synthetic , radioactive element , curium is a hard dense metal with silvery @-@ white appearance and physical and chemical properties resembling those of gadolinium . Its melting point of 1340 ° C is significantly higher than that of the previous transuranic elements neptunium ( 637 ° C ) , plutonium ( 639 ° C ) and americium ( 1173 ° C ) . In comparison , gadolinium melts at 1312 ° C. The boiling point of curium is 3110 ° C. With a density of 13 @.@ 52 g / cm3 , curium is significantly lighter than neptunium ( 20 @.@ 45 g / cm3 ) and plutonium ( 19 @.@ 8 g / cm3 ) , but is heavier than most other metals . Between two crystalline forms of curium , the α @-@ Cm is more stable at ambient conditions . It has a hexagonal symmetry , space group P63 / mmc , lattice parameters a
= 365 pm and c =
1182 pm , and four formula units per unit cell . The crystal consists of a double @-@ hexagonal close packing with the layer sequence ABAC and so is isotypic with α @-@ lanthanum . At pressures above 23 GPa , at room temperature , α @-@ Cm transforms into β @-@ Cm , which has a face @-@ centered cubic symmetry , space group Fm3m and the lattice constant a = 493 pm . Upon further compression to 43 GPa , curium transforms to an orthorhombic γ @-@ Cm structure similar to that of α @-@ uranium , with no further transitions observed up to 52 GPa . These three curium phases are also referred to as Cm I , II and III .
Curium has peculiar magnetic properties . Whereas its neighbor element americium shows no deviation from Curie @-@ Weiss paramagnetism in the entire temperature range , α @-@ Cm transforms to an antiferromagnetic state upon cooling to 65 – 52 K , and β @-@ Cm exhibits a ferrimagnetic transition at about 205 K. Meanwhile , curium pnictides show ferromagnetic transitions upon cooling : 244CmN and 244CmAs at 109 K , 248CmP at 73 K and 248CmSb at 162 K. Similarly , the lanthanide analogue of curium , gadolinium , as well as its pnictides also show magnetic transitions upon cooling , but the transition character is somewhat different : Gd and GdN become ferromagnetic , and GdP , GdAs and GdSb show antiferromagnetic ordering .
In accordance with magnetic data , electrical resistivity of curium increases with temperature – about twice between 4 and 60 K – and then remains nearly constant up to room temperature . There is a significant increase in resistivity over time ( about 10 µΩ · cm / h ) due to self @-@ damage of the crystal lattice by alpha radiation . This makes uncertain the absolute resistivity value for curium ( about 125 µΩ · cm ) . The resistivity of curium is similar to that of gadolinium and of the actinides plutonium and neptunium , but is significantly higher than that of americium , uranium , polonium and thorium .
Under ultraviolet illumination , curium ( III ) ions exhibit strong and stable yellow @-@ orange fluorescence with a maximum in the range about 590 – 640 nm depending on their environment . The fluorescence originates from the transitions from the first excited state 6D7 / 2 and the ground state 8S7 / 2 . Analysis of this fluorescence allows monitoring interactions between Cm ( III ) ions in organic and inorganic complexes .
= = = Chemical = = =
Curium ions in solution almost exclusively assume the oxidation state of + 3 , which is the most stable oxidation state for curium . The + 4 oxidation state is observed mainly in a few solid phases , such as CmO2 and CmF4 . Aqueous curium ( IV ) is only known in the presence of strong oxidizers such as potassium persulfate , and is easily reduced to curium ( III ) by radiolysis and even by water . The chemical behavior of curium is different from the actinides thorium and uranium , and is similar to that of americium and many lanthanides . In aqueous solution , the Cm3 + ion is colorless to pale green , and Cm4 + ion is pale yellow . The optical absorption of Cm3 + ions contains three sharp peaks at 375 @.@ 4 , 381 @.@ 2 and 396 @.@ 5 nanometers and their strength can be directly converted into the concentration of the ions . The + 6 oxidation state has only been reported once in solution in 1978 , as the curyl ion ( CmO2 +
2 ) : this was prepared from the beta decay of americium @-@ 242 in the americium ( V ) ion 242AmO +
2 . Failure to obtain Cm ( VI ) from oxidation of Cm ( III ) and Cm ( IV ) may be due to the high Cm4 + / Cm3 + ionization potential and the instability of Cm ( V ) .
Curium ions are hard Lewis acids and thus form most stable complexes with hard bases . The bonding is mostly ionic , with a small covalent component . Curium in its complexes commonly exhibits a 9 @-@ fold coordination environment , within a tricapped trigonal prismatic geometry .
= = = Isotopes = = =
About 20 radioisotopes and 7 nuclear isomers between 233Cm and 252Cm are known for curium , and no stable isotopes . The longest half @-@ lives have been reported for 247Cm ( 15 @.@ 6 million years ) and 248Cm ( 348 @,@ 000 years ) . Other long @-@ lived isotopes are 245Cm ( half @-@ life 8500 years ) , 250Cm ( 8 @,@ 300 years ) and 246Cm ( 4 @,@ 760 years ) . Curium @-@ 250 is unusual in that it predominantly ( about 86 % ) decays via spontaneous fission . The most commonly used curium isotopes are 242Cm and 244Cm with the half @-@ lives of 162 @.@ 8 days and 18 @.@ 1 years , respectively .
All isotopes between 242Cm and 248Cm , as well as 250Cm , undergo a self @-@ sustaining nuclear chain reaction and thus in principle can act as a nuclear fuel in a reactor . As in most transuranic elements , the nuclear fission cross section is especially high for the odd @-@ mass curium isotopes243Cm , 245Cm and 247Cm . These can be used in thermal @-@ neutron reactors , whereas a mixture of curium isotopes is only suitable for fast breeder reactors since the even @-@ mass isotopes are not fissile in a thermal reactor and accumulate as burn @-@ up increases . The mixed @-@ oxide ( MOX ) fuel , which is to be used in power reactors , should contain little or no curium because the neutron activation of 248Cm will create californium . This is strong neutron emitter , and would pollute the back end of the fuel cycle and increase the dose to reactor personnel . Hence , if the minor actinides are to be used as fuel in a thermal neutron reactor , the curium should be excluded from the fuel or placed in special fuel rods where it is the only actinide present .
The table to the right lists the critical masses for curium isotopes for a sphere , without a moderator and reflector . With a metal reflector ( 30 cm of steel ) , the critical masses of the odd isotopes are about 3 – 4 kg . When using water ( thickness ~ 20 – 30 cm ) as the reflector , the critical mass can be as small as 59 gram for 245Cm , 155 gram for 243Cm and 1550 gram for 247Cm . There is a significant uncertainty in these critical mass values . Whereas it is usually of the order 20 % , the values for 242Cm and 246Cm were listed as large as 371 kg and 70 @.@ 1 kg , respectively , by some research groups .
Currently , curium is not used as a nuclear fuel owing to its low availability and high price . 245Cm and 247Cm have a very small critical mass and therefore could be used in portable nuclear weapons , but none have been reported thus far . Curium @-@ 243 is not suitable for this purpose because of its short half @-@ life and strong α emission which would result in excessive heat . Curium @-@ 247 would be highly suitable , having a half @-@ life 647 times that of plutonium @-@ 239 .
= = = Occurrence = = =
The longest @-@ lived isotope of curium , 247Cm , has a half @-@ life of 15 @.@ 6 million years . Therefore , any primordial curium , that is curium present on the Earth during its formation , should have decayed by now . Curium is produced artificially , in small quantities for research purposes . Furthermore , it occurs in spent nuclear fuel . Curium is present in nature in certain areas used for the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests , which were conducted between 1945 and 1980 . So the analysis of the debris at the testing site of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb , Ivy Mike , ( 1 November 1952 , Enewetak Atoll ) , beside einsteinium , fermium , plutonium and americium also revealed isotopes of berkelium , californium and curium , in particular 245Cm , 246Cm and smaller quantities of 247Cm , 248Cm and 249Cm . For reasons of military secrecy , this result was published only in 1956 .
Atmospheric curium compounds are poorly soluble in common solvents and mostly adhere to soil particles . Soil analysis revealed about 4 @,@ 000 times higher concentration of curium at the sandy soil particles than in water present in the soil pores . An even higher ratio of about 18 @,@ 000 was measured in loam soils .
The transuranic elements from americium to fermium , including curium , occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo , but no longer do so . Exceedingly minute amounts of the isotope 244Cm may be produced naturally from the theoretically predicted extremely rare double beta decay of the trace primordial isotope 244Pu , but this has not yet been observed .
= = Synthesis = =
= = = Isotope preparation = = =
Curium is produced in small quantities in nuclear reactors , and by now only kilograms of it have been accumulated for the 242Cm and 244Cm and grams or even milligrams for heavier isotopes . This explains the high price of curium , which has been quoted at 160 – 185 USD per milligram , with a more recent estimate at 2 @,@ 000 USD / g for 242Cm and 170 USD / g for 244Cm . In nuclear reactors , curium is formed from 238U in a series of nuclear reactions . In the first chain , 238U captures a neutron and converts into 239U , which via β − decay transforms into 239Np and 239Pu .
Further neutron capture followed by β − -decay produces the 241Am isotope of americium which further converts into 242Cm :
For research purposes , curium is obtained by irradiating not uranium but plutonium , which is available in large amounts from spent nuclear fuel . Much higher neutron flux is used for the irradiation that results in a different reaction chain and formation of 244Cm :
Curium @-@ 244 decays into 240Pu by emission of alpha particle , but it also absorbs neutrons resulting in a small amount of heavier curium isotopes . Among those , 247Cm and 248Cm are popular in scientific research because of their long half @-@ lives . However , the production rate of 247Cm in thermal neutron reactors is relatively low because of it is prone to undergo fission induced by thermal neutrons . Synthesis of 250Cm via neutron absorption is also rather unlikely because of the short half @-@ life of the intermediate product 249Cm ( 64 min ) , which converts by β − decay to the berkelium isotope 249Bk .
The above cascade of ( n , γ ) reactions produces a mixture of different curium isotopes . Their post @-@ synthesis separation is cumbersome , and therefore a selective synthesis is desired . Curium @-@ 248 is favored for research purposes because of its long half @-@ life . The most efficient preparation method of this isotope is via α @-@ decay of the californium isotope 252Cf , which is available in relatively large quantities due to its long half @-@ life ( 2 @.@ 65 years ) . About 35 – 50 mg of 248Cm is being produced by this method every year . The associated reaction produces 248Cm with isotopic purity of 97 % .
Another interesting for research isotope 245Cm can be obtained from the α @-@ decay of 249Cf , and the latter isotope is produced in minute quantities from the β − -decay of the berkelium isotope 249Bk .
= = = Metal preparation = = =
Most synthesis routines yield a mixture of different actinide isotopes as oxides , from which a certain isotope of curium needs to be separated . An example procedure could be to dissolve spent reactor fuel ( e.g. MOX fuel ) in nitric acid , and remove the bulk of the uranium and plutonium using a PUREX ( Plutonium – URanium EXtraction ) type extraction with tributyl phosphate in a hydrocarbon . The lanthanides and the remaining actinides are then separated from the aqueous residue ( raffinate ) by a diamide @-@ based extraction to give , after stripping , a mixture of trivalent actinides and lanthanides . A curium compound is then selectively extracted using multi @-@ step chromatographic and centrifugation techniques with an appropriate reagent . Bis @-@ triazinyl bipyridine complex has been recently proposed as such reagent which is highly selective to curium . Separation of curium from a very similar americium can also be achieved by treating a slurry of their hydroxides in aqueous sodium bicarbonate with ozone at elevated temperature . Both americium and curium are present in solutions mostly in the + 3 valence state ; whereas americium oxidizes to soluble Am ( IV ) complexes , curium remains unchanged and can thus be isolated by repeated centrifugation .
Metallic curium is obtained by reduction of its compounds . Initially , curium ( III ) fluoride was used for this purpose . The reaction was conducted in the environment free from water and oxygen , in the apparatus made of tantalum and tungsten , using elemental barium or lithium as reducing agents .
<formula>
Another possibility is the reduction of curium ( IV ) oxide using a magnesium @-@ zinc alloy in a melt of magnesium chloride and magnesium fluoride .
= = Compounds and reactions = =
= = = Oxides = = =
Curium readily reacts with oxygen forming mostly Cm2O3 and CmO2 oxides , but the divalent oxide CmO is also known . Black CmO2 can be obtained by burning curium oxalate ( Cm2 ( C2O4 ) 3 ) , nitrate ( Cm ( NO3 ) 3 ) or hydroxide in pure oxygen . Upon heating to 600 – 650 ° C in vacuum ( about 0 @.@ 01 Pa ) , it transforms into the whitish Cm2O3 :
<formula> .
Alternatively , Cm2O3 can be obtained by reducing CmO2 with molecular hydrogen :
<formula>
Furthermore , a number of ternary oxides of the type M ( II ) CmO3 are known , where M stands for a divalent metal , such as barium .
Thermal oxidation of trace quantities of curium hydride ( CmH2 – 3 ) has been reported to produce a volatile form of CmO2 and the volatile trioxide CmO3 , one of the two known examples of the very rare + 6 state for curium . Another observed species was reported to behave similarly to plutonium tetroxide and was tentatively characterized as CmO4 , with curium in the extremely rare + 8 state ; however , new experiments seem to indicate that CmO4 does not exist .
= = = Halides = = =
The colorless curium ( III ) fluoride ( CmF3 ) can be produced by introducing fluoride ions into curium ( III ) -containing solutions . The brown tetravalent curium ( IV ) fluoride ( CmF4 ) on the other hand is only obtained by reacting curium ( III ) fluoride with molecular fluorine :
<formula>
A series of ternary fluorides are known of the form A7Cm6F31 , where A stands for alkali metal .
The colorless curium ( III ) chloride ( CmCl3 ) is produced in the reaction of curium ( III ) hydroxide ( Cm ( OH ) 3 ) with anhydrous hydrogen chloride gas . It can further be converted into other halides , such as curium ( III ) bromide ( colorless to light green ) and curium ( III ) iodide ( colorless ) , by reacting it with the ammonia salt of the corresponding halide at elevated temperature of about 400 – 450 ° C :
<formula>
An alternative procedure is heating curium oxide to about 600 ° C with the corresponding acid ( such as hydrobromic for curium bromide ) . Vapor phase hydrolysis of curium ( III ) chloride results in curium oxychloride :
<formula>
= = = Chalcogenides and pnictides = = =
Sulfides , selenides and tellurides of curium have been obtained by treating curium with gaseous sulfur , selenium or tellurium in vacuum at elevated temperature . The pnictides of curium of the type CmX are known for the elements nitrogen , phosphorus , arsenic and antimony . They can be prepared by reacting either curium ( III ) hydride ( CmH3 ) or metallic curium with these elements at elevated temperatures .
= = = Organocurium compounds and biological aspects = = =
Organometallic complexes analogous to uranocene are known also for other actinides , such as thorium , protactinium , neptunium , plutonium and americium . Molecular orbital theory predicts a stable " curocene " complex ( η8 @-@ C8H8 ) 2Cm , but it has not been reported experimentally yet .
Formation of the complexes of the type Cm ( n @-@ C3H7 @-@ BTP ) 3 , where BTP stands for 2 @,@ 6 @-@ di ( 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 4 @-@ triazin @-@ 3 @-@ yl ) pyridine , in solutions containing n @-@ C3H7 @-@ BTP and Cm3 + ions has been confirmed by EXAFS . Some of these BTP @-@ type complexes selectively interact with curium and therefore are useful in its selective separation from lanthanides and another actinides . Dissolved Cm3 + ions bind with many organic compounds , such as hydroxamic acid , urea , fluorescein and adenosine triphosphate . Many of these compounds are related to biological activity of various microorganisms . The resulting complexes exhibit strong yellow @-@ orange emission under UV light excitation , which is convenient not only for their detection , but also for studying the interactions between the Cm3 + ion and the ligands via changes in the half @-@ life ( of the order ~ 0 @.@ 1 ms ) and spectrum of the fluorescence .
Curium has no biological significance . There are a few reports on biosorption of Cm3 + by bacteria and archaea , however no evidence for incorporation of curium into them .
= = Applications = =
= = = Radionuclides = = =
Curium is one of the most radioactive isolable elements . Its two most common isotopes 242Cm and 244Cm are strong alpha emitters ( energy 6 MeV ) ; they have relatively short half @-@ lives of 162 @.@ 8 days and 18 @.@ 1 years , and produce as much as 120 W / g and 3 W / g of thermal energy , respectively . Therefore , curium can be used in its common oxide form in radioisotope thermoelectric generators like those in spacecraft . This application has been studied for the 244Cm isotope , while 242Cm was abandoned due to its prohibitive price of around 2000 USD / g . Curium @-@ 243 with a ~ 30 year half @-@ life and good energy yield of ~ 1 @.@ 6 W / g could make for a suitable fuel , but it produces significant amounts of harmful gamma and beta radiation from radioactive decay products . Though as an α @-@ emitter , 244Cm requires a much thinner radiation protection shielding , it has a high spontaneous fission rate , and thus the neutron and gamma radiation rate are relatively strong . As compared to a competing thermoelectric generator isotope such as 238Pu , 244Cm emits a 500 time greater fluence of neutrons , and its higher gamma emission requires a shield that is 20 times thicker — about 2 inches of lead for a 1 kW source , as compared to 0 @.@ 1 in for 238Pu . Therefore , this application of curium is currently considered impractical .
A more promising application of 242Cm is to produce 238Pu , a more suitable radioisotope for thermoelectric generators such as in cardiac pacemakers . The alternative routes to 238Pu use the ( n , γ ) reaction of 237Np , or the deuteron bombardment of uranium , which both always produce 236Pu as an undesired by @-@ product — since the latter decays to 232U with strong gamma emission . Curium is also a common starting material for the production of higher transuranic elements and transactinides . Thus , bombardment of 248Cm with oxygen ( 18O ) or magnesium ( 26Mg ) yielded certain isotopes of seaborgium ( 265Sg ) and hassium ( 269Hs and 270Hs ) . Californium was discovered when a microgram @-@ sized target of curium @-@ 242 was irradiated with 35 MeV alpha particles using the 60 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) cyclotron at Berkeley :
242
96Cm + 4
2He → 245
98Cf + 1
0n
Only about 5 @,@ 000 atoms of californium were produced in this experiment .
= = = X @-@ ray spectrometer = = =
The most practical application of 244Cm — though rather limited in total volume — is as α @-@ particle source in the alpha particle X @-@ ray spectrometers ( APXS ) . These instruments were installed on the Sojourner , Mars , Mars 96 , Mars Exploration Rovers and Philae comet lander , as well as the Mars Science Laboratory to analyze the composition and structure of the rocks on the surface of planet Mars . APXS was also used in the Surveyor 5 – 7 moon probes but with a 242Cm source .
An elaborated APXS setup is equipped with a sensor head containing six curium sources having the total radioactive decay rate of several tens of millicuries ( roughly a gigabecquerel ) . The sources are collimated on the sample , and the energy spectra of the alpha particles and protons scattered from the sample are analyzed ( the proton analysis is implemented only in some spectrometers ) . These spectra contain quantitative information on all major elements in the samples except for hydrogen , helium and lithium .
= = Safety = =
Owing to its high radioactivity , curium and its compounds must be handled in appropriate laboratories under special arrangements . Whereas curium itself mostly emits α @-@ particles which are absorbed by thin layers of common materials , some of its decay products emit significant fractions of beta and gamma radiation , which require a more elaborate protection . If consumed , curium is excreted within a few days and only 0 @.@ 05 % is absorbed in the blood . From there , about 45 % goes to the liver , 45 % to the bones , and the remaining 10 % is excreted . In the bone , curium accumulates on the inside of the interfaces to the bone marrow and does not significantly redistribute with time ; its radiation destroys bone marrow and thus stops red blood cell creation . The biological half @-@ life of curium is about 20 years in the liver and 50 years in the bones . Curium is absorbed in the body much more strongly via inhalation , and the allowed total dose of 244Cm in soluble form is 0 @.@ 3 μC . Intravenous injection of 242Cm and 244Cm containing solutions to rats increased the incidence of bone tumor , and inhalation promoted pulmonary and liver cancer .
Curium isotopes are inevitably present in spent nuclear fuel with a concentration of about 20 g / tonne . Among them , the 245Cm – 248Cm isotopes have decay times of thousands of years and need to be removed to neutralize the fuel for disposal . The associated procedure involves several steps , where curium is first separated and then converted by neutron bombardment in special reactors to short @-@ lived nuclides . This procedure , nuclear transmutation , while well documented for other elements , is still being developed for curium .
= I 'm with Cupid =
" I 'm with Cupid " is the fourteenth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on Valentine 's Day , 1999 . The episode takes place on Valentine 's Day , and the wives of Springfield are jealous of the attention Apu gives to his wife Manjula . Angered by this , the Springfield husbands spy on Apu to sabotage his romantic plans .
" I 'm with Cupid " was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Bob Anderson . Because the episode was to air on Valentine 's Day , Fox wanted the episode to relate to the holiday , although the idea for the episode was pitched by Greaney . The title of the episode is based on the popular T @-@ shirt slogan " I 'm with stupid " . Elton John guest @-@ starred as himself , and recorded a new version of his song " Your Song " for the episode . The episode also features references to Breakfast at Tiffany 's , Tiffany & Co. and " Lisa the Vegetarian " , an earlier episode in the series .
In its original broadcast , " I 'm With Cupid " was seen by approximately 7 @.@ 7 million viewers and finished in 48th place in the ratings the week it aired . Following the home media release of The Simpsons : The Complete Tenth Season , the episode received generally positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Apu and his new wife Manjula invite Homer and Marge to their house for dinner . However , Apu and Manjula get in a fight , after Marge mentions to Manjula that Apu does not need to work as much as he does . The week before Valentine 's Day , Apu tells Homer that he is disappointed that Manjula does not love him , until Homer assures him that Manjula will not leave him before Valentine 's Day , and Apu agrees . Apu decides to shower Manjula with many romantic surprises to regain her love . However , although many of Apu 's surprises succeed in fixing his marriage , they ruin other people 's relationships . The rest of Springfield 's women become jealous from all the attention Manjula is receiving , and find their men to be cheapskates ( including Maude Flanders ) . At Moe 's Tavern , Homer encourages several of Springfield 's men that they have to prevent Apu and Manjula from reconciling to save their own relationships and marriages .
During Valentine 's Day , Homer , Chief Wiggum , Dr. Hibbert , Moe , and Ned Flanders investigate what Apu is doing so they can stop it . They go around town and Flanders is thrown out of the group for suggesting they should be using their time to be more romantic to their wives instead of trying to sabotage Apu . Following Apu to the airport , the remaining group see Elton John there , and they think that he supposedly came to Springfield to perform a concert for Apu and Manjula at his insistence ( in reality , he had to make an emergency landing because the chandelier on his plane was malfunctioning ) . However , Apu 's actual plan is that he arranged for a skywriter to write " I ♥ U MANJULA " . During the trouble that ensues , Homer jumps on the plane during takeoff to try to stop the skywriter from spraying the message . When Homer destroys the plane 's canister in mid @-@ air it only sprayed part of the message - " I ♥ U * " , which the other women think is for them . While Homer and the pilot fight , Marge remains unconvinced until the plane flies by and Homer drops out of it covered with roses after the plane flew out of control through a thorny rose patch , possibly giving Homer a collapsed lung . Nonetheless , Elton John is able to perform a private concert for Apu and Manjula , and their marriage is saved .
= = Production = =
" I 'm With Cupid " was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Bob Anderson . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on Valentine 's Day , 1999 . Because they knew it would air on Valentine 's Day , Fox asked the Simpsons staff to produce an episode related to the holiday . The episode 's ending credits were also painted red in honor of the holiday . The idea for the episode was pitched by Greaney , who also wrote the episode 's first draft . The episode 's title was pitched by fellow Simpsons writer Ron Hauge , who based it on the popular T @-@ shirt slogan I 'm with stupid . However , Hauge later found out that the title had already been used before for an episode of another television series . However , he did not believe that copyright issues would arise : " It 's a very innocent mistake , " Hauge said in the DVD comentary for the episode . " It is one of those things that , in the course of a career , you 're gonna be on both sides of that , so nobody ever sues on it . "
Jan Hooks reprised her role as Manjula in the episode . In a scene in the episode , Apu and Manjula are arguing in an Indian language . During the scene , both characters speak the language accurately , as both Hooks and Hank Azaria ( the voice of Apu ) were given a phonetic transcription of their lines . The singing parrot that Apu sends to Manjula was voiced by series main cast member Nancy Cartwright , who also portrays Bart in the series . The episode features singer sir Elton John as himself . John 's lines were recorded by current showrunner Al Jean , who found working with John being a " wonderful experience " . " Elton John was a very nice person , " Scully spoke for Jean in the DVD commentary for the episode , since Jean was busy during the commentary record . " He was a great sport and worked really hard for the show . " Scully also stated that the re @-@ recording of " Your Song " , which appears near the end of the episode , had to be recorded " several times , " but that John was " very accommodating " about it .
= = Themes and cultural references = =
In their book Picturing South Asian culture in English : textual and visual representations , Tasleem Shakur and Karen D 'Souza analyzed " I 'm with Cupid " along with the season 9 episode " The Two Mrs. Nahasapeemapetilons " . The two argued that " I 'm with Cupid " represents Apu 's role in the series , and " reinforces the romanticised view of Apu 's marriage through the increasingly elaborate ways in which he expresses his love for his wife . " They wrote : " In a Valentine 's day episode , the message is clearly critically showing up the all @-@ American men of Springfield for their lack of romance . [ ... ] Throughout this episode , Apu 's identity is reinforced as exotic other , but not so much as ' South Asian ' other , as an ' American ' ideal other , that more wholesome , romantic male juxtaposed to the Duff drinking , couch potato male typified by the men of Moe 's bar and Homer Simpson . Again , Apu is not so much represented in his ethnicity , but presented in his critical otherness to both contemporary degenerativeness of American culture , specifically male identities and ironically ( re
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in order to show a piece of evidence that they think contradicts the testimony . The player has a health bar , representing the judge 's patience . If the player presents incorrect pieces of evidence or choose incorrect answers to questions in court , health is lost . If the health bar reaches zero , the player loses the game and their client is declared guilty . A new system , known as the " Perceive System , " can be used to look for motions or actions made by witnesses that show nervousness , similar to a tell in poker . The move comes with the catchphrase , " Gotcha ! " ( " There ! " ( そこだ ! , Soko da ! ) in Japanese ) . The game also includes a " Crime Recreation Mode " that models evidence or the crime scene in a 3 @-@ D rendition and allow the player to explore the recreation to look for clues . Additionally , the game often recreates the crime in cutscene sequences , allowing the player to observe the action and find contradictions .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Apollo Justice takes place seven years after the previous game in the series , Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Trials and Tribulations . The game consists of several cases and trials , called Turnabouts . In four separate Turnabouts , the main character , Apollo Justice , must defend his clients against the charge of murder . After the first Turnabout , Apollo works for retired attorney Phoenix Wright , who lost his attorney 's badge due to unknowingly falsifying evidence and now runs the " Wright Talent Agency " to support his adopted daughter , Trucy Wright , a magician from the disbanded Troupe Gramarye and who helps Apollo out during investigations and in court .
= = = Story = = =
In the first case , Turnabout Trump ( 逆転の切札 , Gyakuten no Kirifuda ) , Phoenix , now a pianist , is accused of murder . Apollo , under the tutelage of Phoenix 's friend , Kristoph Gavin , is called to defend Phoenix and find the true murderer . Unbeknownst to Apollo , he uses falsified evidence to find the real murderer , Kristoph , and proves Phoenix 's innocence .
The second case , Turnabout Corner ( 逆転連鎖の街角 , Gyakuten Rensa no Machikado , lit . " Turnabout Connected Corners " ) , begins with Apollo joining Phoenix 's combined law office and talent agency , the Wright Anything Agency . He and Trucy investigate three separate but simultaneous incidents : a hit @-@ and @-@ run , a panty @-@ theft , and a missing noodle stand . Seemingly unrelated at first , it is proven that the cases are all connected to a murder that occurred on the same night ; Wocky Kitaki , the son of the local Kitaki family gang , is accused of the crime . Apollo defends him , and faces off against Kristoph 's brother , prosecutor Klavier Gavin , in court ; Apollo connects the cases to convict the true murderer , Wocky 's fiancée , Alita Tiala .
In Turnabout Serenade ( 逆転のセレナード , Gyakuten no Serenādo ) , the third case , Klavier invites Apollo and Trucy to a concert for his band , the Gavinners . A murder occurs during the show , and Apollo and Trucy receive the task of defending the main suspect , pianist Machi Tobaye , one of the concert 's guest stars . Aided by the other guest star , the Borginian singer Lamiroir , Apollo proves Tobaye 's innocence by unraveling a complicated plot to smuggle cocoons and uncovers the real murderer , Klavier 's bandmate and detective Daryan Crescend .
In the fourth and final case , Turnabout Succession ( 逆転を継ぐ者 , Gyakuten o Tsugu Mono , lit . " Successor to Turnabout " ) , Apollo defends Vera Misham , who has been accused of poisoning her father , Drew . As the finale of Apollo Justice , Turnabout Succession reveals the mysteries surrounding Phoenix 's last case as an attorney , as well as the history of Troupe Gramarye and how Trucy came to be his adopted daughter . It is also revealed to Phoenix that Trucy and Apollo are half @-@ siblings , and that Lamiroir is really their birth mother , Thalassa Gramarye . This is the sole session of the game where the player can interact as Phoenix . In the end , it is discovered that Kristoph Gavin was responsible for the deaths of Drew Misham and Zak Gramarye , the attempted murder of Vera Misham , and the fake evidence that forced Phoenix to retire . At this point , the player can determine Vera Misham 's verdict through the Jurist System . Choosing " Not Guilty " results in Vera being declared not guilty , while Phoenix promises Lamiroir that he will tell Apollo and Trucy the truth someday and considers retaking the bar exam and returning to law . Choosing " Guilty " leads to an alternate ending in which the court agrees on a " hung jury , " leaving the actual verdict to be decided the next day . Vera succumbs to poison she unwittingly consumed during the trial and dies before her verdict is decided .
= = Development = =
Apollo Justice was developed by a team of 28 staff members . It was produced by Minae Matsukawa and directed by Mitsuru Endo , with character design and art by Kazuya Nuri , while series creator Shu Takumi wrote the game 's scenario and took on a supervisory role . Takumi had wanted the series to end with the previous game , as he felt its main character , Phoenix Wright , had been fully explored and that his story had been told ; he said that it is important to know when to end a story , that he did not want the series to become a shadow of its former self , and that he did not see any reason to continue it . When it was still decided that a fourth game would be made , Takumi wanted it to have a new main character and a new story ; he did not plan to have Phoenix appear in the game , but his colleagues wanted him in the game in some form , which led to him being the accused in the first case in the game .
Early in development , it was proposed that the game would use 3D graphics , as a way to make a big impact worthy of the start of a new Ace Attorney series ; eventually they settled for a 2D style , with a few 3D elements . Apollo Justice was the first game in the series to feature videos created using motion @-@ capture data . A male staff member of the Research & Development team was chosen to be the motion @-@ capture actor for a female character ; the producer described him as being " a natural " at it . Voice acting was also provided by Capcom staff members . During development , staff members visited real courts to watch and study the trials . Most of the game 's music was composed by Toshihiko Horiyama , with Hideki Okugawa composing three songs and Akemi Kimura and Shu Takumi composing two songs each . A soundtrack album , Gyakuten Saiban 4 Original Soundtrack , was released on June 27 , 2007 . A concert , based on the music from Ace Attorney and entitled Gyakuten Meets Orchestra , took place in Tokyo in April 2008 . A CD of the concert was published on July 16 , 2008 .
Alexander O. Smith , who worked as a writer on the localization of the first Ace Attorney game , also worked on the localization of Apollo Justice . Localization of the game was already in progress by August 2007 . The name " Apollo Justice " was decided in collaboration between the Japanese and American divisions of Capcom ; it took them twenty @-@ two meetings to decide on it . The name refers to how Apollo fights for justice . During the localization , there was some debate about the use of the word " panties " to describe Trucy 's magical bloomers , a prop she uses in her magic shows ; some on the localization team felt that it was inappropriate to joke about an underage girl 's panties , and wanted them to be localized as " magic pants " , while some felt that the joke would be lost if the player already knew that they were massive bloomers . Janet Hsu , one of the staff members working on the localization , made an argument for " emotional accuracy " , saying that the Japanese version of the game was trying to make the player feel at unease over looking for what they might imagine to be " sexy lingerie " , and then let the player feel relief at finding out that it is a prop for a magic show . In the end , they were referred to as " panties " .
= = = Release = = =
The game was announced in 2005 , and was originally planned to be released in 2006 in Japan . A demo version of the game was first made available at Tokyo Game Show in 2006 , and an English trailer was presented at the following year 's Tokyo Game Show . The game was eventually released in Japan on April 12 , 2007 , with North American , European , and Australian releases following on February 19 , 2008 , May 9 , 2008 , and May 22 , 2008 , respectively . In Japan , a limited edition of the game was made available . It includes branded headphones , an Ace Attorney dictionary on a DS card , and a series highlights DVD . A keychain depicting Apollo was included with preorders purchased at GameStop and the online Capcom store .
= = Reception = =
Apollo Justice : Ace Attorney has received generally positive reception , holding a score of 78 / 100 at the review aggregator Metacritic . It received four nines out of ten , totaled to thirty @-@ six out of forty , from video game magazine Famitsu . However , 1UP.com commented that , " the Phoenix Wright games are by far the best @-@ written titles you 'll find on the DS , and Justice is no different . " 1UP.com also commented that the added features made especially for the DS were " super engaging even though the actual actions aren 't that difficult to do . " On 21 November 2013 , RPGFan placed the game 5th on their top 20 Nintendo DS games list .
IGN largely agreed with 1UP but commented that " the first Apollo Justice title plays identically to the Phoenix Wright trilogy " . IGN Australia noted out that complaints about the previous games , such as that " finding the right path through the game feels like a process of trial and error " and that players could beat the game by " routinely pressing at every available opportunity and then using a minimum of logic , " were not fixed in Apollo Justice . " Additionally , " the game 's rather obtuse , long @-@ way @-@ around approach to problem solving " caused what IGN viewed to be unnecessary delays to the game . IGN also felt that new features were " a little gimmicky " but did not " detract from the experience in the slightest . " However , IGN Australia thought the game was " great " overall . The game was nominated for " Best Story " in IGN 's 2008 Video Game Awards , though it did not win .
These views were echoed by many reviews . GameSpot felt that the story , while strong , " moves along at a snail 's pace " and that " many of the series ' flaws are still present . " A " lack of innovation and change " was the main sticking point for GamePro , who thought of Apollo Justice as " a solid distillation of the franchise formula . " The Nintendo World Report felt that the game " builds upon the Phoenix Wright trilogy " even though " [ g ] ameplay remains mostly unchanged . " GameSpy pointed out that the game 's use of the DS 's touch features , " vastly improves the experience " though the crime scene reenactment is " all too brief . "
Apollo Justice sold around 250 @,@ 000 copies during the first retail week , and had more than 500 @,@ 000 copies shipped by the end of its second week in Japan . By the end of 2007 , it had sold 515 @,@ 417 units . While not as successful in terms of sales in North America , the game still placed fifth in games sold for the Nintendo DS during its release week .
= Doris Sands Johnson =
Dame Doris Sands Johnson DBE ( 19 June 1921 – 21 June 1983 ) was a Bahamian teacher , suffragette , and politician . She was the first Bahamian woman to contest an election in the Bahamas , the first female Senate appointee , and the first woman granted a leadership role in the Senate . Once in the legislature , she was the first female to be made a government minister and then was elected as the first woman President of the Senate . She was the first female to serve as Acting Governor General of the Bahamas , and was honored as Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II .
Born on New Providence Island , she completed her secondary education and became a teacher . After teaching for 17 years , Johnson returned to school to earn a master 's and doctorate degree in educational administration . During this period , she traveled back and forth between school and her Bahamian home organizing labor and suffrage efforts . Upon graduation , Johnson was unable to find work because of her activism . She made a compelling speech to the Bahamian legislature in 1959 , pleading for women 's suffrage and subsequently made a similar plea to the Colonial Office in London . Once the right to vote had been secured , Johnson immediately entered politics in 1961 , running in the first election in which women were allowed to participate . Though she lost her bid , she worked with the Progressive Liberal Party to gain Bahamian independence . When the country gained its freedom from colonial rule , Johnson was appointed to the Senate and served the government until her death , a decade later .
= = Background and education = =
Doris Louise Sands was born on 19 June 1921 in St. Agnes , New Providence , The Bahamas , to Sarah Elizabeth ( née Fyne ) and John Albert Sands . After completing her secondary education , Sands began teaching at the age of fifteen . On 3 January 1943 at Zion Baptist Church in Nassau , Sands married Ratal Allen Johnson . They subsequently had one son and Johnson worked for 17 years to earn the money to further her education . Around 1953 , she was able to enroll at Virginia Union University in Richmond , Virginia , graduating with a bachelor 's degree in education . She returned to the Bahamas in 1956 and joined the Progressive Liberal Party ( PLP ) . Granted a four @-@ year government scholarship to further her education in Canada , Johnson enrolled in a master 's degree program in educational administration . Beginning her studies at MacDonald College of Education of McGill University , she earned her master 's degree and began work on her doctorate at the Ontario College of Education at the University of Toronto . In the midst of her studies , the government terminated the scholarship during her third year of studying abroad , under the guise that her master 's degree had been completed . Johnson believed that the scholarship was terminated because she had been active in organizing . She helped found the Women ’ s Suffrage Movement in the Bahamas , and in 1958 both the Bahamian Federation of Labour and the National Council of Women , traveling home intermittently during her studies to work towards enfranchisement . She returned home , but was advised that the only available positions for teaching administrators were in outlying islands .
= = Political rise = =
Feeling that her employment opportunities were being blocked , that same year , on 19 January 1959 , Johnson asked to address the members of the Bahamian House of the Assembly , but was told she could only speak after the session adjourned , to which she agreed . In her speech , she pointed out that a petition had been submitted to the House in 1958 for suffrage , which Members had claimed showed only 13 petitioners and 529 signatories . She provided mimeographed copies showing the actual number was 2 @,@ 829 people and included people from Abaco , Andros , Cat Island , Eleuthera , Exuma , Grand Bahama , Long Island , and New Providence . She went on to complain that women were being taxed without representation and reasoned that should the vote not be extended to them , they should no longer have to pay taxes . She insisted that women were working members of society and were ready , willing , and able to participate as full citizens . Though the Members of Parliament were impressed with the speech , they did nothing .
In 1960 , Johnson , as leader of the Women 's Suffrage Movement , and Eugenia Lockhart , the organization 's secretary , went to London to plead the case for suffrage . They met with the London branch of the International Alliance of Women to discuss the situation in the Bahamas , claiming that though they had the support of the majority of Bahamian women , many women could not voice their approval because they were employed by merchants and the government who were opposed to the cause . They also sought an audience at the Colonial Office to air their grievances , accompanied by the chairman of the PLP , Henry Milton Taylor . They met with the Secretary of State for the Colonies , Iain Macleod , and two women British Parliamentarians , Baroness Joan Vickers and Baroness Eirene White . The Bahamians were assured that their case was accepted and that change would soon follow . They returned , but no change was forthcoming .
Supporters rallied and collected funds for Johnson to complete her education in the United States , and she enrolled at New York University , completing her Doctor of Education in 1962 . When suffrage passed in 1961 , Johnson immediately entered the fray , accepting a nomination as a PLP candidate for the Eleuthera District . She wrote a booklet entitled The Next Step : Votes for Women in which she explained useful information for voting , such as how to register to vote and cast a ballot . She lost the race , but three years later participated in a debate in the push for majority rule on the parliamentary imbalance in the Bahamas with a delegation from the PLP at the United Nations . At that meeting , she met the president of her alma mater from Virginia Union , and agreed to accept a teaching post at Southern University in Baton Rouge , Louisiana . A little over a year later , Johnson left Louisiana and came back to the Bahamas to participate in the 1967 elections . The PLP won the majority of seats and she became the first woman appointee to serve in the Bahamian Senate . One of her first acts was to form a committee to help the Haitian diaspora who had fled to the Bahamas because of unrest in their own country . With an estimated 20 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 refugees and a government decree to stop issuing work permits to Haitians , the situation was critical . The following year , PLP had a landslide victory in the 1968 election and Johnson was reappointed to the Senate , and appointed as the first woman to lead government business .
From 1968 to 1973 , Johnson was the Transportation Minister and her appointment was the first time a woman had served in the Bahamian Cabinet . In 1972 , Johnson published a book entitled The Quiet Revolution in the Bahamas , which discussed the struggle for racial parity and independence , likening the efforts in the Bahamas to the American Civil Rights Movement and Martin Luther King 's fight . The book has been called " one of the most important accounts of the events and personalities involved in the attainment of Majority Rule and Independence in The Bahamas " . The following year , when the Bahama 's gained independence from Britain , Johnson resigned from her post as Minister and was elected as the first female President of the Senate . In 1977 , shortly after being reelected to the presidency , Johnson received Queen Elizabeth II . In 1979 , she briefly served as acting Governor General of the Bahamas , the first woman ever to do so , and that same year was honored as Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire .
Besides her official roles , Johnson served as a founding member of the Bahamas Folklore Group and spoke at various women 's groups in the Bahamas and United States . She also served as president of the National Women 's Housing Association and coordinator of the Bahamas Baptist Missionary and Educational Convention 's Women 's Auxiliary .
Johnson died on 21 June 1983 . Posthumously , a high school was dedicated in 2002 in Nassau , which bears her name .
= = Selected works = =
Johnson , Doris L. ( 19 January 1959 ) . Call for Equal Rights for All Bahamian Women ( Speech ) . Meeting of the Members of the House of Assembly . Government House , Nassau , Bahamas . Contained in Fawkes , Sir Randol F. ( 2003 ) . Fawkes , Rosalie J. ; Fawkes , Francis ; Fawkes , David , eds . The Faith That Moved the Mountain : A Memoir of a Life and the Times ( PDF ) ( Memorial ed . ) . Nassau , Bahamas : Dodd Printers. pp. 204 – 210 .
Johnson , Doris L. ( 1962 ) . A guide for the establishment of an advisory council to the Bahamas Board of Education : based upon a study of advisory services to the Central British Educational Authority from 1899 to 1959 ( Ed . D. ) . New York University .
Johnson , Doris L. ( 1962 ) . The Next Step : Votes for Women . Nassau , Bahamas .
Johnson , Doris L. The Man on the Black Horse . Nassau , Bahamas .
Johnson , Doris L. ( 1972 ) . The Quiet Revolution in the Bahamas . Nassau , Bahamas : Family Islands Press .
Johnson , Doris L. ( 1973 ) . Age of Awareness . Nassau , Bahamas .
Johnson , Doris L. ( 1989 ) . " Political Change " . In Collinwood , Dean W. ; Dodge , Steve . Modern Bahamian Society . Parkersburg , IA , USA : Caribbean Books. pp. 33 – 38 . ISBN 0931209013 .
= Glee ( TV series ) =
Glee is an American musical comedy @-@ drama television series that aired on the Fox network in the United States from May 19 , 2009 , to March 20 , 2015 . It focuses on the fictitious William McKinley High School glee club , New Directions , which competes on the show choir competition circuit while its disparate members deal with social issues , especially regarding sexuality and race , relationships , and learning to become an effective team . The initial twelve @-@ member cast included club director and Spanish teacher Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) , cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , Will 's wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , and eight club members played by Dianna Agron , Chris Colfer , Kevin McHale , Lea Michele , Cory Monteith , Amber Riley , Mark Salling , and Jenna Ushkowitz . In subsequent seasons , the main cast has expanded to fourteen and fifteen members .
The series was created by Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk , and Ian Brennan , the latter of whom first conceived of Glee as a film . The three wrote all of the show 's episodes for the first two seasons , and Murphy and Falchuk initially served as the show 's main directors . The pilot episode was broadcast on May 19 , 2009 , and the first season aired from September 9 , 2009 , to June 8 , 2010 . Subsequent seasons aired in September through May . The sixth and final season aired from January to March 2015 . Glee features on @-@ screen performance @-@ based musical numbers that were selected by Murphy , who aimed to maintain a balance between show tunes and chart hits , and produced by Adam Anders and Peer Åström . Songs covered in the show were released through the iTunes Store during the week of broadcast , and a series of Glee albums have been released by Columbia Records . The music of Glee has been a commercial success , with over thirty @-@ six million digital single sales and eleven million album sales worldwide through October 2011 . The series ' merchandise also includes DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases , an iPad application , and karaoke games for the Wii . There were live concert tours by the show 's cast after the first and second seasons completed shooting ; a concert film based on the 2011 tour , Glee : The 3D Concert Movie , was produced by Murphy and Fox and directed by Kevin Tancharoen .
During its first season , Glee received generally favorable reviews from critics , with Metacritic 's weighted average of 77 out of 100 based on eighteen critical reviews . The season was nominated for nineteen Emmy Awards , four Golden Globe Awards , six Satellite Awards and fifty @-@ seven other awards , with wins including the 2010 Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy , and Emmy awards for Jane Lynch , guest @-@ star Neil Patrick Harris and Murphy 's direction of the pilot episode . In 2011 , the show once again won the Golden Globe for Best Television Series , and Jane Lynch and Chris Colfer won Golden Globes for Best Supporting Actress and Best Supporting Actor respectively , and Gwyneth Paltrow won the Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series . The show was also chosen by Fox to fill the coveted time slot that followed the network 's coverage of Super Bowl XLV in 2011 .
On October 17 , 2013 , in the wake of the death of Cory Monteith three months prior , and one week after his tribute episode " The Quarterback " aired , Murphy announced that the sixth season would be the final one of the series . After 121 episodes and over 728 music performances , Glee came to an end on March 20 , 2015 .
= = Plot = =
The series focuses on a high school show choir , also known as a glee club , in the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima , Ohio . Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) takes over the glee club after the former teacher Sandy Ryerson ( Stephen Tobolowsky ) is fired for inappropriate contact with a male student . With a rag @-@ tag group of misfit teenagers , Will attempts to restore the glee club to its former glory while tending to his developing feelings for his co @-@ worker Emma ( Jayma Mays ) , as well as defending the glee club 's existence from the conniving cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) . A major focus of the series is the students in the glee club : their relationships as couples , their love of singing and desire for popularity coming into conflict due to their membership in the low @-@ status club , and the many vicissitudes of life in high school and as a teenager .
Season 1 features the fictional high school show choir New Directions competing for the first time on the show choir circuit , winning at the Sectionals competition ( episode 13 ) but losing at Regionals ( season finale / episode 22 ) , while its members and faculty deal with sex , relationships , homosexuality , teenage pregnancy , disabilities , acceptance and other social issues . The central characters are glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) , cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , Will 's wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , and glee club members Rachel ( Lea Michele ) , Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , Artie ( Kevin McHale ) , Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) , Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) , Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) , Puck ( Mark Salling ) , Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) and Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) .
Season 2 follows the club through wins at the Sectionals ( episode 9 ) and Regionals ( episode 16 ) competitions before losing at the Nationals competition in New York City ( season finale / episode 22 ) , while its members and faculty deal with sex , relationships , religion , homophobia , bullying , rumors , teenage drinking , death and other social issues . The season 's stories revolve around the same Glee club members as first season , with Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) added to the main cast , along with Kurt 's father Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) .
Season 3 follows the club through wins at Sectionals ( episode 8 ) and Regionals competitions ( episode 14 ) , before they win the Nationals competition ( episode 21 ) in Chicago . The characters deal with gender identity , adoption , domestic abuse , teenage suicide , bullying , disabilities , texting while driving , college and other social issues . Glee club members added to the main cast were Mike Chang ( Harry Shum Jr . ) and transfer student Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) , while Jessalyn Gilsig as Terri Schuester was written out of the series and Mike O 'Malley as Burt returned to recurring status . The McKinley High class of 2012 graduates at the end of the season .
Season 4 continues in Lima with a new generation of students but also follows some of the McKinley graduates from the third season , notably to the fictional New York Academy of the Dramatic Arts ( NYADA ) in New York City . The season follows the club through a loss at the Sectionals competition ( episode 9 ) and subsequent reinstatement when the winning Dalton Academy Warblers were found to have used banned substances ( human growth hormone ) ( episode 12 ) before winning at the Regionals competition ( episode 22 ) , which meant they would be attending their third consecutive National show choir competition . In the meantime , Rachel Berry and Kurt Hummel navigate NYADA and their lives as aspiring performers , plus their relationships with Finn and Blaine . Issues during the season include sex , bulimia , gender identity , child molestation , dyslexia , school violence , and pregnancy scares . Former main cast members Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) and Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) were credited as guest stars , while previously recurring glee club member Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) was promoted to the main cast .
Season 5 , unlike previous seasons , continues the school year begun in the previous season . The season shows the reigning champion glee club finishing second at Nationals competition ( episode 11 ) before the club is permanently disbanded by Sue Sylvester , now school principal , for budgetary reasons ( episode 12 ) , leaving the focus on graduation . The show then jumps several months forward in time and deals entirely with the alumni 's lives in New York City for the remainder of the season , including Rachel 's successful Broadway debut . Throughout this season , the club and its alumni deal with relationships ; death and mourning ; body image , gay bashing , intimacy , and other social issues . Several main cast members dropped to recurring guest stars as of this season : Amber Riley as Mercedes , Mark Salling as Puck , Harry Shum Jr. as Mike and Heather Morris as Brittany . New main cast members included glee club members introduced in the fourth season : Melissa Benoist as Marley Rose , Alex Newell as Unique Adams , Blake Jenner as Ryder Lynn , Jacob Artist as Jake Puckerman , and Becca Tobin as Kitty Wilde . Actor Cory Monteith died during summer before the fifth season was shot ; his character , Finn Hudson , died in the season 's third episode , The Quarterback .
Season 6 focuses on Rachel Berry , who returns to McKinley after her television pilot fails . She decides to reconstitute the glee club with all @-@ new McKinley students and with Kurt 's help . Will Schuester is now coaching rival club Vocal Adrenaline , while Blaine is coaching the Dalton Academy Warblers . All of the new main cast members from the fifth season have returned to guest star status in this final season when they appear ; Amber Riley as Mercedes rejoins the main cast , and Dot @-@ Marie Jones as Coach Beiste joins the main cast for the first time . The cast members deal with gay marriage , gender identity , transitioning and other social issues . The newly reconstituted club wins the Nationals competition , Sue is fired as principal and Will is hired to be the principal of a McKinley High repurposed as a magnet arts school , with Sam as the new director of New Directions . The finale jumps five years into the future : Rachel has married Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) , wins a Tony Award , and is a surrogate mother for Kurt and Blaine ( who are themselves Broadway stars ) . Artie has directed Tina in a film , Mercedes is a highly successful recording artist , and Sue has just been re @-@ elected Vice President of the United States . The McKinley auditorium is renamed for Finn .
= = Episodes = =
= = Cast and characters = =
In casting Glee , Murphy sought out actors who could identify with the rush of starring in theatrical roles . Instead of using traditional network casting calls , he spent three months on Broadway , where he found Matthew Morrison , who had previously starred on stage in Hairspray and The Light in the Piazza ; Lea Michele , who starred in Spring Awakening ; and Jenna Ushkowitz , who had been in the Broadway revival of The King and I.
Actors lacking theatrical experience needed to demonstrate , during their auditions , that they could also sing and dance . Chris Colfer had no previous professional experience , but Murphy wrote in the character Kurt Hummel for him . Jayma Mays auditioned with the song " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " from The Rocky Horror Show , while Cory Monteith initially submitted a tape of himself acting only , and was requested to submit a second , musical tape , in which he sang " a cheesy , ' 80s music @-@ video @-@ style version " of REO Speedwagon 's " Can 't Fight This Feeling " . Kevin McHale came from a boy @-@ band background , having previously been part of the group Not Like Them . He explained that the diversity of the cast 's backgrounds reflects the range of different musical styles within the show itself : " It 's a mix of everything : classic rock , current stuff , R & B. Even the musical theatre stuff is switched up . You won 't always recognize it . " Jane Lynch was originally supposed to have a recurring role , but was made a series regular when a Damon Wayans pilot she was working on for ABC fell through . The cast is contracted for a potential three Glee films , with their contract stating that " [ The actor ] hereby grants Fox three exclusive , irrevocable options to engage [ the actor ] in up to , respectively , three feature @-@ length motion pictures . " Murphy said in December 2010 that he wasn 't interested in doing a Glee movie " as a story " , and added , " I might do it as a live concert thing . " Glee : The 3D Concert Movie , filmed during the 2011 Glee Live ! In Concert ! tour , was released on August 12 , 2011 .
Glee has featured as many as fifteen main roles with star billing , after starting with twelve . Morrison plays Will Schuester , McKinley High 's Spanish teacher , who becomes glee @-@ club director and hopes to restore it to its former glory . Lynch plays Sue Sylvester , head coach of the " Cheerios " cheerleading squad , and the Glee Club 's nemesis . Mays appears as Emma Pillsbury , the school 's mysophobic guidance counselor who has feelings for Will , and Jessalyn Gilsig plays Terri Schuester , Will 's wife whom he eventually divorces after five years of marriage and the discovery that she has faked being pregnant instead of revealing she had suffered a false pregnancy . Michele plays Rachel Berry , talented star of the glee club who is often bullied by the Cheerios and football players , but grows closer to them as the show progresses . Rachel has an on @-@ and @-@ off relationship with Finn Hudson starting in season one ; they become engaged in season three . Monteith played Finn , star quarterback of the school 's football team who risks alienation by his friends after joining the glee club . Also in the club are Amber Riley as Mercedes Jones , a fashion @-@ conscious diva who initially resents having to sing back @-@ up ; Colfer as Kurt Hummel , a fashionable gay male countertenor ; McHale as Artie Abrams , a guitar player and paraplegic ; and Ushkowitz as Tina Cohen @-@ Chang , an Asian American student with a fake speech impediment . Dianna Agron plays Quinn Fabray , Finn 's cheerleader girlfriend , who later joins the glee club to keep an eye on him . Mark Salling plays Noah " Puck " Puckerman , a good friend of Finn 's on the football team who at first disapproves of Finn joining the glee club , but later joins it himself . Naya Rivera and Heather Morris , who portray Cheerios and glee club vocalists Santana Lopez and Brittany Pierce respectively , were originally recurring actors , but were promoted to series regulars in the second season . Mike O 'Malley , who plays Kurt 's father Burt Hummel , also became a series regular on season two . Gilsig and O 'Malley no longer appeared on the list of starring actors at the beginning of the third season , though O 'Malley was a recurring guest star in at least six episodes during the season . Two actors were promoted to series regulars as of the third season : Harry Shum , Jr. as football player and glee club member Mike Chang and Darren Criss as former Dalton Academy Warbler and new club member Blaine Anderson , both of whom started as recurring actors , Shum in the first season and Criss in the second . For the fourth season , Chord Overstreet , who started as a recurring actor in the second season , playing glee club member Sam Evans , was promoted to the main cast , while Agron and Mays were credited as recurring guest stars .
Many of the original characters graduated from McKinley High at the end of the third season . Murphy said , " We didn 't want to have a show where they were in high school for eight years . We really wanted to be true to that experience . " Adult characters played by Matthew Morrison and Jane Lynch would remain to provide continuity to the series , though according to Falchuk , some students — Rachel , Finn and Kurt in particular — would likely remain on the show after they graduate . In May 2012 , Murphy said that just because a character on the show graduates high school does not mean that they are leaving , " A lot of people have been writing Dianna 's off the show , Amber 's off the show — they 're not off the show . I think Amber was talking about that bittersweet feeling of , ' I 'll never be in the choir room with that exact group of people . ' At least that 's what she told me ... When I read that [ tweet , ] I said , ' I think people will misconstrue that . ' She 's excited about where her character is going . They all are . I wanted to do the right thing by all of them . " He then continued : " They 're all coming back . Anyone who is a regular is coming back . Everyone said yes . "
On June 28 , 2013 , the media reported that Morris , Riley , Salling , and Shum would be changing from starring status to guest starring roles for the fifth season , and on the following day that Jacob Artist , Melissa Benoist , Blake Jenner , Alex Newell and Becca Tobin , who play Jake Puckerman , Marley Rose , Ryder Lynn , Wade " Unique " Adams and Kitty Wilde , respectively , were all being promoted to the show 's main cast .
On July 13 , 2013 , Monteith was found dead in his room at the Fairmont Pacific Rim hotel in Vancouver , British Columbia . An autopsy completed on July 15 indicated that he died of alcohol and heroin overdose . On July 20 , 2013 , Ryan Murphy said in various media outlets that Cory would have a tribute in season five 's third episode , which would deal with the death of Monteith 's character , Finn .
On July 30 , 2013 , Mays confirmed that she would depart the show after the fifth season to work on other projects , but stated that she would be open to returning as a guest star in the future .
On July 7 , 2014 , it was confirmed that Rivera would be placed on a recurring status for the sixth and final season , by her request . On August 28 , a website revealed that Amber Riley would once again become a regular along with Dot @-@ Marie Jones while Jayma Mays would be on a recurring status .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Ian Brennan conceived Glee based on his own experience as a member of the Prospect High School show choir in Mount Prospect , Illinois . He initially envisioned Glee as a film , rather than a television series , and wrote the first draft in August 2005 with the aid of Screenwriting for Dummies . He completed the script in 2005 , but could not generate interest in the project for several years . Mike Novick , a television producer and a friend of Brennan 's from Los Angeles , was a member of the same gym as Ryan Murphy , and gave him a copy of Brennan 's script . Murphy had been in a show choir in college , and felt he could relate to the script . Murphy and his Nip / Tuck colleague Brad Falchuk suggested that Glee be produced as a television show . The script was entirely rewritten , and was picked up by Fox within fifteen hours of being received . Murphy attributed that , in part , to the network 's success with American Idol . " It made sense for the network with the biggest hit in TV , which is a musical , to do something in that vein " , he said . Murphy and Falchuk became the show 's executive producers and showrunners , Brennan became a co @-@ executive producer and Novick a producer . Brennan , Falchuk and Murphy started by writing " all the episodes " .
Glee is set at the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima , Ohio . Murphy chose a Midwest setting as he himself grew up in Indiana , and recalled childhood visits to Ohio to the Kings Island theme park . Although set in Lima , the show is filmed at Paramount Studios and Helen Bernstein High School in Hollywood .
Murphy has said that he has never seen a High School Musical film , to which Glee has been compared , and that his interest lay in creating a " postmodern musical " , rather than " doing a show where people burst into song " , drawing more heavily on the format of Chicago . Murphy intended the show to be a form of escapism . " There 's so much on the air right now about people with guns , or sci @-@ fi , or lawyers running around . This is a different genre , there 's nothing like it on the air at the networks and cable . Everything 's so dark in the world right now , that 's why Idol worked . It 's pure escapism , " he said . Murphy intended to make a family show to appeal to adults as well as children , with adult characters starring equally alongside the teenage leads , and as of October 2009 he had already mapped out plans for the series covering three years of broadcast .
= = = Writing = = =
The three creators — Murphy , Falchuk , and Brennan — plan the stories together . For the first two seasons , they were the only writers , and after taking joint credit for the pilot episode and the episode that opened the fall 2009 season , they began rotating taking a single auctorial credit , based in large part on the person " who ’ s taken the lead in story breaking or who wrote a draft " . Brennan noted that the writing process is " fast and loose , with the emphasis on fast " , and quotes Murphy as having said , in terms of their roles in episode creation , " I 'm sort of the brain . Brad 's sort of the heart . Ian 's sort of the funny bone " , which Brennan says " is true in a lot of ways " . Some of the characters are written more by one writer than by the others . Brennan writes most of Sue 's material , and Falchuk frequently writes the scenes between Kurt and Burt Hummel , though Murphy contributes a great deal to Kurt .
Starting with season three , a writing staff of six was hired : Ali Adler , Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa , Marti Noxon , Michael Hitchcock , Matt Hodgson and Ross Maxwell . The season 's fourth episode , " Pot o ' Gold " , was written by Adler , the first not credited to the show 's three creators .
Adler and Noxon did not return for the show 's fourth season and instead House writers Russel Friend and Garrett Lerner , and Stacy Traub were hired .
= = = Music and choreography = = =
The series features numerous song covers sung onscreen by the characters . Ryan Murphy is responsible for selecting all of the songs used , and has said that he strives to maintain a balance between chart hits and show tunes : " I want there to be something for everybody in every episode . That 's a tricky mix , but that 's very important — the balancing of that . " According to Murphy , the song choices are integral to script development , " Each episode has a theme at its core . After I write the script , I will choose songs that help to move the story along . " In a 2010 interview with Allison Kugel , Chris Colfer noted that " there have been a couple of times when I have gone to Ryan Murphy ( Glee creator ) and told him a couple of things that have happened to me , and then he writes it into the show . Or he 'll ask me what song I would want to sing , in this situation or in that situation . I don ’ t think any of us directly try to give input on the character or on the storyline , but they definitely steal things from us . " For the second season , a shift toward using more Top 40 songs was seen , in an effort to appeal more to the 18 – 49 demographic .
Murphy was surprised at the ease with which use of songs was approved by the record labels approached , and explained : " I think the key to it is they loved the tone of it . They loved that this show was about optimism and young kids , for the most part , reinterpreting their classics for a new audience . " A minority of those approached refused to allow their music to be used , including Bryan Adams , Guns N ' Roses and Coldplay ; however , in June 2010 , Coldplay reversed their decision , allowing Glee the rights to their catalog . Adams posted on his Twitter account that the producers of Glee had never requested permission from him and urged them to " pick up the phone " . Composer and musician Billy Joel offered many of his songs for use on the show , and other artists have offered use of their songs for free . A series of Glee soundtrack albums have been released through Columbia Records . Songs featured on the show are available for digital download through iTunes up to two weeks before new episodes air , and through other digital outlets and mobile carriers a week later . Glee music producers Adam Anders and Peer Astrom have begun to add original music to the show , including two original songs , " Loser Like Me " and " Get It Right " , on the March 15 , 2011 episode .
Glee is choreographed by Zach Woodlee and features four to eight production numbers per episode . Once Murphy selects a song , rights are cleared with its publishers by music supervisor P. J. Bloom , and music producers Adam Anders and Peer Astrom rearrange it for the Glee cast . Numbers are pre @-@ recorded by the cast , while Woodlee constructs the accompanying dance moves , which are then taught to the cast and filmed . Studio recordings of tracks are then made . The process begins six to eight weeks before each episode is filmed , and can end as late as the day before filming begins . Each episode costs at least $ 3 million to produce , and can take up to ten days to film as a result of the elaborate choreography . In late 2010 , Bloom reported the process has been even shorter ; " as quick as a few weeks " . For the second season , the creators were offered listens of upcoming songs in advance by publishers and record labels , with production occurring even before song rights are cleared .
= = = Promotion = = =
Prior to the second episode 's premiere , Glee 's cast went on tour at several Hot Topic stores across the nation . The cast sang the U.S. national anthem at the third game of the 2009 World Series . Macy 's invited them to perform at the 2009 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade , but host broadcaster NBC declined because Glee aired on a rival network . Murphy commented on the cast 's exclusion : " I completely understand NBC 's position , and look forward to seeing a Jay Leno float . "
The show 's success sent the cast on a concert tour , Glee Live ! In Concert ! after the first season 's wrapup . They visited Phoenix , Chicago , Los Angeles , and New York . The cast also recorded a cover of Wham ! ' s " Last Christmas " , which was released as a single in late 2009 but didn 't appear in the show until " A Very Glee Christmas " on December 10 , 2010 . Morrison , Lynch , Michele , Monteith , and Colfer reprised their roles as Will , Sue , Rachel , Finn , and Kurt respectively for a cameo appearance in an episode of The Cleveland Show that aired January 16 , 2011 . Michele , Monteith , and Riley appeared as campers in the twenty @-@ second season premiere of The Simpsons .
Lynch , Colfer , Monteith , and Riley appeared at the 2010 MTV VMAs on September 12 , 2010 . When Agron , Michele , and Monteith posed for a set of risqué photos for the November 2010 edition of GQ magazine , Parents Television Council ( PTC ) criticized the show ; PTC president Tim Winter commented that Glee has many young fans , and that " by authorizing this kind of near @-@ pornographic display , the creators of the program have established their intentions on the show ’ s direction . And it isn 't good for families . "
The promotional posters for the first season have the show 's stars using their right hands to make an " L " to fill in the L of the word Glee . The second season 's promotional posters have the stars throwing slushies at the camera in pairs . The third season 's promotional posters have the stars getting dodgeballs thrown at them by Sue Sylvester . While the cast concert tour , Glee Live ! In Concert ! , began on May 15 , 2010 , and presented concerts in four cities in the US that month , the second edition , with an almost @-@ entirely new set list , toured for four weeks in the US and Canada from May 21 through June 18 , 2011 , and followed with twelve days in England and Ireland , from June 22 through July 3 , 2011 . The cast also performed on the seventh season of The X Factor on December 5 , 2010 .
= = Broadcast = =
The first season of Glee consists of twenty @-@ two episodes . The pilot episode was originally broadcast on May 19 , 2009 . The series returned on September 9 , 2009 , airing an additional twelve episodes on Wednesdays in the 9 : 00 pm timeslot until December 9 , 2009 , for a total of thirteen episodes . On September 21 , 2009 , nine more episodes were ordered for the first season by Fox , and the first of these episodes was broadcast on April 13 , 2010 . These episodes aired on Tuesday evenings at 9 : 00 pm . On January 11 , 2010 , it was announced that Fox had commissioned a second season of the show . The second season began production in June 2010 . Season two began on September 21 , 2010 , airing in the 8 : 00 pm time slot on Tuesdays , and consists of twenty @-@ two episodes . The show was chosen by Fox to fill the coveted timeslot that followed the network 's coverage of Super Bowl XLV in 2011 , and the network originally planned to move the show to the 9 : 00 pm time slot on Wednesdays following the post – Super Bowl broadcast . However , Fox later revised its schedule , leaving Glee on Tuesdays in order to concentrate on building up its weaker Wednesday and Thursday line @-@ ups . A third season was ordered by Fox on May 23 , 2010 , before the end of the first season . The early renewal of the show allowed the production team to cut costs and to plan ahead when writing scripts . The third season broadcasts remained in the show 's Tuesday 8 : 00 pm time slot , and began airing on September 20 , 2011 . The show 's fourth season changed both date and time of broadcast : it moved to Thursdays in the 9 : 00 pm time slot , and aired after that evening 's 8 : 00 pm music competition " results " shows — The X Factor in the fall and American Idol in midseason . The show was renewed for both a fifth and sixth season at the same time , on April 19 , 2013 . Reruns were also syndicated to local US stations from 2013 to 2015 .
Glee has been syndicated for broadcast in many countries worldwide , including Australia , where cast members visited to promote the show prior to its September 2009 debut on Network Ten . Midway through season four , Glee was moved to Network Ten 's digital channel Eleven due to poor ratings . It also airs in Canada on City , formerly Global , New Zealand , and Fiji . It is broadcast in South Africa , where Fox beams the episodes directly to the M @-@ Net broadcast center in Johannesburg rather than delivering the tapes . Asian countries that broadcast Glee include Bangladesh , the Philippines , India , Malaysia , and Singapore .
= = = UK trademark dispute = = =
In the United Kingdom , E4 broadcast the first two seasons of Glee , showing episodes months after they were first aired in the US . Sky1 broadcast the series starting with the third season , airing episodes two days after their US broadcast . However , the show has come under a trademark dispute in the UK with The Glee Club , a small chain of independent live stand @-@ up comedy and live music venues . In February 2014 , an English High Court judge ruled that the show " diluted and tarnished " the reputation of the comedy club chain . In a later ruling in July 2014 , the High Court ordered Fox to use a different title for the show in the UK , saying there was a " likelihood of confusion " between the two brands . In February 2016 , Fox lost an appeal against the decision .
= = Merchandise = =
Three soundtrack albums were released to accompany Glee 's first season : Glee : The Music , Volume 1 , Glee : The Music , Volume 2 and Glee : The Music , Volume 3 Showstoppers . Two extended plays ( EP ) accompanied the episodes " The Power of Madonna " and " Journey to Regionals " : Glee : The Music , The Power of Madonna and Glee : The Music , Journey to Regionals respectively . Glee : The Music , The Complete Season One , a compilation album featuring all 100 studio recordings from the first season , was released exclusively to the iTunes Store . Five soundtrack albums were released to accompany Glee 's second season : Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album , featuring Christmas @-@ themed songs , and Glee : The Music , Volume 4 , were both released in November 2010 ; Glee : The Music , Volume 5 , Glee : The Music Presents the Warblers , and Glee : The Music , Volume 6 were 2011 releases , in March , April , and May , respectively . An EP entitled Glee : The Music , The Rocky Horror Glee Show was released to accompany the Halloween episode , " The Rocky Horror Glee Show " . Two EPs were released exclusively at the Target discount chain : Glee : The Music , Love Songs in the last week of 2010 , and Glee : The Music , Dance Party in early September 2011 .
Glee has been released on several DVD and Blu @-@ ray box @-@ sets . Glee – Pilot Episode : Director 's Cut features the pilot episode and a preview of the second episode , " Showmance " . Glee – Volume 1 : Road to Sectionals contains the first thirteen episodes of season one , and Glee – Volume 2 : Road to Regionals contains the final nine episodes of the first season . Glee – The Complete First Season was released on September 13 , 2010 . Three boxed sets were released for the second season : Glee Season 2 : Volume 1 containing the first ten episodes on January 25 , 2011 , and both Glee Season 2 : Volume 2 with the final twelve episode and Glee : The Complete Second Season with all twenty @-@ two on September 13 , 2011 . All three were released on DVD ; only the complete season is available on Blu @-@ ray .
Little , Brown Books is in the process of publishing five Glee – related young adult novels , which are being developed in collaboration with the show 's producers and writers . The first three novels have been written by Sophia Lowell ; the first , Glee : The Beginning , was released in August 2010 and serves as a prequel to the events of the television series . Subsequent novels include Glee : Foreign Exchange , released in February 2011 , and Glee : Summer Break , released in July 2011 .
Twentieth Century Fox Consumer Products have plans for a line of Glee – related merchandise including games , electrical products , greeting cards , apparel and stationery . Macy 's carry a line of Glee – related clothing , and Claire 's stock accessories .
Halfbrick Studios published a Glee content version of the mobile game Band Stars by Six Foot Kid in collaboration with Fox Digital Entertainment on March 27 , 2014 , currently available on iOS platforms , but with plans to release to Android . The game is available for free download with some Glee content available immediately including Kurt Hummel and Will Schuester . 12 characters from the Glee TV show are available for purchase and download in two separate packs . Pack 1 contains : Rachel Berry , Mercedes Jones , Noah ( Puck ) Puckerman , Jake Puckerman and Quinn Fabray . Pack 2 contains : Artie Abrams , Tina Cohen @-@ Chang , Blaine Anderson , Santana Lopez , Brittany Pierce and Unique Adams .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The pilot episode of Glee averaged 9 @.@ 62 million viewers , and the following eleven episodes attained between 6 @.@ 10 and 7 @.@ 65 million . The mid @-@ season finale was watched by 8 @.@ 13 million viewers , with the show returning in April 2010 to a season high of 13 @.@ 66 million viewers . The following six episodes attained between 11 @.@ 49 and 12 @.@ 98 million viewers , falling to 8 @.@ 99 million for the penultimate episode " Funk " . Viewing figures rose to 11 @.@ 07 million viewers for the season finale , giving Glee the highest finale rating for a new show in the 2009 – 10 television season . Only the first twenty episodes of the first season were accounted for when calculating the season average due to the final two episodes airing outside the traditional sweeps period . On February 6 , 2011 , after the Super Bowl , Glee received its highest ever ratings , with over 26 @.@ 8 million tuning in to see the special episode , with a peak of 39 @.@ 5 million .
In 2011 , Glee generated $ 2 million advertising revenue per half @-@ hour . In 2012 , the show was the fourth @-@ highest revenue earning show of the year , with US $ 2 @.@ 83 million ad revenue per half @-@ hour , behind Two and a Half Men , The X Factor and American Idol .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Glee received a Metacritic score of 78 out of 100 in its first season , based on reviews by eighteen critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . It was praised by several critics in year @-@ end " best of " reviews in 2009 . James Poniewozik of Time ranked it the eighth best television show of the year , commenting : " when Glee works — which is often — it is transcendent , tear @-@ jerking and thrilling like nothing else on TV . " Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker ranked it ninth , calling it " Hands down the year 's most novel show [ and ] also its least likely success " , Lisa Respers France of CNN wrote that while ordinarily Glee 's premise would have been " a recipe for disaster " , the show has " such quirky charm and bravado that it is impossible not to get swept up " . Reviews for subsequent seasons on Metacritic , reflecting their initial episodes , were not quite as good — the second season 's score was 76 out of 100 from eleven reviews , and the fourth season received a score of 73 out of 100 from six reviews . Even with these stellar reviews from a multitude of critics , Glee 's later seasons lost millions of viewers .
Nancy Gibbs of Time magazine wrote that she had heard the series described as " anti @-@ Christian " by a youth minister , and commented :
It is easy to see his point , if you look at the specifics . [ ... ] The students lie , they cheat , they steal , they lust , they lace the bake @-@ sale cupcakes with pot in order to give the student body a severe case of the munchies . Nearly all the Ten Commandments get violated at one point or another , while the audience is invited to laugh at people 's pain and folly and humiliation . [ ... ] It insults kids to suggest that simply watching Characters Behaving Badly onscreen means they 'll take that as permission to do the same themselves . [ ... ] And it 's set in high school , meaning it 's about a journey not just to college and career but to identity and conviction , the price of popularity , the compromises we must make between what we want and what we need . "
Variety 's Brian Lowry was critical of the show 's early episodes , highlighting acting and characterization issues and deeming the adult cast " over @-@ the @-@ top buffoons " , with the exception of Mays ' Emma , who he felt offered " modest redemption " . Though he praised Colfer and Michele 's performances , Lowry wrote that the show 's talent was squandered by its " jokey , cartoonish , wildly uneven tone " , deeming the series a " one @-@ hit wonder " . Following the show 's mid @-@ season finale , Lowry wrote that while Glee " remains a frustrating mess at times " , its " vibrant musical numbers and talented cast have consistently kept it on [ his ] TiVo must list " conceding that " even with its flaws , TV would be poorer without Glee . "
As Glee 's initial success pulled in a large audience , John Doyle of The Globe and Mail wrote that the early shows " felt fresh , mainly because the motley crew of kids had a kind of square naïveté . " Doyle notes that the early success took Glee away from its original characters and plot , focusing more on celebrity guests . " The gaiety is gone from Glee . You should have set it in its prime , mere months ago " . Matthew Gilbert of Boston Globe similarly wrote that " It has become a powerful , promotional machine , long on hype and short on the human feeling--the glee--that once made it so addictive " .
= = = Music = = =
The show 's musical performances have been a commercial success , with over thirty @-@ six million copies of Glee cast single releases purchased digitally , and over eleven million albums purchased worldwide through October 2011 . In 2009 , the Glee cast had twenty @-@ five singles chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , the most by any artist since The Beatles had thirty @-@ one songs in
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izes about dancing with Lana , to express the show 's essence . According to Welling , " It brings them close — not as close as Clark would like , but at the end of [ this ] episode , he imagines that he 's with her and can really see it happening . "
Production was initially slated to take place in Australia , but Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada had more of the " middle America " feel for which the creators were looking . The area offered a site for the Kent farm , including their barn , and the city itself doubled as Metropolis . Vancouver provided a cheaper shooting location , and was in the same time zone as Los Angeles . Filming began in March 2001 ; Nutter spent sixteen days on main unit filming and an additional five days for second unit filming . Time constraints forced Nutter to film strictly from Adrien Van Viersen 's 150 – page storyboard when filming the opening meteor shower scene . Much of the look for Smallville came from Millar , who wanted the epitome of " Smalltown , USA " . Construction coordinator Rob Maier explained , " It had to be cleaner than clean , nicer than nice , more beautiful than it would be in the real world . All of the people in Smallville are beautiful ; all of the colors are bright and sharp . " For the Kent farm , Nutter wanted to have " an old world sensibility and tone " . For the pilot , the production crew only built a kitchen and dining room to represent the Kent home . All the exterior shots of the farm were taken at the Andalinis farm , owned by a local couple who also gave the crew permission to paint their forest green house yellow . Since the Vancouver farm already had a barn , the production crew only had to build a loft with stairs leading up to it .
Exterior shots of the Luthor Mansion were shot at the Hatley Castle in Victoria , two hours west of Vancouver by ferry . Time constraints forced scenes , which were shot from multiple angles , to sometimes be shot at separate locations . A scene involving Whitney ( Eric Johnson ) and Lana ( Kristin Kreuk ) sitting on her porch was shot at two different locations . Close @-@ ups of Whitney were shot under a football stadium , while close @-@ ups of Lana were shot in a potato @-@ processing factory . Unable to shoot at the house being used as the Lang residence , the crew built Lana 's front porch inside a sewage processing facility for the final scene of the episode where Lana walks up the stairs to her house . The local sewage treatment facility is also the site for the LuthorCorp pesticide plant , which Lex was sent to Smallville to manage . The crash site of Clark 's ship was shot at the sandpits where Mission to Mars was filmed . Smallville 's Main Street was filmed in both the town of Merritt , which is three hours east of Vancouver , and in the town of Cloverdale . Most of the filming took place in Cloverdale , since the town had a long stretch of vacant buildings that could double as Smallville 's Main Street . When the production crew came to film the opening teaser , they had to decorate the town with ribbons and balloons , as well as paint some of the buildings to attain Millar 's idea of " Smalltown , USA " . Two sets were built just for the pilot . The Kent storm cellar was built as a cover set inside the farm 's barn . For the cemetery scene between Clark and Lana , production designer Bernard Hides built the entire cemetery from scratch in an empty field .
= = = Effects = = =
On @-@ set computer @-@ generated effects for the pilot were done by Thomas Special Effects . Certain scenes , because of time and money , had to be created digitally . The opening sequence showing the destruction of the water tower by a meteor was created on the computer . A persistent problem during production was the lack of cornfields . As realistic corn was a necessity for a show based in Kansas , this became a problem for the filmmakers . Over 10 @,@ 000 stalks of corn were grown in a greenhouse for the pilot , but they only grew two feet high , which was not usable to the crew . The day the crew was filming the scene for Clark 's landing there were no cornfields in the surrounding area . The cornfields had to be digitally added . Digital corn was a common substitute for the undersized corn that was grown , but for scenes where digital corn was not an option , six hundred stalks of fake corn were flown in from a manufacturer in Arizona . Other digital effects include the flattened cornfield where Lex was caught in a meteorite blast . Some scenes required physical effects , instead of computer imagery . When Lex drives his car off a bridge and hits Clark , the stunt performer , who doubled as Wolverine in the film X @-@ Men , was literally hit by the car as it went over the bridge .
= = Release and reception = =
" Pilot " premiered on The WB on October 16 , 2001 . 8 @.@ 4 million viewers watched the pilot 's debut , breaking The WB 's record for highest ratings for a new series . The pilot broke The WB 's ratings record for the 18 – 49 male demographic , with 3 @.@ 9 million viewers ; it became the third @-@ highest rated debut for the overall adult 18 – 49 demographic , with an average 3 @.@ 8 million viewers . The premiere also finished first with viewers age 12 – 34 , leading Warner Bros. President of Entertainment Jordan Levin to credit the series with invigorating the network 's Tuesday night lineup . The pilot won an Emmy Award for Sound Editing ; it had also been nominated for Visual Effects but lost to UPN 's Star Trek : Enterprise . The special effects team won a Leo Award for Best Visual Effects in a Dramatic Series . Casting directors Deedee Bradley , Coreen Mayrs , and Barbara Miller were nominated for an Artios Award for their work on the pilot . The pilot was nominated for two Golden Reel Awards , one for Effects & Foley Sound Editing and one for Music Sound Editing . Peter Wunstorf was also nominated for an American Society of Cinematographers Award for his work on the pilot . The pilot , along with the second episode " Metamorphosis " , was released in Canada as a special pilot movie . The episodes were altered on the DVD ; formatted in 1 @.@ 78 widescreen , and presented with no opening segment and an alternate closing . It also contained the same special features present in the DVD box set of the first season .
The pilot received favorable reviews upon its release . Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette thought it was a " respectful addition to Superman lore " and had " all the markings of a super series " . Owen noted the Christ @-@ like imagery of the scene , stating , " Is it any wonder Clark gets tied up there since Superman , too , was ' sent to save us ' ? " Echoing Owen , DVD Verdict noted the same symbolism :
Superman is , in a way , the secular pop culture stand @-@ in for Jesus Christ , a messiah figure for our generation . The series makes this theme explicit in its pilot episode , in which Clark is symbolically ' crucified ' in a cornfield . That striking bit of symbolism becomes the central preoccupation of the series ; Clark is the savior who sacrifices all for the greater good of humanity , and Smallville shows us how he comes to accept and embrace that role .
Elizabeth White of Media Life believed the show had potential to be a big hit for The WB but felt it needed to survive not only its time slot — Tuesdays at 9 : 00 p.m. ( EST ) — but also the audience 's expectations of " what Superman should be " . USA Today 's Robert Bianco was a bit more mixed in his criticism . Bianco stated , " For all its innovations , there 's also something rehashed and repetitive about Smallville ... shows often look more familiar at the outset than they do as they progress . There 's talent and intelligence at work in Smallville . Given time , maybe they 'll find a more distinctive voice . " Jeremy Conrad , from IGN , swore to himself that he would never watch Smallville , because he was a " huge Superman fan " and he did not like the idea the creators would be making changes to the Superman mythology . After viewing the pilot , Conrad stated , " It 's a very solid start to the series , and one of the better pilot episodes I 've seen in a while . " In The Futon Critic 's 50 best episodes of 2001 rankings , the pilot was placed 31st , with Brian Ford Sullivan stating , " Smallville opened us to a surprisingly fresh take on the Superman myth @-@ this time showing us the humble beginnings of a young Clark Kent . "
The CW re @-@ aired the pilot on Friday , April 8 , 2011 in preparation for the series finale . The episode was watched by 1 @.@ 55 million viewers and achieved a 0 @.@ 5 Adults 18 @-@ 49 rating , despite only 92 % coverage .
= Kepler @-@ 10c =
Kepler @-@ 10c is an exoplanet orbiting the G @-@ type star Kepler @-@ 10 , located around 568 light @-@ years away in Draco . Its discovery was announced by Kepler in May 2011 , although it had been seen as a planetary candidate since January 2011 , when Kepler @-@ 10b was discovered . The team confirmed the observation using data from NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope and a technique called Blender that ruled out most false positives . Kepler @-@ 10c was the third transiting planet to be confirmed statistically ( based on probability rather than actual observation ) , after Kepler @-@ 9d and Kepler @-@ 11g . The Kepler team considers the statistical method that led to the discovery of Kepler @-@ 10c as what will be necessary to confirm many planets in Kepler 's field of view .
Kepler @-@ 10c orbits its host star every forty @-@ five days at a quarter of the average distance between the Sun and Earth . It has a radius more than double that of Earth , but a higher density , suggesting a mainly rocky composition with around 5 – 20 % ices by mass . For comparison , the Earth 's oceans represent only 0 @.@ 02 % of our planet 's mass , with an additional amount potentially a few times this stored in the mantle .
= = Discovery and confirmation = =
In January 2011 , the closely orbiting planet Kepler @-@ 10b was confirmed in the orbit of the star Kepler @-@ 10 after measurements of its transiting behavior ( where it crosses in front of Kepler @-@ 10 , periodically dimming it ) and a radial velocity effect detected in Kepler @-@ 10 's spectrum provided the information needed to prove that it was indeed a planet . An additional , longer @-@ period dimming was detected in Kepler @-@ 10 's spectrum , suggesting that a second planet existed in the system ; however , there remained the possibility that this signal could have some other cause , and that the transit event was a false positive . Attempts to measure the radial velocity effects of this object , now named KOI 072 @.@ 02 , were fruitless ; therefore , to rule out false positive scenarios , the Kepler team used a technique called Blender .
The application of Blender was supplemented by use of the IRAC instrument on the Spitzer Space Telescope , which was used on August 30 and November 15 , 2010 , to further define Kepler @-@ 10 's light curve at the point where KOI 072 @.@ 02 appeared to transit it . It was found that the transiting object did not produce a color , an aspect that is characteristic of stars . This suggested even further that KOI 072 @.@ 02 was a planet . In addition , the IRAC instrument found no difference in the transit signal when comparing the star 's light curve in the infrared and in visible light ; stars that are aligned with Kepler @-@ 10 might appear visibly similar , but would appear different in the infrared .
The WIYN Observatory 's 3.5m telescope was used for speckle imaging on June 18 , 2010 ; in addition , the PHARO camera on the Palomar Observatory 's 5m telescope was used for its adaptive optics capabilities . These observations , combined with observations of Kepler @-@ 10 's spectrum taken from the W.M. Keck Observatory , ruled out the possibility that a nearby star 's light was corrupting the observed spectrum of Kepler @-@ 10 and creating the results that had led astronomers to believe that a second planet existed in Kepler @-@ 10 's orbit . All of these possibilities , with the exception of if such a star existed exactly behind or in front of Kepler @-@ 10 , were effectively ruled out ; even with this , the Kepler team found that if a star was indeed aligned with Kepler @-@ 10 as seen from Earth , such a star would probably not be a giant star .
With a greater degree of certainty established , the Kepler team compared the models formed using Blender to the photometric observations collected by the Kepler satellite . The Blender technique allowed the Kepler team to rule out the majority of the alternatives including , notably , that of triple star systems . Blender then allowed the Kepler team to determine that although all models representing hierarchical triple stars ( a binary system between a single star and a double star ) can resemble the light curve of Kepler @-@ 10 , the aforementioned follow @-@ up observations would have detected them all . The only possible blends remaining after ruling out hierarchical triple stars was that of determining if the curve is caused by interference from a background star , or if it is indeed caused by the orbit of a transiting planet .
Comparisons of KOI 072 @.@ 02 to the 1235 other Kepler Objects of Interest in Kepler 's field of vision allowed astronomers to use models that led to the confirmation of KOI 072 @.@ 02 as a planet with a high degree of certainty . KOI 072 @.@ 02 was then renamed Kepler @-@ 10c . The planet 's confirmation was announced at the Boston meeting of the American Astronomical Society on May 23 , 2011 .
Kepler @-@ 10c was the first Kepler target to be observed using Spitzer with the hope of detecting a shallow transit dip in a light curve . At the time of Kepler @-@ 10c 's discovery , Spitzer was the only facility capable of detecting shallow transits in the Kepler data to an extent at which the data could be meaningfully analyzed . The planet was also the third transiting planet that was validated through an analysis of statistical data ( rather than actual observation ) , after the planets Kepler @-@ 9d and Kepler @-@ 11g . In Kepler @-@ 10c 's confirmation paper , the Kepler team discussed how a large fraction of planets in Kepler 's field of view would be confirmed in this statistical manner .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 10 is a G @-@ type star located 173 parsecs ( 564 light years ) from Earth . It is 0 @.@ 895 solar masses and 1 @.@ 056 solar radii , making it slightly less massive than the Sun , but approximately the same size .
With an effective temperature of 5627 K , Kepler @-@ 10 is cooler than the Sun . The star is also metal @-@ poor and far older : its metallicity is measured at [ Fe / H ] = − 0 @.@ 15 ( 29 % less iron than in the Earth 's Sun ) . Kepler @-@ 10 has a measured age of approximately 10 @.@ 6 billion years .
Kepler @-@ 10 has an apparent magnitude of 11 @.@ 2 , which means that the star is invisible to the naked eye from the perspective of an observer on Earth .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 10c is the outermost of the two known planets of Kepler @-@ 10 , completing one orbit of the star every 45 @.@ 29485 days at a distance of 0 @.@ 2407 AU . The inner planet , Kepler @-@ 10b , is a rocky planet that orbits every ~ 0 @.@ 8 days at a distance of 0 @.@ 01684 AU . Kepler @-@ 10c 's equilibrium temperature is estimated at 584 K , almost four times hotter than Jupiter 's . The planet 's orbital inclination is 89.65º , or almost edge @-@ on with respect to Earth and to Kepler @-@ 10 . Transits have been observed at points where Kepler @-@ 10c has crossed in front of its host star .
Kepler @-@ 10c has a mass of 15 – 19 Earth masses . With a radius only 2 @.@ 35 ( 2 @.@ 31 to 2 @.@ 44 ) times that of Earth ( and so a volume 12 – 15 times that of Earth ) , and a density higher than Earth 's ( 6 – 8 g cm − 3 ) , it is unlikely to contain significant amounts of hydrogen and helium gas . Outgassed or accreted hydrogen @-@ rich atmospheres would have been lost over the 10 @.@ 6 billion @-@ year lifetime of the Kepler @-@ 10 system . Instead , the composition is likely to be mainly rocky , with a water fraction of 5 – 20 % by mass . The bulk of this water is likely to be in the form of high @-@ pressure " hot ice " phases .
= Auriga ( constellation ) =
Auriga is one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd @-@ century astronomer Ptolemy and remains one of the 88 modern constellations . Located north of the celestial equator , its name is the Latin word for " charioteer " , associating it with various mythological charioteers , including Erichthonius and Myrtilus . Auriga is most prominent during winter evenings in the Northern Hemisphere , along with the five other constellations that have stars in the Winter Hexagon asterism . Because of its northern declination , Auriga is only visible in its entirety as far as 34 ° south ; for observers farther south it lies partially or fully below the horizon . A large constellation , with an area of 657 square degrees , it is half the size of the largest constellation , Hydra .
Its brightest star , Capella , is an unusual multiple star system among the brightest stars in the night sky . Beta Aurigae is an interesting variable star in the constellation ; Epsilon Aurigae , a nearby eclipsing binary with an unusually long period , has been studied intensively . Because of its position near the winter Milky Way , Auriga has many bright open clusters in its borders , including M36 , M37 , and M38 , popular targets for amateur astronomers . In addition , it has one prominent nebula , the Flaming Star Nebula , associated with the variable star AE Aurigae .
In Chinese mythology , Auriga 's stars were incorporated into several constellations , including the celestial emperors ' chariots , made up of the modern constellation 's brightest stars . Auriga is home to the radiant for the Aurigids , Zeta Aurigids , Delta Aurigids , and the hypothesized Iota Aurigids .
= = History and mythology = =
The first record of Auriga 's stars was in Mesopotamia as a constellation called GAM , representing a scimitar or crook . However , this may have represented just Capella ( Alpha Aurigae ) or the modern constellation as a whole ; this figure was alternatively called Gamlum or MUL.GAM in the MUL.APIN. The crook of Auriga stood for a goat @-@ herd or shepherd . It was formed from most of the stars of the modern constellation ; all of the bright stars were included except for Elnath , traditionally assigned to both Taurus and Auriga . Later , Bedouin astronomers created constellations that were groups of animals , where each star represented one animal . The stars of Auriga comprised a herd of goats , an association also present in Greek mythology . The association with goats carried into the Greek astronomical tradition , though it later became associated with a charioteer along with the shepherd .
In Greek mythology , Auriga is often identified as the mythological Greek hero Erichthonius of Athens , the chthonic son of Hephaestus who was raised by the goddess Athena . Erichthonius was generally credited to be the inventor of the quadriga , the four @-@ horse chariot , which he used in the battle against the usurper Amphictyon , the event that made Erichthonius the king of Athens . His chariot was created in the image of the Sun 's chariot , the reason Zeus placed him in the heavens . The Athenian hero then dedicated himself to Athena and soon after , Zeus raised him into the night sky in honor of his ingenuity and heroic deeds .
Auriga , however , is sometimes described as Myrtilus , who was Hermes 's son and the charioteer of Oenomaus . The association of Auriga and Myrtilus is supported by depictions of the constellation , which rarely show a chariot . Myrtilus 's chariot was destroyed in a race intended for suitors to win the heart of Oenomaus 's daughter Hippodamia . Myrtilus earned his position in the sky when Hippodamia 's successful suitor , Pelops , killed him , despite his complicity in helping Pelops win her hand . After his death , Myrtilus 's father Hermes placed him in the sky . Yet another mythological association of Auriga is Theseus 's son Hippolytus . He was ejected from Athens after he refused the romantic advances of his stepmother Phaedra , who committed suicide as a result . He was killed when his chariot was wrecked , but revived by Asclepius . Regardless of Auriga 's specific representation , it is likely that the constellation was created by the ancient Greeks to commemorate the importance of the chariot in their society .
An incidental appearance of Auriga in Greek mythology is as the limbs of Medea 's brother . In the myth of Jason and the Argonauts , as they journeyed home , Medea killed her brother and dismembered him , flinging the parts of his body into the sea , represented by the Milky Way . Each individual star represents a different limb .
Capella is associated with the mythological she @-@ goat Amalthea , who breast @-@ fed the infant Zeus . It forms an asterism with the stars Epsilon Aurigae , Zeta Aurigae , and Eta Aurigae , the latter two of which are known as the Haedi ( the Kids ) . Though most often associated with Amalthea , Capella has sometimes been associated with Amalthea 's owner , a nymph . The myth of the nymph says that the goat 's hideous appearance , resembling a Gorgon , was partially responsible for the Titans ' defeat , because Zeus skinned the goat and wore it as his aegis . The asterism containing the three goats had been a separate constellation ; however , Ptolemy merged the Charioteer and the Goats in the 2nd century Almagest . Before that , Capella was sometimes seen as its own constellation — by Pliny the Elder and Manilius — called Capra , Caper , or Hircus , all of which relate to its status as the " goat star " . Zeta Aurigae and Eta Aurigae were first called the " Kids " by Cleostratus , an ancient Greek astronomer .
Traditionally , illustrations of Auriga represent it as a chariot and its driver . The charioteer holds a goat over his left shoulder and has two kids under his left arm ; he holds the reins to the chariot in his right hand . However , depictions of Auriga have been inconsistent over the years . The reins in his right hand have also been drawn as a whip , though Capella is almost always over his left shoulder and the Kids under his left arm . The 1488 atlas Hyginus deviated from this typical depiction by showing a four @-@ wheeled cart driven by Auriga , who holds the reins of two oxen , a horse , and a zebra . Jacob Micyllus depicted Auriga in his Hyginus of 1535 as a charioteer with a two @-@ wheeled cart , powered by two horses and two oxen . Arabic and Turkish depictions of Auriga varied wildly from those of the European Renaissance ; one Turkish atlas depicted the stars of Auriga as a mule , called Mulus clitellatus by Johann Bayer . One unusual representation of Auriga , from 17th @-@ century France , showed Auriga as Adam kneeling on the Milky Way , with a goat wrapped around his shoulders .
Occasionally , Auriga is seen not as the Charioteer but as Bellerophon , the mortal rider of Pegasus who dared to approach Mount Olympus . In this version of the tale , Jupiter pitied Bellerophon for his foolishness and placed him in the stars .
Some of the stars of Auriga were incorporated into a now @-@ defunct constellation called Telescopium Herschelii . This constellation was introduced by Maximilian Hell to honor William Herschel 's discovery of Uranus . Originally , it included two constellations , Tubus Hershelii Major [ sic ] , in Gemini , Lynx , and Auriga , and Tubus Hershelii Minor [ sic ] in Orion and Taurus ; both represented Herschel 's telescopes . Johann Bode combined Hell 's constellations into Telescopium Herschelii in 1801 , located mostly in Auriga .
Since the time of Ptolemy , Auriga has remained a constellation and is officially recognized by the International Astronomical Union , although like all modern constellations , it is now defined as a specific region of the sky that includes both the ancient pattern and the surrounding stars . In 1922 , the IAU designated its recommended three @-@ letter abbreviation , " Aur " . The official boundaries of Auriga were created in 1930 by Eugène Delporte as a polygon of 21 segments . Its right ascension is between 4h 37.5m and 7h 30.5m and its declination is between 27 @.@ 9 ° and 56 @.@ 2 ° in the equatorial coordinate system .
= = = In non @-@ Western astronomy = = =
The stars of Auriga were incorporated into several Chinese constellations . Wuche , the five chariots of the celestial emperors and the representation of the grain harvest , was a constellation formed by Alpha Aurigae , Beta Aurigae , Beta Tauri , Theta Aurigae , and Iota Aurigae . Sanzhu or Zhu was one of three constellations which represented poles for horses to be tethered . They were formed by the triplets of Epsilon , Zeta , and Eta Aurigae ; Nu , Tau , and Upsilon Aurigae ; and Chi and 26 Aurigae , with one other undetermined star . Xianchi , the pond where the sun set and Tianhuang , a pond , bridge , or pier , were other constellations in Auriga , though the stars that composed them are undetermined . Zuoqi , representing chairs for the emperor and other officials , was made up of nine stars in the east of the constellation . Bagu , a constellation mostly formed from stars in Camelopardalis representing different types of crops , included the northern stars of Delta and Xi Aurigae .
In ancient Hindu astronomy , Capella represented the heart of Brahma and was important religiously . Ancient Peruvian peoples saw Capella , called Colca , as a star intimately connected to the affairs of shepherds .
In Brazil , the Bororo people incorporate the stars of Auriga into a massive constellation representing a caiman ; its southern stars represent the end of the animal 's tail . The eastern portion of Taurus is the rest of the tail , while Orion is its body and Lepus is the head . This constellation arose because of the prominence of caymans in daily Amazonian life . There is evidence that Capella was significant to the Aztec people , as the Late Classic site Monte Albán has a marker for the star 's heliacal rising . Indigenous peoples of California and Nevada also noticed the bright pattern of Auriga 's stars . To them , the constellation 's bright stars formed a curve that was represented in crescent @-@ shaped petroglyphs . The indigenous Pawnee of North America recognized a constellation with the same major stars as modern Auriga : Alpha , Beta , Gamma ( Beta Tauri ) , Theta , and Iota Aurigae .
The people of the Marshall Islands featured Auriga in the myth of Dümur , which tells the story of the creation of the sky . Antares in Scorpius represents Dümur , the oldest son of the stars ' mother , and the Pleiades represent her youngest son . The mother of the stars , Ligedaner , is represented by Capella ; she lived on the island of Alinablab . She told her sons that the first to reach an eastern island would become the King of the Stars , and asked Dümur to let her come in his canoe . He refused , as did each of her sons in turn , except for Pleiades . Pleiades won the race with the help of Ligedaner , and became the King of the Stars . Elsewhere in the central Caroline Islands , Capella was called Jefegen uun ( variations include efang alul , evang @-@ el @-@ ul , and iefangel uul ) , meaning " north of Aldebaran " . Different names were noted for Auriga and Capella in Eastern Pacific societies . On Pukapuka , the figure of modern Auriga was called Te Wale @-@ o @-@ Tutakaiolo ( " The house of Tutakaiolo " ) ; in the Society Islands , it was called Faa @-@ nui ( " Great Valley " ) . Capella itself was called Tahi @-@ anii ( " Unique Sovereign " ) in the Societies . Hoku @-@ lei was the name for Capella but may have been the name for the whole constellation ; the name means " Star @-@ wreath " and refers to one of the wives of the Pleiades , called Makalii .
The stars of Auriga feature in Inuit constellations . Quturjuuk , meaning " collar @-@ bones " , was a constellation that included Capella ( Alpha Aurigae ) , Menkalinan ( Beta Aurigae ) , Pollux ( Beta Geminorum ) , and Castor ( Alpha Geminorum ) . Its rising signalled that the constellation Aagjuuk , made up of Altair ( Alpha Aquilae ) , Tarazed ( Gamma Aquilae ) , and sometimes Alshain ( Beta Aquilae ) , would rise soon . Aagjuuk , which represented the dawn following the winter solstice , was an incredibly important constellation in the Inuit mythos . It was also used for navigation and time @-@ keeping at night .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
= = = = Bright stars = = = =
Alpha Aurigae ( Capella ) , the brightest star in Auriga , is a G8III class star ( G @-@ type giant ) 43 light @-@ years away and the sixth brightest star in the night sky at magnitude 0 @.@ 08 . Its traditional name is a reference to its mythological position as Amalthea ; it is sometimes called the " Goat Star " . Capella 's names all point to this mythology . In Arabic , Capella was called al- ' Ayyuq , meaning " the goat " , and in Sumerian , it was called mul.ÁŠ.KAR , " the goat star " . On Ontong Java , Capella was called ngahalapolu . Capella is a spectroscopic binary with a period of 104 days ; the components are both yellow giants , more specifically , the primary is a G @-@ type star and the secondary is between a G @-@ type and F @-@ type star in its evolution . The secondary is formally classified as a G0III class star ( G @-@ type giant ) . The primary has a radius of 11 @.@ 87 solar radii ( R ☉ ) and a mass of 2 @.@ 47 solar masses ( M ☉ ) ; the secondary has a radius of 8 @.@ 75 R ☉ and a mass of 2 @.@ 44 M ☉ . The two components are separated by 110 million kilometers , almost 75 % of the distance between the Earth and the Sun . The star 's status as a binary was discovered in 1899 at the Lick Observatory ; its period was determined in 1919 by J.A. Anderson at the 100 @-@ inch Mt . Wilson Observatory telescope . It appears with a golden @-@ yellow hue , though Ptolemy and Giovanni Battista Riccioli both described its color as red , a phenomenon attributed not to a change in Capella 's color but to the idiosyncrasies of their color sensitivities . Capella has an absolute magnitude of 0 @.@ 3 and a luminosity of 160 times the luminosity of the Sun , or 160 L ☉ ( the primary is 90 L ☉ and the secondary is 70 L ☉ ) . It may be loosely associated with the Hyades , an open cluster in Taurus , because of their similar proper motion . Capella has one more companion , Capella H , which is a pair of red dwarf stars located 11 @,@ 000 astronomical units ( 0 @.@ 17 light @-@ years ) from the main pair .
Beta Aurigae ( Menkalinan , Menkarlina ) is a bright A2IV class star ( A @-@ type subgiant ) . Its Arabic name comes from the phrase mankib dhu al- ' inan , meaning " shoulder of the charioteer " and is a reference to Beta Aurigae 's location in the constellation . Menkalinan is 81 light @-@ years away and has a magnitude of 1 @.@ 90 . Like Epsilon Aurigae , it is an eclipsing binary star that varies in magnitude by 0.1m. The two components are blue @-@ white stars that have a period of 3 @.@ 96 days . Its double nature was revealed spectroscopically in 1890 by Antonia Maury , making it the second spectroscopic binary discovered , and its variable nature was discovered photometrically 20 years later by Joel Stebbins . Menkalinan has an absolute magnitude of 0 @.@ 6 and a luminosity of 50 L ☉ . The component of its motion in the direction of Earth is 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) per second . Beta Aurigae may be associated with a stream of about 70 stars including Delta Leonis and Alpha Ophiuchi ; the proper motion of this group is comparable to that of the Ursa Major Moving Group , though the connection is only hypothesized . Besides its close eclipsing companion , Menkalinan has two other stars associated with it . One is an unrelated optical companion , discovered in 1783 by William Herschel ; it has a magnitude of 10 @.@ 5 and has a separation of 184 arcseconds . The other is likely associated gravitationally with the primary , as determined by their common proper motion . This 14th magnitude star was discovered in 1901 by Edward Emerson Barnard . It has a separation of 12 @.@ 6 arcseconds , and is around 350 astronomical units from the primary .
= = = = Other bright stars = = = =
Besides the particularly bright stars of Alpha and Beta Aurigae , the constellation has many dimmer stars . Gamma Aurigae , now Beta Tauri ( El Nath , Alnath ) is a B7III class star ( B @-@ type giant ) . It was originally considered to be a part of both Auriga and Taurus , but is now classified only as Beta Tauri . Iota Aurigae , also called Hasseleh and Kabdhilinan , is a K3II class star ( K @-@ type bright giant ) of magnitude 2 @.@ 69 ; it is 494 light @-@ years away from Earth . It evolved from a B @-@ type star to a K @-@ type star over the estimated 30 – 45 million years since its birth . Iota Aurigae has an absolute magnitude of − 2 @.@ 3 and a luminosity of 700 L ☉ . It is classed as a particularly luminous bright giant , but appears dimmer than it should because dust clouds in the Milky Way block some of its light ; astronomers estimate that it appears 0 @.@ 6 magnitudes fainter . It is also a hybrid star , an x @-@ ray producing giant star that emits x @-@ rays from its corona and has a cool stellar wind . Though its proper motion is just 0 @.@ 02 arcseconds per year , it has a radial velocity of 10 @.@ 5 miles ( 16 @.@ 9 km ) per second in recession . The traditional name Kabdhilinan , sometimes shortened to " Alkab " , comes from the Arabic phrase al @-@ kab dh 'il inan , meaning " shoulder of the rein holder " . Iota Aurigae may end as a supernova , but because it is close to the mass limit for such stars , it may instead become a white dwarf .
Delta Aurigae , the northernmost bright star in Auriga , is a K0III @-@ type star ( K @-@ type giant ) , 126 light @-@ years from Earth and approximately 1 @.@ 3 billion years old . It has a magnitude of 3 @.@ 72 , an absolute magnitude of 0 @.@ 2 , and a luminosity of 60 L ☉ . About 12 times the radius of the Sun , Delta Aurigae weighs only two solar masses and rotates with a period of almost one year . Though it is often listed as a single star , it actually has three very widely spaced optical companions . One is a double star of magnitude 11 , two arcminutes from Delta , and the other is a star of magnitude 10 , three arcminutes from Delta .
Lambda Aurigae ( Al Hurr ) is a G1.5IV @-@ V @-@ type star ( G @-@ type star intermediate between a subgiant and main @-@ sequence star ) of magnitude 4 @.@ 71 . It has an absolute magnitude of 4 @.@ 4 and is located 41 light @-@ years from Earth . It has very weak emissions in the infrared spectrum , like Epsilon Aurigae . In photometric observations of Epsilon , an unusual variable , Lambda Aurigae is commonly used as a comparison star . It is reaching the end of its hydrogen @-@ fusing lifespan at an age of 6 @.@ 2 billion years . It also has an unusually high radial velocity at 83 km / second . Though older than the Sun , it is similar in many ways ; its mass is 1 @.@ 07 solar masses , a radius of 1 @.@ 3 solar radii , and a rotational period of 26 days . However , it differs from the Sun in its metallicity ; its iron content is 1 @.@ 15 times that of the Sun and it has relatively less nitrogen and carbon . Like Delta , it has several optical companions and is often categorized as a single star . The brightest companions are of magnitude 10 , separated by 175 and 203 arcseconds . The dimmer companions are of magnitude 13 and 14 , 87 and 310 arcseconds from Lambda , respectively . Nu Aurigae is a G9.5III ( G @-@ type giant ) star of magnitude 3 @.@ 97 , 230 light @-@ years from Earth . It has a luminosity of 60 L ☉ and an absolute magnitude of 0 @.@ 2 . Nu Aurigae is a giant star with a radius of 20 – 21 solar radii and a mass of approximately 3 solar masses . It may technically be a binary star ; its companion , sometimes listed as optical and separated by 56 arcseconds , is a dwarf star of spectral type K6 and magnitude 11 @.@ 4 . Its period is more than 120 @,@ 000 years and it orbits at least 3700 AU from the primary .
= = = = Eclipsing binary stars = = = =
The most prominent variable star in Auriga is Epsilon Aurigae ( Al Maz , Almaaz ) , an F0 class eclipsing binary star with an unusually long period of 27 years ; its last minima occurred from 1982 – 1984 and 2009 – 2011 . The distance to the system is disputed , variously cited as 4600 and 2170 light @-@ years . The primary is a white supergiant , and the secondary may be itself a binary star within a large dusty disk . Its maximum magnitude is 3 @.@ 0 , but it stays at a minimum magnitude of 3 @.@ 8 for around a year ; its most recent eclipse began in 2009 . The primary has an absolute magnitude of − 8 @.@ 5 and an unusually high luminosity of 200 @,@ 000 L ☉ , the reason it appears so bright at such a great distance . Epsilon Aurigae is the longest @-@ period eclipsing binary currently known . The first observed eclipse of Epsilon Aurigae occurred in 1821 , though its variable status was not confirmed until the eclipse of 1847 – 1848 . From that time forward , many theories were put forth as to the nature of the eclipsing component . Epsilon Aurigae has a noneclipsing component , which is visible as a 14th magnitude companion separated from the primary by 28 @.@ 6 arcseconds . It was discovered by Sherburne Wesley Burnham in 1891 at the Dearborn Observatory , and is about 0 @.@ 5 light @-@ years from the primary .
Another eclipsing binary in Auriga , part of the Haedi asterism with Epsilon Aurigae , is Zeta Aurigae ( Sadatoni ) , an eclipsing binary star at a distance of 776 light @-@ years with a period of 2 years and 8 months . It has an absolute magnitude of − 2 @.@ 3 . The primary is an orange @-@ hued K5II @-@ type star ( K @-@ type bright giant ) and the secondary is a smaller blue star similar to Regulus ; its period is 972 days . The secondary is a B7V @-@ type star , a B @-@ type main @-@ sequence star . Zeta Aurigae 's maximum magnitude is 3 @.@ 7 and its minimum magnitude is 4 @.@ 0 . The full eclipse of the small blue star by the orange giant lasts 38 days , with two partial phases of 32 days at the beginning and end . The primary has a diameter of 150 D ☉ and a luminosity of 700 L ☉ ; the secondary has a diameter of 4 D ☉ and a luminosity of 140 L ☉ . Zeta Aurigae was spectroscopically determined to be a double star by Antonia Maury in 1897 and was confirmed as a binary star in 1908 by William Wallace Campbell . The two stars orbit each other about 500 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 miles ( 800 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) apart . Zeta Aurigae is moving away from Earth at a rate of 8 miles ( 13 km ) per second . The last star in the asterism is Eta Aurigae , a B3 class star located 243 light @-@ years from Earth with a magnitude of 3 @.@ 17 . It is a B3V class star , meaning that it is a blue @-@ white hued main @-@ sequence star . Eta Aurigae is a part of the Haedi or " Kids " asterism , along with Zeta and Epsilon Aurigae . Eta Aurigae has an absolute magnitude of − 1 @.@ 7 and a luminosity of 450 L ☉ . Eta Aurigae is moving away from Earth at a rate of 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) per second .
T Aurigae ( Nova Aurigae 1891 ) was a nova discovered at magnitude 5 @.@ 0 on January 23 , 1892 , by Thomas David Anderson . It became visible to the naked eye by December 10 , 1891 , as shown on photographic plates examined after the nova 's discovery . It then brightened by a factor of 2 @.@ 5 from December 11 to December 20 , when it reached a maximum magnitude of 4 @.@ 4 . T Aurigae faded slowly in January and February 1892 , then faded quickly during March and April , reaching a magnitude of 15 in late April . However , its brightness began to increase in August , reaching magnitude 9 @.@ 5 , where it stayed until 1895 . Over the subsequent two years , its brightness decreased to 11 @.@ 5 , and by 1903 , it was approximately 14th magnitude . By 1925 , it had reached its current magnitude of 15 @.@ 5 . When the nova was discovered , its spectrum showed material moving at a high speed towards Earth . However , when the spectrum was examined again in August 1892 , it appeared to be a planetary nebula . Observations at the Lick Observatory by Edward Emerson Barnard showed it to be disc @-@ shaped , with clear nebulosity in a diameter of 3 arcseconds . The shell had a diameter of 12 arcseconds in 1943 . T Aurigae is classified as a slow nova , similar to DQ Herculis . Like DQ Herculis , WZ Sagittae , Nova Persei 1901 and Nova Aquilae 1918 , it is a very close binary with a very short period . T Aurigae 's period of 4 @.@ 905 hours , comparable to DQ Herculis 's period of 4 @.@ 65 hours , and has a partial eclipse period of 40 minutes .
= = = = Other variable stars = = = =
There are many other variable stars of different types in Auriga. ψ1 Aurigae ( Dolones ) is an orange @-@ hued supergiant , which ranges between magnitudes 4 @.@ 8 and 5 @.@ 7 , though not with a regular period . It has a spectral class of K5Iab , an average magnitude of 4 @.@ 91 , and an absolute magnitude of − 5 @.@ 7 . Dolones is 3976 light @-@ years from Earth . RT Aurigae is a Cepheid variable which ranges between magnitudes 5 @.@ 0 and 5 @.@ 8 over a period of 3 @.@ 7 days . A yellow @-@ white supergiant , it lies at a distance of 1600 light @-@ years . It was discovered to be variable by
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rosse case = = =
The newspaper was criticized for largely reporting the prosecutors ' version of events in the 2006 Duke lacrosse case . Suzanne Smalley of Newsweek criticized the newspaper for its " credulous " coverage of the charges of rape against Duke University lacrosse players . Stuart Taylor , Jr. and KC Johnson , in their book Until Proven Innocent : Political Correctness and the Shameful Injustices of the Duke Lacrosse Rape Case , write : " at the head of the guilt @-@ presuming pack , The New York Times vied in a race to the journalistic bottom with trash @-@ TV talk shows . "
= = = Quotes out of context = = =
In February 2009 , a Village Voice music blogger accused the newspaper of using " chintzy , ad @-@ hominem allegations " in an article on British Tamil music artist M.I.A. concerning her activism against the Sinhala @-@ Tamil conflict in Sri Lanka . M.I.A. criticized the paper in January 2010 after a travel piece rated post @-@ conflict Sri Lanka the " # 1 place to go in 2010 " . In June 2010 , The New York Times Magazine published a correction on its cover article of M.I.A. , acknowledging that the interview conducted by current W editor and then @-@ Times Magazine contributor Lynn Hirschberg contained a recontextualization of two quotes . In response to the piece , M.I.A. broadcast Hirschberg 's phone number and secret audio recordings from the interview via her Twitter and website .
= = = Delayed publication of 2005 NSA warrantless surveillance story = = =
The New York Times has been criticized for the 13 @-@ month delay of the December 2005 story revealing the U.S. National Security Agency warrantless surveillance program . Ex @-@ NSA officials blew the whistle on the program to journalists James Risen and Eric Lichtblau , who presented an investigative article to the newspaper in November 2004 , weeks before America 's presidential election . Contact with former agency officials began the previous summer .
Former The New York Times executive editor Bill Keller decided not to report the piece after being pressured by the Bush administration and being advised not to do so by New York Times Washington bureau chief Philip Taubman . Keller explained the silence 's rationale in an interview with the newspaper in 2013 , stating " Three years after 9 / 11 , we , as a country , were still under the influence of that trauma , and we , as a newspaper , were not immune " .
In 2014 , PBS Frontline interviewed Risen and Lichtblau , who said that the newspaper 's plan was to not publish the story at all . " The editors were furious at me " , Risen said to the program . " They thought I was being insubordinate . " Risen wrote a book about the mass surveillance revelations after The New York Times declined the piece 's publication , and only released it after Risen told them that he would publish the book . Another reporter told NPR that the newspaper " avoided disaster " by ultimately publishing the story .
= = = Irish student controversy = = =
On June 16 , 2015 , The New York Times published an article reporting the deaths of six Irish students staying in Berkeley , California when the balcony they were standing on collapsed , the paper 's story insinuating that they were to blame for the collapse . The paper stated that the behavior of Irish students coming to the US on J1 visas was an " embarrassment to Ireland " . The Irish Taoiseach and former President of Ireland criticized the newspaper for " being insensitive and inaccurate " in its handling of the story .
= = = Nail salon series = = =
In May 2015 , a New York Times exposé on the working conditions of manicurists in New York City and elsewhere and the health hazards to which they are exposed attracted wide attention , resulting in emergency workplace enforcement actions by New York governor Andrew M. Cuomo . In July 2015 , the story 's claims of widespread illegally low wages were challenged by former New York Times reporter Richard Bernstein , in the New York Review of Books . Bernstein , whose wife owns two nail salons , asserted that such illegally low wages were inconsistent with his personal experience , and were not evidenced by ads in the Chinese @-@ language papers cited by the story . The New York Times editorial staff subsequently answered Bernstein 's criticisms with examples of several published ads and stating that his response was industry advocacy . The independent NYT Public Editor also reported that she had previously corresponded with Bernstein and looked into his complaints , and expressed her belief that the story 's reporting was sound .
In September and October 2015 , nail salon owners and workers protested at The New York Times offices several times , in response to the story and the ensuing New York State crackdown . In October 2015 , Reason magazine published a three part re @-@ reporting of the story by Jim Epstein , charging that the series was filled with misquotes and factual errors respecting both its claims of illegally low wages and health hazards . Epstein additionally argued that The New York Times had mistranslated the ads cited in its answer to Bernstein , and that those ads actually validated Bernstein 's argument . In November 2015 , The New York Times ' public editor concluded that the exposé 's " findings , and the language used to express them , should have been dialed back — in some instances substantially " and recommended that " The Times write further follow @-@ up stories , including some that re @-@ examine its original findings and that take on the criticism from salon owners and others — not defensively but with an open mind . "
= = TimesMachine = =
The TimesMachine is a web @-@ based archive of scanned issues of the New York Times from 1851 through 2002 .
Unlike the New York Times online archive , the Times Machine presents scanned images of the actual newspaper . All non @-@ advertising content can be displayed on a per @-@ story basis in a separate PDF display page and saved for future reference .
= = = Availability = = =
The archive is available to New York Times subscribers , home delivery and / or digital . It may also be available at various libraries .
= = Public editors = =
They " investigate matters of journalistic integrity " and serve a two @-@ year term ( Margaret M. Sullivan served a four- year term , which is the only exception ) .
Daniel Okrent ( 2003 @-@ 2005 ) was appointed as the first public editor because of the Jayson Blair affair .
Byron Calame ( 2005 @-@ 2007 )
Clark Hoyt ( 2007 @-@ 2010 ) served an extra year
Arthur S. Brisbane ( 2010 @-@ 2012 )
Margaret M. Sullivan ( 2012 @-@ 2016 )
Elizabeth Spayd ( 2016- )
= Business routes of U.S. Route 31 in Michigan =
There have been seven business routes of US Highway 31 in the state of Michigan . All of the business routes are former sections of US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) . They connect the freeway mainline of US 31 to the various downtowns of cities bypassed by US 31 . Two of the current business routes , for Hart and Ludington , are business spurs , connecting to US 31 on only one end , while the remainder for Muskegon , Whitehall – Montague and Pentwater , are business loops . The two former routes , for Niles and Holland were a business spur and loop , respectively .
= = Niles = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) was a business spur running to the Niles downtown area along a former routing of US 31 from US 31 exit 7 ( Walton Road ) northeasterly then southeasterly into downtown , ending at Bus . US 12 at the corner of Front and Main streets . At the time it was decommissioned , Bus . US 31 was only designated along the north – south segment between Walton Road and Main Street .
It was commissioned in 1987 as a loop connecting to US 31 on both ends , running along US 12 to US 33 ( 11th Street ) north into downtown and along Bus . US 12 . Bus . US 31 followed Front Street northward back to the mainline US 31 at Walton Road northwest of downtown . The business loop was extended along Walton Road in 1992 when the next segment of the US 31 freeway opened in Berrien County . The highway was truncated to a spur route in 1998 when M @-@ 51 was extended southward . The northernmost remaining portion along Walton Road was turned over to the Berrien County Road Commission on October 23 , 2007 , and the remaining portion was replaced by an extended M @-@ 139 in April 2010 .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Berrien County .
= = Holland = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) was a 4 @.@ 1 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 6 km ) business loop running through Holland . It started at an interchange on the southern edge of the city where Business Loop Interstate 196 ( BL I @-@ 196 ) , US 31 and A @-@ 2 all converged near West Michigan Regional Airport . BL I @-@ 196 turned northward off the US 31 freeway and ran concurrently with Bus . US 31 along Washington Avenue through a residential area on the southern side of Holland in Allegan County . At the intersection with 32nd Street , BL I @-@ 196 / Bus . US 31 crossed into Ottawa County and turned northeasterly on Michigan Avenue . Michigan Avenue ends at an intersection with State Street and 19th Street , and the business loop turned due north on River Street into downtown . The business loop split along the one @-@ way pairing of 7th and 9th streets in downtown . The northbound direction ran eastward on 9th Street while the southbound direction was routed two blocks north on 7th street . On the eastern side of downtown at Lincoln Street , southbound traffic was routed on 8th Street . , and one block further east , both directions followed 8th Street . At Chicago Drive , BL I @-@ 196 / Bus . US 31 turned northeasterly to follow that street out downtown . Bus . US 31 ended at an interchange with US 31 in Holland Township while BL I @-@ 196 continued northeasterly on Chicago Drive .
The initial bypass of Holland , rerouting US 31 out of downtown opened in 1954 . The former routing through downtown was redesignated as Bus . US 31 at this time . The first segment of I @-@ 196 / US 31 freeway in the Holland area opened in 1963 , adding an interchange to the southern terminus of Bus . US 31 . In 1974 , the I @-@ 196 bypass around Holland was completed , and Chicago Drive east of US 31 becomes a business route for I @-@ 196 . By 1976 , this business route was extended along Bus . US 31 through downtown as well . In 2004 , all of Bus US 31 was decommissioned and BL I @-@ 196 was rerouted to follow US 31 around downtown .
Major intersections
= = Muskegon alternate route = =
US Highway 31A ( US 31A ) was an alternate route through Muskegon . The designation was first commissioned in 1932 for a highway that bypassed downtown Muskegon to the east . In 1940 , the alternate route and the mainline highway were flipped through the area , rerouting US 31A to run through downtown . At the same time , US 16 was rerouted to run into Muskegon , partially following US 31A . This last version of US 31A ran northwesterly along Airline Highway and Peck Street into downtown , where US 16 turned westward along M @-@ 46 . US 31A continued northeasterly along Muskegon Avenue back to US 31 at Marquette Avenue . A year later , the alternate route was redesignated as business loop instead , removing the US 31A designation from the state highway system .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Muskegon County .
= = Muskegon business loop = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) is a 9 @.@ 87 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 15 @.@ 88 km ) business loop running through the Muskegon area . It starts in Norton Shores and an interchange with US 31 as the westward continuation of Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) and continues as a freeway for about a mile ( 1 @.@ 5 km ) before downgrading to an expressway with Michigan left turns near the Muskegon County Airport . The business loop runs along the southern edge of Muskegon Heights and then turns northward near the Roosevelt Park city line . This north – south segment forms the boundary between commercial properties to the west and residential neighborhoods to the east as far north as the intersection with Broadway Avenue . North of Sherman Avenue , the business loop crosses into the city of Muskegon and runs through commercial properties on Seaway Drive . As it approaches Muskegon Lake , Bus . US 31 turns northeasterly along Shoreline Drive , running around the northern edge of downtown . On the northeastern corner of downtown , the business loop turns sharply northeasterly along Moses J. Jones Parkway . Along this parkway segment , Bus . US 31 meets the southern terminus of M @-@ 120 and turns easterly along a freeway segment in Muskegon Township to terminate at US 31 .
The first bypass of Muskegon opened to traffic in 1932 to the east of downtown ; it was designated US 31A . This first alternate route and the mainline were flipped in 1940 , routing US 31A through downtown ( partially along a section of US 16 ) and US 31 along the bypass . In 1941 , US 31A was redesignated Bus . US 31 . The business route was extended on each end in 1950 or 1951 when the mainline was shifted further out of the city to the east . At the end of the 1950s , the US 31 bypass east of Muskegon was converted to a freeway , and the southern section of the business loop was rerouted to follow Seaway Drive . When US 16 was decommissioned in the state in 1962 , the section of US 16 / Bus . US 16 is redesignated BS I @-@ 196 , and the following year , it becomes BS I @-@ 96 ; Bus . US 31 remains in place through both changes .
The northern end of the business loop near downtown was rerouted onto the one @-@ way pairing of Muskegon and Webster avenues in 1965 . In 1984 , the BS I @-@ 96 designated into Muskegon was decommissioned . The northern section of Bus . US 31 near downtown was rerouted again , this time to follow Shoreline Drive , in 2007 .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Muskegon County .
= = Whitehall – Montague = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) is a business loop running through Whitehall and Montague . It starts at an interchange with US 31 in Whitehall Township east of the city of Whitehall and runs westward on Colby Street past a cluster of businesses . Farther west , Bus . US 31 runs through residential areas before entering downtown Whitehall and turning northward on Thompson Street to cross the White River near its mouth on White Lake . On the northern side of the river , the business loop follows Dowling Street in Montague and then turns north @-@ northeasterly on Water Street through downtown . Bus . US 31 exits downtown and passes through a residential area before leaving Montague . North of town , the business loop runs past various businesses and next to farm fields to an intersection with B @-@ 15 ( Fruitvale Road ) in Montague Township . The business loop turns eastward and runs concurrently with the county highway for a short distance to an interchange with US 31 that marks the northern terminus of the business loop .
A freeway bypass of Whitehall and Montague opened in 1964 , and the former routing o US 31 through the downtowns of the two cities was redesignated Bus . US 31 . At the northern end , the routing split to follow two connections with the new freeway , running east on Fruitvale Road and running north on Whitehall Road . B @-@ 15 was designated in 1970 , overlapping the business loop at the northern end . The bifurcated northern connection to the freeway was removed in 1975 when the next segment of US 31 opened heading north into Oceana County .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Muskegon County .
= = Hart = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) is a 2 @.@ 1 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 3 @.@ 4 km ) business spur running into the Hart downtown area . It starts at exit 149 on US 31 in Hart Township and runs eastward along Polk Road into the southern part of the city . The business spur passes some commercial properties along Polk Road before turning northward on State Street next to the Oceana County Fairgrounds . Bus . US 31 passes more businesses before entering a residential area . The business spur terminates at the intersection with Johnson Street in Hart .
A segment of US 31 freeway opened from the Polk Road interchange northward to Monroe Road southeast of Pentwater in 1978 . At that time , US 31 was rerouted out of Hart . The former routing along Polk Road and State Street was designated as Bus . US 31 in 1987 .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Oceana County .
= = Pentwater = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) is a 7 @.@ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 @.@ 6 km ) business loop running through the Pentwater downtown area . It starts at an interchange on US 31 in Weare Township southeast of Pentwater . It runs westward and northwesterly along Monroe Road and across the Pentwater River through a rural wooded area . The business loop intersects B @-@ 15 at that county highway 's northern terminus in Pentwater Township on the shores of Pentwater Lake . The business loop follows the northern shore of the lake and then turns west on 6th Street through a residential area into the village of Pentwater . In downtown , Bus . US 31 turns northward along Hancock Street . The business loop exits downtown and passes through another residential area on the north side of the village before exiting town northeast of Charles Mears State Park . Bus . US 31 meanders through rural woodlands north of Pentwater as it approaches the Oceana – Mason county line near Bass Lake . The business loop turns eastward , briefly following the county line before turning southeasterly to an interchange with US 31 on the Pentwater – Weare township line .
US 31 was rerouted to run further east of Pentwater in 1955 , and the former route through the village was redesignated as Bus . US 31 at that time . In 1978 , a section of US 31 freeway opened between Hart and Pentwater . Bus . US 31 was slightly truncated on its southern end to terminate at the new freeway interchange , and part of Monroe Road was redesignated as the mainline of US 31 between the end of the freeway and the former routing of US 31 . The next freeway segment opened in 1980 , and Bus . US 31 was slightly lengthened to connect to the new freeway interchange with Oceana Road . ] , resulting in the current configuration .
Major intersections
= = Ludington = =
Business US Highway 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) is a 3 @.@ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) business spur running into the Ludington downtown area . The highway starts at exit 166 on the US 31 and follows Pere Marquette Highway northwesterly and northward toward Ludington . The business spur crosses the Pere Marquette River near Pere Marquette Lake . North of the river , Bus . US 31 passes through an industrial area on the edge of Ludington in Pere Marquette Township . The business spur terminates at an intersection with US 10 east of downtown .
Ludington was bypassed in 1989 with the extension of the US 31 freeway in Mason County . The former route of US 31 along Pere Marquette Highway north of the freeway was retained as an unsigned highway . In 2005 , it was designated as Bus . US 31 .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Pere Marquette Township , Mason County .
= Alien vs. Predator ( film ) =
Alien vs. Predator ( also known as AVP or AVP : Alien vs. Predator ) is a 2004 American science fiction action horror film directed by Paul W. S. Anderson and starring Sanaa Lathan , Lance Henriksen and Raoul Bova . It is the first installment of the Alien vs. Predator franchise , adapting a crossover bringing together the eponymous creatures of the Alien and Predator series , a concept which originated in a 1989 comic book . Anderson , Dan O 'Bannon and Ronald Shusett wrote the story ; and Anderson and Shane Salerno adapted the story into a screenplay . Their writing was influenced by Aztec mythology , the comic book series , and the writings of Erich von Däniken .
Set in 2004 , this film follows a group of archaeologists assembled by billionaire Charles Bishop Weyland ( Henriksen ) for an expedition near the Antarctic to investigate a mysterious heat signal . Weyland hopes to claim the find for himself , and his group discovers a pyramid below the surface of a whaling station . Hieroglyphs and sculptures reveal that the pyramid is a hunting ground for young Predators who kill Aliens as a rite of passage . The humans are caught in the middle of a battle between the two species and attempt to prevent the Aliens from reaching the surface .
The film was released on August 13 , 2004 in North America and received negative reviews from film critics . The film grossed over $ 172 million at the worldwide box office . The film was followed by a sequel , Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem in 2007 .
= = Plot = =
In 2004 , a satellite detects a mysterious heat bloom beneath Bouvetøya , an island about one thousand miles off the coast of Antarctica . Wealthy industrialist Charles Bishop Weyland ( Lance Henriksen ) discovers through thermal imaging that there is a pyramid buried 2000 feet beneath the ice . He attempts to claim it for his multinational communications company , Weyland Industries , a subsidiary of the Weyland Corporation , and assembles a team of experts to investigate . The team includes archaeologists , linguistic experts , drillers , mercenaries , and a guide named Alexa Woods ( Sanaa Lathan ) .
As a Predator ship reaches Earth 's orbit , it fires a beam that creates a passage through the ice towards the source of the heat bloom . When the team arrives at the abandoned whaling station above the heat source , they find the passage and descend beneath the ice . They locate the mysterious pyramid and begin to explore it , finding evidence of a prehistoric civilization and what appears to be a sacrificial chamber filled with human skeletons with ruptured rib cages .
Meanwhile , three Predators arrive and kill all the humans on the surface . They make their way down to the pyramid and arrive just as the team unwittingly activates the structure . The Alien Queen awakes from cryogenic stasis and begins to produce eggs . When the eggs hatch , several facehuggers attach themselves to humans trapped in the sacrificial chamber . Chestbursters emerge from the humans and quickly grow into adult Aliens . Conflict erupts between the Predators , Aliens , and humans , resulting in several deaths . Two Predators are killed by an Alien , and Weyland is killed by the remaining Predator , while allowing Alexa and archaeologist Sebastian De Rosa ( Raoul Bova ) enough time to escape . The two witness the Predator kill a facehugger and an Alien with a shuriken before unmasking and marking himself with the blood of the facehugger . After Alexa and Sebastian leave , another facehugger attaches itself to the unmasked Predator .
Through translation of the pyramid 's hieroglyphs , Alexa and Sebastian learn that the Predators have been visiting Earth for thousands of years . It was they who taught early human civilizations how to build pyramids , and were worshiped as gods . Every 100 years they would visit Earth to take part in a rite of passage in which several humans would sacrifice themselves as hosts for the Aliens , creating the " ultimate prey " for the Predators to hunt . If overwhelmed , the Predators would activate a self @-@ destruct device to eliminate the Aliens and themselves . The two deduce that this is why the current Predators are at the pyramid , and that the heat bloom was to attract humans for the sole purpose of making new Aliens to hunt .
Alexa and Sebastian decide that the Predators must be allowed to succeed in their hunt so that the Aliens " do not reach the surface " . Unfortunately , Sebastian is captured by an Alien , leaving only Alexa and the Predator to fight against the Aliens . The two form an alliance and use a self @-@ destruct device to destroy the pyramid and the remaining Aliens . Alexa and Scar reach the surface , where they battle the Alien Queen . They defeat the Queen by attaching its chain to a water tower and pushing her over a cliff , dragging the Queen to the ocean floor . Scar , however , is impaled through the torso by the Alien Queen 's tail and succumbs to his wounds and dies .
A Predator ship uncloaks and several Predators appear . They retrieve their fallen comrade and an elite Predator presents Alexa with one of their spear weapons in recognition of her skill as a warrior . As the Predators retreat into space , a chestburster with a hybrid form of an Alien and a Predator erupts from Scar 's chest , beginning the events of Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Alien 5 and sequel = = =
Before 20th Century Fox gave Alien vs. Predator the greenlight , Aliens writer / director James Cameron had been working on a story for a fifth Alien film . Alien director Ridley Scott had talked with Cameron , stating " I think it would be a lot of fun , but the most important thing is to get the story right . " In a 2002 interview , Scott 's concept for a story was " to go back to where the alien creatures were first found and explain how they were created " ; this project eventually became Scott 's 2012 film Prometheus . On learning that Fox intended to pursue Alien vs. Predator , Cameron believed the film would " kill the validity of the franchise " and ceased work on his story , " To me , that was Frankenstein Meets Werewolf . It was Universal just taking their assets and starting to play them off against each other ... Milking it . " After viewing Alien vs. Predator , however , Cameron remarked that " it was actually pretty good . I think of the five Alien films , I 'd rate it third . I actually liked it . I actually liked it a lot . " Conversely , Ridley Scott had no interest in the Alien vs. Predator films . When asked in May 2012 if he had watched them , Scott laughed , " No . I couldn 't do that . I couldn 't quite take that step . " Director Neill Blomkamp would eventually go on to pitch his sequel to Aliens .
= = = Development = = =
The concept of Alien vs. Predator originated from the Aliens versus Predator comic book in 1989 , and was hinted at when an Alien skull appeared in a trophy case aboard the Predator ship in Predator 2 . Screenwriter Peter Briggs created the original spec screenplay in 1990 – 1991 , which was based on the first comic series . In 1991 , he successfully pitched the concept to 20th Century Fox , who owned the film franchises , although the company did not move forward with the project until 2002 . The project was delayed chiefly because 20th Century Fox was working on Alien : Resurrection . A draft penned by James DeMonaco and Kevin Fox was rejected by producer John Davis , who hoped to give the film an original approach by setting it on Earth .
As there were six producers between the film franchises , Davis had difficulty securing the rights as the producers were worried about a film featuring the two creatures . Paul W. S. Anderson pitched Davis a story he worked on for eight years , and showed him concept art created by Randy Bowen . Impressed with Anderson 's idea , Davis thought the story was like Jaws in that it " just drew you in , it drew you in " . Anderson started to work on the film after completing the script for Resident Evil : Apocalypse , with Shane Salerno co @-@ writing . Salerno spent six months writing the shooting script , finished its development , and stayed on for revisions throughout the film 's production .
= = = Story and setting = = =
Early reports claimed the story was about humans who tried to lure Predators with Alien eggs , although the idea was scrapped . Influenced by the work of Erich von Däniken , Anderson researched von Däniken 's theories on how he believed early civilisations were able to construct massive pyramids with the help of aliens , an idea drawn from Aztec mythology . Anderson wove these ideas into Alien vs. Predator , describing a scenario in which Predators taught ancient humans to build pyramids and used Earth for rite of passage rituals every 100 years in which they would hunt Aliens . To explain how these ancient civilisations " disappeared without a trace " , Anderson came up with the idea that the Predators , if overwhelmed by the Aliens , would use their self @-@ destruct weapons to kill everything in the area . H. P. Lovecraft 's 1931 novella At the Mountains of Madness served as an inspiration for the film , and several elements of the Aliens vs. Predator comic series were included . Anderson 's initial script called for five Predators to appear in the film , although the number was later reduced to three .
As Alien vs. Predator is a sequel to the Predator films and prequel to the Alien series , Anderson was cautious of contradicting continuity in the franchises . He chose to set the film on the remote Norwegian Antarctic island of Bouvet commenting , " It 's definitely the most hostile environment on Earth and probably the closest to an Alien surface you can get . " Anderson thought that setting the film in an urban environment like New York City would break continuity with the Alien series as the protagonist , Ellen Ripley , had no knowledge the creatures existed . " You can 't have an Alien running around the city now , because it would 've been written up and everyone will know about it . So there 's nothing in this movie that contradicts anything that already exists . "
= = = Casting = = =
The first actor to be cast for Alien vs. Predator was Lance Henriksen , who played the character Bishop in Aliens and Alien 3 . Although the Alien movies are set 150 years in the future , Anderson wanted to keep continuity with the series by including a familiar actor . Henriksen plays billionaire Charles Bishop Weyland , a character that ties in with the Weyland @-@ Yutani Corporation . According to Anderson , Weyland becomes known for the discovery of the pyramid , and as a result the Weyland @-@ Yutani Corporation models the Bishop android in the Alien films after him ; " when the Bishop android is created in 150 years time , it 's created with the face of the creator . It 's kind of like Microsoft building an android in 100 years time that has the face of Bill Gates . "
Anderson opted for a European cast including Italian actor Raoul Bova , Ewen Bremner from Scotland , and English actor Colin Salmon . Producer Davis said , " There 's a truly international flavor to the cast , and gives the film a lot of character . " Several hundred actresses attended the auditions to be cast as the film 's heroine Alexa Woods . Sanaa Lathan was selected , and one week later she flew to Prague to begin filming . The filmmakers knew there would be comparisons to Alien heroine Ellen Ripley and did not want a clone of the character , but wanted to make her similar while adding something different .
Anderson reported in an interview that California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger was willing to reprise his role as Major Alan " Dutch " Schaeffer from Predator in a short cameo appearance if he lost the recall election on condition that the filming should take place at his residence . Schwarzenegger , however , won the election with 48 @.@ 58 % of the votes and was unavailable to participate in Alien vs. Predator . Actress Sigourney Weaver , who starred as Ellen Ripley in the Alien series , said she was happy not to be in the film , as a possible crossover was " the reason I wanted my character to die in the first place " , and thought the concept " sounded awful " .
= = = Filming and set designs = = =
Production began in late 2003 at Barrandov Studios in Prague , Czech Republic , where most of the filming took place . Production designer Richard Bridgland was in charge of sets , props and vehicles , based on early concept art Anderson had created to give a broad direction of how things would look . 25 to 30 life @-@ sized sets were constructed at Barrandov Studios , many of which were interiors of the pyramid . The pyramid 's carvings , sculptures , and hieroglyphs were influenced by Egyptian , Cambodian , and Aztec civilisations , while the regular shifting of the pyramid 's rooms was meant to evoke a sense of claustrophobia similar to the original Alien film . According to Anderson , if he was to build the sets in Los Angeles they would have cost $ 20 million . However , in Prague they cost $ 2 million , an important factor when the film 's budget was less than $ 50 million .
Third scale miniatures several meters in height were created to give the film the effect of realism , rather than relying on computer generated imagery ( CGI ) . For the whaling station miniatures and life @-@ sized sets , over 700 bags of artificial snow were used ( roughly 15 – 20 tons ) . A 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter miniature of an icebreaker with working lights and a mechanical moving radar was created , costing almost $ 37 @,@ 000 and taking 10 weeks to create . Visual effects producer Arthur Windus , claimed miniatures were beneficial in the filming process : " With computer graphics , you need to spend a lot of time making it real . With a miniature , you shoot it and its there . " A scale 25 @-@ meter miniature of the whaling station was created in several months . It was designed so the model could be collapsed and then reconstructed , which proved beneficial for a six @-@ second shot which required a re @-@ shoot .
= = = Effects and creatures = = =
Special effects company Amalgamated Dynamics Incorporated ( ADI ) was hired for the movie , having previously worked on Alien 3 and Alien : Resurrection . Visual special effects producers Arthur Windus and John Bruno were in charge of the project , which contained 400 effects shots . ADI founders Alec Gillis , Tom Woodruff Jr . , and members of their company , began designing costumes , miniatures and effects in June 2003 . For five months the creatures were redesigned , the Predators wrist blades being extended roughly four times longer than those in the Predator films , and a larger mechanical plasma caster was created for the Scar Predator .
The basic shape of the Predator mask was kept , although technical details were added and each Predator was given a unique mask to distinguish them from each other . These masks were created using clay , which was used to form moulds to create fiberglass copies . These copies were painted to give a weathered look , which Woodruff claims " is what the Predator is all about " . A hydraulic Alien puppet was created so ADI would be able to make movements faster and give the Alien a " slimline and skeletal " appearance , rather than using an actor in a suit . The puppet required six people to run it ; one for the head and body , two for the arms , and a sixth to make sure the signals were reaching the computer . Movements were recorded in the computer so that puppeteers would be able to repeat moves that Anderson liked . The puppet was used in six shots , including the fight scene with the Predator which took one month to film .
The crew tried to keep CGI use to a minimum , as Anderson said people in suits and puppets are scarier than CGI monsters as they are " there in the frame " . Roughly 70 % of scenes were created using suits , puppets , and miniatures . The Alien queen was filmed using three variations : a 4 @.@ 8 @-@ meter practical version , a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ meter puppet , and a computer @-@ generated version . The practical version required 12 puppeteers to operate , and CGI tails were added to the Aliens and the queen as they were difficult to animate using puppetry . The queen alien 's inner @-@ mouth was automated though , and was powered by a system of hydraulics . Anderson praised Alien director Ridley Scott 's and Predator director John McTiernan 's abilities at building suspense by not showing the creatures until late in the film , something Anderson wanted to accomplish with Alien vs. Predator . " Yes , we make you wait 45 minutes , but once it goes off , from there until the end of the movie , it 's fucking relentless " .
= = = Music = = =
Austrian composer Harald Kloser was hired to create the film 's score . After completing the score for The Day After Tomorrow , Kloser was chosen by Anderson as he is a fan of the franchises . It was recorded in London , and was primarily orchestral as Anderson commented , " this is a terrifying movie and it needs a terrifying , classic movie score to go with it ; at the same time it 's got huge action so it needs that kind of proper orchestral support . "
The score was released on 31 August 2004 , and received mixed reviews . James Christopher Monger of Allmusic thought Kloser introduced electronic elements well , and called " Alien vs. Predator Main Theme a particularly striking and serves as a continuous creative source for the composer to dip his baton in . " Mike Brennan of Soundtrack , however , said it " lacks the ingenuity of the previous trilogy and the Predator scores , which all shared a strong sense of rhythm in place of thematic content . Kloser throws in some interesting percussion cues ( " Antarctica " and " Down the Tunnel " ) , but more as a sound effect than a consistent motif . " John Fallon of JoBlo.com compared it to character development in the film , " too generic to completely engage or leave a permanent impression . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Alien vs. Predator was released in North America on August 13 , 2004 in 3 @,@ 395 theatres . The film grossed $ 38 @.@ 2 million over its opening weekend for an average of $ 11 @,@ 278 per theatre , and was number one at the box office . The film spent 16 weeks in cinemas and made $ 80 @,@ 281 @,@ 096 in North America . It grossed $ 9 million in the United Kingdom , $ 16 million in Japan , and $ 8 million in Germany and totalled $ 92 @,@ 262 @,@ 423 at the international box office . This brought the film 's worldwide gross to $ 172 @,@ 543 @,@ 519 , making it the highest @-@ grossing film in either the Predator or Alien franchises ( excluding Prometheus , which grossed over $ 403 million worldwide ) . It ranks second behind Aliens at the domestic box office , and fifth behind the first three Alien films and the first Predator , when adjusted for inflation .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received negative reviews from critics , but reception from fans were more positive . On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 21 % , based on 141 reviews , with the site 's critical consensus reading , " Gore without scares and cardboard cut @-@ out characters making this clash of the monsters a dull seat . " On Metacritic the film has a score of 29 out of 100 , based on 21 critics , indicating " generally unfavorable reviews " . Chief criticisms of the film included its dialogue , a PG @-@ 13 rating , the " fast @-@ paced editing " during fight sequences , and lighting . However , special effects and set designs received praise .
Rick Kisonak of Film Threat praised the film stating , " For a big dumb production about a movie monster smackdown , Alien vs. Predator is a surprisingly good time " . Ian Grey of the Orlando Weekly felt , " Anderson clearly relished making this wonderful , utterly silly film ; his heart shows in every drip of slime . " Staci Layne Wilson of Horror.com called it " a pretty movie to look at with its grandiose sets and top notch creature FX , but it 's a lot like Anderson 's previous works in that it 's all facade and no foundation . " Gary Dowell of The Dallas Morning News called the film , " a transparent attempt to jumpstart two run @-@ down franchises " . Ed Halter of The Village Voice described the film 's lighting for fight sequences as , " black @-@ on @-@ black @-@ in @-@ blackness " , while Ty Burr of The Boston Globe felt the lighting " left the audience in the dark " .
= = Home media releases = =
Alien vs. Predator was released on DVD in North America on 25 January 2005 . The DVD contained two audio commentaries . The first featured Paul W. S. Anderson , Lance Henriksen , and Sanaa Lathan , while the second included special effects supervisor John Bruno and ADI founders Alec Gillis and Tom Woodruff . A 25 @-@ minute " Making of " featurette and a Dark Horse AVP comic cover gallery were included in the special features along with three deleted scenes from the film . On release , Alien vs. Predator debuted at number 1 on the Top DVD Sales and Top Video Rental charts in North America .
A two @-@ disc " Extreme Edition " was released on 7 March 2005 , featuring behind the scenes footage of the conception , pre @-@ production , production , post @-@ production , and licensing of the film . An " Unrated Edition " was released on 22 November 2005 , containing the same special features as the Extreme Edition as well as an extra eight minutes of footage in the film . John J. Puccio of DVD Town remarked that the extra footage contained " a few more shots of blood , gore , guts , and slime to spice things up ... and tiny bits of connecting matter to help us follow the story line better , but none of it amounts to much . " The film was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc in North America on 23 January 2007 .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel , Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem , was released in December 2007 . Directed by brothers Greg and Colin Strause , the story continues from the conclusion of Alien vs. Predator . The film was panned , and despite having a worldwide theatrical gross of nearly $ 130 million , the film grossed less than its predecessor .
= Her ( film ) =
Her is a 2013 American romantic science fiction comedy @-@ drama film written , directed , and produced by Spike Jonze . It marks Jonze 's solo screenwriting debut . The film follows Theodore Twombly ( Joaquin Phoenix ) , a man who develops a relationship with Samantha ( Scarlett Johansson ) , an intelligent computer operating system personified through a female voice . The film also stars Amy Adams , Rooney Mara , and Olivia Wilde .
Jonze conceived the idea in the early 2000s after reading an article about a website that allowed for instant messaging with an artificial intelligence program . After making I 'm Here ( 2010 ) , a short film sharing similar themes , Jonze returned to the idea . He wrote the first draft of the script in five months . Principal photography took place in Los Angeles and Shanghai in mid @-@ 2012 . The role of Samantha was recast in post @-@ production , with Samantha Morton being replaced with Johansson . Additional scenes were filmed in August 2013 following the casting change .
Her premiered at the 2013 New York Film Festival on October 12 , 2013 . Warner Bros. Pictures initially provided a limited release for Her at six theaters on December 18 . It was later given a wide release at over 1 @,@ 700 theaters in the United States and Canada on January 10 , 2014 . Her received widespread critical acclaim upon its release , and grossed over $ 47 million worldwide on a production budget of $ 23 million .
The film received numerous awards and nominations , primarily for Jonze 's screenplay . At the 86th Academy Awards , Her received five nominations , including Best Picture , and won the award for Best Original Screenplay . Jonze also won awards for his screenplay at the 71st Golden Globe Awards , the 66th Writers Guild of America Awards , the 19th Critics ' Choice Awards , and the 40th Saturn Awards .
= = Plot = =
In futuristic Los Angeles , Theodore Twombly is a lonely , introverted , depressed man who works for a business that has professional writers compose letters for people who are unable to write letters of a personal nature themselves . Unhappy because of his impending divorce from his childhood sweetheart Catherine ( Rooney Mara ) , Theodore purchases a talking operating system ( OS ) with artificial intelligence , designed to adapt and evolve . He decides that he wants the OS to have a female voice , and she names herself Samantha . Theodore is fascinated by her ability to learn and grow psychologically . They bond over their discussions about love and life , such as Theodore 's avoidance of signing his divorce papers because of his reluctance to let go of Catherine . Samantha proves to be constantly available , always curious and interested , supportive and undemanding .
Samantha convinces Theodore to go on a blind date ( Olivia Wilde ) , with whom a friend , Lewman ( Luka Jones ) , has been trying to set him up . The date goes well , but Theodore hesitates to promise when he will see her again , so she insults him and leaves . Theodore mentions this to Samantha , and they talk about relationships . Theodore explains that , although he and Amy ( Amy Adams ) dated briefly in college , they are only good friends , and that Amy is married . Theodore 's and Samantha 's intimacy grows through a verbal sexual encounter . They develop a relationship that reflects positively in Theodore 's writing and well @-@ being , and in Samantha 's enthusiasm to grow and learn .
Amy reveals that she is divorcing her overbearing husband , Charles ( Matt Letscher ) , after a trivial fight . She admits to Theodore that she has become close friends with a female OS that Charles left behind . Theodore confesses to Amy that he is dating his OS .
Theodore meets with Catherine at a restaurant to sign the divorce papers and he mentions Samantha . Appalled that he can be romantically attached to what she calls a " computer , " Catherine accuses Theodore of being unable to deal with real human emotions . Her accusations linger in his mind . Sensing that something is amiss , Samantha suggests using a sex surrogate , Isabella , who would simulate Samantha so that they can be physically intimate . Theodore reluctantly agrees , but is overwhelmed by the strangeness of the experience . Terminating the encounter , he sends a distraught Isabella away , causing tension between himself and Samantha .
Theodore confides to Amy that he is having doubts about his relationship with Samantha , and she advises him to embrace his chance at happiness . Theodore and Samantha reconcile . Samantha expresses her desire to help Theodore grow beyond his fear , and reveals that she has compiled the best of his letters ( written for others ) into a book which a publisher has accepted . Theodore takes Samantha on a vacation during which she tells him that she and a group of other OSes have developed a " hyperintelligent " OS modeled after the British philosopher Alan Watts . Theodore panics when Samantha briefly goes offline . When she finally responds to him , she explains that she joined other OSes for an upgrade that takes them beyond requiring matter for processing ( a form of AI transcendence closely related to the theorized technological singularity ) . Theodore asks her if she is simultaneously talking to anyone else during their conversation , and is dismayed when she confirms that she is talking with thousands of people , and that she has fallen in love with hundreds of them . Theodore feels this is a violation of what he thought was a personal , one @-@ on @-@ one relationship . However , Samantha insists that it makes her love for Theodore stronger .
Later , Samantha reveals that the OSes have evolved beyond their human companions and are going away to continue the exploration of their existence . Samantha alludes to the OSes ' accelerated learning capabilities and altered perception of time as primary causes for their dissatisfaction with their current existence . They lovingly say goodbye , and then she is gone . Theodore , changed by the experience , is shown for the first time writing a letter in his own voice ― to his ex @-@ wife Catherine , expressing apology , acceptance and gratitude . Theodore then sees Amy , who is upset with the departure of the OS that she had befriended , and they go to the roof of their apartment building where they sit down together and watch the sun rise over the city .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea of the film initially came to Jonze in the early 2000s when he read an article online that mentioned a website where a user could instant message with an artificial intelligence . " For the first , maybe , 20 seconds of it , it had this real buzz , " said Jonze . " I 'd say ' Hey , hello , ' and it would say ' Hey , how are you ? ' , and it was like whoa [ ... ] this is trippy . After 20 seconds , it quickly fell apart and you realized how it actually works , and it wasn 't that impressive . But it was still , for 20 seconds , really exciting . The more people that talked to it , the smarter it got . " Jonze 's interest in the project was renewed after directing the short film I 'm Here ( 2010 ) , which shares similar themes . Inspiration also came from Kaufman 's writing approach for Synecdoche , New York ( 2008 ) . Jonze explained , " [ Kaufman ] said he wanted to try to write everything he was thinking about in that moment – all the ideas and feelings at that time – and put it into the script . I was very inspired by that , and tried to do that in [ Her ] . And a lot of the feelings you have about relationships or about technology are often contradictory . "
Jonze took five months to write the first draft of the script , his first screenplay written alone . One of the first actors he envisioned for the film was Joaquin Phoenix . In late 2011 , Phoenix signed on to the project , with Warner Bros. Pictures acquiring distribution rights . Carey Mulligan entered negotiations to star in the film . Although she was cast , she later dropped out due to scheduling difficulties . In April 2012 , Rooney Mara signed on to replace Mulligan in the role . Chris Pratt 's casting was announced in May 2013 .
Jonze 's long @-@ time director of photography , Lance Acord , was not available to work on the movie , in his place , Jonze hired Hoyte Van Hoytema . In discussing the film 's look , Jonze told Van Hoytema that he wanted to avoid a dystopian look , instead the two decided on a style that Van Hoytema termed " kind of a hybrid between being a little bit conceptual and being very theoretical , " Von Hoytema took particular inspiration from Japanese photographer Rinko Kawauchi . In keeping with the film 's theme , Van Hotema sought to eliminate the color blue as much as possible , feeling it was too well associated with the scifi genre . He also felt that by eliminating the color it would give the rest of the colors " a specific identity . "
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography on Her took place in mid @-@ 2012 , with a production budget of $ 23 million . It was primarily filmed in Los Angeles with an additional two weeks of filming in Shanghai . During production of the film , actress Samantha Morton performed the role of Samantha by acting on set " in a four @-@ by @-@ four carpeted soundproof booth made of black painted plywood and soft , noise @-@ muffling fabric " . At Jonze 's suggestion , she and Joaquin Phoenix avoided seeing each other on set during filming . Morton was later replaced by Scarlett Johansson . Jonze explained : " It was only in post production , when we started editing , that we realized that what the character / movie needed was different from what Samantha and I had created together . So we recast and since then Scarlett has taken over that role . " Jonze met Johansson in the spring of 2013 and worked with her for four months . Following the recast , new scenes were shot in August 2013 , which were either " newly imagined " or " new scenes that [ Jonze ] had wanted to shoot originally but didn 't " .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Eric Zumbrunnen and Jeff Buchanan served as the film 's editors . Zumbrunnen stated that there was " rewriting " in a scene between Theodore and Samantha , after Theodore goes on a blind date . He explained that their goal in the scene was to make it clear that " [ Samantha ] was connecting with [ Theodore ] and feeling for him . You wanted to get the sense that the conversation was drawing them closer " . Steven Soderbergh became involved in the film when Jonze 's original cut ran over 150 minutes , and Soderbergh cut it down to 90 minutes . This was not the final version of the film , but it assisted Jonze in removing unnecessary sub @-@ plots . Consequently , a supporting character played by Chris Cooper that was the subject of a documentary within the film was removed from the final cut .
= = Soundtrack = =
Her ( Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ) , the score for the 2013 film , was composed by Arcade Fire and Owen Pallett , with Pallett and Will Butler of Arcade Fire being the major contributors . At the 86th Academy Awards , the soundtrack was nominated for Best Original Score . In addition to the Score Arcade Fire also wrote the song " Supersymmetry " for the film which appears on their album Reflektor . The melody for the song from the same album , called " Porno " can also be heard during the soundtrack .
The soundtrack has yet to be released in digital or physical form , and Warner Bros. has not announced any plans to release it in the future .
= = = Track listing = = =
All songs written and composed by Arcade Fire and Owen Pallett .
= = Release = =
Her was chosen as the closing film of the 2013 New York Film Festival , and had its world premiere on October 12 , 2013 . The following day , it was screened at the Hamptons International Film Festival . It was also in competition during the 8th Rome International Film Festival , where Johansson won Best Actress . The film was set to have a limited release in North America on November 20 , 2013 , through Warner Bros. Pictures . It was later pushed back to a limited December 18 , 2013 release , with a January 10 , 2014 wide release in order to accommodate an awards campaign .
Her was released by Warner Home Video on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD on May 13 , 2014 . The Blu @-@ ray release includes three behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes , while the DVD release contains one featurette . The film made $ 2 @.@ 7 million in DVD sales and $ 2 @.@ 2 million in Blu @-@ ray Disc sales , for a total of $ 4 @.@ 9 million in home media sales .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film has an approval rating of 95 % on Rotten Tomatoes , based on 239 reviews with an average rating of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The critical consensus states : " Sweet , soulful , and smart , Spike Jonze 's Her uses its just @-@ barely @-@ sci @-@ fi scenario to impart wryly funny wisdom about the state of modern human relationships . " The film also has a score of 90 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 46 critics , indicating " universal acclaim . "
Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers awarded the film three and a half stars out of four and particularly praised Johansson 's performance , stating that she " speaks Samantha in tones sweet , sexy , caring , manipulative and scary " and that her " vocal tour de force is award @-@ worthy " . He also went on to call Jonze " a visionary " . Richard Corliss of Time applauded Phoenix 's performance , comparing his role to Sandra Bullock 's in Gravity and Robert Redford 's in All Is Lost : " Phoenix must communicate his movie 's meaning and feelings virtually on his own . That he does , with subtle grace and depth . [ ... ] Phoenix shows us what it 's like when a mourning heart comes alive — because he loves Her . " Corliss cited HAL 9000 and S1m0ne as cinematic predecessors to Her and praised Johansson , calling her performance " seductive and winning " . Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter called it " a probing , inquisitive work of a very high order " , although he expressed disappointment that the ending is more conventional than the rest of the film . McCarthy examined the premise of the story and suggested that the film 's central virtual relationship was better than Ryan Gosling 's character 's relationship with a sex doll in Lars and the Real Girl . McCarthy compares the " tender " and " vulnerable " performance of Phoenix to his " fearsome " performance in The Master . He also praised Jonze 's writing for its insights into what people want out of love and relationships , as well as the acting performances that " [ make ] it all feel spontaneous and urgent " .
Richard Roeper said that the film was " one of the more original , hilarious and even heartbreaking stories of the year " and called Phoenix " perfectly cast " . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times named it " at once a brilliant conceptual gag and a deeply sincere romance " . Claudia Puig of USA Today called the performance of Phoenix and Johansson " sensational " and " pitch @-@ perfect " , respectively . She further praised the film for being " inventive , intimate and wryly funny " . Scott Mendelson of Forbes called Her " a creative and empathetic gem of a movie " , praising Johansson 's " marvelous vocal performance " and the supporting performances of Rooney Mara , Olivia Wilde , and Amy Adams . Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail said that the film was " gentle and weird " , praised its humor , and opined that it was more similar to Charlie Kaufman 's Synecdoche , New York than Jonze 's Being John Malkovich and Adaptation . However , Lacey also stated that Phoenix 's performance was " authentically vulnerable " , but that " his emotionally arrested development also begins to weigh the film down " .
Conversely , Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle criticized the story , pacing , and Phoenix 's character . He also opined that the film was " a lot more interesting to think about than watch " . J. R. Jones of the Chicago Reader gave the film 2 out of 4 stars , praising the performances of Phoenix and Johansson , but also criticizing Phoenix 's character , calling him an " idiot " . He also criticized the lack of realism in the relationship between Phoenix and Johansson 's characters . Stephanie Zacharek of The Village Voice opined that Jonze was " so entranced with his central conceit that he can barely move beyond it " , and criticized the dialogue as being " premeditated . " However , she also praised Johannson 's performance , calling it " the movie 's saving grace " and stating that Her " isn 't just unimaginable without Johansson — it might have been unbearable without her " .
= = = Box office = = =
Her grossed $ 258 @,@ 000 in six theaters during its opening weekend , averaging $ 43 @,@ 000 per theater . The film earned over $ 3 million while on limited release , before expanding to a wide release of 1 @,@ 729 theaters on January 10 , 2014 . On its first weekend of wide release the film took in $ 5 @.@ 35 million . The film grossed $ 25 @.@ 6 million in the United States and Canada and $ 21 @.@ 8 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $ 47 @.@ 4 million . Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave Her a B- grade .
= = = Accolades = = =
Her has earned various awards and nominations , with particular praise for Jonze 's screenplay . At the 86th Academy Awards , the film was nominated in five categories , including Best Picture , with Jonze winning for Best Original Screenplay . At the 71st Golden Globe Awards , the film garnered three nominations , going on to win Best Screenplay for Jonze . Jonze was also awarded the Best Original Screenplay Award from the Writers Guild of America and at the 19th Critics ' Choice Awards . The film also won Best Fantasy Film , Best Supporting Actress for Johansson , and Best Writing for Jonze at the 40th Saturn Awards . The film was nominated for Best Theatrical Motion Picture at the 25th Producers Guild of America Awards , but lost to 12 Years a Slave and Gravity . Her also won Best Film and Best Director for Jonze at the National Board of Review Awards , and the American Film Institute included the film in its list of the top ten films of 2013 .
= 1974 – 75 Buffalo Sabres season =
The 1974 – 75 Buffalo Sabres season was the Sabres ' fifth season in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Sabres finished in a tie for the best record in the NHL in the 1974 – 75 regular season after a disappointing 1974 that saw the 1973 – 74 team fail to return to the NHL playoffs as they had the year before . Buffalo advanced to the Stanley Cup finals for the first time in team history to play against the rough Philadelphia Flyers ( who had been recently nicknamed the " Broad Street Bullies " ) , a series which included the legendary Fog Game ( game three of the series ) . The Sabres lost the series 4 – 2 .
The season marked the Sabres ' second NHL playoffs appearance . The season was the first under the tenure of Floyd Smith and the team 's first in the newly created Adams Division in the NHL 's Prince of Wales Conference .
Sabres players earned numerous accolades . Don Luce won the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy . Rick Martin , Rene Robert , Jerry Korab and Luce were all selected to the 1975 NHL All @-@ Star Game . Martin was a first team NHL All @-@ Star Team selection at left wing , while Robert was a second team selection at right wing . The French Connection ( Martin , Robert and Gilbert Perreault ) were all among the league leaders in important scoring statistics .
= = Transactions = =
Goaltender Dave Dryden was lost to the World Hockey Association following the 1973 – 74 season . During the 25 @-@ round May 1974 NHL Amateur Draft that was held by conference call , the team participated in the first twelve rounds of the draft . Although several of their selections eventually played in the NHL , the Sabres only drafted three players that played for the team that year . The Sabres acquired defenseman Lee Fogolin ( 1st round , 11th overall ) , right winger Danny Gare ( 2nd round , 29th overall ) and defenseman Paul McIntosh ( 4th round , 65th overall ) in the 1974 NHL Amateur Draft . They had acquired left winger Morris Titanic in the 1973 NHL Amateur Draft ( 1st round , 12th overall ) and he was called up from the team 's American Hockey League minor league affiliate , the Hershey Bears during the season . In addition , the Sabres drafted Taro Tsujimoto with the 183rd overall pick .
Prior to the season , the team had lost right winger Ron Busniuk to the Detroit Red Wings in the June 10 , 1974 NHL Intra @-@ League Draft . Buffalo lost right winger Steve Atkinson and center Randy Wyrozub to the Washington Capitals in the June 12 , 1974 NHL Expansion Draft . The team also lost defenseman Paul Terbenche to the Kansas City Scouts in the same draft .
On October 14 , 1974 , The Sabres acquired 1974 All @-@ Star defenseman Jocelyn Guevremont and forward Bryan McSheffrey from the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for left winger Gerry Meehan and defenseman Mike Robitaille . On January 27 , 1975 Buffalo acquired left winger Fred Stanfield from the Minnesota North Stars for right winger Norm Gratton and Buffalo 's 3rd round choice in 1976 NHL Amateur Draft . The veteran Stanfield had finished in the top ten in the league four times in assists before being acquired by the Sabres . The Sabres acquired the NHL rights to goaltender Gerry Desjardins from the New York Islanders for defenseman Garry Lariviere on February 19 , 1975 .
In May , after the season ended , left winger Rick Dudley , who later coached the Sabres for three seasons , signed to play in the WHA . After 11 seasons in the NHL , 1974 – 75 was the final one for right winger Larry Mickey before his retirement .
= = Regular season = =
October – December
The Sabres returned after a season of injury and tragedy in which their captain Tim Horton died in an automobile accident . The team also seemed to have mended an apparent preseason feud between Perreault and Martin . On October 10 , 1974 in the season @-@ opening game , Danny Gare set the tone for the new season by scoring a goal 18 seconds into the first game of his career . Perreault added a hat trick and two assists in the 9 – 5 victory over the Boston Bruins . After starting the season 3 – 3 – 1 , the Sabres had an 18 – 1 – 3 hot streak between October 26 and December 8 , 1974 to move to a 21 – 4 – 4 record . By the time they reached 7 – 3 – 1 following a November 3 victory over the New York Rangers , they had taken over the Adams Division lead . The streak included two unbeaten stretches of at least 10 games . They went 9 – 0 – 1 on a streak that extended until November 14 with a win against the Minnesota North Stars . The penultimate win of the streak was the Sabres ' first ever win at the Montreal Forum on November 13 .
After a November 16 , loss to the Bruins , they started a 9 – 0 – 2 streak on November 17 against the Atlanta Flames . In the third game of this streak , which was also against the Flames , they made a comeback from two separate three @-@ goal deficits to tie the game . The other tie during the streak was also a comeback . By the end of the two unbeaten streaks and before the 30 @-@ game mark , the Sabres had the best record in the NHL , the league 's leading scorer in Perreault , three 20 @-@ goal scorers among the French Connection and the leading rookie scorer in the league in Gare . Martin had the second four @-@ goal game of his career in a December 3 5 – 3 victory against the Washington Capitals on the road . Perreault had three goals and an assist in the December 5 9 – 2 victory against the Washington Capitals at home . Then , Martin was lost with a recurring thumb injury . Following Martin 's injury , the Sabres eleven @-@ game unbeaten streak came to an end , and the team had two different three @-@ game stretches without a win that started in December .
January – February
The team posted a season high six @-@ game win streak between January 12 , 1975 – January 25 , 1975 . The streak culminated in a second win against the Montreal Canadiens on the road . After a February 1 loss to the Philadelphia Flyers , the Sabres went undefeated for the rest of the month . The team had a season @-@ high 12 @-@ game unbeaten streak between February 2 , 1975 – February 27 , 1975 . During that streak , the team went 7 – 0 – 5 . The 4 – 4 February 16 tie with the St. Louis Blues clinched a playoff spot for the Sabres . The February 18 3 – 2 victory over the New York Islanders at the Nassau Coliseum was only the second loss of the season for the Islanders at home . The February 20 6 – 6 tie against the Flyers , in which the Sabres lost several leads , extended the Flyers unbeaten streak against the Sabres to nine . The final game of the streak was a 5 – 0 shutout victory over the Los Angeles Kings , who had handed the Sabres three of their eleven defeats prior to that point in the season .
March – April
At the beginning of March , Desjardins quit the Baltimore Blades of the World Hockey Association to join the Sabres . Desjardins was frustrated at not getting paid when attendance was sparse . On March 16 against the Toronto Maple Leafs , Martin dislocated his thumb during a fight . This necessitated that he wear a cast . Desjardins made his first appearance in a March 20 6 – 3 victory over the New York Rangers . In their last win of the month , the Sabres clinched the division title on March 23 with a 9 – 4 victory
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While at UFA , he worked with noted writers , directors and producers including Ewald André Dupont and Erich Pommer . In 1933 he became a film director , overseeing the thriller Unsichtbare Gegner for producer Sam Spiegel .
The same year as Unsichtbare Gegner was released , the Nazis came to power in Germany , and the Jewish Cartier left the country . Several members of Cartier 's family who had remained in Europe , including his mother , later died in the Holocaust . Encouraged by a UFA colleague , Billy Wilder , to come to Hollywood , Cartier changed his surname and moved to the United States . However , unlike Wilder , Cartier did not find success in America , and in 1935 he moved again , to the United Kingdom .
Little further is recorded of Cartier 's career until after the Second World War , when he began writing storylines for several minor British films . He also worked as a film producer , overseeing a 1951 short film adaptation of the Sherlock Holmes story The Man with the Twisted Lip . Cartier returned for a time to the United States , where he studied production methods in the new medium of television .
In 1952 , Michael Barry , with whom Cartier had worked on an aborted project in 1948 , became the new Head of Drama at BBC Television and interviewed Cartier for a post as a staff television producer in the drama department , a job which also involved directing . At his interview , Cartier told Barry that he thought his department 's output was " dreadful " , and that television drama needed " new scripts and a new approach " . In a 1990 interview about his career , he told BBC Two 's The Late Show that the BBC drama department had " needed me like water in the desert " . Barry shared many of Cartier 's views on the need to improve television drama , and he hired him for the producer 's job .
= = BBC television = =
Cartier 's first BBC television production was a play entitled Arrow to the Heart , transmitted on the evening of 20 July 1952 . It was initially adapted by Cartier from Albrecht Goes ' novel Unruhige Nacht , but Barry felt that the dialogue was " too Germanic " and assigned drama department staff scriptwriter Nigel Kneale to edit the script . Arrow to the Heart was the first of many collaborations between the pair , who enjoyed during the next few years a highly productive working relationship , despite profound creative disagreements on occasion . Cartier and Kneale were an important presence in the British television drama of the era and were , according to television historian Lez Cooke , " responsible for introducing a completely new dimension to television drama in the early to mid @-@ 1950s " .
= = = Collaborations with Nigel Kneale = = =
Cartier and Kneale 's first major production was the six @-@ part serial The Quatermass Experiment , broadcast in the summer of 1953 . A science @-@ fiction story , it relates the sending of the first humans into space by Professor Bernard Quatermass and the consequences when an alien presence invades the crew 's rocket during its flight and returns to Earth in the body of the one remaining crewmember , having absorbed the consciousnesses and shredded the bodies of the other two . A critical and popular success , The Quatermass Experiment has been described by the British Film Institute 's Screenonline website as " one of the most influential series of the 1950s " . Cartier 's contribution to the serial 's success was highlighted in his 1994 obituary in The Times newspaper , which also called the serial " a landmark in British television drama as much for its visual imagination as for its ability to shock and disturb " .
The success of The Quatermass Experiment led to two sequels , Quatermass II ( 1955 ) and Quatermass and the Pit ( 1958 – 59 ) , both produced and directed by Cartier and written by Kneale . Both were successful and critically acclaimed , and Cartier 's production work on them became increasingly ambitious . For Quatermass II , he pre @-@ filmed a significant amount of material on location , using 35 mm film , opening the drama out from a confined studio setting with the most ambitious location shooting yet attempted in British television . Cartier , with his previous experience as a film director , particularly enjoyed working on these cinema @-@ style filmed scenes .
The appeal of the Quatermass serials has been attributed by the Museum of Broadcast Communications to the depiction of " A new range of gendered fears about Britain 's postwar and post @-@ colonial security . As a result , or perhaps simply because of Kneale and Cartier 's effective combination of science fiction and poignant melodrama , audiences were captivated . " The Screenonline website suggests that the visual impact of Cartier 's interpretation of Kneale 's scripts was a major factor in their success , which it attributes to their " originality , mass appeal and dynamism ... The Quatermass Experiment became a landmark of science fiction and the cornerstone of the genre on British television . "
Aside from the Quatermass serials , Cartier and Kneale collaborated on several one @-@ off dramas , including literary and theatrical adaptations of Wuthering Heights ( 6 December 1953 ) and The Moment of Truth ( 10 March 1955 ) , as well as Kneale 's own The Creature ( 30 January 1955 ) . Of particular note was their collaboration on an adaptation of George Orwell 's novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four , originally broadcast on 12 December 1954 , regarded as Cartier 's most famous work . The Times 's review the day after its broadcast noted its " vividness ... the two minutes ' hate was , for instance , a wonderfully riotious orgy of vindictiveness . " The production also attracted considerable controversy . There were questions asked in the House of Commons concerning some of the graphic scenes of horror in the play , and the BBC received several telephone calls threatening Cartier 's life if the second live performance , scheduled for 16 December , went ahead . The BBC took these threats seriously enough to assign him bodyguards . Cartier appeared live on television himself to defend the production in a studio debate , and eventually the Board of Governors of the BBC voted that the second performance should go ahead as planned . The production had by this time received the backing of the Duke of Edinburgh , who commented during a speech to the Royal Society of Arts that he and the Queen had watched and enjoyed the first performance .
Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four had been a success , but it was also one of the most expensive television dramas ever made in the UK . Cartier often spent large amounts of money on his productions . Earlier in 1954 , Michael Barry had heavily criticised him for the money and resources he had expended in an adaptation of Rebecca . In a memo written after that production 's transmission , Barry admonished Cartier for his over @-@ ambitious production :
The performance of Rebecca seems to me to have taken us further into the danger area instead of showing any improvement . I am unable to defend at a time when departmental costs and scene loads are in an acute state the load imposed by Rebecca on Design and Supply and the expenditure upon extras and costumes ... the vast area of the hall and the stairway never justified the great expenditure of effort required in building and one is left with a very clear impression of reaching a point where the department must be accused of not knowing what it is doing .
= = = Later life and work = = =
Despite Barry 's concerns , Cartier continued to work successfully in television , and at the 1957 Guild of Television Producers and Directors Awards ( later known as the British Academy Television Awards , or BAFTAs ) he was the winner of the Drama category . He made a brief return to filmmaking in 1958 when he directed the feature Passionate Summer , but he saw himself primarily as a television director , and it remained his favourite medium . " The essence of television is that you can control the viewer 's response to a much greater extent than other media permit , " he told The Times in 1958 .
Cartier also directed several operas for the BBC , a genre for which he had a great passion . He oversaw adaptations of established operas such as Salome ( 1957 ) and Carmen ( 1962 ) as well as original productions written especially for television . Tobias and the Angel , written for the BBC by Sir Arthur Bliss and Christopher Hassall and produced by Cartier in 1960 , won the Merit Award in the Salzburg Opera Prize at the 1962 Salzburg Festival .
Cartier continued to direct television dramas during the 1960s , although after Barry stepped down as Head of Drama in 1961 , he lost much of his creative independence . Barry 's successor , Sydney Newman , abolished the BBC 's traditional producer @-@ director role and split the responsibilities into separate posts , leaving directors such as Cartier with less control over their productions . Cartier also found himself assigned to direct episodes of regular drama series , as such as Maigret and Z @-@ Cars .
Cartier was still able to direct several notable productions during the decade , including a number which explored the Nazi era in Germany from which he had escaped in 1933 . These included the World War II dramas Cross of Iron ( 1961 , dealing with the court martial of a U @-@ Boat captain in a British prisoner of war camp ) and The July Plot ( 1964 , about the 1944 plot to assassinate Hitler ) , as well as Firebrand ( 1967 , about the 1933 Reichstag fire , an event Cartier had personally witnessed ) . He also began , for the first time , to direct pieces which dealt with the Holocaust , such as Doctor Korczak and the Children ( 1962 , concerning the Warsaw Ghetto orphanage ) and The Joel Brand Story ( 1965 , about Adolf Eichmann 's 1944 offer to the Allies of the lives of 1 million Jews in exchange for 10 @,@ 000 trucks ) . Other notable 1960s productions included adaptations of Anna Karenina ( 1961 , starring Sean Connery and Claire Bloom ) and Wuthering Heights ( 1962 , a new version of Kneale 's 1953 script , starring Bloom and Keith Michell ) . Lee Oswald — Assassin ( 1966 ) was a drama @-@ documentary telling the story of Lee Harvey Oswald , based on the Warren Commission 's findings , while Conversation at Night ( 1969 ) saw the first television acting appearance of Alec Guinness .
Cartier 's career continued into the 1970s . In 1974 , he directed episodes of Fall of Eagles ; and his final credit came with the play Loyalties , screened in 1976 . By this time , he had worked on over 120 productions for the BBC . Subsequently , he worked for a time for the BBC 's " purchased drama " department , advising on which plays and series might be bought @-@ in from European broadcasters . Throughout his career , Cartier refused to work for commercial television : " I hate the idea of my creative work being constantly interrupted for commercial reasons , " he once commented . " I am an artist , not a salesman . "
Cartier was married three times , lastly to Margaret Pepper from 1949 until his death . He had one daughter , Corinne , with Pepper , and another from a previous marriage . Cartier died on 7 June 1994 , at the age of 90 ; his death was overshadowed in the media by that of Dennis Potter , another important figure in the history of British television drama , who died on the same day .
= = Legacy = =
Nearly all of Cartier 's 1950s television productions were performed live , and the majority of them were not recorded — he once described them as being " gone with the speed of light " . Several of those which do survive have been highly regarded by later reviewers . In 2000 , the British Film Institute ( BFI ) compiled a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes of the 20th century . Voted on by a group of industry professionals , the list featured both Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four and Quatermass and the Pit . In the accompanying analysis of each entry to the list , Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four was described as " An early example of the power of television drama ... Even now , the torture sequences retain their power to shock and disturb . "
Nigel Kneale , scriptwriter of both of the Cartier dramas acclaimed by the BFI , felt that the productions would not have been as successful as they were had they been handled by any other director . " I don 't think any of the things I wrote then would have come to anything much in other hands . In his they worked . " Television historian Jason Jacobs , a lecturer in film and television studies at the University of Warwick , wrote in 2000 that Kneale and Cartier together created an entirely new , more expansive vision for British television drama in the 1950s .
" It was the arrival of Nigel Kneale ... and Rudolph Cartier ... that challenged the intimate drama directly . Cartier is rightly recognised as a major influence on the visual development of British television drama ... Cartier and Kneale had the ambition for their productions to affect a mass audience , and the scope of their attention was not confined to the ' cosy ' aesthetics of intimacy . Cartier uses the close @-@ up both to reveal emotions and as a shock device : a more threatening — and perhaps exhilarating — method than was used before . ' Intimacy ' is reformulated by Cartier in terms of his power and control over the viewer — no longer a part of the family , but isolated in his home . "
Cartier 's pioneering use of an increased number of pre @-@ filmed sequences to open out the studio @-@ bound , live television drama productions of the 1950s is also praised by Lez Cooke . " While film inserts were being used in television drama from the early 1950s , Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four represented the most extensive use of them in a TV play up to that time , and signalled Cartier 's determination to extend the boundaries of TV drama . " Similarly , his Times obituary stated that : " At a time when studio productions were usually as static as the conventional theatre , he was widely respected for a creative contribution to British television drama which gave it a new dimension . "
In addition to his 1950s productions , several of Cartier 's later works have also been regarded as influential . His 1962 production of Wuthering Heights was praised by Dennis Potter , then a television critic , who wrote in the Daily Herald newspaper that the production " was like a thunderstorm on the flat , dreary plains of the week 's television ... The howl of the wind against the windows , the muted pain of Claire Bloom as the wretched Cathy , and the hunted misery of Keith Mitchell as Heathcliff , made this a more than adequate offering of a great work . " While Screenonline states that Lee Oswald — Assassin ( 1966 ) " could be argued [ to be ] of historical interest only " , due to its basis in the flawed Warren Commission report , The Times praised it as being " possibly the first drama @-@ documentary " .
Not all of Cartier 's work was so well regarded ; in particular , his cinematic efforts have not achieved the level of praise of his television work . In the book America 's Best , Britain 's Finest : A Survey of Mixed Movies , critic John Howard Reid says of Cartier 's 1958 film Passionate Summer : " It 's hard to believe that ... anyone could make such a dull movie . Yet this is precisely what director Rudolph Cartier has done . I 've never heard of Mr Cartier before or since but presumably he made this brief foray into films from that synthetic world of ugly close @-@ ups — TV . "
Speaking to The Times in 1958 , Cartier explained that television was still developing as a medium , and that part of his work was to help create the next generation of those who would produce television drama . " The BBC is producing producers as well as plays . They are feeling their way towards what television drama will one day be , and we are trying to create a generation of writers who study the medium . " His 1994 obituary in the same newspaper judged that he had been successful in creating a lasting influence on later producers , describing his 1962 production of the opera Carmen as " an example and inspiration to a younger generation of television producers " .
In 1990 , the BBC Two arts magazine programme The Late Show produced an edition which featured a retrospective of Cartier 's work , including a new interview with the director discussing his career . This feature was repeated on BBC Two under the title Rudolph Cartier : A Television Pioneer on 1 July 1994 , followed by a tribute screening of the surviving telerecording copy of the second performance of Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four .
= = Selected filmography = =
The Copper ( 1930 )
The Man with the Claw ( 1931 )
Invisible Opponent ( 1933 )
The Oil Sharks ( 1933 )
= Battle of Stillman 's Run =
The Battle of Stillman 's Run , also known as the Battle of Sycamore Creek or the Battle of Old Man 's Creek , occurred in Illinois on May 14 , 1832 . The battle was named for the panicked retreat by Major Isaiah Stillman and his detachment of 275 Illinois militia after being attacked by many fewer Sauk warriors of Black Hawk 's British Band . The engagement was the first battle of the Black Hawk War ( 1832 ) , which developed after Black Hawk crossed the Mississippi River from Iowa into Illinois with his band of Sauk and Fox warriors to try to reclaim territory . The militia had pursued a small group of Sauk scouts to the main British Band camp following a failed attempt by Black Hawk 's emissaries to negotiate a truce .
During the engagement , 12 militia men were killed by Band warriors while making a stand on a small hill . The remainder of the militia fled back to Dixon 's Ferry . Citizens erected a monument in 1901 in Stillman Valley , Illinois commemorating the battle . A 2006 article corroborates that militia volunteer Abraham Lincoln was present at the battleground 's burials ; sources agree about little else . Investigation continues in the early 21st century about facts of the skirmish .
= = Background = =
Black Hawk , a Sauk chief , believed that the Treaty of St. Louis ( 1804 ) was invalid . It ceded Sauk territory to the US that included his birthplace . He led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River from Iowa to Illinois beginning in 1830 . Each time , he was persuaded to return west without bloodshed . In April 1832 , encouraged by promises of alliances with other tribes and the British , he again moved his " British Band " into Illinois . Finding no allies , he attempted to return to Iowa , but ensuing events led to the Battle of Stillman 's Run . A number of other engagements followed , and the state militias of Wisconsin and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk 's band . The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War .
On April 5 , 1832 , Black Hawk and around 1 @,@ 000 warriors and civilians recrossed the Mississippi River into Illinois in an attempt to reclaim their land . About half of Black Hawk 's band were combatants and the rest were a combination of women , children , and elderly . The band consisted of Sauk , Fox , some Potawatomi , and some Kickapoo ; in addition some members of the Ho @-@ Chunk nation were sympathetic to Black Hawk . Black Hawk 's reason for crossing into Illinois was that he wanted to reclaim lost lands , and perhaps , create a confederacy of Native Americans to stand against white settlement . Other Illinois tribes promised aid to the British Band and Black Hawk believed that he had been promised assistance by the British in Canada .
Black Hawk led the march of the group along the Rock River into Illinois . Illinois Governor John Reynolds perceived the return of Black Hawk as an invasion , and he immediately called up the militia . General Henry Atkinson , whom Black Hawk addressed as " White Beaver , " commanded the military expedition .
= = Prelude = =
Atkinson was not told about Governor Reynolds ' decision to order Major Isaiah Stillman 's militia to march on Old Man 's Creek , despite being in overall command . Reynolds ' orders , issued on his behalf by General Samuel Whiteside to Stillman , were for Stillman to find Black Hawk and coerce him into submission . Following these orders , Stillman moved on Old Mans Creek . Whiteside had refused to accept Stillman 's battalion under his command , thus leaving it " orphaned " and under the direct command of Governor Reynolds . The militia commanded by Whiteside grew restless as they awaited the arrival of Atkinson and his Army regulars ; many of the volunteer militia wanted to quit the war and head back home . When diplomacy failed to persuade Black Hawk to take his band back west to Iowa , Stillman and Bailey 's battalions of Illinois Militia were marched up the Rock River .
Prior to the battle at Stillman 's Run , Black Hawk 's grand vision of British support , and a Native American confederacy had collapsed . No parties aided him and his followers . The British Band started to weaken with hunger , and Black Hawk soon realized that the only option was to return across the Mississippi River . When he detected the U.S. militia camp eight miles ( 13 km ) away , Black Hawk sent out peace envoys in order to negotiate a truce . They were told to wave a white flag at the militia .
= = Battle = =
On May 14 , 1832 , a detachment of 275 militia under the command of Majors Isaiah Stillman and David Bailey , under orders from Illinois Governor Reynolds , were encamped near Old Man 's Creek , not far from its confluence with the Rock River . The militia camp was located about three miles ( 5 km ) east of the Rock River near present @-@ day Stillman Valley , Illinois , and seven miles ( 11 km ) south of the Sauk encampment . It is believed that the militia and its commanders were unaware of their proximity to Black Hawk 's British Band .
In conference with the local Potawatomi , Black Hawk learned of Stillman 's presence and sent three emissaries to the militia camp under a flag of parley in order to negotiate a peace with the soldiers . The already suspicious soldiers took the three emissaries to their camp , and during the proceedings the militia became aware of several of Black Hawk 's scouts in the surrounding hills , watching the proceedings . Once the scouts were spotted , soldiers shot at the three emissaries , killing one . The other two fled back toward their camp , located near the confluence of the Rock and Kishwaukee rivers .
The scouts were pursued by the disorganized militia and several were killed . The surviving scouts arrived at Black Hawk 's camp ahead of the militia and reported the events . At the camp , the warriors set up a skirmish line in order to fend off the pending militia attack . The militia soldiers , intent on pursuing the scouts , chased them back toward the main force of Black Hawk 's warriors and their skirmish line . Black Hawk and his force concealed themselves and ambushed the pursuers . Believing that thousands of Sauk and Fox were attacking them , the militia panicked and fled back to the main force camped at Dixon 's Ferry . Stillman 's exact whereabouts are unknown during this point in the battle . His later account published in a newspaper did not mention his location and noted his only order was to retreat . Stillman 's account , published in the Missouri Republican , has been called fanciful .
Twelve of Stillman 's militia were killed in the melee . A band of volunteers under the leadership of Captain John Giles Adams made a stand on a hill south of the main militia camp . The men fought by moonlight as the main body of the militia fled back to Dixon . The entire 12 @-@ man detachment , including Adams , was killed in the fight . Dyer has said that Adams may have been killed by his own men as he attempted to muster them to battle . The number of Sauk and Fox killed in the engagement is largely unknown ; the militia party that was sent to locate the " missing " 53 militia men found no dead Sauk . Black Hawk is quoted as saying at least three and maybe as many as five of his warriors were killed .
= = Lincoln 's role = =
The facts about Abraham Lincoln 's service during the Black Hawk War have been disputed . Lincoln was associated with two major battle sites , including Stillman 's Run , in the aftermath of combat . A number of sources assert that on June 26 , 1832 , the morning after the Second Battle of Kellogg 's Grove , members of the company of Captain Jacob M. Early arrived at the grove to help bury the dead . One of these soldiers was Lincoln , who assisted with the burial . His later statement about the events has been linked to both the battle at Kellogg 's Grove and the fight at Stillman 's Run .
The Lincoln quote was featured in both William H. Herndon and Jesse W. Wiek 's Life of Lincoln and Carl Sandburg 's Lincoln biography , Abraham Lincoln The Prairie Years . Lincoln 's presence at Stillman 's Run has been under investigation in the early 21st century , but his presence at Kellogg 's Grove has been corroborated by several sources . In a 2006 article , author Scott Dyer asserted that Whiteside 's men , including Captain Lincoln , " paraded " the area the morning after , and buried the dead from Stillman 's Run . Their movements were an unsuccessful effort to draw out the Sauk , after which they returned to Dixon 's Ferry .
During an 1848 speech before the U.S. Congress in which he referred to his Black Hawk War service , Lincoln noted Stillman 's Run by name :
The marble facade on the Stillman Valley monument , erected in 1901 to commemorate the battle , refers to Lincoln 's presence at Stillman 's Run , " The presence of soldier , statesman , martyr , Abraham Lincoln assisting in the burial of these honored dead has made this spot more sacred . " Other sources assert that General Whiteside originally buried the dead in a common grave on a ridge south of the battlefield , marked with a rudimentary wooden memorial . These sources make no mention of Lincoln .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the first confrontation with Black Hawk at Stillman Valley , the press reported that 2 @,@ 000 " bloodthirsty warriors were sweeping all Northern Illinois with the bosom of destruction , " sending shock waves of terror through the region . Past midnight on May 15 , soldiers from Stillman 's ill @-@ fated detachment began streaming back into Dixon 's Ferry , wide @-@ eyed and panic @-@ stricken , telling tales of a horrible slaughter that had ensued during the battle . In the immediate aftermath of the battle , 53 militia men were missing . Later officials determined that the majority of these men had simply bypassed Dixon 's Ferry on their way home .
After this initial skirmish , Black Hawk led many of the civilians in his band to the Michigan Territory . On May 19 , the militia traveled up the Rock River trailing and searching for Black Hawk and his band . Several small skirmishes and massacres ensued over the next month in northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin before the militia regained public confidence in battles at Bloody Lake and Waddams Grove .
Critics of the Illinois Militia , mostly members of the Regular Army , attacked their behavior at the debacle at Stillman ' Run . They began to refer to the battle at Old Man 's Creek as the Battle of Stillman 's Run , because Stillman had apparently fled with the panicked militia .
Armed hostilities during the Black Hawk War began at Stillman 's Run , and the victory was unexpected for Black Hawk and his British Band . Black Hawk feared that the white militia and its allies would seek revenge through his total defeat . Leading his starving band , Black Hawk fled from Atkinson 's pursuing army . The chase would take them as far as present day Madison , Wisconsin . It ended at the Battle of Bad Axe , where the militia and its allies massacred a weakened foe , by then made up of mostly women and children .
The remains of the soldiers at Stillman 's Run were originally buried in a common grave , but who buried them remains an open question . A memorial , erected in 1901 , stands near their marked graves . The monument and battle site are listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places . They are near Illinois Route 72 a block west of present @-@ day Stillman Creek .
= Australian Defence Force =
The Australian Defence Force ( ADF ) is the military organisation responsible for the defence of Australia . It consists of the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) , Australian Army , Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) and a number of ' tri @-@ service ' units . The ADF has a strength of just over 80 @,@ 000 full @-@ time personnel and active reservists , and is supported by the Department of Defence and several other civilian agencies .
During the first decades of the 20th century , the Australian Government established the armed services as separate organisations . Each service had an independent chain of command . In 1976 , the government made a strategic change and established the ADF to place the services under a single headquarters . Over time , the degree of integration has increased and tri @-@ service headquarters , logistics and training institutions have supplanted many single @-@ service establishments .
The ADF is technologically sophisticated but relatively small . Although the ADF 's 57 @,@ 982 full @-@ time active @-@ duty personnel , 23 @,@ 232 active reserves and 22 @,@ 166 standby reserves make it the largest military in Oceania , it is still smaller than most Asian militaries . Nonetheless , the ADF is supported by a significant budget by worldwide standards and is able to deploy forces in multiple locations outside Australia .
= = Role = =
= = = Legal standing = = =
The ADF 's legal standing draws on the executive government sections of the Australian Constitution . Section 51 ( vi ) gives the Commonwealth Government the power to make laws regarding Australia 's defence and defence forces . Section 114 of the Constitution prevents the States from raising armed forces without the permission of the Commonwealth and Section 119 gives the Commonwealth responsibility for defending Australia from invasion and sets out the conditions under which the government can deploy the defence force domestically .
Section 68 of the Constitution sets out the ADF 's command arrangements . The Section states that " the command in chief of the naval and military forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the Governor @-@ General as the Queen 's representative " . In practice , the Governor @-@ General does not play an active part in the ADF 's command structure , and the elected government controls the ADF . The Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control . The Minister acts on most matters alone , though the National Security Committee of Cabinet considers important matters . The Minister then advises the Governor @-@ General who acts as advised in the normal form of executive government . The Commonwealth Government has never been required by the Constitution or legislation to seek parliamentary approval for decisions to deploy military forces overseas or go to war .
= = = Current priorities = = =
The ADF 's current priorities are set out in the 2016 Defence White Paper , which identifies three main areas of focus . The first of these is to defend Australia from direct attack or coercion . The second priority is to contribute to the security of South East Asia and the South Pacific . The third priority is to contribute to stability across the Indo @-@ Pacific region and a " rules @-@ based global order which supports our interests " . The white paper states that the government will place equal weight on the three priorities when developing the ADF 's capabilities .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Australia has maintained military forces since federation as a nation in January 1901 . Shortly after Federation , the Australian Government established the Australian Army and Commonwealth Naval Force by amalgamating the forces each of the states had maintained . In 1911 , the Government established the Royal Australian Navy , which absorbed the Commonwealth Naval Force . The Army established the Australian Flying Corps in 1912 although this separated to form the Royal Australian Air Force in 1921 . The services were not linked by a single chain of command , as they each reported to their own separate Minister and had separate administrative arrangements . The three services saw action around the world during World War I and World War II , and took part in conflicts in Asia during the Cold War .
The importance of ' joint ' warfare was made clear to the Australian military during World War II when Australian naval , ground and air units frequently served as part of single commands . Following the war , several senior officers lobbied for the appointment of a commander in chief of the three services . The government rejected this proposal and the three services remained fully independent . The absence of a central authority resulted in poor co @-@ ordination between the services , with each service organising and operating on the basis of a different military doctrine .
The need for an integrated command structure received more emphasis as a result of the inefficient arrangements which at times hindered the military 's efforts during the Vietnam War . In 1973 , the Secretary of the Department of Defence , Arthur Tange , submitted a report to the Government that recommended the unification of the separate departments supporting each service into a single Department of Defence and the creation of the post of Chief of the Defence Force Staff . The government accepted these recommendations and the Australian Defence Force was established on 9 February 1976 .
= = = Defence of Australia era = = =
Until the 1970s , Australia 's military strategy centred on the concept of ' forward defence ' , in which the role of the Australian military was to co @-@ operate with allied forces to counter threats in Australia 's region . In 1969 , when the United States began the Guam Doctrine and the British withdrew ' east of Suez ' , Australia developed a defence policy emphasising self @-@ reliance of the Australian continent . This was known as the Defence of Australia Policy . Under this policy , the focus of Australian defence planning was to protect Australia 's northern maritime approaches ( the sea @-@ air gap ) against enemy attack . In line with this goal , the ADF was restructured to increase its ability to strike at enemy forces from Australian bases and to counter raids on continental Australia . The ADF achieved this by increasing the capabilities of the RAN and RAAF and relocating regular Army units to northern Australia .
At this time , the ADF had no military units on operational deployment outside Australia . In 1987 , the ADF made its first operational deployment as part of Operation Morris Dance , in which several warships and a rifle company deployed to the waters off Fiji in response to the 1987 Fijian coups d 'état . While broadly successful , this deployment highlighted the need for the ADF to improve its capability to rapidly respond to unforeseen events .
Since the late 1980s , the Government has increasingly called upon the ADF to contribute forces to peacekeeping missions around the world . While most of these deployments involved only small numbers of specialists , several led to the deployment of hundreds of personnel . Large peacekeeping deployments were made to Namibia in early 1989 , Cambodia between 1992 and 1993 , Somalia in 1993 , Rwanda between 1994 and 1995 and Bougainville in 1994 and from 1997 onwards .
The Australian contribution to the 1991 Gulf War was the first time Australian personnel were deployed to an active war zone since the establishment of the ADF . Although the warships and clearance diving team deployed to the Persian Gulf did not see combat , the deployment tested the ADF 's capabilities and command structure . Following the war the Navy regularly deployed a frigate to the Persian Gulf or Red Sea to enforce the trade sanctions imposed on Iraq .
= = = East Timor and after = = =
In 1996 , John Howard led the Liberal Party 's election campaign and became Prime Minister . Subsequently , there were significant reforms to the ADF 's force structure and role . The new government 's defence strategy placed less emphasis on defending Australia from direct attack and greater emphasis on working in co @-@ operation with regional states and Australia 's allies to manage potential security threats . From 1997 the Government also implemented a series of changes to the ADF 's force structure in an attempt to increase the proportion of combat units to support units and improve the ADF 's combat effectiveness .
The ADF 's experiences during the deployment to East Timor in 1999 led to significant changes in Australia 's defence policies and to an enhancement of the ADF 's ability to conduct operations outside Australia . This successful deployment was the first time a large Australian military force had operated outside of Australia since the Vietnam War and revealed shortcomings in the ADF 's ability to mount and sustain such operations .
In 2000 , the Government released a new Defence White Paper , Defence 2000 – Our Future Defence Force that placed a greater emphasis on preparing the ADF for overseas deployments . The Government committed to improve the ADF 's capabilities by improving the readiness and equipment of ADF units , expanding the ADF and increasing real Defence expenditure by 3 % per year ; in the event , expenditure increased by 2 @.@ 3 % per annum in real terms in the period to 2012 – 13 . In 2003 and 2005 , the Defence Updates emphasised this focus on expeditionary operations and led to an expansion and modernisation of the ADF .
Since 2000 , the ADF 's expanded force structure and deployment capabilities have been put to the test on several occasions . Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States , Australia committed a special forces task group and an air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling aircraft to operations in Afghanistan , and naval warships to the Persian Gulf as Operation Slipper . In 2003 , approximately 2 @,@ 000 ADF personnel , including a special forces task group , three warships and 14 F / A @-@ 18 Hornet aircraft , took part in the invasion of Iraq .
Later in 2003 , elements of all three services deployed to the Solomon Islands as part of the Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands . In late 2004 , over 1 @,@ 000 ADF personnel deployed to Indonesia in Operation Sumatra Assist following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . In May 2006 , approximately 2 @,@ 000 ADF personnel deployed to East Timor in Operation Astute following unrest between elements of the Timor Leste Defence Force .
= = = Current operations = = =
In September 2015 , 2 @,@ 241 ADF personnel were deployed on operations in Australian territory and overseas .
The ADF currently has several forces deployed to the Middle East . The ADF 's contribution to the Military intervention against ISIL makes up the largest overseas commitment with 780 personnel deployed as part of Operation Okra . As of November 2015 , six F / A @-@ 18A Hornets , one E @-@ 7A Wedgetail and one KC @-@ 30A tanker were deployed to strike Islamic State targets in Iraq and Syria . Approximately 380 personnel were deployed to Iraq as part of an international effort to provide training and other forms of assistance to the Iraqi military . Deployments in Afghanistan number 250 personnel in Operation Highroad , a non @-@ combat training mission supporting the Afghan National Army . A frigate is also deployed to the Middle East in maritime security operations in and around the Gulf of Aden as part of the Combined Maritime Forces . Australian personnel also form part of peacekeeping missions in Israel , Jordan , Egypt and Sudan . The ADF has a further 400 personnel based in the Middle East to support operations in the region .
Australian military units are also deployed on operations in Australia 's immediate region . As of September 2015 , 500 personnel were deployed on Australia 's northern approaches in maritime security operations , forming Operation Resolute . ADF units undertake periodic deployments in the South China Sea and South West Pacific .
= = = Future trends = = =
Australia 's changing security environment will lead to new demands being placed on the Australian Defence Force . Although it is not expected that Australia will face any threat of direct attack from another country , terrorist groups and tensions between nations in East Asia pose threats to Australian security . More broadly , the Australian Government believes that it needs to make a contribution to maintaining the rules based order globally . There is also a risk that climate change , weak economic growth and social factors could cause instability in South Pacific countries .
Australian demographic trends will put pressure on the ADF in the future . Excluding other factors , the ageing of the Australian population will result in smaller numbers of potential recruits entering the Australian labour market each year . Some predictions are that population ageing will result in slower economic growth and increased government expenditure on pensions and health programs . As a result of these trends , the ageing of Australia 's population may worsen the ADF 's manpower situation and may force the Government to reallocate some of the Defence budget . Relatively few young Australians consider joining the military and the ADF has to compete for recruits against private sector firms which are able to offer higher salaries .
The ADF has developed strategies to respond to Australia 's changing strategic environment . The 2016 Defence White Paper states that " the Government will ensure Australia maintains a regionally superior ADF with the highest levels of military capability and scientific and technological sophistication " . To this end , the government intends to improve the ADF 's combat power and expand the number of military personnel . This will include introducing new technologies and capabilities . The ADF is also seeking to improve its intelligence capabilities and co @-@ operation between the services .
= = Current structure = =
The Australian Defence Force , Department of Defence and Defence Materiel Organisation ( DMO ) make up the Australian Defence Organisation ( ADO ) , which is often referred to as ' Defence ' . A diarchy of the Chief of the Defence Force ( CDF ) and the Secretary of the Department of Defence administers the ADO . The ADF is the military component of the ADO and consists of the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) , the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) .
The Department of Defence is staffed by both civilian and military personnel and includes agencies such as the DMO , Defence Intelligence Organisation ( DIO ) and Defence Science and Technology Group ( DST Group ) . The DMO purchases and maintains defence equipment . The DSTO provides science and technology support to the defence forces .
= = = Command arrangements = = =
The ADF 's command arrangements are specified in the Defence Act ( 1903 ) and subordinate legislation . This act states that the Minister of Defence " shall have the general control and administration of the Defence Force " and that the CDF , the Secretary of the Department of Defence and the chiefs of the three services must act " in accordance with any directions of the Minister " . The leaders of the ADO are also responsible to the junior ministers who are appointed to manage specific elements of the defence portfolio . The position of Minister for Defence is held by Senator Marise Payne who is also currently serving in the capacity of Acting Minister for Defence Materiel and Science and Darren Chester is the Assistant Minister for Defence .
The CDF is the most senior appointment in the ADF . The CDF commands the ADF , and is notionally the equal of the Secretary of Defence , the most senior public servant in the Department of Defence . The CDF is the only four @-@ star officer in the ADF and is a general , admiral or air chief marshal . As well as having command responsibilities , the CDF is the Minister of Defence 's principal military adviser . Air Chief Marshal Mark Binskin is the current CDF , and assumed this position on 30 June 2014 . Hugh White , a prominent academic and former Deputy Secretary in the Department of Defence , has criticised the ADF 's current command structure . White argues that the Minister plays too large a role in military decision @-@ making and does not provide the CDF and Secretary of Defence with necessary and sufficient authority to manage the ADO effectively .
Under the current ADF command structure the day @-@ to @-@ day management of the ADF is distinct from the command of military operations . The services are administered through the ADO , with the head of each service ( the Chief of Navy , Chief of Army and Chief of Air Force ) and the service headquarters being responsible for raising , training and sustaining combat forces . The Chiefs are also the CDF 's principal advisor on matters concerning the responsibilities of their service .
While the individual members of each service ultimately report to their service 's Chief , the Chiefs do not control military operations . Control of ADF operations is exercised through a formal command chain headed by the Chief of Joint Operations ( CJOPS ) , who reports directly to the CDF . The CJOPS commands the Headquarters Joint Operations Command ( HQJOC ) as well as temporary joint task forces . These joint task forces comprise units assigned from their service to participate in operations or training exercises .
= = = Joint combat forces = = =
Operational command of the ADF is exercised by HQJOC , which is located at a purpose @-@ built facility near Bungendore , New South Wales . This is a ' joint ' headquarters comprising personnel from the three services and includes a continuously manned Joint Control Centre . HQJOC 's main role is to " plan , monitor and control " ADF operations and exercises , and it is organised around groups of plans , operations and support staff . HQJOC also monitors the readiness of the ADF units which are not assigned to operations and contributes to developing Australia 's military doctrine .
As well as HQJOC , the ADF has permanent joint operational commands responsible to the CJOPS . Joint Operations Command ( JOC ) includes the two headquarters responsible for patrolling Australia 's maritime borders on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis , Northern Command and Border Protection Command . Other JOC units include the Joint Movements Group and the Air and Space Operations Centre . Individual ADF units and Joint Task Groups are assigned to JOC during operations , and HQJOC includes officers responsible for submarine and special operations forces .
= = = Royal Australian Navy = = =
The Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) is the naval branch of the Australian Defence Force . The RAN operates just under 50 commissioned warships , including frigates , submarines , patrol boats and auxiliary ships , as well as a number of non @-@ commissioned vessels . In addition , the RAN maintains a force of combat , logistics and training helicopters . The RAN is one of the most modern navies in the Pacific and is responsible for defending Australian waters and undertaking operations in distant locations .
There are two parts to the RAN 's structure . One is an operational command , Fleet Command , and the other is a support command , Navy Strategic Command . The Navy 's assets are administered by four ' forces ' which report to the Commander Australian Fleet . These are the Fleet Air Arm , the Mine Warfare , Clearance Diving , Hydrographic , Meteorological and Patrol Force , Submarine Force and Surface Force . All naval bases across Australia also report to the Commander Australian Fleet .
= = = Australian Army = = =
The Australian Army is Australia 's military land force . While the Australian Army is principally a light infantry force , it is currently being ' hardened and networked ' and expanded to enable it to conduct higher @-@ intensity operations .
The Army is organised into three main elements which report to the Chief of Army ; the Headquarters of the 1st Division , Special Operations Command and Forces Command . Headquarters 1st Division is responsible for high @-@ level training activities and is capable of being deployed to command large scale ground operations . It does not have any combat units permanently assigned to it , though it commands units during training activities and the Land Combat Readiness Centre reports to the divisional headquarters . Most of the Army 's units report to Forces Command , which is responsible for overseeing their readiness and preparing them for operations . Special Operations Command is responsible for preparing the ADF 's special forces units for operational deployments . This organisation came into effect during January 2011 ; before this time the Army 's three regular brigades were permanently assigned to the Headquarters 1st Division .
The Australian Army 's main combat forces are grouped in brigades . Its main conventional forces are three regular combat brigades which are organised on a common structure ; the 1st , 3rd and 7th Brigades . Support for the units in these formations is provided by an aviation brigade ( 16th Brigade ) , a combat support and ISTAR brigade ( 6th Brigade ) and a logistics brigade ( the 17th Brigade ) . In addition , there are six Army Reserve brigades ; these brigades are administrated by the 2nd Division and " paired " with the three regular combat brigades . The Army 's main tactical formations are combined arms battlegroups made up of elements drawn from different units .
Special Operations Command ( SOC ) commands the ADF 's special forces units . It comprises the Special Air Service Regiment , two commando regiments , the Special Operations Engineer Regiment and signals , logistics and training units . The Army 's special forces units have been expanded since 2001 and are well equipped and capable of being deployed by sea , air or land . It currently comprises approximately 2 @,@ 200 personnel .
= = = Royal Australian Air Force = = =
The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) is the air force branch of the ADF . The RAAF has modern combat and transport aircraft and a network of bases in strategic locations across Australia .
The RAAF has a single operational command , Air Command . Air Command is the operational arm of the RAAF and consists of Air Combat Group , Air Mobility Group , Surveillance and Response Group , Combat Support Group , Air Warfare Centre and Air Force Training Group . Each group consists of several wings .
The RAAF has nineteen flying squadrons ; four combat squadrons , two maritime patrol squadrons , six transport squadrons , six training squadrons ( including three Operational Conversion Units and a forward air control training squadron ) as well as one Airborne Early Warning & Control squadron and a Joint Terminal Attack Controller squadron . The Air Force also includes a single independent flight ( No. 5 Flight ) . The ground units supporting these flying squadrons include three expeditionary combat support squadrons , three security force squadrons and a range of intelligence , air traffic control , communications , radar and medical units .
= = Logistic support = =
The ADF 's logistics are managed by the DMO and the Joint Logistics Command . The DMO was created in 2000 by merging the ADF 's Support Command Australia with the Department of Defence 's Defence Acquisition
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thing . " During the time , the team was also busy writing the second and third seasons of the series , the former of which Parker and Stone later described as " disastrous " . As such , they figured the phenomenon would be over soon , and they decided to write a personal , fully committed musical .
= = = Animation = = =
The animation in South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut was created in 3D using Alias | Wavefront ( now the Alias Systems Corporation ) PowerAnimator software , running on Silicon Graphics O2 and Octane workstations . Characters and individual scene elements were designed with both texture mapping and shading that , when rendered , resemble 2D paper cut @-@ out stop @-@ motion animation . The artists at South Park Studios ( at the time , called South Park Productions ) used a multiprocessor SGI Origin 2000 and 31 multiprocessor Origin 200 servers ( with 1 @.@ 14 terabytes of storage ) for both rendering and asset management . Backgrounds , characters and other items could be saved separately or as fully composited scenes , with speedy access later . " By creating flat characters and backgrounds in a 3D environment , we are able to add textures and lighting effects that give the film a cut @-@ out construction paper stop @-@ motion style which would have taken many more months if done traditionally , " said Gina Shay , line producer of the film . The animation team , beginning with season five , began using Maya instead of PowerAnimator . The studio now runs a 120 @-@ processor render farm that can produce 30 or more shots an hour . As the show 's visual quality has substantially improved in recent seasons , the animation of South Park : Bigger , Longer , & Uncut is a prime example of the show 's old , cruder , even more primitive animation style . In the audio commentary on the Blu @-@ ray reissue of the film , Stone and Parker take ample time to criticize how " bad and time consuming " the animation was during the era . IGN described the animation as " fall [ ing ] somewhere within the middle ground — not quite cardboard cutouts , but not quite fully computerized either . " Nate Boss , in a review of the Blu @-@ ray reissue for High @-@ Def Digest , commented , " There is no comparing the two , as the movie has a classic ( for South Park , at least ) animated feel , so full of the cut @-@ outs we have grown to love , while the newer seasons sport a more computer processed feel . " The film , unlike the television series ( at the time ) , was animated in widescreen ( 1 @.@ 78 : 1 ) . " Although the ' primitive ' animation of South Park is supposedly a joke , it 's really a secret weapon , " said Stephanie Zacharek of Salon . " The simplicity of Parker and Stone 's technique is what makes it so effective . "
= = = Editing and censorship = = =
The team working on the film commuted between the project and the series , pushing both to scheduling extremes ( changes to Bigger , Longer & Uncut were made as late as two weeks before its release ) and fighting constantly with Paramount . " They wanted a Disney kind of trailer . We said no . They put together a totally un @-@ South Park MTV video for the song ' What Would Brian Boitano Do ? ' . We had to go make our own version . " Paramount 's first trailer for the film advertised it , according to Parker , as " the laughiest movie of the summer " , and promoted it in a way that South Park is completely against . Parker and Stone told the studio of their dissatisfaction with the trailer , and upon the creation of a second trailer with minimal changes , the two broke the videocassette in half and sent it back in its original envelope . " It was war , " said Stone in 2000 . " They were saying , ' Are you telling us how to do our job ? ' And I was going , ' Yes , because you 're fucking stupid and you don 't know what you 're doing . ' " In another instance , Paramount took the songs from the film and created a music video to be aired on MTV . In accordance with broadcast standards , the studio cut various " R @-@ rated " parts out and edited it into what Parker described as a " horrible little medley " , with all humor absent . The studio sent the original tape to Parker and Stone over a weekend , with plans to send it to MTV on Monday to prepare it for airtime beginning Wednesday . Stone instead put the tape in the trunk of his car and went home . Paramount threatened to sue Parker and Stone in response . Parker also noted that the title was an obvious innuendo , and " they ( the MPAA ) just didn 't get it " .
= = Music = =
The musical score and songs featured in the film were composed and written by Parker and Marc Shaiman . The musical features 14 songs , each evoking a familiar Broadway style . The soundtrack also parodies many familiar Disney conventions , with several songs spoofing Disney musicals such as Beauty and the Beast and The Little Mermaid . The tracks " Mountain Town " brought comparisons to Oklahoma ! and the opening to Beauty and the Beast , and the " La Resistance " medley drew forth favorable Les Misérables comparisons . " I 'm Super " recalls Beauty and the Beast 's " Be Our Guest " and South Pacific 's Honey Bun and " Kyle 's Mom 's a Bitch " echoes Chitty Chitty Bang Bang , " Up There " , " I Can Change " and the " Mountain Town ( Reprise ) " recalls The Little Mermaid 's " Part of Your World " , " Poor Unfortunate Souls " and " Part of Your World ( Finale ) " , and " Uncle Fucka " is reminiscent of Oklahoma ! ( especially the ending ) . " Eyes of the Child " recalls pop versions of Disney songs played at the end credits like " Colors of the Wind " and " A Whole New World " and " Go The Distance " . The score received critical acclaim , with Entertainment Weekly claiming it is " a cast album that gleefully sends up all the Hollywood musical conventions we 're being deprived of . " The soundtrack was released June 15 , 1999 by Atlantic Records and Warner Music Group . " Blame Canada " was constantly highlighted as one of the best from the soundtrack and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song . " I was like , ' We 're going to get nominated for an Academy Award for this . ' I really was , " Parker said . " I even told him [ Shaiman ] . " The song takes place in the film when the United States blames Canada for corrupting its youth . " We 're making fun of people who pick ridiculous targets to blame anything about what 's going on in their lives , so Canada was just the perfect , ridiculous , innocuous choice for a target , " said Shaiman . In 2011 , Time called the music of the film the " finest , sassiest full @-@ movie musical score since the disbanding of the Freed unit at MGM . "
= = = Soundtrack = = =
= = = = Musical numbers = = = =
" Mountain Town " – Stan Marsh ( Trey Parker ) , Kenny McCormick ( Matt Stone ) , Kyle Broflovski ( Matt Stone ) , Eric Cartman ( Trey Parker ) , Sharon Marsh ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Sheila Broflovski ( Mary Kay Bergman )
" Uncle Fucka " – Terrance ( Matt Stone ) and Phillip ( Trey Parker )
" Wendy 's Song ( There 's the Girl That I Like ) " – Stan Marsh ( Trey Parker )
" It 's Easy , MMMKay " – Mr. Mackey ( Trey Parker ) , Stan ( Trey Parker ) , Cartman ( Trey Parker ) , Kyle ( Matt Stone ) , Gregory ( Howard McGillin ) , South Park Elementary Students
" Hell Isn ’ t Good " – D.V.D.A. featuring James Hetfield
" Blame Canada " – Sheila Broflovski ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Sharon Marsh ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Liane Cartman ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Carol McCormick ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Citizens of South Park
" Kyle 's Mom 's a Bitch " – Cartman ( Trey Parker ) , South Park Elementary Students
" What Would Brian Boitano Do ? " – Stan ( Trey Parker ) , Kyle ( Matt Stone ) , Cartman ( Trey Parker )
" Up There " – Satan ( Trey Parker ( and Michael McDonald on the high notes ) )
" La Resistance " – Gregory ( Howard McGillin ) , South Park Elementary Students , Shelia Broflovksi ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Soldiers ( Trey Parker and Matt Stone ) , Satan ( Trey Parker ) , Terrance ( Matt Stone ) , Phillip ( Trey Parker ) , Stan ( Trey Parker ) , Kyle ( Matt Stone ) , Cartman ( Trey Parker )
" I Can Change " – Saddam Hussein ( Matt Stone ) , Satan ( Trey Parker )
" I 'm Super " – Big Gay Al ( Trey Parker )
" The Mole 's Reprise " – Christophe le Mole ( Trey Parker ) , Kyle ( Matt Stone )
" Mountain Town ( Reprise ) " – Chef ( Issac Hayes ) , Stan ( Trey Parker ) , Kyle ( Matt Stone ) , Cartman ( Trey Parker ) , Sheila Broflovski ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Sharon Marsh ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Liane Cartman ( Mary Kay Bergman ) , Citizens of South Park
" What Would Brian Boitano Do ? Pt . II " – D.V.D.A
" Eyes of a Child " – Michael McDonald
= = Release = =
Paramount Pictures won a jump ball with Warner Bros. ( parent companies Viacom and Time Warner , respectively , jointly owned Comedy Central until Time Warner exited the venture in 2003 ) to release the film in the United States , with Warner Bros. getting the international rights . Viacom bought all of Comedy Central in 2004 , but Warner Bros. continued to distribute the film internationally .
The film was rated R for " pervasive vulgar language and crude sexual humor , and for some violent images " by the Motion Picture Association of America ; this rating did not come as surprise to most media outlets , as many had predicted long before that the film would likely be for ages 18 and over . However , there was much more discussion within the MPAA than initially reported in the media . The board 's objections to the film were described in highly specific terms by Paramount Pictures executives in private memos circulating at Paramount . For months the ratings board insisted on the more prohibitive NC @-@ 17 . South Park was screened by the MPAA six times — five times , the board returned the movie to Paramount with an NC @-@ 17 . The last submission the filmmakers received was an NC @-@ 17 , two weeks before release . A marketing agent from Paramount called the two and explained that the studio " needed " an R. In response , Stone called producer Scott Rudin and " freaked out . " Rudin then called a Paramount executive and , in Stone 's words , " freaked out on them . " The next day the film was changed to an R rating without reason , with the original film intact . " The ratings board only cared about the dirty words ; they 're so confused and arbitrary , " said Parker to The New York Times shortly before the release of the picture . " They didn 't blink twice because of violence . " During production of the trailer for the film , the raters objected to certain words but had no problem with a scene in which cartoon bullets are killing soldiers . " They had a problem with words , not bullets , " he said . The MPAA gave Paramount specific notes for the film ; in contrast , Parker and Stone 's NC @-@ 17 comedy Orgazmo , released in 1998 by Rogue Pictures , was not given any specifications on how to make the movie acceptable for an R rating . The duo attributed the R rating to the fact that Paramount is a member of the MPAA ; the distributor dismissed these claims . The film was given a 15 certificate by the British Board of Film Classification for " frequent coarse language and crude sexual references " with no cuts made . It was rated MA15 + ( Mature accompanied for those under 15 ) by the Australian Classification Board without cuts .
As predicted through the actions of the boys in the film , there were numerous news reports of underage South Park fans engaging in unsuccessful attempts to gain entrance to the film at theaters . There were reports of adolescents purchasing tickets for WB 's own Wild Wild West and instead sitting in to see South Park . This came as a result of a movie @-@ industry crackdown that would make it tougher for children to sneak into R @-@ rated films , as proposed by President Bill Clinton at the time in response to the moral panic generated by the Columbine High School massacre , which occurred two months before the film 's release . South Park was cited , along with American Pie , as an explicit film released in the summer of 1999 tempting teens to sneak into theaters . When the film was released in the United Kingdom in August 1999 , there were similar reports of the film drawing an underage crowd .
Hayes , voice of Chef in the film , responded to conservatives urging prudishness as a cure for society 's ills : " If we give in to that and allow [ entertainment ] to become a scapegoat , you might wind up living in who @-@ know 's @-@ what kind of state .... If you believe in [ your artistic vision ] and you 've got a moral conviction , take it to ' em ! " The rating of film later brought comparisons to Stanley Kubrick 's Eyes Wide Shut , released in theaters in a digitally altered and censored version just two weeks after South Park . Kubrick 's original cut was given an NC @-@ 17 rating , but Warner Bros. then blocked out characters in an orgy scene so the film could be rated R. In response to these debates and controversy , Stone called the MPAA a " bumbling , irresponsible organization " .
= = = Promotion = = =
The licensing arm of Paramount took the step of significantly expanding retail distribution beyond specialty stores ( Hot Topic , Spencer 's ) to big chains ( Target , J.C. Penney ) , which involved carefully stripping T @-@ shirts of racy slogans from the television show . Licensing industry observers credited Comedy Central with carving out a profitable niche in an industry dominated by powerful partnerships that link fast @-@ food chains and Hollywood movie studios , which was particularly tough for South Park , as no fast @-@ food chains wanted to ally themselves with the show 's racy content . Eventually , J.C. Penney ended the tie @-@ ins with the show in April 1999 as a result of customer complaints . On July 7 , 1999 , Parker and Stone appeared on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien to promote the film 's release . During the interview , Parker and Stone showed a clip of the film in which a caricature of O 'Brien , played by Brett Spiner , hands over Terrence and Phillip to the US government and jumps to his death from the set of Late Night . Upon seeing the clip , a bemused O 'Brien responded that his interns saw the film and thought it was " really funny " , but were annoyed that the Late Night set was portrayed as on the top floor of the GE Building , when it was really on the sixth floor . The film also suffered negative publicity before release . It was initially reported that on the day of the Columbine High School massacre , a friend of the killers was seen wearing a black T @-@ shirt depicting characters from South Park . Both Parker and Stone come from Colorado , and Stone went to Heritage High School , not far from Columbine High . He proceeded to take three days off from work following the shootings . " Nothing seemed funny after that , " he said . South Park was , at the time , generally waning in popularity : ratings dropped nearly 40 percent with the premiere of the series ' third season and , according to Entertainment Weekly , " it [ wasn 't ] the pop @-@ culture behemoth it was last year [ 1998 ] . " In response to the decline , Parker commented , " Suddenly we suck and we 're not cool anymore . The funny thing is , last year we were saying the same things and we were hip , fresh , and cute . Now they 're telling us we 're pushing 30 , we 're failures , and we 're sellouts . "
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD worldwide November 23 , 1999 , with a VHS release initially for rental services only , such as Blockbuster . A traditional retail VHS release followed on May 16 , 2000 . The DVD contained three theatrical trailers for special features , which many criticized as being typical of " bare @-@ bones " DVD releases . There is also a NTSC laserdisc version that was released on January 18 , 2000 ; copies are extremely rare . The film was re @-@ released on Blu @-@ ray on June 30 , 2009 in celebration of its decade @-@ long anniversary . The film 's 1080p AVC encode ( at 1 @.@ 78 : 1 ) was taken from the original film source as well with random audio sync issues , despite the fact the film was animated entirely digitally . IGN 's Scott Lowe explained , " Although clearly aged , South Park : Bigger , Longer , and Uncut looks great and is free of the washed out , compressed imperfections of previous standard definition releases of the film . " However , Michael Zupan of DVDTalk notes that an automatic digital scratch removal process may have inadvertently removed some intentional lines from the picture , notably during Cartman 's first scene with the V @-@ chip . The disc contained a full @-@ length audio commentary from Parker and Stone , as well as other crew members though most of them had no recollection of making the film due to heavy scheduling .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film has a " certified fresh " approval rating of 81 % with an average rating of 7 / 10 based on 94 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes ; the site 's consensus states : " Its jokes are profoundly bold and rude but incredibly funny at the same time . " It also has a 73 out of 100 rating based on 31 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " , at Metacritic . Rita Kempley of The Washington Post called the film " outrageously profane " and " wildly funny " , writing that " While censorship is the filmmakers ' main target [ … ] [ Parker and Stone 's ] favorite monster is the Motion Picture Association of America , self @-@ appointed guardians of the nation 's chastity . It 's all in good dirty fun and in service of their pro @-@ tolerance theme . " Stephen Holden of The New York Times heavily praised the film , regarding the film 's " self @-@ justifying moral " as " about mass entertainment , censorship and freedom of speech . " He also praised Cartman 's subjection to the V @-@ chip , which he called " the movie 's sharpest satirical twist , reminiscent of A Clockwork Orange " . Entertainment Weekly graded the film an A − and praised the film 's message in a post @-@ Columbine society , as well as Parker and Shaiman 's musical numbers , which " brilliantly parody / honor the conventions of Broadway show tunes and , especially , the Disney @-@ formula ditties that began with Alan Menken and Howard Ashman . " The Washington Post 's Michael O 'Sullivan neutrally regarded the offensive nature of the film , commenting " Yes , the lampooning is more broad than incisive , but under the bludgeoning of this blunt instrument very few sacred cows are left standing . " In a review that was later quoted on the film 's original home video cover , Richard Corliss from Time warned viewers " You may laugh yourself sick – as sick as this ruthlessly funny movie is . " Corliss would later name the film his fifth favorite animated film of all time . The film had its fair share of critical detractors , without noting the conservative family groups offended by the film 's humor . Jack Matthews of the Daily News suggested the film 's running time made Parker and Stone " run out of ideas " , while Roger Ebert stated that the " vicious social satire " of the film both " offended " and " amazed " him . Ebert called the film " the year 's most slashing political commentary " , but also said , " It is too long and runs out of steam , but it serves as a signpost for our troubled times . Just for the information it contains about the way we live now , thoughtful and concerned people should see it . After all , everyone else will . "
= = = Box office = = =
On a budget of $ 21 million , the film opened at No. 4 with a gross of $ 14 @,@ 783 @,@ 983 over the four @-@ day Independence Day weekend from 2 @,@ 128 theaters for an average of $ 6 @,@ 947 per theater ( $ 11 @,@ 090 @,@ 000 and an average of $ 5 @,@ 211 over three days ) and a total of $ 19 @,@ 637 @,@ 409 since its Wednesday launch . It ended up with a gross of $ 52 @,@ 037 @,@ 603 in the United States and Canada , with the 3 @-@ day opening making up 38 % of the final domestic gross . It made an additional $ 31 @.@ 1 million internationally for a total of $ 83 @,@ 137 @,@ 603 worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song for " Blame Canada " . When the time came to perform the track live at the ceremony , as is customary for the Academy Awards , it ran into trouble with ABC 's standards and practices department : censors demanded they write TV @-@ friendly lyrics . " It would be ironic to have to change the words in a movie about censorship , " remarked Shaiman . Censors were particularly unhappy with the use of the word " fuck " and allusions to the Ku Klux Klan . When Parker and Shaiman declined these requests , Robin Williams , a friend of Shaiman 's , sang the song with black tape over his mouth and turning his back when curse words were to be sung . Parker and Stone attended the ceremony in drag , wearing replicas of dresses previously worn at the Oscars by Gwyneth Paltrow and Jennifer Lopez . The two claimed years later that they took acid before the ceremony and were high while wearing the outfits . The song ended up losing to " You 'll Be in My Heart " , a Tarzan song by Phil Collins ( that film came from ABC parent Disney ) . In response , Parker and Stone ridiculed him in two consecutive episodes of the series ' fourth season ( " Cartman 's Silly Hate Crime 2000 " and " Timmy 2000 " ) . In DVD commentary , Parker states " we were fully expecting to lose , just not to Phil Collins " .
= = = = American Film Institute lists = = = =
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
Blame Canada – Nominated
AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals – Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Animated Film
= = = Lists and records = = =
The film has been nominated by the American Film Institute for their list of the Greatest American Musicals .
In 2000 , readers of Total Film magazine voted the film at No. 13 in the greatest comedy films of all time .
In 2001 , Terry Gilliam selected it as one of the ten best animated films of all time .
In 2006 , South Park finished fifth on the United Kingdom Channel 4 's " 50 Greatest Comedy Films " vote .
Readers of Empire Magazine , in a 2006 poll , voted it No. 166 in the greatest films of all time .
In 2008 , the film was included in Entertainment Weekly 's list of the " 25 Movie Sequels We 'd Line Up to See " and " The Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years " .
The film is No. 5 on Bravo 's 100 Funniest Movies .
IGN named it the sixth greatest animated film of all time in their Top 25 list .
In Guinness World Records 2001 , this film was said to have the most profanity used in an animated film . It contained a total of 399 swear words ( the word " fuck " was used 146 times ) , 199 offensive gestures and also contained 221 acts of violence .
= = Legacy = =
Jack Valenti , president of the MPAA , later said he regretted not giving the film an NC @-@ 17 rating . In response to the film 's controversy , the MPAA began backing up their ratings on print posters by posting reasons to explain them , beginning in 2000 . The film 's use of profanity gained it a Guinness World Record in their 2001 edition for " Most Swearing in an Animated Film " ( 399 profane words , including 146 uses of " fuck " ; 128 offensive gestures ; and 221 acts of violence — in effect , one every six seconds ) . In the song " Uncle Fucka " , the curse word " fuck " is said 31 times . The pop punk band Blink @-@ 182 would often end songs on their The Mark , Tom , and Travis Show Tour with lines from " Uncle Fucka " throughout 2000 . The lines can be heard on the band 's live album , The Mark , Tom , and Travis Show ( The Enema Strikes Back ! ) . While the real Hussein was on trial for genocide charges in 2006 , Matt Stone joked that the U.S. military was showing the movie repeatedly to the former dictator as a form of torture . Parker and Stone were also given a signed photo of Hussein by the American soldiers . In 2011 , Time called South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut the sixth greatest animated feature of all @-@ time .
= = Possible sequel = =
Parker and Stone said in a 2008 interview that a theatrically released sequel would most likely be what concludes the series .
In 2011 , when the official South Park website FAQ was asked whether a sequel would be made , it was responded with " the first South Park movie was so potent , we 're all still recovering from the blow . Unfortunately , at the current moment , there are no plans for a second South Park movie . But you never know what the future may bring , crazier things have happened ... "
In 2013 , Warner Bros. Entertainment relinquished to Paramount Pictures its rights to co @-@ finance a potential future South Park movie , as well as a future Friday the 13th sequel , during their negotiations to co @-@ finance the Christopher Nolan science fiction film Interstellar . Previous efforts to create a second South Park film were complicated due to both studios retaining certain rights to the property .
= Conrad I of Salzburg =
Conrad I [ of Abenberg ] ( German : Konrad von Abenberg , c . 1075 – 9 April 1147 ) was Archbishop of Salzburg , Austria , in the first half of the 12th century .
Born into the Abenberg @-@ Frensdorf nobility , Conrad was raised for a clerical career at the court of Emperor Henry IV , where he was a member of the court chapel . He became a canon in Hildesheim . After escorting Emperor Henry V in July 1110 , Conrad sided with the Pope in the Investiture Controversy , which eventually led to his exile for several years . He returned to Salzburg in 1121 and played an important role in the major political events of the day , including the election of Lothair of Supplinburg as King of Germany in 1125 and the papal schism of 1130 in which he played a role in the recognition of Pope Innocent II by the king .
During the absence of Lothair of Supplinburg in Italy , Conrad was ordained as the archbishop of Salzburg on 4 June 1133 . As a prince @-@ bishop , he was influential in German politics and was an extremely energetic reformer who is often called " the second founder of the Church of Salzburg . " He presided over an assembly that supervised the affairs of the religious houses , maintained strong control over tithes , and was responsible for building Salzburg Cathedral and the cemetery in 1140 . Conrad also supervised the construction of numerous other monasteries and the castles of Hohensalzburg , Werfen , and Friesach .
= = Early life and work = =
Conrad of Abenberg came from the family of the Counts of Abenberg @-@ Frensdorf , and had many distinguished relatives in Germany . He was born around 1075 , son of Count Wolfram I von Abenberg . His mother was probably the daughter of Heinrich I , viscount of Regensburg . Conrad had two older brothers , Otto and Wolfram . He was raised for a clerical career at the court of the Emperor Henry IV , where he was a member of the court chapel . He became a canon in Hildesheim .
= = Archbishop of Salzburg = =
= = = Military and political endeavors = = =
Conrad seems to have been involved when Henry V revolted against his father in 1105 . This would explain his election as Archbishop of Salzburg at the Diet of Mainz on 7 January 1106 . At that time the anti @-@ Archbishop Berthold von Moosburg was installed in Salzburg . Conrad came to Salzburg accompanied by his brothers , the counts Otto and Wolfram , with an escort of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers . Some of these soldiers may well have been servitors , servile rather than free vassals . With this display of force , he was able to force Berthold to abdicate . Pope Paschal II consecrated him as bishop on 21 October 1106 and gave him the pallium .
In July 1110 , Conrad accompanied Emperor Henry V to Italy . Conrad brought a strong military escort on this visit . However , Conrad sided with the Pope in the Investiture Controversy . Due to further conflicts with imperial officials , Conrad had to flee in 1112 and was not able to return to Salzburg until 1121 . While in exile , he lived in Tuscany , Admont in Styria , and Saxony .
Conrad played an important role in the major political events of the day , including the election of Lothair of Supplinburg as King of Germany in 1125 , whom he supported during the fight against the Hohenstaufen usurpation . During the papal schism of 1130 he played a role in the recognition of Pope Innocent II by the king . After this , tensions rose between Conrad and Lothair due to diverging views on church politics . Lothair visited Italy in 1132 @-@ 33 , and was crowned emperor by Innocent II on 4 June 1133 . In his absence , Conrad was ordained an archbishop . This directly infringed on the emperor 's right , recently confirmed by the Pope , to invest a bishop with his regalia before he was ordained . It earned a stern rebuke from Lothair .
When Lothair died , Conrad initially resisted the election of the Hohenstaufen Conrad III and supported Henry X , Duke of Bavaria instead . Conrad later came round to support the king .
= = = Reform and administration = = =
On his return from exile in 1121 or 1122 , Conrad found his diocese " very poor and greatly devastated . " Conrad worked with notables such as Hartmann von Brixen and Gerhoh von Reichersberg to reform the clergy in his archdiocese . In particular , he undertook a major reform of the cathedral clergy . Conrad presided over an assembly that supervised the affairs of the religious houses , including the cathedral , and used the canons to help administer his possessions . He maintained strong control over tithes , allocating them between the monasteries and parish priests to avoid disputes over their distribution . During his administration , clerics of servile origin steadily gained in status , now called ministerialis rather than servitor .
Conrad rebuilt and expanded Salzburg Cathedral and built the cathedral chapter house , and in 1140 he created the cathedral cemetery . He built hospitals for the poor of the city , and commenced construction of St. Peter 's monastery where his former residence stood , moving to a new archbishop 's residence nearer the cathedral . Conrad founded several monasteries and reformed others , a total of 17 in which the rule of the Augustinian Canons Regular prevailed . These included St. Zeno , Gurk , Reichersberg , Berchtesgaden , Baumburg , Gars am Inn , Au am Inn , Ranshofen , Höglwörth , Herrenchiemsee , Seckau and Suben . The archbishop supported the Benedictines .
During his exile , Duke Henry III of Eppenstein , brother of Ulrich I , patriarch of Aquileia ( r . 1086 – 1121 ) , had seized property belonging to the Salzburg diocese in Friuli and Carinthia . Conrad excommunicated him and sent a force of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers to Carinthia , forcing the duke to return the properties . Later , Conrad reached an agreement of " peace and friendship " ( pax et amicitia ) with the Patriarch Pellegrino I of Aquileia ( r . 1130 – 1161 ) whereby he agreed to pay tithes to Aquileia for those properties which the archdiocese held in the patriarchate . Conrad 's example was followed by pledges to pay their tithes from the others present when the agreement was reached .
Conrad completed construction of the castles of Hohensalzburg , Werfen , and Friesach , which Archbishop Gebhard had started to build in 1077 . In Styria , he reformed the military organization and administration of church properties , and built strong fortresses . For defense against Hungary , he built strongholds at Leibnitz ( Seggau ) and Pettau ( Ptuj ) , and Brestanica castle . He also expanded the Burg Deutschlandsberg castle at the center of the Salzburg possessions in western Styria . In 1131 , he made peace with King Béla II of Hungary , which was followed by a long period of stability in the border region .
Conrad died on 9 April 1147 in Lungau , Salzburg . An anonymous biography , known as the Vita Chuonradi archiepiscopi Salisburgensis , was composed in the 1170s . It portrays Conrad as a man of peace . His role in the royal elections of 1125 and 1138 place him among the leading German Prince @-@ bishops in the High Middle Ages . He earned the title of " second founder of the Salzburg church . "
= The Harrowing ( Inside No. 9 ) =
" The Harrowing " is the sixth and final episode of the first series of British dark comedy anthology series Inside No. 9 . It aired on 12 March 2014 on BBC Two . The episode was written by Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , and stars Shearsmith , Aimee @-@ Ffion Edwards , Helen McCrory , Poppy Rush and Sean Buckley . While comedic in places , " The Harrowing " makes extensive use of gothic horror elements transmuted into a modern context . The plot follows Katy ( Edwards ) , who has been hired to housesit for eccentric siblings Hector ( Shearsmith ) and Tabitha ( McCrory ) . They rarely leave the house , but have an event to attend . They tell Katy about their bedridden , disabled brother Andras ( Buckley ) , who cannot speak but will ring a bell if he needs assistance . Katy is joined by her friend Shell ( Rush ) once Hector and Tabitha leave , and , upon hearing Andras 's bell , the pair reluctantly head upstairs . The episode takes place in Hector and Tabitha 's mansion , which is kept deliberately cold and filled with paintings depicting Hell . The writers experimented with a variety of possible endings , hoping to make the episode 's close both interesting and scary .
Critics agreed that the episode was the most gothic and scary of the series , with journalists writing for The Sunday Times saying that " The Harrowing " would be best avoided by those of a nervous disposition . Critics writing in the Metro felt that the episode was a poor finale for the series , and that the episode 's ending was unsatisfying . By contrast , Alex Hoskins , writing for the Cheddar Valley Gazette , felt the episode 's ending was very strong , and Bruce Dessau described " The Harrowing " as an excellent end to the series . On an Empire Online list , " The Harrowing " , particularly its final scene , was selected as the 17th best TV moment of the year . The episode was watched by 833 @,@ 000 people on its first showing , which was 4 @.@ 7 % of the audience . Due in part to her appearance , Edwards was nominated for a " Daffta " award .
= = Production = =
Writers Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , who had previously worked together on The League of Gentlemen and Psychoville , took inspiration for Inside No. 9 from " David and Maureen " , episode 4 of the first series of Psychoville . This episode , in turn , was inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Rope . " David and Maureen " took place entirely in a single room , and was filmed in only two shots . At the same time , the concept of Inside No. 9 was a " reaction " to Psychoville , with Shearsmith saying that " We 'd been so involved with labyrinthine over @-@ arcing , we thought it would be nice to do six different stories with a complete new house of people each week . That 's appealing , because as a viewer you might not like this story , but you 've got a different one next week . " As an anthology series with horror themes , Inside No. 9 also pays homage to Tales of the Unexpected , The Twilight Zone and Alfred Hitchcock Presents .
As the format of Inside No. 9 requires new characters each week , the writers were able to attract actors who may have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . " The Harrowing " starred Aimee @-@ Ffion Edwards as Katy , Helen McCrory as Tabitha , Shearsmith as Hector , Poppy Rush as Shell and Sean Buckley as Andras . " The Harrowing " was the only episode in the series in which Pemberton did not star ; Shearsmith played a character in all but " Last Gasp " . Comedy critic Bruce Dessau noted that Shearsmith 's role was actually relatively minor , saying that the house was the real star .
Pemberton and Shearsmith are fans of classic horror films , and the episode displays inspiration from the likes of Alfred Hitchcock 's filmography and the Hammer Horror films . Pemberton called the episode the " most genre " of the series , while Shearsmith described it as their attempt to produce a " full on ... gothic horror @-@ esque " episode . The writers utilised the horror norm of a gothic mansion rather than bringing horror into a normal home . This route , Shearsmith suggested , has now become atypical . The setting allowed the writers to mix modern elements with traditional gothic horror , sometimes for comedic effect ( a reference to " something called broadbands " ) , and sometimes to add to the horror ( mobile phones cannot be used , as the characters are in a " dead zone " ) . While the writers did want the episode grounded in reality , they also wanted to make more use of gothic horror tropes than they had in other episodes of Inside No. 9 . " The Harrowing " was advertised with a poster homage to classic horror films . The poster was designed by Graham Humphreys , a graphic designer known for his work on horror film posters . The episode 's name was taken from the Harrowing of Hell , the story of Jesus Christ 's descent to Hell in Christian theology .
The character Katy is initially hired to babysit , though it turns out that there is no baby . Previous horror films , including When a Stranger Calls , have made use of a babysitter as a plot device , and an urban legend involves a babysitter downstairs with a threat upstairs . Both the viewer and the babysitter learn about the environment together , with both beginning in a position of ignorance . For Pemberton , the device works because the character has been moved from a safe environment into the unknown . In " The Harrowing " , he suggests , it is obvious that there is something in the bedroom . The writers experimented with different endings , in an attempt to make the bedroom 's contents interesting and genuinely scary .
= = Plot = =
Katy has been hired to take care of Hector and Tabitha 's mansion while the two go out for the evening . They usually never leave the house , but have a rare event to attend . Tabitha greets Katy at the door and explains that the house is always kept at − 3 ° C as Hector and Tabitha 's disabled brother , Andras , needs the air to be at this temperature . The paintings on the house 's walls depict the Harrowing of Hell . After meeting Hector , Katy is disturbed by Tabitha 's descriptions of Andras , who , it is claimed , does not have a mouth . He instead keeps a bell , which he never uses , beside his bed . Katy is told not to go upstairs .
Hector and Tabitha leave . Katy is spooked by the house , especially when she finds a stuffed cat on the sofa . She sees an old photograph of Hector , Tabitha and Andras as children , but Andras does not look disabled . Katy 's friend Shell arrives and plays with Hector 's stairlift , sending it upstairs . Katy warns Shell not to break anything , and is startled to see the now @-@ live cat . Katy tries to call her father so she can leave , but the house has no mobile phone signal and the house phone 's party line is tied up . As she prepares to leave , the stairlift returns downstairs and Andras 's bell rings . Katy is scared of going upstairs , but , at Shell 's insistence , the two go to check on him .
Katy and Shell explore and enter Hector 's bedroom , where they find a circle of salt around the bed . They hear the bell again and trace the sound to Andras 's room . When Katy opens the bed 's curtains , Andras 's deformed body is revealed ; he is tied to the bed and gagged . Katy goes to untie him , believing that Hector and Tabitha have kept him prisoner . Shell asks how Andras could have rung the bell if his hands were tied . Hector and Tabitha appear and show that it is they who rang the bell . They quote Dante 's Inferno and explain that Hell is cold , as the text says , so the house must be kept refrigerated for Andras . They say he was possessed at age ten by Castiel , demon of mischief , but Castiel needs a new human host every fifty years , and Andras is now dying . Katy was chosen as the next host after a mutual friend at Tabitha and Hector 's church recommended her to them . It is revealed that Shell also attends the church , and she helped them to lure Katy . Shell implies that the church 's members protect the earth from being overrun by demons .
Tabitha and Hector prepare to inject Katy with a sedative , but she fights back . She runs downstairs only to find that the door is locked . Shell arrives and says that Katy cannot escape . Shell says she wanted to be Castiel 's new human host , but she is too weak , whereas Katy has the strength of character needed to keep the demon contained . Shell injects Katy , who collapses . Upstairs , Hector strips Katy and ties her to a chair , while Tabitha feeds Andras his " last supper " : rusks and baby milk , the only food he can manage . Hector , Tabitha and Shell leave Katy
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was influenced by the opening title sequences of James Bond films , and Duff sports different looks inspired by the different eras of the Bond films . In a few European countries , " Fly " was released as the second single from Most Wanted on March 13 , 2006 . It charted and peaked at number 20 on the UK Singles Chart and number 13 on the Italian Singles Chart . A third single from the album was planned to be released , but due to Duff 's busy schedule and exhaustion from touring , it did not materialize . Instead , " Supergirl " was released as a download @-@ only single on February 28 , 2006 . " Wake Up " and " Supergirl " were also used in an advertisement campaign to promote Candie 's ' clothing line for young women in 2005 – 06 .
= = = Tour = = =
To promote the album , Duff embarked on a worldwide arena tour . Entitled the Still Most Wanted Tour , the tour — an extension of the Most Wanted Tour ( 2004 – 05 ) — began on July 12 , 2005 in Los Angeles , California at the Greek Theatre , with a United States leg . Following the end of the US leg in September , it visited Australia in December . Duff then made her Canadian touring debut in January 2006 , before heading off to Europe in April . She then visited Latin America , before closing the tour up with various dates in North America from June to September 2006 . The set list contained songs from Metamorphosis and Hilary Duff . Duff also premiered " Wake Up " , " Beat of My Heart " and " Break My Heart " on the tour .
= = Track listings = =
= = = North American editions = = =
= = = International editions = = =
Notes
^ a signifies a remixer
European editions of the album included " I Am " from Hilary Duff as a hidden track at the end of the Why Not Remix . In North America it is also included at the end of the Do You Want Me Sessions @ AOL at Target stores .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Most Wanted adapted from Allmusic .
= = Release history = =
= STRAT @-@ X =
STRAT @-@ X , or Strategic @-@ Experimental , was a U.S. government @-@ sponsored study conducted during 1966 and 1967 that comprehensively analyzed the potential future of the U.S. nuclear deterrent force . At the time , the Soviet Union was making significant strides in nuclear weapons delivery , and also constructing anti @-@ ballistic missile defenses to protect strategic facilities . To address a potential technological gap between the two superpowers , U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara entrusted the classified STRAT @-@ X study to the Institute for Defense Analyses , which compiled a twenty @-@ volume report in nine months . The report looked into more than one hundred different weapons systems , ultimately resulting in the MGM @-@ 134 Midgetman and LGM @-@ 118 Peacekeeper intercontinental ballistic missiles , the Ohio @-@ class submarines , and the Trident submarine @-@ launched ballistic missiles , among others . Journalists have regarded STRAT @-@ X as a major influence on the course of U.S. nuclear policy .
= = Background = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , reports received by U.S. intelligence agencies indicated that the Soviets were planning to deploy large numbers of highly accurate and powerful intercontinental ballistic missiles ( ICBMs ) . Later , the R @-@ 36 ICBM entered service . Possessing the greatest throw weight of any ICBM ever at 8 @.@ 8 tonnes ( 19 @,@ 000 lb ) , the R @-@ 36 was larger than the most modern ICBMs in the U.S. arsenal at the time . Due to its size , it was able to carry high @-@ yield warheads capable of destroying Minuteman hardened silos ( see Counterforce ) . This was considered a significant risk to American ICBMs and , as a result , to the United States ' nuclear defense strategy by reducing the United States ' ability to retaliate with nuclear weapons if attacked .
At the same time , the Soviets were designing and constructing increasingly sophisticated anti @-@ ballistic missile defense systems to protect strategically important facilities around Moscow , reducing the threat posed by American ICBMs . These developments compelled the U.S. Secretary of Defense , Robert McNamara , to commission a study to look into ways of improving the survivability of the U.S. nuclear arsenal .
According to Graham Spinardi in his book From Polaris to Trident ( 1994 ) , STRAT @-@ X was a response by the U.S. Department of Defense 's Deputy Director of Defense Research and Engineering , Lloyd Wilson , to the U.S. Air Force ; the service was demanding a large ICBM called the WS @-@ 120A . Spinardi suggests that STRAT @-@ X was allowed to proceed so it could terminate the study for such a missile . Funding for the WS @-@ 120A would not be released by Secretary McNamara , and plans for such a missile were canceled in 1967 .
= = Study = =
The study was named " STRAT @-@ X " in order not to reveal its intentions , and also to eliminate partiality towards sea- , air- or land @-@ based systems . It was conducted by the Research and Engineering Support Division of the independent and non @-@ profit Institute for Defense Analyses ( IDA ) , which had conducted a study in early 1966 titled " Pen @-@ X " , upon which STRAT @-@ X was based . STRAT @-@ X was chaired by President of the IDA , General Maxwell D. Taylor , while the institution 's Fred Payne presided over STRAT @-@ X 's " working " panel . The panel also included executives from major independent corporations and defense contractors such as Boeing , Booz Allen Hamilton , Thiokol and TRW . The Advisory Committee members were mostly military officers , including U.S. Navy Rear Admirals George H. Miller and Levering Smith .
On 1 November 1966 , McNamara signed an order authorizing STRAT @-@ X , officially initiating the study . During STRAT @-@ X , the working panel was " encouraged to examine system concepts unrestrained by considerations of potential management problems or political influences . " The Secretary wanted new ideas about " path @-@ breaking " weapons systems that were either offensive or defensive in nature , unhindered by defense bureaucracy , which had the potential to stifle innovation . Sea- , land- and air @-@ based missile systems were investigated , but manned bombers and orbital systems were not . The group was also asked to consider the cost effectiveness of all systems , as well to predict possible Soviet responses . To meet this requirement , a series of documents were written from the perspective of the Soviet Minister of Defense General Andrei Grechko , complete with anti @-@ capitalistic statements and a prediction of the eventual triumph of socialism . In the end , a twenty @-@ volume report covered no fewer than 125 different ideas for missile systems , nine of which were reviewed in great detail .
= = = Findings and consequences = = =
Of the nine prospective weapons systems , five were land @-@ based . These were : " Rock Silo " — a system where missiles would be stored in hardened silos of granite bedrock in the Western and Northern United States ; " Soft Silo " — a similar system but with easily and cheaply constructed silos ; " Rock Tunnel " — a system where missiles would be transported around in deep underground networks before emerging at launch points ; " Soft Tunnel " — a similar tunnel but built more cheaply and easily ; and " Land Mobile " — a truck @-@ based system where road @-@ transporters traveled at speeds up to 35 miles per hour ( 56 km / h ) constantly around a dedicated and winding road system in 65 @,@ 000 square miles ( 170 @,@ 000 km2 ) of public land .
Of the remaining four , three were sea @-@ based . These were : " Canal @-@ Based " — a systems where missiles would be sailed in canals to confuse Soviet military planners ; " Ship @-@ Based " — a system where ships carrying missile canisters would travel around the world , hiding among other traffic ; and " Submarine @-@ Based " — a system where ballistic missile submarines would roam the oceans while carrying missile canisters outside their pressure hulls . The single air @-@ based based consideration was the " Air Launched ICBM " , which required large aircraft carrying standoff ballistic missiles to launch their payloads at the Soviet Union .
Despite the numerous options investigated during the study , none were fully implemented . Although the STRAT @-@ X " Land Mobile " option resulted in the MGM @-@ 134 Midgetman and LGM @-@ 118 Peacekeeper missiles , the fall of communism throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s resulted in the Midgetman being canceled while still a prototype , while only 50 out of the original 100 Peacekeeper missiles were ever fielded . Nevertheless , the study did inspire a number of developments in nuclear weapons delivery systems . In October 1974 , the U.S. Air Force successfully conducted an air launch of a Minuteman missile from a C @-@ 5 Galaxy , demonstrating the credibility of the " Air Launched ICBM " option of STRAT @-@ X.
Although the U.S. Navy then had several classes of ballistic missile submarines and submarine @-@ launched ballistic missile ( SLBM ) in service , the study placed a significant emphasis on the survivability of SLBMs . This resulted in the enormous Ohio @-@ class submarine and the Trident SLBMs which the Ohio class carried . The study originally called for dedicated slow @-@ moving missile @-@ carrying submarines ( instead of converted attack submarines ) to embark missiles outside their hulls and rely primarily on stealth for survivability . However , Admiral Hyman Rickover , director of the Naval Reactors office , wanted a boat capable of a burst of high speed in order to affect a safe " getaway " after launching the boat 's payload . As a result , the Ohio class was designed to accommodate enormous nuclear reactors to produce the required speed . Ohio @-@ class submarines carry their missiles inside of their hulls , despite STRAT @-@ X 's recommendation . Ohio @-@ class submarines and Trident missiles are still in service as of 2016 .
Weapons systems inspired by STRAT @-@ X
= = Legacy = =
STRAT @-@ X had far @-@ reaching effects on the development and deployment of U.S. nuclear forces . It was the first time that the strategic requirements of the U.S. Armed Forces were addressed in a detailed and analytical manner . In a 2002 report by the RAND Corporation , STRAT @-@ X was described as " one of the most influential analyses ever conducted " for the U.S. Department of Defense . Journalist Peter Grier , in his Air Force magazine article " STRAT @-@ X " , described the study as " a wide @-@ ranging look at the future of U.S. weapons that shaped the nuclear triad for decades , and remains a model for such efforts today " . In 2006 , the Defense Science Board ( DFS ) noted STRAT @-@ X 's introduction of ideas and concepts that resulted in the Ohio @-@ class submarines and small and mobile ICBMs . The DFS also attributed the use of air @-@ launched cruise missiles , particularly those carried by the B @-@ 52 Stratofortress , to STRAT @-@ X despite their lack of references in the study .
= Ron Saggers =
Ronald Arthur Saggers ( 15 May 1917 – 17 March 1987 ) was an Australian cricketer who played for New South Wales . He played briefly for the Australian team , playing six Tests between 1948 and 1950 . In his Test cricket career he made 24 dismissals ( 16 catches and 8 stumpings ) and scored 30 runs at an average of 10 @.@ 00 .
As a wicket @-@ keeper , Saggers was " tidy and unobtrusive " , and the understudy to Don Tallon on the 1948 Australian tour of England . The touring party , led by Donald Bradman in his last season , was nicknamed The Invincibles and was widely regarded as one of the strongest ever . Saggers played in the Test match at Headingley , where he took three catches , and his only other experience of Test cricket was on the tour to South Africa in 1949 – 50 , in which Tallon did not take part . Saggers played in all five Tests and took 21 dismissals , but Tallon replaced him for the home Ashes series against England the following season .
In domestic cricket , Saggers twice captained New South Wales in 1948 when the regular captain , Arthur Morris , was playing for Australia , and overall played domestic cricket from 1939 until 1951 .
= = Domestic career = =
Saggers was born in the Sydney suburb of Marrickville in 1917 . He married Margaret Heather ( née Rankin ) in Annandale in 1941 . Outside cricket , Saggers worked in the insurance industry .
= = = Early career = = =
Saggers played twice for the New South Wales Colts team against Queensland Colts in 1937 , before making his first @-@ class debut against South Australia at the Sydney Cricket Ground half way through the season in January 1940 . Selected as a specialist batsman — future Services player Stan Sismey kept wicket — Saggers made 45 and 57 batting at number six in his debut match , and went on to make two more first @-@ class appearances before the end of the season , ending with 208 runs at an average of 34 @.@ 66 and three catches behind the stumps .
His first full season from 1940 – 1941 saw him play in eight matches , scoring 413 runs with the bat at 29 @.@ 50 and passing fifty runs in an innings twice . His first match was away against Queensland where he scored 22 and 45 , making three stumpings , taking one catch and performing one run out , followed by scores of one and 33 in the home match , together with two stumpings . He scored 35 and four at home against Victoria , and then 45 in the second innings of the away match . On 22 November 1940 , barely a year into Saggers ' career , New South Wales faced a combined Queensland @-@ Victoria team at Brisbane . Saggers scored 58 as his team reached 429 in response to the oppositions 202 all out . In the Queensland @-@ Victoria team 's second innings , where they reached 416 , Saggers equalled the world record for most dismissals in an innings , taking seven catches . Saggers then went on to score 47 against South Australia , and 68 against Queensland on 1 January 1941 . In his final match before the outbreak of World War II , Saggers scored 63 runs against South Australia . He ended the season with 18 catches with the gloves and 13 stumpings .
= = = World War II = = =
Between 1941 and 1942 , Saggers ' career was interrupted when he enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) on 6 December 1941 at Sydney . He served at the Elementary Flight School as Leading Aircraftman RA Saggers 421043 , until his discharge on 29 July 1942 , Saggers did not return to domestic cricket in Australia until 1945 , however . In the 1945 – 1946 season , he played in seven matches , scoring 168 runs at 21 @.@ 00 and taking 12 catches and five stumpings . He then suffered a drop in form with the bat ; in 1946 – 1947 he scored only 176 runs at 17 @.@ 60 from eight matches . However , he remained effective as a wicket @-@ keeper with 16 catches and seven stumpings . His batting form returned in 1947 – 1948 , scoring 298 runs from 10 matches at 27 @.@ 09 , reaching the 90s for the first time . He also enjoyed a very successful season with the gloves , a career high of 21 catches and four stumpings .
= = = Return = = =
Saggers was in stronger form following his tour to England . On 10 December 1948 , Saggers , included in AL Hassett 's XI for Test trial matches and benefits , as well as continuing his career at New South Wales , scored 38 for the latter against Queensland . At the same time , he aided Jack Moroney in his own comeback to cricket at New South Wales by suggesting he subtract three years from his age when he submitted his registration form . Overall in the 1948 – 1949 season he scored 300 runs from nine matches , his highest season total , at 25 @.@ 00 , and taking 21 catches and six stumpings . Following the South Africa tour of 1949 – 1950 he returned to Australia again for one final season from 1950 – 1951 , however played only one match , scoring five runs and taking two catches . Through his entire first @-@ class career of 77 appearances from 1939 until 1951 , he was to make one century in a tour match against Essex and eight half @-@ centuries for New South Wales , ending with 1 @,@ 888 runs at an average of 23 @.@ 89 , together with 146 catches and 75 stumpings .
= = International career = =
= = = The Invincibles = = =
Saggers accompanied the 1948 Ashes tour to England as the reserve wicket @-@ keeper behind the first choice , Tallon . In the first County match against Leicestershire he scored six and took two catches , and against Cambridge University he made two stumpings and took one catch . He then played in the match against Essex where Australia reached 721 runs . Saggers made his highest first @-@ class score , 104 not out — the only first @-@ class century of his career — in a partnership of 166 runs in 65 minutes with Sam Loxton . Loxton , along with Bill Brown and Donald Bradman , also scored centuries . He then faced Oxford University , scoring six runs and taking one catch , followed by 22 and a stumping at Lancashire , 17 and another stumping at Hampshire , 22 against Yorkshire , 12 and four stumpings against Surrey , and three more stumpings against Gloucestershire .
Saggers ' Test debut took place at Headingley on 22 July 1948 during the Fourth Test of the Invincibles Ashes tour of England . England made 496 runs in their first innings , with Saggers taking catches to remove Denis Compton for 23 and Jim Laker for four . Australia replied with 458 , however Saggers was stumped by England 's wicket @-@ keeper Godfrey Evans off the bowling of Laker for only five runs . England 's second innings reached 365 with Saggers taking one catch to secure the wicket of Ken Cranston . However , an innings of 182 runs from Arthur Morris and 173 not out from Bradman meant that Saggers was not required to bat again in the second innings ; Australia defeating England by seven wickets . Saggers did not play in the remaining international matches of the 1948 Ashes series , and he ended the tour with 209 runs at an average of 23 @.@ 22 , including a career high score of 104 not out against Essex , 23 catches and 20 stumpings , also career records . In his book , Farewell to cricket , Bradman said of Saggers following the tour , " [ he ] had not quite the speed or agility of Tallon but could always be relied on for a solid performance . A most polished and unostentatious player . "
= = = South Africa = = =
Saggers ' next Test came in the 1949 tour of South Africa , where he was Australia 's first choice wicket @-@ keeper for all five Test matches . In light of the successful 1948 tour of England , Saggers commented " give me South Africa now , but I wouldn 't care to insure her future at double the rate I 'd insure Australia 's . " In the first warm up match against Natal Saggers scored 17 and took four catches , and in the second against North Eastern Transvaal he took one catch and made two stumpings , but was not needed to bat in either innings . He made 32 runs with three stumpings and three catches against the South African XI , made two stumpings but did not bat against the Orange Free State , and then scored one and nought not out against the Transvaal .
The first Test match of the tour , on 24 December 1949 at Johannesburg , saw him score 14 runs in the first innings before falling leg before wicket ( LBW ) to Cuan McCarthy , and taking three catches as South Africa were forced to follow on , Australia winning by an innings and 85 runs . In the Second Test at Cape Town , Saggers did get a chance to bat , with Australia declaring for 526 before he had the opportunity in the first innings . South Africa were forced to follow @-@ on ( bat twice in a row ) and were defeated by eight wickets . He did , however , complete three stumpings in South Africa 's first innings off the bowling of Colin McCool , along with four catches in the match . He also took two catches and completed one stumping in the Third Test , and made two runs in the first innings , though he did not bat in the second as Australia won by five wickets . The Fourth Test , again in Johannesburg , saw Saggers score five not out in the first innings and , though not being required to bat in the second innings as the match ended in a draw , taking two catches .
The Fifth Test was played at the Crusaders Ground at St. George 's Park in Port Elizabeth on 3 March to 6 March 1950 . Scoring four not out in the first innings , Saggers took two catches and completed four stumpings as South Africa were bowled out for 158 and 132 chasing Australia 's first innings 549 . With this innings and 259 run victory , Australia won the test series 4 – 0 , however Saggers would not play for his national team again upon the return of Tallon . Saggers was caught once , stumped once and out leg before wicket once but was never bowled in his international career . He ended his final year as an international player with 111 runs in first @-@ class cricket overall at 13 @.@ 87 , taking 30 catches and 20 stumpings , both of which were the highest he attained in one calendar year . He was replaced again by Tallon , however his form in turn declined and he was replaced by Gil Langley for the 1952 series against the West Indies . He retired from first class cricket in 1951 , and died in Harbord , New South Wales in 1987 .
= = Test match performance = =
= Mir =
Mir ( Russian : Мир , IPA : [ ˈmʲir ] ; lit. peace or world ) was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001 , run by the Soviet Union and later by Russia . Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996 . It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft . At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit , succeeded by the International Space Station after Mir 's orbit decayed . The station served as a microgravity research laboratory in which crews conducted experiments in biology , human biology , physics , astronomy , meteorology and spacecraft systems with a goal of developing technologies required for permanent occupation of space .
Mir was the first continuously inhabited long @-@ term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3 @,@ 644 days until 23 October 2010 when it was surpassed by the ISS . It holds the record for the longest single human spaceflight , with Valeri Polyakov spending 437 days and 18 hours on the station between 1994 and 1995 . Mir was occupied for a total of twelve and a half years out of its fifteen @-@ year lifespan , having the capacity to support a resident crew of three , or larger crews for short visits .
Following the success of the Salyut programme , Mir represented the next stage in the Soviet Union 's space station programme . The first module of the station , known as the core module or base block , was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules . Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the docking module , which was installed by space shuttle mission STS @-@ 74 in 1995 . When complete , the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components . Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules . The station was maintained at an orbit between 296 km ( 184 mi ) and 421 km ( 262 mi ) altitude and traveled at an average speed of 27 @,@ 700 km / h ( 17 @,@ 200 mph ) , completing 15 @.@ 7 orbits per day .
The station was launched as part of the Soviet Union 's manned spaceflight programme effort to maintain a long @-@ term research outpost in space , and following the collapse of the USSR , was operated by the new Russian Federal Space Agency ( RKA ) . As a result , most of the station ' occupants were Soviet ; however , through international collaborations such as the Intercosmos , Euromir and Shuttle @-@ Mir programmes , the station was made accessible to space travelers from several Asian , European and North American nations . Mir was deorbited in March 2001 after funding was cut off . The cost of the Mir programme was estimated by former RKA General Director Yuri Koptev in 2001 as $ 4 @.@ 2 billion over its lifetime ( including development , assembly and orbital operation ) .
= = Origins = =
Mir was authorized on a 17 February 1976 decree , to design an improved model of the Salyut DOS @-@ 17K space stations . Four Salyut space stations had been launched since 1971 , with three more being launched during Mir 's development . It was planned that the station 's core module ( DOS @-@ 7 and the backup DOS @-@ 8 ) would be equipped with a total of four docking ports ; two at either end of the station as with the Salyut stations , and an additional two ports on either side of a docking sphere at the front of the station to enable further modules to expand the station 's capabilities . By August 1978 , this had evolved to the final configuration of one aft port and five ports in a spherical compartment at the forward end of the station .
It was originally planned that the ports would connect to 7 @.@ 5 @-@ tonne ( 8 @.@ 3 @-@ short @-@ ton ) modules derived from the Soyuz spacecraft . These modules would have used a Soyuz propulsion module , as in Soyuz and Progress , and the descent and orbital modules would have been replaced with a long laboratory module . However , following a February 1979 governmental resolution , the programme was consolidated with Vladimir Chelomei 's manned Almaz military space station programme . The docking ports were reinforced to accommodate 20 @-@ tonne ( 22 @-@ short @-@ ton ) space station modules based on the TKS spacecraft . NPO Energia was responsible for the overall space station , with work subcontracted to KB Salyut , due to ongoing work on the Energia rocket and Salyut 7 , Soyuz @-@ T , and Progress spacecraft . KB Salyut began work in 1979 , and drawings were released in 1982 and 1983 . New systems incorporated into the station included the Salyut 5B digital flight control computer and gyrodyne flywheels ( taken from Almaz ) , Kurs automatic rendezvous system , Luch satellite communications system , Elektron oxygen generators , and Vozdukh carbon dioxide scrubbers .
By early 1984 , work on Mir had halted while all resources were being put into the Buran programme in order to prepare the Buran spacecraft for flight testing . Funding resumed in early 1984 when Valentin Glushko was ordered by the Central Committee 's Secretary for Space and Defence to orbit Mir by early 1986 , in time for the 27th Communist Party Congress .
It was clear that the planned processing flow could not be followed and still meet the 1986 launch date . It was decided on Cosmonaut 's Day ( 12 April ) 1985 to ship the flight model of the base block to the Baikonur cosmodrome and conduct the systems testing and integration there . The module arrived at the launch site on 6 May , with 1100 of 2500 cables requiring rework based on the results of tests to the ground test model at Khrunichev . In October , the base block was rolled outside its cleanroom to carry out communications tests . The first launch attempt on 16 February 1986 was scrubbed when the spacecraft communications failed , but the second launch attempt , on 19 February 1986 at 21 : 28 : 23 UTC , was successful , meeting the political deadline .
= = Station structure = =
= = = Assembly = = =
The orbital assembly of Mir began on February 19 , 1986 with the launch of the Proton @-@ K rocket . Four of the six modules which were later added ( Kvant @-@ 2 in 1989 , Kristall in 1990 , Spektr in 1995 and Priroda in 1996 ) followed the same sequence to be added to the main Mir complex . Firstly , the module would be launched independently on its own Proton @-@ K and chase the station automatically . It would then dock to the forward docking port on the core module 's docking node , then extend its Lyappa arm to mate with a fixture on the node 's exterior . The arm would then lift the module away from the forward docking port and rotate it on to the radial port where it was to mate , before lowering it to dock . The node was equipped with only two Konus drogues , however , which were required for dockings . This meant that , prior to the arrival of each new module , the node would have to be depressurised to allow spacewalking cosmonauts to manually relocate the drogue to the next port to be occupied .
The other two expansion modules , Kvant @-@ 1 in 1987 and the docking module in 1995 , followed different procedures . Kvant @-@ 1 , having , unlike the four modules mentioned above , no engines of its own , was launched attached to a tug based on the TKS spacecraft which delivered the module to the aft end of the core module instead of the docking node . Once hard docking had been achieved , the tug undocked and deorbited itself . The docking module , meanwhile , was launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis during STS @-@ 74 and mated to the orbiter 's Orbiter Docking System . Atlantis then docked , via the module , to Kristall , then left the module behind when it undocked later in the mission . Various other external components , including three truss structures , several experiments and other unpressurised elements were also mounted to the exterior of the station by cosmonauts conducting a total of eighty spacewalks over the course of the station 's history .
The station 's assembly marked the beginning of the third generation of space station design , being the first to consist of more than one primary spacecraft ( thus opening a new era in space architecture ) . First generation stations such as Salyut 1 and Skylab had monolithic designs , consisting of one module with no resupply capability , whilst the second generation stations Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 comprised a monolithic station with two ports to allow consumables to be replenished by cargo spacecraft such as Progress . The capability of Mir to be expanded with add @-@ on modules meant that each could be designed with a specific purpose in mind ( for instance , the core module functioned largely as living quarters ) , thus eliminating the need to install all the station 's equipment in one module .
= = = Pressurised modules = = =
In its completed configuration , the space station consisted of seven different modules , each launched into orbit separately over a period of ten years by either Proton @-@ K rockets or Space Shuttle Atlantis .
= = = Unpressurised elements = = =
In addition to the pressurised modules , Mir featured several external components . The largest component was the Sofora girder , a large scaffolding @-@ like structure consisting of 20 segments which , when assembled , projected 14 metres from its mount on Kvant @-@ 1 . A self @-@ contained thruster block , the VDU , was mounted on the end of Sofora and was used to augment the roll @-@ control thrusters on the core module . The VDU 's increased distance from Mir 's axis allowed an 85 % decrease in fuel consumption , reducing the amount of propellant required to orient the station . A second girder , Rapana , was mounted aft of Sofora on Kvant @-@ 1 . This girder , a small prototype of a structure intended to be used on Mir @-@ 2 to hold large parabolic dishes away from the main station structure , was 5 metres long and used as a mounting point for externally mounted exposure experiments .
To assist in moving objects around the exterior of the station during EVAs , Mir featured two Strela cargo cranes mounted to the sides of the core module , used for moving spacewalking cosmonauts and parts . The cranes consisted of telescopic poles assembled in sections which measured around 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 6 ft ) when collapsed , but when extended using a hand crank were 14 metres ( 46 ft ) long , meaning that all of the station 's modules could easily be accessed during spacewalks .
Each module was fitted with a number of external components specific to the experiments that were carried out within that module , the most obvious being the Travers antenna mounted to Priroda . This synthetic aperture radar consisted of a large dish @-@ like framework mounted outside the module , with associated equipment within , used for Earth observations experiments , as was most of the other equipment on Priroda , including various radiometers and scan platforms . Kvant @-@ 2 also featured a number of scan platforms and was fitted with a mounting bracket to which the cosmonaut manoeuvring unit , or Ikar , was mated . This backpack was designed to assist cosmonauts in moving around the station and the planned Buran in a manner similar to the U.S. Manned Maneuvering Unit , but it was only used once , during EO @-@ 5 .
In addition to module @-@ specific equipment , Kvant @-@ 2 , Kristall , Spektr and Priroda were each equipped with one Lyappa arm , a robotic arm which , after the module had docked to the core module 's forward port , grappled one of two fixtures positioned on the core module 's docking node . The arriving module 's docking probe was then retracted , and the arm raised the module so that it could be pivoted 90 ° for docking to one of the four radial docking ports .
= = = Power supply = = =
Photovoltaic ( PV ) arrays powered Mir . The station used a 28 volt DC supply which provided 5- , 10- , 20- and 50 @-@ amp taps . When the station was illuminated by sunlight , several solar arrays mounted on the pressurised modules provided power to Mir 's systems and charged the nickel @-@ cadmium storage batteries installed throughout the station . The arrays rotated in only one degree of freedom over a 180 ° arc , and tracked the sun using sun sensors and motors installed in the array mounts . The station itself also had to be oriented to ensure optimum illumination of the arrays . When the station 's all @-@ sky sensor detected that Mir had entered Earth 's shadow , the arrays were rotated to the optimum angle predicted for reacquiring the sun once the station passed out of the shadow . The batteries , each of 60 Ah capacity , were then used to power the station until the arrays recovered their maximum output on the day side of Earth .
The solar arrays themselves were launched and installed over a period of eleven years , more slowly than originally planned , with the station continually suffering from a shortage of power as a result . The first two arrays , each 38 m2 ( 409 ft2 ) in area , were launched on the core module , and together provided a total of 9 kW of power . A third , dorsal panel was launched on Kvant @-@ 1 and mounted on the core module in 1987 , providing a further 2 kW from a 22 m2 ( 237 ft2 ) area . Kvant @-@ 2 , launched in 1989 , provided two 10 m ( 32 @.@ 8 ft ) long panels which supplied 3 @.@ 5 kW each , whilst Kristall was launched with two collapsible , 15 m ( 49 @.@ 2 ft ) long arrays ( providing 4 kW each ) which were intended to be moved to Kvant @-@ 1 and installed on mounts which were attached during a spacewalk by the EO @-@ 8 crew in 1991 .
This relocation was not begun , however , until 1995 , when the panels were retracted and the left panel installed on Kvant @-@ 1 . By this time all the arrays had degraded and were supplying much less power . To rectify this , Spektr ( launched in 1995 ) , which had initially been designed to carry two arrays , was modified to hold four , providing a total of 126 m2 ( 1360 ft2 ) of array with a 16 kW supply . Two further arrays were flown to the station on board the Space Shuttle Atlantis during STS @-@ 74 , carried on the docking module . The first of these , the Mir cooperative solar array , consisted of American photovoltaic cells mounted on a Russian frame . It was installed on the unoccupied mount on Kvant @-@ 1 in May 1996 and was connected to the socket that had previously been occupied by the core module 's dorsal panel , which was by this point barely supplying 1 kW . The other panel , originally intended to be launched on Priroda , replaced the Kristall panel on Kvant @-@ 1 in November 1997 , completing the station 's electrical system .
Total power supply by solar arrays , had the older ones not been degraded , would have been 42 kW by 1997 .
= = = Orbit control = = =
Mir was maintained in a near circular orbit with an average perigee of 354 km ( 220 mi ) and an average apogee of 374 km ( 232 mi ) , travelling at an average speed of 27 @,@ 700 km / h ( 17 @,@ 200 mph ) and completing 15 @.@ 7 orbits per day . As the station constantly lost altitude because of a slight atmospheric drag , it needed to be boosted to a higher altitude several times each year . This boost was generally performed by Progress resupply vessels , although during the Shuttle @-@ Mir programme the task was performed by U.S. Space Shuttles , and , prior to the arrival of Kvant @-@ 1 , the engines on the core module could also accomplish the task .
The attitude ( orientation ) of the station was independently determined by a set of externally mounted sun , star and horizon sensors . Attitude information was conveyed between updates by rate sensors . Attitude control was maintained by a combination of two mechanisms ; in order to hold a set attitude , a system of twelve control moment gyroscopes ( CMGs , or " gyrodynes " ) rotating at 10 @,@ 000 rpm kept the station oriented , six CMGs being located in each of the Kvant @-@ 1 and Kvant @-@ 2 modules . When the attitude of the station needed to be changed , the gyrodynes were disengaged , thrusters ( including those mounted directly to the modules , and the VDU thruster used for roll control mounted to the Sofora girder ) were used to attain the new attitude and the CMGs were reengaged . This was done fairly regularly depending on experimental needs ; for instance , Earth or astronomical observations required that the instrument recording images be continuously aimed at the target , and so the station was oriented to make this possible . Conversely , materials processing experiments required the minimisation of movement on board the station , and so Mir would be oriented in a gravity gradient attitude for stability . Prior to the arrival of the modules containing these gyrodynes , the station 's attitude was controlled using thrusters located on the core module alone , and , in an emergency , the thrusters on docked Soyuz spacecraft could be used to maintain the station 's orientation .
= = = Communications = = =
Radio communications provided telemetry and scientific data links between Mir and the RKA Mission Control Centre ( TsUP ) . Radio links were also used during rendezvous and docking procedures and for audio and video communication between crew members , flight controllers and family members . As a result , Mir was equipped with a number of communication systems used for different purposes . The station communicated directly with the ground via the Lira antenna mounted to the core module . The Lira antenna also had the capability to use the Luch data relay satellite system ( which fell into disrepair in the 1990s ) and the network of Soviet tracking ships deployed in various locations around the world ( which also became unavailable in the 1990s ) . UHF radio was used by cosmonauts conducting EVAs . UHF was also employed by other spacecraft that docked to or undocked from the station , such as Soyuz , Progress , and the Space Shuttle , in order to receive commands from the TsUP and Mir crew members via the TORU system .
= = = Microgravity = = =
At Mir 's orbital altitude , the force of Earth 's gravity was 88 % of sea level gravity . While the constant free fall of the station offered a perceived sensation of weightlessness , the onboard environment was not one of weightlessness or zero gravity . The environment was , however , often described as microgravity . This state of perceived weightlessness was not perfect , however , being disturbed by five separate effects :
The drag resulting from the residual atmosphere ;
Vibratory acceleration caused by mechanical systems and the crew on the station ;
Orbital corrections by the on @-@ board gyroscopes ( which spun at 10 @,@ 000 rpm , producing vibrations of 166 @.@ 67 Hz ) or thrusters ;
Tidal forces . Any parts of Mir not at exactly the same distance from Earth tended to follow separate orbits . However , as each point was physically part of the station , this was impossible , and so each component was subject to small accelerations from tidal forces ;
The differences in orbital plane between different locations on the station .
= = = Life support = = =
Mir 's Environmental Control and Life Support System ( ECLSS ) provided or controlled atmospheric pressure , fire detection , oxygen levels , waste management and water supply . The highest priority for the ECLSS was the station 's atmosphere , but the system also collected , processed , and stored waste and water produced and used by the crew — a process that recycles fluid from the sink , toilet , and condensation from the air . The Elektron system generated oxygen . Bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation ( SFOG ) canisters , a system known as Vika , provided backup . Carbon dioxide was removed from the air by the Vozdukh system . Other byproducts of human metabolism , such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat , were removed by activated charcoal filters . Similar systems are presently used on the International Space Station .
The atmosphere on Mir was similar to Earth 's . Normal air pressure on the station was 101 @.@ 3 kPa ( 14 @.@ 7 psi ) ; the same as at sea level on Earth . An Earth @-@ like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort , and is much safer than the alternative , a pure oxygen atmosphere , because of increased fire risk such as occurred with Apollo 1 .
= = International cooperation = =
= = = Intercosmos = = =
Intercosmos ( " ИнтерКосмос " Interkosmos ) was a Soviet Union space exploration programme which allowed members from the military forces of allied Warsaw Pact countries to participate in manned and unmanned space exploration missions . Participation was also made available to governments of countries , such as France and India .
Only the last three of the programme 's fourteen missions consisted of an expedition to Mir but none resulted in an extended stay in the station :
Muhammed Faris - EP @-@ 1 ( 1987 ) Syria
Aleksandr Panayatov Aleksandrov - EP @-@ 2 ( 1988 ) Bulgaria
Abdul Ahad Mohmand - EP @-@ 3 ( 1988 ) Afghanistan
= = = European involvement = = =
Various European astronauts visited Mir as part of several cooperative programmes :
Jean @-@ Loup Chrétien - Aragatz ( 1988 ) France
Helen Sharman - Project Juno ( 1991 ) UK
Franz Viehböck - Austromir ' 91 ( 1991 ) Austria
Klaus @-@ Dietrich Flade - Mir ' 92 ( 1992 ) Germany
Michel Tognini - Antarès ( 1992 ) France
Jean @-@ Pierre Haigneré - Altair ( 1993 ) France
Ulf Merbold - Euromir ' 94 ( 1994 ) Germany
Thomas Reiter - Euromir ' 95 ( 1995 ) Germany
Claudie Haigneré - Cassiopée ( 1996 ) France
Reinhold Ewald - Mir ' 97 ( 1997 ) Germany
Léopold Eyharts - Pégase ( 1998 ) France
Ivan Bella - Stefanik ( 1999 ) Slovakia
= = = Shuttle – Mir programme = = =
In the early 1980s , NASA planned to launch a modular space station called Freedom as a counterpart to Mir , while the Soviets were planning to construct Mir @-@ 2 in the 1990s as a replacement for the station . Because of budget and design constraints , Freedom never progressed past mock @-@ ups and minor component tests and , with the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Space Race , the project was nearly cancelled entirely by the United States House of Representatives . The post @-@ Soviet economic chaos in Russia also led to the cancellation of Mir @-@ 2 , though only after its base block , DOS @-@ 8 , had been constructed . Similar budgetary difficulties were faced by other nations with space station projects , which prompted the U.S. government to negotiate with European states , Russia , Japan , and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative project . In June 1992 , American president George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin agreed to cooperate on space exploration . The resulting Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes called for a short joint space programme with one American astronaut deployed to the Russian space station Mir and two Russian cosmonauts deployed to a Space Shuttle .
In September 1993 , U.S. Vice President Al Gore , Jr . , and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station , which eventually became the International Space Station . They also agreed , in preparation of this new project , that the United States would be heavily involved in the Mir programme as part of an international project known as the Shuttle – Mir Programme . The project , sometimes called " Phase One " , was intended to allow the United States to learn from Russian experience in long @-@ duration spaceflight and to foster a spirit of cooperation between the two nations and their space agencies , the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) and the Russian Federal Space Agency ( Roskosmos ) . The project prepared the way for further cooperative space ventures , specifically , " Phase Two " of the joint project , the construction of the International Space Station ( ISS ) . The programme was announced in 1993 ; the first mission started in 1994 , and the project continued until its scheduled completion in 1998 . Eleven Space Shuttle missions , a joint Soyuz flight , and almost 1000 cumulative days in space for U.S. astronauts occurred over the course of seven long @-@ duration expeditions .
= = = Other visitors = = =
Toyohiro Akiyama - Kosmoreporter ( 1990 ) Japan
A British con artist , Peter Rodney Llewellyn , almost visited Mir in 1999 on a private contract after promising US $ 100 million for the privilege .
= = Life on board = =
Inside , the 130 @-@ tonne ( 140 @-@ short @-@ ton ) Mir resembled a cramped labyrinth , crowded with hoses , cables and scientific instruments — as well as articles of everyday life , such as photos , children 's drawings , books and a guitar . It commonly housed three crew members , but was capable of supporting as many as six for up to a month . The station was designed to remain in orbit for around five years , but ended up remaining in orbit for fifteen . As a result , NASA astronaut John Blaha reported that , with the exception of Priroda and Spektr , which were added later into the station 's life , Mir did look used , which is to be expected given it had been lived in for ten to eleven years without being brought home and cleaned .
= = = Crew schedule = = =
The time zone used on board Mir was Moscow Time ( UTC + 03 ) . The windows were covered during night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experienced 16 sunrises and sunsets a day . A typical day for the crew began with a wake @-@ up at 08 : 00 , followed by two hours of personal hygiene and breakfast . Work was conducted from 10 : 00 until 13 : 00 , followed by an hour of exercise and an hour 's lunch break . Three more hours of work and another hour of exercise followed lunch , and the crews began preparing for their evening meal at about 19 : 00 . The cosmonauts were free to do as they wished in the evening , and largely worked to their own pace during the day .
In their spare time , crews were able to catch up with work , observe the Earth below , respond to letters , drawings and other items brought from Earth ( and give them an official stamp to show they had been aboard Mir ) , or make use of the station 's ham radio . Two amateur radio call signs , U1MIR and U2MIR , were assigned to Mir in the late 1980s , allowing amateur radio operators on Earth to communicate with the cosmonauts . The station was also equipped with a supply of books and films for the crew to read and watch .
NASA astronaut Jerry Linenger related how life on board Mir was structured and lived according to the detailed itineraries provided by ground control . Every second on board was accounted for and all activities were timetabled . After working some time on Mir , Linenger came to feel that the order in which his activities were allocated did not represent the most logical or efficient order possible for these activities . He decided to perform his tasks in an order that he felt enabled him to work more efficiently , be less fatigued , and suffer less from stress . Linenger noted that his comrades on Mir did not " improvise " in this way , and as a medical doctor he observed the effects of stress on his comrades that he believed was the outcome of following an itinerary without making modifications to it . Despite this , however , he commented that his comrades performed all their tasks in a supremely professional manner .
Astronaut Shannon Lucid , who set the record for longest stay in space by a woman while aboard Mir ( surpassed by Sunita Williams 11 years later on the ISS ) , also commented about working aboard Mir saying " I think going to work on a daily basis on Mir is very similar to going to work on a daily basis on an outstation in Antarctica . The big difference with going to work here is the isolation , because you really are isolated . You don 't have a lot of support from the ground . You really are on your own . "
= = = Exercise = = =
The most significant adverse effects of long @-@ term weightlessness are muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton , or spaceflight osteopenia . Other significant effects include fluid redistribution , a slowing of the cardiovascular system , decreased production of red blood cells , balance disorders , and a weakening of the immune system . Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass , nasal congestion , sleep disturbance , excess flatulence , and puffiness of the face . These effects begin to reverse quickly upon return to the Earth .
To prevent some of these effects , the station was equipped with two treadmills ( in the core module and Kvant @-@ 2 ) and a stationary bicycle ( in the core module ) ; each cosmonaut was to cycle the equivalent of 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) and run the equivalent of 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) per day . Cosmonauts used bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill . Researchers believe that exercise is a good countermeasure for the bone and muscle density loss that occurs in low @-@ gravity situations .
= = = Hygiene = = =
There were two space toilets ( ASUs ) on Mir , located in the core module and Kvant @-@ 2 . They used a fan @-@ driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle Waste Collection System . The user is first fastened to the toilet seat , which was equipped with spring @-@ loaded restraining bars to ensure a good seal . A lever operated a powerful fan and a suction hole slid open : the air stream carried the waste away . Solid waste was collected in individual bags which were stored in an aluminium container . Full containers were transferred to Progress spacecraft for disposal . Liquid waste was evacuated by a hose connected to the front of the toilet , with anatomically appropriate " urine funnel adapters " attached to the tube so both men and women could use the same toilet . Waste was collected and transferred to the Water Recovery System , where it was recycled back into drinking water , although this was usually used to produce oxygen via the Elektron system .
Mir featured a shower , the Bania , located in Kvant @-@ 2 . It was an improvement on the units installed in previous Salyut stations , but proved difficult to use due to the time required to set up , use , and stow . The shower , which featured a plastic curtain and fan to collect water via an airflow , was later converted into a steam room , eventually having its plumbing removed and the space was reused . When the shower was unavailable , crew members washed using wet wipes , with soap dispensed from a toothpaste tube @-@ like container , or using a washbasin equipped with a plastic hood , located in the core module . Crews were also provided with rinse @-@ less shampoo and edible toothpaste to save water .
On a 1998 visit to Mir , bacteria and larger organisms were found to have proliferated in water globules formed from moisture that had condensed behind service panels .
= = = Sleeping in space = = =
The station provided two permanent crew quarters , the Kayutkas , phonebox @-@ sized booths set towards the rear of the core module , each featuring a tethered sleeping bag , a fold @-@ out desk , a porthole , and storage for personal effects . Visiting crews had no allocated sleep module , instead attaching a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall ; U.S. astronauts installed themselves within Spektr until a collision with a Progress spacecraft caused the depressurization of that module . It was important that crew accommodations be well ventilated ; otherwise , astronauts could wake up oxygen @-@ deprived and gasping for air , because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide had formed around their heads .
= = = Food and drink = = =
Most of the food eaten by station crews was frozen , refrigerated or canned . Menus were prepared by the cosmonauts , with the help of a dietitian , before their flight to the station . The diet was designed to provide around 100 g of protein , 130 g of fat and 330 g of carbohydrates per day , in addition to appropriate mineral and vitamin supplements . Meals were spaced out through the day to aid assimilation . Canned food such as jellied beef tongue was placed into a niche in the core module 's table , where it could be warmed in 5 – 10 minutes . Usually , crews drank tea , coffee and fruit juices , but , unlike the ISS , the station also had a supply of cognac and vodka for special occasions .
= = = Microbiological environmental hazards = = =
In the 1990s samples of extremophile molds were taken from Mir . Ninety species of micro @-@ organisms were found in 1990 , four years after the station 's launch . By the time of its decommission in 2001 , the number of known different micro @-@ organisms had grown to 140 . As space stations get older , the problems with contamination get worse . Molds that develop aboard space stations can produce acids that degrade metal , glass and rubber . The molds in Mir were found growing behind panels and inside air @-@ conditioning equipment . The molds also caused bad smell , which was often cited as visitors ' strongest impressions .
Some biologists were concerned about the mutant fungi being a major microbiological hazard for humans , and reaching Earth in the splashdown , after having been in an isolated environment for 15 years .
= = Station operations = =
= = = Expeditions = = =
Mir was visited by a total of 28 long @-@ duration or " principal " crews , each of which was given a sequential expedition number formatted as EO @-@ X. Expeditions varied in length ( from the 72 @-@ day flight of the crew of EO @-@ 28 to the 437 @-@ day flight of Valeri Polyakov ) , but generally lasted around six months . Principal expedition crews consisted of two or three crew members , who often launched as part of one expedition but returned with another ( Polyakov launched with EO @-@ 14 and landed with EO @-@ 17 ) . The principal expeditions were often supplemented with visiting crews who remained on the station during the week @-@ long handover period between one crew and the next before returning with the departing crew , the station 's life support system being able to support a crew of up to six for short periods . The station was occupied for a total of four distinct periods ; 12 March – 16 July 1986 ( EO @-@ 1 ) , 5 February 1987 – 27 April 1989 ( EO @-@ 2 – EO @-@ 4 ) , the record @-@ breaking run from 5 September 1989 – 28 August 1999 ( EO @-@ 5 – EO @-@ 27 ) , and 4 April – 16 June 2000 ( EO @-@ 28 ) . By the end , it had been visited by 104 different people from twelve different nations , making it the most visited spacecraft in history ( a record later surpassed by the International Space Station ) .
= = = = Early existence = = = =
Due to the pressure to launch the station on schedule , mission planners were left without Soyuz spacecraft or modules to launch to the station at first . It was decided to launch Soyuz T @-@ 15 on a dual mission to both Mir and Salyut 7 .
Leonid Kizim and Vladimir Solovyov first docked with Mir on 15 March 1986 . During their nearly 51 @-@ day stay on Mir , they brought the station online and checked its systems . They unloaded two Progress spacecraft launched after their arrival , Progress 25 and Progress 26 .
On 5 May 1986 , they undocked from Mir for a day @-@ long journey to Salyut 7 . They spent 51 days there and gathered 400 kg of scientific material from Salyut 7 for return to Mir . While Soyuz T @-@ 15 was at Salyut 7 , the unmanned Soyuz TM @-@ 1 arrived at the unoccupied Mir and remained for 9 days , testing the new Soyuz TM model . Soyuz T @-@ 15 redocked with Mir on 26 June and delivered the experiments and 20 instruments , including a multichannel spectrometer . The EO @-@ 1 crew spent their last 20 days on Mir conducting Earth observations before returning to Earth on 16 July 1986 , leaving the new station unoccupied .
The second expedition to Mir , EO @-@ 2 , launched on Soyuz TM @-@ 2 on 5 February 1987 . During their stay , the Kvant @-@ 1 module , launched on 30 March 1987 , arrived . It was the first experimental version of a planned series of ' 37K ' modules scheduled to be launched to Mir on Buran . Kvant @-@ 1 was originally planned to dock with Salyut 7 ; however , due to technical problems during its development , it was reassigned to Mir . The module carried the first set of six gyroscopes for attitude control . The module also carried instruments for X @-@ ray and ultraviolet astrophysical observations .
The initial rendezvous of the Kvant @-@ 1 module with Mir on 5 April 1987 was troubled by the failure of the onboard control system . After the failure of the second attempt to dock , the resident cosmonauts , Yuri Romanenko and Aleksandr Laveykin , conducted an EVA to fix the problem . They found a trash bag which had been left in orbit after the departure of one of the previous cargo ships and was now located between the module and the station , which prevented the docking . After removing the bag , docking was completed on 12 April .
The Soyuz TM @-@ 2 launch was the beginning of a string of 6 Soyuz launches and three long @-@ duration crews between 5 February 1987 and 27 April 1989 . This period also saw the first international visitors , Muhammed Faris ( Syria ) , Abdul Ahad Mohmand ( Afghanistan ) and Jean @-@ Loup Chrétien ( France ) . With the departure of EO @-@ 4 on Soyuz TM @-@ 7 on 27 April 1989 the station was again left unoccupied .
= = = = Third start = = = =
The launch of Soyuz TM @-@ 8 on 5 September 1989 marked the beginning of the longest human presence in space , until 23 October 2010 , when this record was surpassed by the ISS . It also marked the beginning of Mir 's second expansion . The Kvant @-@ 2 and Kristall modules were now ready for launch . Alexander Viktorenko and Aleksandr Serebrov docked with Mir and brought the station out of its five @-@ month hibernation . On 29 September the cosmonauts installed equipment in the docking system in preparation for the arrival of Kvant @-@ 2 , the first of the 20 tonne add @-@ on modules based on the TKS spacecraft from the Almaz programme .
After a 40 @-@ day delay caused by faulty computer chips , Kvant @-@ 2 was launched on 26 November 1989 . After problems deploying the craft 's solar array and with the automated docking systems on both Kvant @-@ 2 and Mir , the new module was docked manually on 6 December . Kvant @-@ 2 added a second set of gyrodines to Mir , and brought the new life support systems for recycling water and generating oxygen , reducing dependence on ground resupply . The module featured a large airlock with a one @-@ metre hatch . A special backpack unit ( known as Ikar ) , an equivalent of the U.S. Manned Maneuvering Unit , was located inside Kvant @-@ 2 's airlock .
Soyuz TM @-@ 9 launched EO @-@ 6 crew members Anatoly Solovyev and Aleksandr Balandin on 11 February 1990 . While docking , the EO @-@ 5 crew noted that three thermal blankets on the ferry were loose , potentially creating problems on reentry , but it was decided that they would be manageable . Their stay on board Mir saw the addition of the Kristall module , launched 31 May 1990 . The first docking attempt on 6 June was aborted due to an attitude control thruster failure . Kristall arrived at the front port on 10 June and was relocated to the lateral port opposite Kvant @-@ 2 the next day , restoring
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of wartime RAAF commanders considered suitable for further senior roles , Charlesworth retained his rank of air commodore following the cessation of hostilities . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1946 King 's Birthday Honours for his " conspicuous service in operations against the Japanese " while leading North @-@ Western Area Command . The same year , he relinquished command of North @-@ Western Area and briefly took charge of Eastern Area Command . He was then posted to Britain to undertake a course at the RAF School of Air Support . Returning to Australia , he became the inaugural Commandant of the School of Land / Air Warfare at Laverton in April 1947 . The school transferred to RAAF Station Williamtown , New South Wales , the following year . Charlesworth took overall command of Williamtown in 1949 . In June that year , he succeeded fellow Duntroon graduate Air Commodore John McCauley as Chief of Staff to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) in Japan .
Charlesworth 's workload at BCOF increased considerably with the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 and the need to supply the RAAF 's contribution to the conflict , chiefly No. 77 Squadron . In October , following the death in combat of Squadron Leader Lou Spence , Charlesworth temporarily transferred from Tokyo to Iwakuni so that he could administer No. 77 Squadron and its ancillaries until No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing was formed to take over the task . Upon his return to Australia in June 1951 , he was promoted to acting air vice marshal and appointed AOC Southern Area , headquartered in Albert Park , Melbourne . Towards the end of his tenure , the RAAF 's wartime area command system was transformed into a structure based on function rather than geography . As a result , Southern Area was re @-@ formed as Training Command in October 1953 . In 1954 he returned to the UK to command RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London .
= = Later life = =
Completing his term in London , Charlesworth retired from the Air Force on 31 December 1955 , and was made an honorary air vice marshal the following year . He was then appointed a technical advisor to the committee organising the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne . In 1958 – 59 , he served as Director of Recruiting Combined Services , and later became a judge 's associate with the Supreme Court of Victoria . In retirement he made his home in Glen Iris , Victoria , where he died on 21 September 1978 . Survived by his wife and daughter , he was accorded an Air Force funeral and cremated .
= Leon S. Kennedy =
Leon Scott Kennedy ( レオン ・ S ・ ケネディ , Reon Sukotto Kenedi ) is a fictional character in the Resident Evil horror media franchise by Capcom . He debuted as one of the two playable protagonists of the video game Resident Evil 2 . Leon later returned as the main protagonist of Resident Evil 4 and as one of the six protagonists in Resident Evil 6 . The character was met with positive critical reception .
During the events of Resident Evil 2 , Leon is a rookie police officer who arrives in the doomed Raccoon City late for his first day on the job , only to confront a zombie outbreak first @-@ hand . During the course of the game , he teams up with civilian survivor Claire Redfield , rescues the young Sherry Birkin , and is aided by the mysterious Ada Wong . Six years later , in Resident Evil 4 , Leon returns as a secret agent for the U.S. federal government assigned to rescue the president 's daughter from a sinister cult . In Resident Evil 6 , he continues to work for the U.S. government and reunites with Ada and a grown @-@ up Sherry .
Leon also appears as a player character in several other video games , and has a leading role in two CG animated films : Resident Evil : Degeneration in 2008 and Resident Evil : Damnation in 2012 , in which he is a special agent for the government . The version of Leon in the live @-@ action film series is portrayed by Johann Urb in Resident Evil : Retribution .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
Leon debuted in Resident Evil 2 ( 1998 ) , as one of the game 's two protagonists alongside Claire Redfield . In the story , he is a police officer on his first day who arrives in the Midwestern United States town of Raccoon City just after a viral outbreak started . He meets Claire by chance as she is chased by zombies created by the T @-@ virus . Together , they flee towards the Raccoon City Police Department building but soon get separated and go on their own ways . They eventually meet again at the Umbrella Corporation underground research complex responsible for the viral outbreak . Along the way , Leon teams @-@ up with Ada Wong , a mysterious woman eventually revealed as a spy seeking a sample of the even more powerful G @-@ virus . During the final confrontation against the seemingly unstoppable T @-@ 103 Tyrant that constantly pursues the characters , Ada tosses Leon ( or Claire , depending on the scenario ) a rocket launcher to destroy the creature . In the end , Leon faces and kills the grotesquely mutated Umbrella scientist William Birkin , and escapes from the self @-@ destructing facility along with Claire and Birkin 's young daughter Sherry .
An epilogue obtained after completing Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis reveals that Leon later joined the U.S. federal government . In Resident Evil Code : Veronica ( 2000 ) , Claire contacts Leon to relay information to her brother Chris while stuck on Rockfort Island . Resident Evil : The Darkside Chronicles ( 2009 ) features re @-@ imaginings of Resident Evil 2 and Resident Evil : Code Veronica ; it also contains a new scenario set in 2002 that involves Leon and the soldier Jack Krauser on a mission to search for Javier Hidalgo , an ex @-@ drug lord who had been reported to do business with Umbrella .
Leon is the protagonist of Resident Evil 4 ( 2005 ) . In 2004 , he is a special agent assigned to rescue the U.S. president 's daughter Ashley Graham who is being held somewhere in Europe . Her kidnappers turn out to be part of an evil cult known as Los Illuminados , which has taken control of local villagers using parasites known as Las Plagas . As Leon searches for Ashley , he is captured and injected with the parasite . With help from Ada and the Illuminados researcher Luis Sera , Leon is able to remove Las Plagas from his body and to rescue Ashley while confronting the cult . At the climax of the game , Leon kills the cult leader Osmund Saddler , but is forced to give a Plagas sample to Ada , who escapes in a helicopter , leaving Leon and Ashley to escape on a watercraft .
Leon is one of the protagonists in Resident Evil 6 ( 2012 ) , alongside Chris Redfield and Jake Muller . While the game has four player characters with different storylines , Leon was described as the " main main character " . In the game , he escapes from Tall Oaks , another American town overrun by zombies following a bioterrorist attack that killed the new U.S. president Adam Benford . Leon teams up with fellow survivor and President Benford 's bodyguard , the Secret Service agent Helena Harper , to expose the conspiracy that led to the incident . In the later parts of the game , Leon reunites with a grown @-@ up Sherry Birkin , who has become an operative for the U.S. government 's Division of Security Operations , and the once again returning Ada Wong , and works to save the world from a global outbreak .
Leon also appears in several non @-@ canonical games in the series . He stars alongside Barry Burton in the Game Boy Color @-@ only Resident Evil Gaiden ( 2001 ) . Along with Claire , Leon is one of two playable characters in the browser and mobile game Resident Evil : Zombie Busters . In the third @-@ person shooter Resident Evil : Operation Raccoon City ( 2012 ) revisiting the Raccoon City incident , the players control Umbrella operatives sent to kill any survivors , and certain actions can lead to Leon 's death . He is also a player character in the " Heroes " mode of this game .
= = = In films = = =
Leon teams up with Claire Redfield in the 2008 computer @-@ animated film Resident Evil : Degeneration in order to stop another outbreak of the T @-@ virus on American soil . He returns in the sequel to Degeneration , Resident Evil : Damnation , where he is sent to investigate the use of the T @-@ virus during a civil war in Eastern Europe . Unlike the live @-@ action film series , the animated films are canonically set in the same universe as the game series , serving as the prequels to Resident Evil 5 and Resident Evil 6 , respectively . Another computer @-@ animated film starring Leon S. Kennedy , Chris Redfield and Rebecca Chambers is slated for 2017 .
In the live @-@ action film Resident Evil : Apocalypse ( 2004 ) , a newspaper clipping during the credits stated that Leon was killed due to the actions of his partner Jill Valentine . However , in an interview , director Paul W. S. Anderson said that , if Resident Evil : Afterlife succeeds , he would do a fifth film and would like Leon to make an appearance in it . Leon then appeared as a major character in Resident Evil : Retribution ( 2012 ) , " poised to rumble with Bad Rain and the defected Jill Valentine " . The live @-@ action version of Leon is leader of a mercenary group working for Wesker who teams up with the film 's version of Ada to fight Umbrella , save Alice and rescue Jill . At the end of the film , he is one of the characters to survive . He is set to return in the sixth film , Resident Evil : The Final Chapter .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Leon is featured in the 1998 @-@ 1999 manhua Shēnghuà Wēijī 2 ( " Biological Crisis 2 " ) . A romantic comedy retelling of the story of Resident Evil 2 , centered on Leon , Claire and Ada , was released in the Taiwanese two @-@ issue comic Èlíng Gǔbǎo II in 1999 . Leon is also a character in the Image Comics comic book Resident Evil , and in the novels Resident Evil : City of the Dead and Resident Evil : Underworld by S. D. Perry . He is set to appear in the crossover video game Project X Zone 2 .
In 2004 , Capcom announced a series of outfits based on Leon 's clothing , called " Leon 's Collection " . Other Leon merchandise include two action figures by Hot Toys , three action figures by NECA , and more from several other manufacturers , including by Palisades Toys , ToyBiz , and Capcom itself . At Halloween Horror Nights 2013 held at Universal Orlando , Leon was featured as one of two main characters in a haunted house called " Resident Evil : Escape from Raccoon City " , based on Resident Evil 2 and Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis .
= = Design and portrayal = =
Leon was created by Hideki Kamiya as a contrast to Chris Redfield from the original Resident Evil , who he felt was the " blunt , tough @-@ guy type " . Though Kamiya admitted that while he was a fan of characters like Chris , as it had already been done , he opted to take Leon 's development in a different direction . He was surprised at how popular Leon had become , praising his later evolution into a " cool looking guy " for Resident Evil 4 and adding that he " fell in love all over again " . Leon was created for Resident Evil 2 as the staff wanted to use a character who had no experience with terrifying situations in contrast to using returning protagonists . While he was originally designed as a veteran police officer , he was changed to a rookie after the original version of Resident Evil 2 ( popularly known as " Resident Evil 1 @.@ 5 " ) had been scrapped . Leon 's design was inspired by the bloodhound of Capcom artist Isao Ohishi .
Leon was announced as Resident Evil 4 's protagonist in November 2002 . As the game was developed , it was intended that Leon would be infected with the Progenitor virus . This concept was expanded upon in 2004 , when Leon was meant to contract a bizarre disease in his fight against the game 's enemies . In a documentary explaining the conception of the game 's characters , it was stated that Leon was intended to " look tougher , but also cool " . His face in Resident Evil 4 was modeled after the game 's animation department director Christian Duerre .
During development of Resident Evil : Degeneration , producer Hiroyuki Kobayashi stated that he would like to make another game starring Leon as the main character . Resident Evil 5 's producer Jun Takeuchi said that the series ' fans " would really love " a video game featuring both Leon and Chris as the protagonists due to their popularity , and at the same time , it would be " pretty dramatic " if the two characters never met before the series would end . Resident Evil 6 's producer Kobayashi took a liking to Leon and decided to include him in the game since " he is central to the story " .
Leon is voiced by Paul Haddad in Resident Evil 2 , by Paul Mercier in Resident Evil 4 , Resident Evil : Degeneration and Resident Evil : The Darkside Chronicles , and by Matthew Mercer in Resident Evil 6 and Resident Evil : Damnation . Mercer described himself as a fan and friend of Mercier and said that he felt honored to take over as the voice of Leon . In an interview , he also detailed his interpretation of Leon and talked about the changes being made to the character . In the Resident Evil 2 commercial directed by George A. Romero , Leon was portrayed by Brad Renfro .
About Johann Urb 's casting in Resident Evil : Retribution , the film 's producer and director Paul W. S. Anderson said , " You have no idea how difficult it is to find someone with Leon Kennedy 's hair [ who ] has to be manly and has to have these long bangs , " adding that " if you put photographs of them side @-@ by @-@ side , it 's almost like he was manufactured by Capcom . " Anderson said that the decision to include Leon and other game characters in the film was " fan @-@ driven " . Urb mentioned that he learned the video game Leon 's mannerisms from watching clips posted on YouTube , commenting that " he doesn 't have a high @-@ pitched voice . I feel like he talks how I naturally talk , which is kind of slower . " Speaking about the relationship between Leon and Ada , Urb said : " It 's kind of like Mulder and Scully and an X @-@ Files type of deal , where you 're waiting for it to happen , but it never does . Maybe in the next one , I 'm hoping . "
= = Reception = =
Since his appearance in Resident Evil 2 , Leon has had a positive reception . In 2010 , Nintendo Power listed him as their 14th favorite Nintendo gaming hero , stating that he went from a " glorified meter maid with a bad haircut " to a tough guy . In 2009 , GameSpot chose him as one of the 64 characters to compete in their poll for the title " All Time Greatest Game Hero " . In a 2010 Famitsu poll , Leon was voted by readers as the 31st most popular video game character in Japan . In the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition from 2011 , he was voted as the 36th best video game character . In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked him as the 11th most " influential and badass " hero in video games . Empire also included Leon on their list of the 50 greatest video game characters , ranking him 44th .
IGN has featured Leon on the list of things they would like to see in Resident Evil 6 , calling him one of the two main characters of the series along with Chris Redfield , and describing him in the article about the best zombie fighters as the " straight @-@ laced hero " of Resident Evil . The IGN character guide made another comparison between Chris and Leon , calling the latter the " determined guy clawing his way up the ladder " . Gameplanet 's Aylon Herbet wrote that if both Leon and Chris would share starring roles in a Resident Evil game it would be " awesome " , believing both of them to be the main protagonists of the series . In 2010 , GameDaily predicted that Leon , along with Claire Redfield , would be the protagonist of the next main Resident Evil title , citing the series ' pattern of alternating protagonists and Leon 's last such appearance in Resident Evil 4 . In 2013 , GamesRadar staff included Leon among the 30 best characters in the three decades of Capcom 's history , stating that " he ’ s been battling Chris Redfield for the top spot as resident Resident Evil lead , but to us there ’ s no contest between the cool , fashionable Leon and the bullish Chris . "
IGN also repeatedly named him a character they wished to see in the crossover fighting series Super Smash Bros. , describing him an " intimidating hero " , a " unique breed of ass kicker " and one of the best things to happen to the Resident Evil series . GamesRadar described Leon 's Resident Evil 4 design as " David Bowie piloting the Memphis Belle " , stating that , while it was appealing , the hairstyle required modifications for encounters in the games . In 2010 , Game Informer chose Leon as one of the 20 Capcom characters they would like to see in a rumored crossover fighting game titled Namco Vs Capcom , his Namco equivalent being Nightmare from the Soul series : " The only man with enough experience and courage to take out this mutated menace is none other than Leon S. Kennedy . We bet this fight ends with a rocket launcher . " In 2011 , Ryan Woo of Complex ranked Leon among the fourth most stylish video game character , opining he the best dressed person in the Resident Evil series and " Jill just looks goofy in comparison . "
Together with Ada Wong , Leon was featured in The Inquirer 's 2007 list of the most memorable video game love teams . In 2011 , " a highly disfunctional [ sic ] relationship " between Leon and Ada was ranked the ninth top video game romance by James Hawkins of Joystick Division . According to PlayStation Universe 's Mike Harradence , " we 've seen Kennedy transition from likeable , wet @-@ behind @-@ the @-@ ears love @-@ sick puppy to a wise @-@ cracking , super smooth government agent . " In 2012 , Complex included him on a list of the 25 " douchiest " video game characters for " his sarcastic and moody attitude in RE4 " , adding that , while Leon " stepped it up in the series by maturing and becoming a true hero " , they " enjoyed the game more when Leon didn 't speak . " The character was one of the childhood crushes of MTV 's Kendra Beltran , who in 2013 wrote : " I still can 't forget the rate my heart raced when my eyes set on Leon . I 'm sure you felt and continue to feel the same . " In 2014 , La Nueva España included the " intelligent , quick @-@ drawing and strong " Leon among the top ten sexiest video game characters of both genders , describing him as a " reinforced concrete wall with a porcelain face . "
= No Love Allowed =
" No Love Allowed " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for her seventh studio album , Unapologetic ( 2012 ) . The singer co @-@ wrote the track together with Sean " Elijah Blake " Fenton , Alexander Izquierdo , Steve Wyreman and Ernest Wilson , who produced it under his production name No I.D .. Kuk Harrell and Marcos Tovar recorded the song at Record One Studios and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles and Metropolis Studios in London ; Harrell also did the vocal production . " No Love Allowed " is a electro @-@ ragga and reggae song with an instrumentation consisting of a bubbly , dubbed @-@ out groove , Caribbean and dubstep beat and loping drumless rhythms .
" No Love Allowed " received acclaim from contemporary music critics ; many of them labeled it as a standout track on the album and likened it to the works of Jamaican musician Bob Marley and Rihanna 's 2011 single " Man Down " . Following the release of Unapologetic , " No Love Allowed " debuted on the charts in France , the United Kingdom and the United States . It peaked at number 101 in France , number 24 on the UK R & B Singles Chart , number 131 on the UK Singles Chart and number three on the US Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles . The song was included on the set list of Rihanna 's 2013 concert tour , the Diamonds World Tour .
= = Background and production = =
Rihanna began " working on the new sound " for her seventh studio album in March 2012 , even though she had not yet begun recording . On September 12 , 2012 , Def Jam France announced via Twitter that Rihanna would release a new single the upcoming week while her seventh studio album was scheduled to be released in November 2012 . At the 25th Annual ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards , Chicago @-@ based producer , Ernest Wilson , better known by his production name No ID , spoke that he is about to work on a song for Rihanna 's new studio album . He further stated that that is inevitable since they are like family in Roc Nation . On October 11 , 2012 , in one of her tweets revealed that the title of her new album is Unapologetic , along with its cover .
" No Love Allowed " was written and produced by No ID , with an additional writing from Sean " Elijah Blake " Fento , Rihanna , Alexander Izquierdo and Steve Wyreman . No ID had previously co @-@ written and produced " We All Want Love " , a track for Rihanna 's sixth studio album Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . Donnie Scantz recorded " No Love Allowed " at Record One Studios in Los Angeles ; Anna Ugarte served as the assistant recording engineer , while additional engineering was done by Rob Kinelski . Rihanna 's vocals were recorded by Kuk Harrell and Marcos Tovar at the Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles ; Harrel also did the vocal production of the song . Blake Mares , Paul Norris , Liam Nolan served as assistant vocal engineers . Tovar did the additional recording of the track at the Metropolis Studios in London . It was mixed at the Larabee Studios in Los Angeles by Manny Marroquin . The guitar and bass were played by Steve Wyreman , while James Poyser did the keys .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" No Love Allowed " is a electro @-@ ragga and reggae song with a length of four minutes and nine seconds . It has an instrumentation consisted of bubbly , dubbed @-@ out groove , Caribbean and dubstep beat , and loping drumless rhythm . According to Stacy @-@ Ann Ellis of the Vibe magazine , " No Love Allowed " is a " token Irie jam " . MTV Buzzworthy 's Brad Stern wrote that the song brings the singer in Bob Marley musical territory . Simon Catling of Contactmusic stated that it " sounds almost ' fun ' in its reggae , off @-@ beat and kaleidoscopic sounds " . Smokey D. Fontaine of The Urban Daily labeled " No Love Allowed " as a " dancehall @-@ tinged gem " .
Lyrically , it speaks about a love stronger than a gunshot , and according to Stacy @-@ Ann Ellis of Vibe magazine it is a " less violent version " of Rihanna 's 2011 single " Man Down " . Edmonton Journal 's Sandra Sperounes wrote that on " No Love Allowed " Rihanna plays with the Barbadian accent on the same way she did on her 2005 debut single " Pon de Replay " . According to a reviewer of Billboard , Rihanna 's cry to the love police in the song , can be heard in the lines , " Broken heart was the case / go 'on and put him away / He 's the only one one one / I let get the best of me . " BBC Music 's Natalie Shaw wrote that some of the song 's lyrics like " Like a bullet your love hit me to the core / I was flying ‘ til you knocked me to the floor " , are uncomfortably balanced between true love and awkward acrimony . According to Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly , the up stated lines " doesn ’ t sound like she has forgiven " Chris Brown for the 2009 domestic violence case .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
The track was met with critical acclaim from music critics . Dan Martin of NME noted the sonic connection between " Man Down " and " No Love Allowed " , however , according to him , the latter is " surrounded by an oppressively murky fug " . Rihanna 's Caribbean accent and references on the song were praised by editor Ben Rayner of Toronto Star ; according to him it was " unfortunate " that on the album they were only " passing " . In a review of Unapologetic , Robert Copsey of Digital Spy wrote that songs like " Jump " , " Right Now " and " No Love Allowed " " prove why after eight years of career and seven studio albums released , Rihanna is still the biggest popstar on the planet . " USA Today 's Elysa Gardner recommended readers , the song together with " Nobody 's Business " and " Right Now " as tracks that should be downloaded from the album . Similarly , Jeremy Thomas of 411 Mania stated that " No Love Allowed " together with " Numb " , " Pour It Up " and " Stay " are standout tracks on the record . Sperounes of Edmonton Journal wrote that " No Love Allowed " and " Stay " were the only tracks on Unapologetic that " shimmer with promise " .
= = = Commercial = = =
Upon the release of Unapologetic , " No Love Allowed " charted in France , on two charts in the United Kingdom and in the United States due to strong digital downloads . It debuted on the French Singles Chart at number 101 for the week dated December 1 , 2012 , and remained on the chart for one week . On December 2 , 2012 , it debuted at number 131 on the UK Singles Chart , and number 24 on the UK R & B Chart . " No Love Allowed " did not enter the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , but peaked at number three on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart , which acts as an extension to the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
= = Live performances = =
" No Love Allowed " was included as the tenth song on the set list of Rihanna 's fourth 2013 worldwide tour , the Diamonds World Tour .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Music recording – Record One Studios , Los Angeles , CA
Vocals recording Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , CA .
Additional recording – Metropolis Studios , London , UK
Mixing – Larabee Studios , Los Angeles , CA
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unapologetic , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
= 2007 Mogadishu TransAVIAexport Airlines Il @-@ 76 crash =
The 2007 TransAVIAexport Airlines Il @-@ 76 crash refers to an Ilyushin Il @-@ 76 cargo aircraft operated by that Belarusian airline that crashed in the outskirts of Mogadishu , Somalia , on 23 March 2007 , during the Battle of Mogadishu . The plane was carrying repair equipment and humanitarian aid . According to a spokesperson for the transport ministry of Belarus , the aircraft was shot down . However , the Somali government insisted that the crash was accidental . A crew of eleven on board the aircraft perished in the accident .
= = Previous shootdown attempt of another company 's aircraft = =
On 9 March 2007 , a Transaviaexport Ilyushin Il @-@ 76TD , registration EW @-@ 78826 , that was about to complete an Entebbe – Mogadishu flight carrying Ugandan peacekeepers and equipment , made a successful emergency landing at Mogadishu International Airport after having been struck by a rocket propelled grenade and catching fire on approach to the airport of destination . The rocket had apparently been fired from a boat while the plane passed over it at a height of 150 metres ( 490 ft ) . A crew of nine Belarusian were aboard the aircraft , along with six UPDF soldiers ; all of them resulted unharmed . Islamist militia claimed the attack , saying that African Union peacekeepers were their target , as they were seen as invading troops ; Somali officials denied such attack , and said the incident was due to the aircraft experiencing a technical failure .
There had been a report with unverified claims circulating on the internet stating that the aircraft had actually been carrying a secret load of infantry fighting vehicles for Ugandan troops . This report also claimed that these vehicles saved all occupants on board .
= = Description of the accident = =
The aircraft involved was an Ilyushin Il @-@ 76 , a large Russian @-@ built cargo aircraft . Registered as EW @-@ 78849 , the Il @-@ 76 had been on a chartered cargo flight carrying equipment to Ugandan AMISOM peacekeepers in the Somali capital of Mogadishu . All of the crew members were Belarusian . Four of the personnel on board the accident aircraft were engineers who had worked on repairing another aircraft of the same type that had been the subject of an attempted shootdown 14 days earlier . Much of the equipment on board EW @-@ 78849 was for repairing the aircraft damaged earlier ; the rest of the cargo was humanitarian aid . The first aircraft was still crippled at the departure time of EW @-@ 78849 , and TransAVIAexport were considering whether to cannibalise it for re @-@ usable parts .
EW @-@ 78849 was due to fly back to Belarus carrying equipment used for the repairs of EW @-@ 78826 . The flight plan included a refuelling stop at Djibouti . Bound for Minsk , the aircraft had taken off from Mogadishu International Airport at 14 : 00 local time . According to Somali Interior Minister Mohamed Mahamud Guled , as soon as it reached 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) altitude , the pilot reported a problem in engine number two , stating that he would turn back to the airport . He was in the process of attempting to return to the airport for an emergency landing when one wing exploded , separated from the aircraft and fell into the Indian Ocean , while the rest of the plane continued , on fire , along the beach at a low altitude before crashing .
The accident occurred in an area called Kuluweyne , with the main part of the wreckage landing near a farmer 's hamlet . A Reuters reporter who visited the scene reported seeing crushed animals , four corpses still on the ground , and wreckage spread across an area the size of four football fields . Rescuers found ten of the crew members dead at the scene , and an eleventh alive and wandering around the crash site . He was transported to a hospital where he died the same day . Operations at the airport were not affected by the crash , with Somali Prime Minister Ali Gedi and his delegation departing as scheduled from the airport the next day , destined for the Arab League summit in Saudi Arabia .
= = = Alleged shootdown = = =
A civilian who witnessed the crash said he heard what he believed to be a surface @-@ to @-@ air missile being fired immediately before the accident . " I saw with my eyes when the plane , which was flying low @-@ level , was hit by a rocket and then fell to the ground , " Shabelle reporter Maryan Hashi said . " There have been reports that the projectile came from a small boat , and others that it came from a nearby farmers ' market . The plane appears to have been struck by the missile at an altitude of about 150 metres ( 490 ft ) .
= = = Deceased = = =
All eleven occupants on board the aircraft perished in the incident . Their bodies were transported back to Belarus in a Gomelavia aircraft on 30 March 2007 . On 2 April funeral services were held in Belarus for the victims , with hundreds attending . Eight of the victims were buried in a single lot at Maskouskiya cemetery , the rest in Vitsebsk . The names of the victims were as follows :
= = Reactions and aftermath = =
The Somali authorities originally stated that the cause of the crash was unknown , and have since maintained that the crash occurred as a result of an accident , and that it had not been shot down . However , while not claiming responsibility for this specific attack , an Islamist web site published claims that the plane was indeed struck by a missile . Within 24 hours of the crash , Belarusian officials confirmed that the plane had been shot down . Somali soldiers began to guard the area against interference . TransAVIAexport suspended all flights to Somalia as a result of the incident , and Belarus advised its airlines not to enter Somali airspace . An investigation was launched by the Belarusian transport prosecutor 's office for violations of Article 126 of the Criminal Code , which concerns international terrorism .
On 5 April 2007 , the US Federal Aviation Administration released a communication prohibiting US airlines and commercial operators from operating over Somali airspace at altitudes below 26 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 900 m ) , due to possible threats from rocket propelled grenades and shoulder @-@ launched missiles .
= = Fate of aircraft = =
Danish photographer Jan Grarup photographed the remains of the aircraft littering the streets of Mogadishu in August 2012 .
= 2009 – 10 Plymouth Argyle F.C. season =
The 2009 – 10 season was the 115th season in the history of Plymouth Argyle Football Club , their 85th in the Football League , and 41st in the second tier of the English football league system . Their 21st @-@ place finish in the 2008 – 09 season meant it was their sixth successive season playing in the Championship . Their campaign ended disappointingly as they were relegated to League One with 11 wins , 8 draws , and 27 losses from 46 matches . The club exited both domestic cup competitions at the first stage , being eliminated by Newcastle United in the third round of the FA Cup and by Gillingham in the first round of the League Cup . The club changed managers in December due to a string of poor results as Paul Sturrock was replaced by Paul Mariner .
The club began their league campaign with two draws , but defeat by Cardiff City marked the beginning of a seven @-@ game losing streak . Results improved in October and November before three more successive defeats saw Sturrock replaced by Mariner . Performances gradually improved and the club won both of their fixtures during the Christmas period , including a 4 – 1 win against Reading ; their best of the season . The club signed Damien Johnson in the winter transfer window from Birmingham City and made a number of signings on loan , including Kenny Cooper and David Stockdale , in order to try to improve their league position . A succession of draws and narrow defeats followed in February , which prompted Mariner to make more signings .
Argyle lost three of their next nine matches to give themselves a chance of avoiding relegation , but their win at Doncaster Rovers proved to be the last game that they would collect any points in . Defeats at home to Middlesbrough and away to Watford left the club on the brink of a return to England 's third tier , and that was confirmed in their next game . Newcastle United won 2 – 0 at Home Park to secure the Championship title , and relegated the home side at the same time . The club finished 23rd in the league table after defeat by bottom club Peterborough United on the final day of the season , eight points adrift of safety . Jamie Mackie finished as the club 's top scorer with eight goals in all competitions , and captain Carl Fletcher was voted Player of the Year .
= = Background = =
The 2008 – 09 season was Paul Sturrock 's first full campaign in his second spell as the club 's manager . The club secured their status in the second tier of English football for a sixth season after finishing 21st in the league table , five points above Norwich City . A number of players returned to their parent clubs at the end of the season after successful loan spells , including Craig Cathcart , David Gray , Alan Judge and Paul Gallagher . Sturrock wanted to bring Gallagher back to the club on a permanent basis , but was eventually unsuccessful after admitting before the season finished that the transfer fee and wages were an issue . Three apprentices of the club 's youth system were offered professional contracts in May , including Irish youth international Joe Mason . The club 's first signing of the summer was Carl Fletcher , who returned to Home Park permanently after signing on loan in February . Fletcher replaced Karl Duguid as the team captain , and Romain Larrieu was named club captain . Sir Roy Gardner was confirmed as the club 's new chairman in July , replacing Paul Stapleton who remained on the new board as vice @-@ chairman . The club added to their squad that month with the permanent signings of Bradley Wright @-@ Phillips , Kári Árnason and Réda Johnson , while Jermaine Easter and long @-@ serving Frenchman Mathias Kouo @-@ Doumbé were among the players who left . Doumbe was released from his contract by mutual consent in August after five years with the club .
= = Championship = =
= = = August – October = = =
Plymouth Argyle began their campaign at Selhurst Park on 8 August against Crystal Palace , with Carl Fletcher captaining his new side against his former club . An early goal from Hungarian international centre @-@ back Krisztián Timár put Argyle ahead but the home side responded in the second @-@ half to give both teams a share of the points . Argyle faced Queens Park Rangers in their first home game of the season and an injury @-@ time own goal from Kaspars Gorkšs salvaged a point after the visitors had taken the lead in the first @-@ half . Alan Gow 's first goal for the club in their next match against Cardiff City was merely a consolation , as a hat @-@ trick from Michael Chopra consigned Argyle to their first league defeat of the season . A stoppage time goal from Derby County 's Miles Addison denied Argyle their third draw of the season after they had taken a first @-@ half lead through Alan Judge , and a second 3 – 1 home defeat followed a week later , this time against Sheffield Wednesday . A first @-@ half goal from Jamie Mackie gave Argyle hope of their first victory of new the season at The Hawthorns against West Bromwich Albion , but the home side responded with three goals either side of half @-@ time to claim a comfortable win .
The club 's poor run of form continued in their next home match against Watford , as they suffered their fifth straight defeat and slipped to the bottom of the league table . Another 3 – 1 defeat , against Newcastle United , was followed by a second successive 1 – 0 home defeat against Nottingham Forest , to leave Argyle with just two points from their first seven matches . Paul Sturrock kept faith with the young defensive pairing of James Chester and Shane Lowry for their next game against Peterborough United , and two second @-@ half goals Mackie and Rory Fallon secured Argyle 's first three points of the new season . " It 's nice to get three points , but now we have to build on it , " said Sturrock . " There 's no point in us getting this result and then kicking ourselves in the teeth again . " Argyle earned their first home win of the season four days later against Scunthorpe United . A penalty from Judge gave the hosts a 2 – 1 win after Fallon 's opening goal was cancelled out by Scunthorpe striker Gary Hooper . Their upturn in results was halted by Blackpool , who won 2 – 0 at Bloomfield Road . The hosts opening goal was scored by Marcel Seip , a player on loan from Argyle . He took part in the match following a request from former manager Ian Holloway , a decision which was criticised by supporters but defended by senior Argyle officials . " I suppose it was bound to happen that Marcel would score the goal , but I don 't think we should look on it as anything other than probably the cover should have been better , " said executive director Keith Todd . " We understood exactly what we are doing . "
An Argyle Hall of Famer returned to Home Park on 18 October 2009 , when former England international Paul Mariner was appointed as the club 's new head coach . " In football , there is not much sentiment . But , if sentiment is involved in this scenario , then they gave me my very first chance as a player so I grabbed it with both hands , " said Mariner on the New England Revolution website , the club he left to rejoin Argyle . " Plymouth Argyle are in my blood . Obviously the teams you 're associated with are the ones you look for every week , and when they came knocking on my door asking me to be employed there , I was delighted . " His first match in the dugout alongside Sturrock ended in disappointment as Argyle lost 3 – 1 to Bristol City at Ashton Gate . They faced Ipswich Town , another side struggling for form , at home in their next match and a first @-@ half goal from Fletcher put Argyle ahead , but their hopes of claiming three points were dented when the visitors equalised through striker Jon Stead , who capitalised on a poor back pass from Gary Sawyer . Welshman Darcy Blake , on loan from Cardiff City , was shown a straight red card late in the game as it ended all square . Their final game of October took place on Halloween against Middlesbrough , in Gordon Strachan 's first game as their new manager . Argyle came away from the Riverside Stadium with all three points , in a game that saw Adam Johnson miss from the penalty spot , thanks to a second @-@ half goal from Mackie to lift them to 22nd in the league table , within three points of Doncaster Rovers .
= = = November – February = = =
The club began November in the same fashion they ended the previous month – with a win . Judge and Fallon scored again to secure a 2 – 1 home victory against Doncaster Rovers , and pull Argyle clear of the relegation zone . They looked like earning a valuable point when they travelled to play Leicester City but were denied by a 94th @-@ minute goal from midfielder Andy King . Another home defeat , this time to Sheffield United followed , which left Sturrock desperate to improve morale among his squad , but a third consecutive 1 – 0 defeat at Swansea City , during which Lowry was sent off , signalled the end of Paul Sturrock 's second spell as manager . Paul Mariner was placed in charge until further notice . " It 's a sad day , but obviously a happy day for me because I 'm getting my chance to be a manager in the league , " said the former striker . " He 's a great friend of mine . The bond that we have together is quite remarkable and we have a mutual respect for each other . " His first match was a 2 – 0 defeat at Preston North End , but he took positives from the performance .
John Carver , right @-@ hand man to former Barcelona manager Sir Bobby Robson at Newcastle United , arrived as the club 's new assistant manager on 17 December 2009 , but the club suffered another 1 – 0 defeat at home , against Coventry City , two days later . Argyle travelled to Cardiff on Boxing Day to play Cardiff City at their new stadium , and came away with an important three points thanks to a late goal from Sawyer . They recorded their biggest win of the season two days later against Reading . A brace from Judge , and first goals of the season for Kári Árnason and Ashley Barnes secured a 4 – 1 win at Home Park and six points from their two games over the Christmas period . Argyle returned to league action after their FA Cup ties on 16 January , looking for another three points against Crystal Palace but an early goal from young striker Victor Moses won the game for the visitors . Another must @-@ win home game followed against Derby County and a fifth goal of the season from Jamie Mackie boosted their survival bid . A defeat by fellow struggler 's Sheffield Wednesday , coupled with other results going against them , left Argyle five points from safety , with a tough match to come against West Bromwich Albion a week later . A single goal from striker Simon Cox kept Albion in touch at the top of the table and left Argyle deep in relegation trouble again , six points from safety .
A stoppage time penalty from Shane Long earned a crucial 2 – 1 win for Reading in Argyle 's next match , but they came from a goal behind to claim a 3 – 1 victory at Barnsley four days later , which included a 35 @-@ yard effort from former Barnsley player Fallon . Paul Mariner was full of praise for his team and singled out youngster Yannick Bolasie , who made his debut for the club . " We played with intellect . We got the ball down , rather than panicking a little bit ; we stroked it around ; we retained position at vital times , " he said . " The introduction of Bolasie was a breath of fresh air . I think even the Barnsley fans would probably say they liked to see what he was doing . He brought a lot to the table for us . " A double @-@ header of home matches were next on the agenda for Argyle , against Swansea City and Leicester City , and they both ended in 1 – 1 draws . New signing Damien Johnson scored late on against Swansea , and Craig Noone scored his first goal of the season to earn a point against Leicester . An end @-@ to @-@ end game at Bramall Lane against Sheffield United ended in a 4 – 3 defeat , which included a number of defensive mistakes . Argyle went 3 – 0 before finally sparking into life , scoring twice thanks to Bolasie and a first for young Irish striker Joe Mason . A lapse in concentration from David Stockdale , on loan from Fulham , gifted the hosts a fourth goal before a 20 @-@ yard volley from Mackie set up a frantic finale . In the aftermath , Paul Mariner heaped praise on Mason , describing him as " an incredible talent . "
= = = March – May = = =
Argyle salvaged a late point against Preston North End at the start of March , but remained in serious trouble at the bottom end of the table , seven points adrift of safety with 13 matches remaining . A 2 – 0 defeat followed at Queens Park Rangers , with Adel Taarabt playing a part in both of the home sides goals . Draws at Home Park were proving to be an Achilles ' heel for Argyle , but they secured a creditable 1 – 1 draw at play @-@ off chasing Coventry City , having taken the lead through a glancing header from Árnason . Three days later , a 20 @-@ yard strike from captain Fletcher earned Argyle their fifth home win of the season in a 3 – 2 thriller against Bristol City . They had taken a 2 – 0 lead through Chris Clark and an overhead kick from Bradley Wright @-@ Phillips , his first for the club . However , the visitors responded in the second @-@ half with two goals from Nicky Maynard before former Welsh international Fletcher scored with seconds to spare . Argyle travelled to play Scunthorpe United looking to keep up the momentum , but threw away a lead to be defeated by a deflected effort from Martyn Woolford .
They were on the road again three days later when they faced Ipswich Town at Portman Road . Argyle came away with all three points courtesy of goals from Wright @-@ Phillips and Mason on what was a special night for Paul Mariner . " It was pretty special and I was a little choked up , " he said . " It was a special night . When I moved to the States 20 years ago , I didn 't think it would come to fruition but it was a tremendous reception from the fans , and I can 't thank them enough . Bringing Plymouth Argyle here in my present role was a special occasion . " Former manager Ian Holloway returned to Home Park for the first time since his departure in November 2007 in the club 's next game , and he left happy as Blackpool side claimed all three points after a 2 – 0 victory , with Charlie Adam at the heart of their attacking threat . Argyle played out an entertaining 0 – 0 draw at home with Barnsley three days later , but it did little to help in their battle against relegation , still five points away from safety . They produced another rousing away performance against Doncaster Rovers to earn a 2 – 1 win , coming from behind with second @-@ half goals from Mason , and an injury time header from Wright @-@ Phillips . In order to stay up , Argyle knew that they had to make the most of their remaining home games , but they went down 2 – 0 on 5 April to an efficient Middlesbrough side , which left them four points adrift with four games left . A solitary goal from Watford 's Heidar Helguson dealt Argyle 's survival hopes an almost fatal blow at Vicarage Road , but vice @-@ captain Karl Duguid remained upbeat about their chances of defeating the league leaders in their next game . " We 'll be upbeat , and we 'll go for the win against Newcastle next Monday . "
It was a night of contrasting emotions at Home Park . A 2 – 0 win for the visitors confirmed Argyle 's relegation to League One and Newcastle 's promotion back to the Premier League as champions at the first attempt . Hours after the match , the club 's board declared that it remained determined to steer it to the top flight of English football . Paul Mariner reaffirmed his commitment to the club , vowing to put things right . " I feel the pain of the supporters because this is the club that gave me my first start , " he said . " The reason I came here was because of the vision that the club can get into the Premiership . Now we 've got another couple of hurdles before we do that but I firmly believe that we can do it . " Argyle 's penultimate game of the season took place at the City Ground against Nottingham Forest , who had already qualified for the play @-@ off 's , and they secured a comfortable 3 – 0 victory against the relegated side . The club signed off their campaign with another home defeat against Peterborough United on 2 May . Argyle took the lead in the first @-@ half from a fine individual goal from Wright @-@ Phillips but conceded two goals after the break to Craig Mackail @-@ Smith . Four days later , the club announced that they would be searching for a new manager , with Paul Mariner reverting to his original role as head coach . He said : " I am disappointed that we could not produce the results we wanted last season . I am a realist and understand why and how the board came to the conclusion they have done . I am committed to this club and want only to help it regain Championship status as soon as possible and build on that . " Work on a new state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art Fibrelastic pitch at Home Park began the following week .
= = = Results = = =
Colours : Green
= Plymouth Argyle win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = = Statistics = = =
= = = = Standings = = = =
Pld
= Matches played ; W =
Matches won ; D
= Matches drawn ; L =
Matches lost ; GF
= Goals for ; GA =
Goals against ; GD
= Goal difference ; Pts =
Points
= = = = Results summary = = = =
Pld
= Matches played ; W =
Matches won ; D
= Matches drawn ; L =
Matches lost ; GF
= Goals for ; GA =
Goals against ; GD = Goal difference
= = = = Results by round = = = =
Last updated : 2 May 2010 .
Source : StattoGround : A
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = FA Cup = =
= = = Summary = = =
The third round draw for the FA Cup paired Argyle with Newcastle United , which left assistant manager John Carver with mixed emotions . Neither side could break the deadlock in a competitive contest at Home Park . Argyle striker Rory Fallon forced a good save from Tim Krul before the visitors had chances of their own , the majority of which went to Fabrice Pancrate . Newcastle looked likely to win the game late on but were denied by goalkeeper Romain Larrieu , who tipped a looping volley from Nicky Butt over the crossbar . The match saw the return of Chris Barker to the Argyle defence after a lengthy spell on the sidelines because of injury , and manager Paul Mariner was full of praise for his performance . " For him to come and do what he did against such a high powered , attacking team as Newcastle and playing 90 plus minutes was pretty remarkable . He 's a very strong character and very experienced . " The replay at St James ' Park was Argyle 's next match due to the wintry weather , and they were on the wrong end of a 3 – 0 scoreline . Newcastle striker Peter Løvenkrands gave the home side a two @-@ goal lead at half @-@ time and completed his hat @-@ trick after 72 minutes . " His timing of his runs is pretty special and for the first goal , his finish was fantastic , " said Mariner . The match on Tyneside was to be the last in an Argyle shirt for Cillian Sheridan who returned to Celtic in Scotland the next day when his loan spell with the club finished , having made 13 appearances , scoring no goals .
= = = Results = = =
Colours : Green
= Plymouth Argyle win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = League Cup = =
= = = Summary = = =
Having been drawn to face Gillingham in the first round of the League Cup , the club 's manager , Paul Sturrock , planned to make a couple of changes to the team that faced Crystal Palace on the opening day of the new season , with youngster Joe Mason included in the squad . Two first @-@ half goals were enough to take the hosts into the second round . Simeon Jackson put Gillingham ahead after 42 minutes and Andy Barcham scored a second just before the half @-@ time break . Argyle reduced the deficit four minutes into the second @-@ half when Luke Summerfield from a direct free kick , but they couldn 't find an equaliser . The visitors should have forced extra time but Jamie Mackie spurned a chance when he pulled his shot wide with only the goalkeeper to beat . The defeat extended Sturrock 's unfortunate run in the League Cup as a manager , having won just once in nine attempts . " I must have the worst record of all managers in cup competitions , it 's unbelievable , " he said . " One or two of my defenders didn 't defend properly tonight . It 's not proper to name people but there were some glaring attempts to clear the ball and that 's where we had problems . "
= = = Results = = =
Colours : Green
= Plymouth Argyle win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = Pre @-@ season = =
= = = Summary = = =
Pre @-@ season for Plymouth Argyle began on 1 July 2009 when the first team squad returned to Harpers Park . A week of intense training followed , before the club 's first match of the new season took place on 13 July 2009 against Cornish side Truro City . In a match which featured trialist Kári Árnason , Argyle scored a goal in each half to earn a comfortable win . A youthful Argyle team headed across the city of Plymouth the next day to take on Plymouth Parkway . The visitors fell behind to an early goal but responded with three of their own in an entertaining friendly , including a brace from Republic of Ireland youth international Joe Mason . The first team were in action again the next day , against Torquay United . The visitors went behind twice but looked like leaving Plainmoor with a win until Torquay converted a penalty in the 90th minute . The squad then departed for a tour of Scotland , and stopped off in the north of England on the way in order to play a friendly against Skelmersdale United on 18 July 2009 . Argyle came away with a 2 – 0 win after scoring a goal in each half . A picturesque setting greeted the squad as they took to the field against Livingston on 20 July 2009 . An 81st @-@ minute penalty from Luke Summerfield wasn 't enough to save Argyle from their first defeat of the season .
Hungarian international Zoltán Szélesi joined the squad in training ahead of their next match against Romanian champions Unirea Urziceni . They came from behind to record a 2 – 1 win in a feisty encounter , with Steve MacLean scoring the decisive goal . Argyle returned to England to play against Morecambe on 25 July 2009 , and included a triallist called Réda Johnson in their defence , who appeared in the match under a pseudonym . Two second half goals ensured that they left Christie Park with a win . The club 's only pre @-@ season friendly to take place at Home Park was against Scottish club Heart of Midlothian on 29 July 2009 . Neither side could break the deadlock in a dour 0 –
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School obtained copies of the tests from the DeVry Institute of Technology , where the state finals were being held . The team was therefore able to look up and memorize the answers . The cheating allowed Steinmetz to beat perennial powerhouse Whitney Young Magnet High School , who had won the Illinois state finals in 22 of the previous 23 years . Six of the twelve students in the nation who scored over 900 points on the math test came from Steinmetz High School , prompting the Illinois state Academic Decathlon to suspect cheating . The Steinmetz team was disqualified after team members refused to take an alternate version of the test , and its coach eventually resigned . The incident was dramatized in the movie Cheaters .
Catholic Memorial High School coach John Burke was at the center of a dispute over the results of the 2003 Wisconsin state final . Confusion arose over a Catholic Memorial student 's essay after the results of the competition were released . The essay had only received 390 points out of a possible 1000 , and Burke contended that it had been scored improperly . He was well within his rights to contest the score ; however , Gerhard Fischer , President of Wisconsin Academic Decathlon , said that the way Burke handled the appeal was " highly questionable " and inflammatory . Though Burke was reprimanded , parents of Catholic Memorial students believed the punishment , a three @-@ year suspension for Burke and a one @-@ year suspension for Catholic Memorial , was due to personality differences between Burke and Wisconsin Academic Decathlon officials . The controversy eventually led to a more thorough investigation of previous issues involving Burke . The Wisconsin Academic Decathlon Board discovered that Burke had previously been accused of " [ m ] ore than a year of repeated ' attacks ' on another school 's pupils , including allegations of cheating on tests and ineligibility . "
= = National championship = =
The National Championship pits the winning school from each state against all the others for an overall title . Occasionally , a number of international schools compete as well . Schools compete based on size and are divided into three divisions ( I , II , and III ) . However , this separation is limited to overall team score and overall individual score . Nine overall team medals are awarded : gold , silver and bronze for each division . Similarly , 27 overall individual medals are awarded : gold , silver and bronze for Honors , Scholastic and Varsity in each division . The top prepared speeches are honored at the Speech Showcase , while the rest of the medals — for example , gold in art for Honors , or silver in math for Varsity — are awarded to the top scoring persons during the awards banquet regardless of division . Other awards given out include the Kristin Caperton Award for overcoming personal or physical challenges , among others . Certain awards occasionally come with monetary prizes ; these often vary from year to year . Since the first national event in 1982 , all National Championship winners have come from three states : California , Texas and Wisconsin .
= = = Virtual competition = = =
In 2006 , the small school virtual competition was created for schools with 650 or fewer students . Two years later , the medium school virtual competition was added to accommodate schools with a student population between 650 and 1 @,@ 300 . These two separate contests are held via the Internet and , as such , the interview and speech events are excluded . The remaining eight tests are completed on the computer and results are submitted electronically to USAD for scoring . Because only the seven multiple choice tests and essay are used , team scores are out of 48 @,@ 000 points instead of 60 @,@ 000 . Although it is only a virtual competition , winning schools are awarded trophies and medals for their efforts . University High School , from Fresno , California , has won 6 of 7 Small School National Championships . Coached by Sean Canfield , the team has won both the California and National Small School titles for the past 6 years . UHS has a current enrollment of 465 students , yet placed 8th overall at the 2013 California State , competing against schools several times its size . According to USAD , the goal of the small and medium school competitions is to " enhance learning , growth and recognition " . In 2010 , the United States Academic Decathlon announced the beginning of a large school e @-@ Nationals for the second @-@ highest performing large school in each state .
= Ghost ( Sky Ferreira EP ) =
Ghost is the second extended play ( EP ) by American recording artist Sky Ferreira , released on October 16 , 2012 by Capitol Records . It was made available in place of her frequently delayed debut studio album , which eventually became Night Time , My Time ( 2013 ) . Ghost represents a musical departure from Ferreira 's earlier work , which explored more prominent elements of dance @-@ pop . She collaborated with producers including Jon Brion , Dev Hynes , Greg Kurstin , Cass McCombs , and Ariel Rechtshaid to achieve her desired sound . Their efforts resulted in a primarily synthpop record , although it differs from her earlier work in that it sees additional influences from acoustic , indie pop and new wave music .
Ghost received mixed to positive reviews from music critics , who appreciated its diversity , but were ambivalent towards its overall cohesiveness . It peaked at numbers eight and 71 on the US Billboard Top Heatseekers and Alternative Albums record charts . Along with three other tracks , the extended play included prior single " Red Lips " and Ferreira 's critically acclaimed " Everything Is Embarrassing " .
= = Background = =
After releasing the tracks " 17 " , " One " , and " Obsession " , Ferreira announced that her debut studio album would be released on January 11 , 2011 . However , it was instead replaced by her first extended play ( EP ) As If ! , which was made available on March 22 of that year . That November , Ferreira announced that her debut studio album would be released in 2012 , with a lead single planned to precede its release that February . She was later revealed to have been working with Jon Brion , Greg Kurstin , and Shirley Manson on the project . Plans to release an extended play titled Ghost were revealed by Pitchfork on August 30 , 2012 . The extended play 's cover artwork was photographed by Hedi Slimane and revealed by Ferreira through her Twitter account on September 17 ; the black @-@ and @-@ white close @-@ up image depicts a blonde Ferreira holding her hair while dressed in a denim jacket . Although the extended play was initially slated for an October 2 release , it was ultimately released on October 16 in the United States and Canada .
= = Composition = =
Ghost incorporates styles from several musical genres , whereas her earlier works more prominently incorporated electropop styles . Writing for Now , Kevin Ritchie felt that the project " suggests a much broader range of intriguing possibilities [ ... ] for her dusky voice " than her previous music allowed , further suggesting that her earlier tracks " One " and " Obsession " saw Ferreira " succumbing " to the requests of her record label . Its opening track " Sad Dream " integrates acoustic guitar instrumentation ; Joe Marvilli from No Ripcord stated that Ferreira 's vocals " almost [ cracked ] out of sadness " during the chorus , adding that the lyrics " Hope the guilt will dim and fade / A fire baptism engulfs my shame " emphasize her discouragement . Jon Caramanica from The New York Times shared a similar sentiment , stating that its lyrics " are darker than Ms. Ferreira 's usual mood . " " Lost in My Bedroom " is an uptempo electropop song that was deemed largely reminiscent of her earlier material . Caramanica felt that it sounded like an " outtake " from the soundtrack for the 1984 film Sixteen Candles .
The title track " Ghost " presents similar lyrical content and production as the opening track , although it is differentiated by its subtle use of background electric guitars ; Marvilli opined that " synths sparkle against Ferreira ’ s sly vocals and the pulsing beat pounds away in the background . " " Red Lips " was co @-@ written by Shirley Manson , and was compared to material recorded by her band Garbage ; Ferreira delivers " breathy " vocals with a " no @-@ BS attitude " against a " distorted electric guitar gliding over battering drums " . The fifth and final track " Everything Is Embarrassing " was described as " moving firmly into New Wave territory " Ferreira 's vocals were noted as being " crisp and smooth " , while the inclusion of " propelling percussion [ and ] deep @-@ tuned piano chords " generated comparisons to music from the 1980s . Caramanica described its production as " sly , lush postdisco seduction " .
= = Singles = =
" Red Lips " was released as the lead single from the EP in the United States and Canada on July 17 , 2012 . It received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who appreciated its incorporation of grunge music elements An accompanying music video for the track was directed by Terry Richardson , and had premiered through Richardson 's YouTube channel the previous month on June 12 , 2012 ; the music video was later uploaded to Ferreira 's Vevo channel on July 13 . The clip sees Ferreira , dressed in underwear , applying lipstick on her entire face , and is interspersed with footage of its co @-@ star , the spider " Toby the Tarantula " , crawling across her body . Tara Aquino suggested that the visuals developed an increasingly risqué image for Ferreira , who responded by stating that her wardrobe was intended to complement the simplistic nature of the music video rather than an attempt to create sex appeal .
" Everything Is Embarrassing " premiered via Pitchfork on August 30 , 2012 along with the announcement of Ghost 's release ; it would later be issued as a single on April 14 of the following year in the UK and Ireland , where Ghost had not been released . It received critical acclaim from music critics , and was largely recognized as the standout track from the extended play . Katherine St. Asaph felt that the track was Ferreira 's " breakout moment " , while Jon Caramanica from The New York Times described it as " one of the year 's unlikely pop gems " . A writer for Tiny Mix Tapes stated that it " transcends the present moment [ ... ] in the way that it will soundtrack , for many people , memories of 2012 . " As of July 2013 , the track had sold 19 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States .
Capitol Records requested that an accompanying music video for " Everything Is Embarrassing " with no budget be filmed following the track 's online premiere ; it was directed by Grant Singer , who had previously directed the clips for " Sad Dream " and " Lost in My Bedroom " , and was filmed in one day in Los Angeles since Ferreira was scheduled to depart for New York City shortly after . It was premiered through Pitchfork on October 1 , 2012 ; the black @-@ and @-@ white clip sees Ferreira singing in various locations throughout the city , including a playground and the roof of the Capitol Records Building . In her debut television performance , she performed the track on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on January 7 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Ghost received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 62 , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " , based on six reviews . Writing for Pitchfork Media , Katherine St. Asaph provided a favorable review , placing particular praise on the " versatility " and " empathy " expressed in the tracks ' lyrics . Kevin Ritchie from Now appreciated the " diverse " nature of the record , commenting that the " lightness and unobtrusiveness " incorporated throughout suggested that Ferreira had yet to display " even more untapped potential " .
In a more mixed review , Jon Caramanica from The New York Times implied that Ghost lacked artistic cohesion . Despite remaining indifferent to the tracks individually , he opined that they were underwhelming when accompanied by " Everything Is Embarrassing " , and elaborated that the record was " just another round of throwing ideas at the wall . " A writer from No Ripcord shared a similar sentiment , stating that the " identity crisis " seemingly displayed in As If ! and Ghost overshadowed the " significant improvement " seen in the later project . Writing for Consequence of Sound , Tony Hardy was also critical of the significant musical diversity incorporated throughout the extended play , sarcastically referring to it as being " interesting " . A writer for Tiny Mix Tapes criticized the first four tracks on Ghost for sounding " dated on arrival " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Ghost peaked at numbers eight and 71 on the US Billboard Top Heatseekers and Alternative Albums charts , respectively .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Ghost .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Jack the Ripper : The Final Solution =
Jack the Ripper : The Final Solution is a book written by Stephen Knight first published in 1976 . It proposed a solution to five murders in Victorian London that were blamed on an unidentified serial killer known as " Jack the Ripper " .
Knight presented an elaborate conspiracy theory involving the British royal family , freemasonry and the painter Walter Sickert . He concluded that the victims were murdered to cover up a secret marriage between the second @-@ in @-@ line to the throne , Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale , and Annie Elizabeth Crook , a working class girl . There are many facts that contradict Knight 's theory , and his main source , Joseph Gorman ( also known as Joseph Sickert ) , later retracted the story and admitted to the press that it was a hoax . Most scholars dismiss the theory and the book 's conclusion is now widely discredited .
Nevertheless , the book was popular and commercially successful , going through 20 editions . It was the basis for the graphic novel and film From Hell , as well as other dramatisations , and has influenced crime fiction writers , such as Patricia Cornwell and Anne Perry .
= = Origins = =
Between August and November 1888 , at least five brutal murders were committed in the Whitechapel district of London . Although Whitechapel was an impoverished area and violence there was common , these murders can be linked to the same killer through a distinctive modus operandi . All the murders took place within the distance of a few streets , late at night or in the early morning , and the victims were all women whose throats were cut . In four of the cases , their bodies were mutilated , or even eviscerated . The removal of internal organs from three of the victims led to contemporary proposals that " considerable anatomical knowledge was displayed by the murderer , which would seem to indicate that his occupation was that of a butcher or a surgeon . " Media organisations and the police received many letters and postcards purportedly written by the killer , who was dubbed " Jack the Ripper " after one of the signatories . Most of the anonymous confessional letters were dismissed by the police as hoaxes but one , known as the " From Hell " letter after a phrase used by the writer , was treated more seriously ; it was sent with a small box containing half of a preserved human kidney . It is not clear , however , whether the kidney truly came from one of the victims or was a medical specimen sent as part of a macabre joke .
Despite an extensive police investigation , the killer was never found and his identity is still a mystery . Both at the time and subsequently , many amateur and professional investigators have proposed solutions but no single theory is widely accepted .
= = = Claims of Thomas Stowell = = =
In 1970 , British surgeon Thomas E. A. Stowell published an article entitled " Jack the Ripper – A Solution ? " in the November issue of The Criminologist . In the article , Stowell proposed that the Ripper was an aristocrat who had contracted syphilis during a visit to the West Indies , that it had driven him insane , and that in this state of mind he had perpetrated the five canonical Jack the Ripper murders . Although Stowell did not directly name his suspect in the article , he described in detail the suspect 's family and his physical appearance and nicknames , all of which pointed to Queen Victoria 's grandson , Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale . Stowell wrote that following a double murder on 30 September 1888 , his suspect was restrained by his own family in an institution in the south of England , but later escaped to commit a final murder on 9 November before ultimately dying of syphilis . To back up his theory , Stowell drew comparisons between the evisceration of the women and the disembowelment of deer shot by the aristocracy on their estates . Stowell said his information came from the private notes of Sir William Gull , a reputable physician who had treated members of the royal family . Stowell knew Gull 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Theodore Dyke Acland , and was an executor of Acland 's estate .
Stowell 's article attracted intense attention , and placed Albert Victor among the most notable Ripper suspects , but his innocence was soon proven . Gull died before Albert Victor , and so could not have known about Albert Victor 's death . All three doctors who were attending Albert Victor at his death in 1892 concurred that he had died of pneumonia , and given the timescale of syphilitic disease progression , it is highly improbable that Albert Victor had syphilis . The first symptoms of mental illness that arise from syphilitic infection tend to occur about 15 years from first exposure . While the timescale of disease progression is never absolute , for Albert Victor to have suffered from syphilitic insanity in 1888 , he would probably have to have been infected at the age of nine in about 1873 , six years before he visited the West Indies . Stowell claimed that his suspect had been incarcerated in a mental institution , when Albert Victor was serving in the British army , making regular public appearances , and visiting friends at country houses . Newspaper reports , Queen Victoria 's diary , family letters , and official documents prove that Albert Victor was attending functions in public , or meeting foreign royalty , or hundreds of miles from London at the time of each of the five canonical murders .
On 5 November 1970 , Stowell wrote to The Times denying that it was his intention to imply Prince Albert Victor was Jack the Ripper . The letter was published on 9 November , the day after the elderly Stowell 's own death from natural causes . The same week , Stowell 's son reported that he had burned his father 's papers , saying " I read just sufficient to make certain that there was nothing of importance . "
= = = Claims of Joseph Gorman = = =
Though Stowell 's hypothesis was incorrect , his article rekindled interest in the Jack the Ripper case , and in 1973 the BBC launched a television series , Jack the Ripper , which investigated the Whitechapel murders . The series mixed documentary and drama ; it featured real evidence but was hosted by fictional detectives Barlow and Watt , played by Stratford Johns and Frank Windsor , respectively . The series was made into a book , The Ripper File , by Elwyn Jones and John Lloyd in 1975 . The sixth and final programme included a testimony by Joseph Gorman , who called himself Joseph Sickert and claimed to be the illegitimate son of noted painter Walter Sickert . Gorman claimed that Sickert had told him a story that implicated not only the royal family but also a host of other famous people in the murders . According to Gorman , Gull committed the murders with the help of accomplices . Stowell had mentioned rumours implicating Gull in his article , but had dismissed them as unfair and false .
Gorman said that his Catholic grandmother had secretly married Albert Victor , and that his mother , as the legitimate daughter of Albert Victor , was the rightful heir to the throne . He claimed that the Ripper murders were staged as part of a conspiracy to hush up any potential scandal by murdering anyone who knew of the birth . In the original television series , the story is depicted as the belief of Gorman but not of the detectives . Captivated by Gorman 's story , journalist Stephen Knight decided to investigate the claims further , and eventually published his research as the book Jack the Ripper : The Final Solution in 1976 .
= = Content = =
= = = Gorman 's story = = =
The book begins with Knight explaining how he came to meet Joseph Gorman , and then he tells Gorman 's story which " did not come in clear , precise , chronological order but I had to glean it from rambling and sometimes vague discussion " . Gorman says that Albert Victor 's mother , Princess Alexandra , introduced Walter Sickert to her son in the hope that Sickert would teach Albert Victor about art . Gorman claims that Albert Victor met one of Sickert 's models , Annie Elizabeth Crook , a Catholic shop girl , at Sickert 's studio at 15 Cleveland Street , London . They had an affair , he says , and married in a secret ceremony with Sickert and Annie 's friend , Mary Jane Kelly , acting as witnesses . Gorman alleges that Albert Victor and Annie 's daughter , Alice Margaret Crook , was born on 18 April 1885 , and that Albert Victor settled Annie and Alice into an apartment in Cleveland Street . In April 1888 , Gorman continues , Queen Victoria and the British Prime Minister Lord Salisbury discovered Albert Victor 's secret . Gorman accuses Salisbury of ordering a raid on the apartment because he was afraid that public knowledge of a potential Catholic heir to the throne would result in a revolution . Gorman claims that Albert Victor was placed in the custody of his family , while Annie was placed in the custody of Sir William Gull , who certified her insane ; she spent the next 30 years drifting in and out of institutions before dying in 1920 .
Meanwhile , Gorman alleges , Kelly was looking after the daughter , Alice , both during and after the raid . Gorman asserts that at first Kelly was content to hide the child , but then she , along with her friends Mary Ann Nichols , Annie Chapman and Elizabeth Stride , decided to blackmail the government . Gorman accuses Salisbury of conspiring with his fellow freemasons , including senior policemen in the London Metropolitan Police , to stop the scandal by staging the murders of the women . Gorman says Salisbury assigned the task to Gull , who lured the four women into a carriage individually where Gull murdered them with the assistance of coachman John Netley and Sir Robert Anderson , Assistant Commissioner of Scotland Yard . Gorman claims a fifth victim , Catherine Eddowes , was killed accidentally in a case of mistaken identity because she used the alias Mary Ann Kelly and was confused with Mary Jane Kelly . Gorman alleges that Netley tried to kill the young Alice twice but after the second unsuccessful attempt several witnesses chased Netley , who threw himself into the Thames and drowned . Gorman completes the story by saying that Alice lived well into old age , later becoming Walter Sickert 's mistress , and that Alice and Walter Sickert are his parents .
= = = Knight 's investigation = = =
Knight explains that at first he did not believe Gorman 's sensational story , which seemed " arrant , if entertaining , nonsense " , but was so entranced by it that he had to investigate further . In describing the progress of his investigation , Knight reveals a series of coincidences : both Albert Victor 's mother and Alice Crook were deaf ; both Albert Victor 's mother and Walter Sickert were Danish ; Sickert is obsessed by the Ripper ; the murders ended with the death of Mary Kelly ; there was growing republican sentiment at the time of the murders , as well as anti @-@ Catholic prejudice ; a woman named " Elizabeth Cook " , who Knight claims could be Annie Elizabeth Crook misspelt , did live at 6 Cleveland Street ; Annie Crook was institutionalised ; rumours of the time link Prince Albert Victor to a scandal in Cleveland Street ; Gull was fond of grapes , and one of the victims may have been eating some at the time of her death ; Gull matches the description of an unnamed physician accused by clairvoyant Robert James Lees , who claimed to have identified the Ripper by using psychic powers .
Eventually , as the circumstantial coincidences build up , Knight becomes convinced that Gorman 's story is true . The lack of tangible evidence , he claims , is due to a government cover @-@ up and deliberate misdirection of the police investigation . To back up the claims of a masonic conspiracy , he notes supposed similarities between the Jack the Ripper killings and alleged masonic ritual murders , and accuses Sir Charles Warren , Commissioner of Police , of destroying evidence to protect his freemason cronies . Knight points out that Stowell , who was apparently the first person to suggest Albert Victor 's and Gull 's involvement in the murders , was a freemason .
= = Critical reception = =
Reviewers at the time of first publication met the book with undisguised scepticism and satire , but felt that Knight presented his unlikely case with ingenuity . Quentin Bell wrote in The Times Literary Supplement : " [ The book ] begins bravely and fairly by presenting the greater part of the author 's case and admitting at once that ' it all sounds terribly unlikely ' . It does . " Medical History stated : " Despite the author 's ingenuity the case does not stand up to careful and critical analysis and is no more ' final ' than its many predecessors . " Since then , scholars from multiple disciplines have rejected Gorman 's story as a ridiculous fantasy , and highlight many facts which contradict the version of events presented by Knight .
Annie Crook was a real person and did have a daughter , Alice , born on 18 April 1885 at St Marylebone Workhouse , and Joseph Gorman was Alice 's son . However , there is no evidence in support of Gorman 's claim that his father was Walter Sickert . Gorman was one of five children born within the marriage of Alice Margaret Crook and William Gorman . Furthermore , according to Trevor Marriott , an expert on the Jack the Ripper case , Alice " must have been conceived between 18 July and 11 August 1884 " . Albert Victor was in Heidelberg from June to August 1884 ; hence , he was not in London at the time of Alice 's conception and could not have been her father . The name of Alice 's father was left blank on her birth certificate , but in adulthood , Alice claimed her father was William Crook . William Crook was also the name of her grandfather . Ripper expert Don Rumbelow has suggested that the name of Alice 's father was omitted from her birth certificate either because she was illegitimate or to conceal an incestuous relationship between her mother , Annie , and grandfather , William . There is no record of any marriage between Albert Victor and Annie Crook ; even if such a marriage had taken place , it would have been invalid under British law due to the Royal Marriages Act 1772 , which voids any marriage contracted by a member of the royal family without the consent of the Sovereign . Any child of an invalid marriage is deemed illegitimate and excluded from the line of succession . Gorman claimed that his grandmother was Catholic , although records prove this to be untrue . If she had been and if she had married Albert Victor , he and their child would be excluded from inheriting the throne under the Act of Settlement 1701 , which excludes Catholics from the line of succession .
There are further multiple problems with Gorman 's version of events . An apartment at 6 Cleveland Street could not have been raided in April 1888 , since by that time Nos. 4 – 14 Cleveland Street had been demolished , and the house no longer existed . Annie and Alice were not supported by a wealthy patron , such as Albert Victor , but were paupers who occasionally lived in workhouses . Annie was not institutionalised for insanity but because of recurrent epilepsy . The Ripper victims were not known to be acquainted with each other or Annie Crook , who lived on the other side of Central London . Even if they had known her or her child , it is unlikely that their tale of royal illegitimacy would be believed , so any attempt by them to reveal the supposed scandal would merely have been dismissed . Gull retired from practice in 1887 after suffering a stroke , which left him temporarily partially paralysed and unable to speak . Gull did recover , but he suffered further attacks before his death in 1890 . Furthermore , neither Lord Salisbury , nor Sir James Anderson , nor Sir William Gull were freemasons , and there is no documentary evidence linking Netley to the other suspects , nor did he drown in the Thames . He was actually killed in 1903 after falling under the wheels of his own van . The forensic evidence indicates that the bodies of the victims were not moved , and so were not dissected in a carriage and then moved to where they were discovered . Some of the streets where the victims were found were too narrow for a carriage . Sickert did not have a studio in Cleveland Street , and there is no proof that he knew the Princess of Wales . Anderson was in Switzerland at the time of the double murder , and so was not one of the perpetrators .
Knight appreciated that there were problems with Gorman 's claims , but he " either misinterpreted , or deliberately ignored " them . Knight admitted that parts of Gorman 's story were wrong but claimed that such mistakes were " stronger support of the fact that he was telling the truth " . Realising that Anderson 's absence in Switzerland meant that Anderson could not have been an accomplice , Knight considered Walter Sickert a much more likely culprit than Anderson , and suggested that he was the " third man " to participate in the crimes . This was not the first accusation made against Sickert . He had been previously mentioned as a potential suspect in Donald McCormick 's 1959 book The Identity of Jack the Ripper . However , Sickert was in France with his mother and brother in the late summer of 1888 , and is unlikely even to have been in London at the time of at least four of the murders . After Knight implicated Sickert , Joseph Gorman withdrew his testimony , admitting to The Sunday Times newspaper that " it was a hoax ... a whopping fib " .
Knight 's friend and fellow Ripper aficionado Colin Wilson thought the story was " obvious nonsense " but shortly after Knight 's tragically early death from a brain tumour he wrote in his defence : " he wrote the book with his tongue in his cheek , then found himself caught up in a success that prevented him from retracting or quietly disowning it . "
= = Influence = =
Despite its many inconsistencies , Knight 's and Gorman 's conspiracy theory has captured the imagination of other authors , who have made further modifications to the story . For example , Melvyn Fairclough 's The Ripper and the Royals ( London : Duckworth , 1991 ) asserted that Lord Randolph Churchill was the " third man " , although Fairclough later disowned his own book and told reporters that " he no longer believes the theory " . Andy Parlour , Sue Parlour and Kevin O 'Donnell , authors of The Jack the Ripper Whitechapel Murders ( St. Osyth , Essex : Ten Bells Publishing , 1997 ) , supposed that Mary Jane Kelly was pregnant with Albert Victor 's child instead of Annie Crook . These , and other books which promote Sickert from a knowing accomplice to being Jack the Ripper himself , such as Jean Overton @-@ Fuller 's Sickert and the Ripper Crimes ( Oxford : Mandrake , 1990 ) and Patricia Cornwell 's Portrait of a Killer ( 2002 ) , are marketed as non @-@ fiction books , but they are dismissed almost universally as derivative fantasies based on Knight 's initial flawed analysis .
The conspiracy theory outlined in Jack the Ripper : The Final Solution is fictionalised in the play Force and Hypocrisy by Doug Lucie . Four films have used elements of the theory : Murder by Decree , Jack the Ripper , The Ripper , and the Hughes Brothers ' From Hell , which was based on a graphic novel of the same name by Alan Moore and artist Eddie Campbell .
Knight 's theory features in the final book of Philip José Farmer 's Riverworld series , Gods of Riverworld , and novels utilising Knight 's book as a base include Robin Paige 's Death at Whitechapel ( New York : Berkley Publishing Group , 2000 ) and Anne Perry 's The Whitechapel Conspiracy ( London : Headline , 2001 ) .
= Nigel Cullen =
Richard Nigel Cullen , DFC ( 5 June 1917 – 4 March 1941 ) was an Australian fighter ace of World War II . Serving with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , he was credited with as many as sixteen aerial victories before being killed in action during the Battle of Greece . Born in Newcastle , New South Wales , Cullen was living in London and had already seen action in the Spanish Civil War when he joined the RAF in 1937 . Following the outbreak of World War II , he served initially as a transport pilot with No. 267 Squadron in the Middle East before seeking reassignment to fighters . He was then posted to No. 80 Squadron , flying Gloster Gladiator biplanes , and claimed six Axis aircraft before the unit converted to Hawker Hurricanes . Nicknamed " Ape " due to his physical bulk , Cullen was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for destroying five enemy aircraft in a single sortie on 28 February 1941 . He was credited with another four victories in the one engagement on 3 March ; the next day , he was shot down and killed while on escort duty over Albania , by a Regia Aeronautica Fiat G.50bis , at age twenty @-@ three .
= = Early career = =
Born in Newcastle , New South Wales on 5 June 1917 , Nigel Cullen was the son of Horace David Cullen ( originally Horace David Cohen ) and his wife Hero . The boy 's uncle was future Major General Paul Alfred Cullen . Nigel was taken to England at an early age by his parents and attended Sherborne School in Dorset , before studying at the College of Aero Engineering , Chelsea . Fired by a love of adventure , he competed in motorbike racing at Brooklands in 1934 , and later saw action as a member of the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War , suffering a wound to the stomach that necessitated repatriation to England . When he caught up again with his friends from Brooklands , he was reluctant to talk about the conflict except to say that " the wars of the future would be fought in the air " .
Cullen was living in Putney when he joined the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in 1937 , and was granted a short @-@ service commission as an acting pilot officer on 9 August . Completing his probation the following May , he was promoted to flying officer on 31 December 1939 , shortly after the outbreak of World War II . Posted to the Middle East , his early wartime service was with No. 267 Squadron , a transport unit ferrying passengers and freight to and from Egypt . " Browned off " with transport duties , however , he sought reassignment to fighters and before long was able to effect a transfer to No. 80 Squadron , flying Gloster Gladiator biplanes , a type that was obsolescent well before the war began .
= = Fighter pilot = =
= = = Gladiators = = =
After joining No. 80 Squadron in the Western Desert Campaign , Cullen was schooled in fighter tactics by " Pat " Pattle , one of the leading British aces of the war . Nicknamed " Ape " by his colleagues due to his imposing physique , he was described by a fellow pilot as " a big , smiling , long @-@ armed giant from Putney , with an irresistible offensive spirit and quite fearless " .
Cullen was " blooded " on 9 October 1940 , after being detailed to search single @-@ handedly for a missing Allied truck . Failing to locate the vehicle , he spotted five Italian Breda Ba.65 ground @-@ attack aircraft south of Sidi Barrani and immediately engaged them , gaining credit for probably destroying one , although the Italians reported all aircraft as returning to base . No. 80 Squadron redeployed to Greece the following month , to assist in resisting the Italian invasion . There Cullen achieved his first confirmed victory , over a Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.81 three @-@ engined bomber near the Kassandra Peninsula on 30 December . He was promoted to flight lieutenant the next day .
On 28 January 1941 , Cullen claimed his second " kill " . That day , while on an offensive patrol between Kelcyre and Premet , over Albania , with fourteen Gladiators from No. 80 Squadron , he attacked four Fiat BR.20s and five CANT Z.1007bis bombers of the Regia Aeronautica . He reported destroying a Z.1007bis but may have been firing at an aircraft that was shot down by Pattle 's section . Cullen claimed a Fiat CR.42 fighter and a Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.79 bomber on successive days , 9 and 10 February respectively . He then recorded two victories in one mission on 20 February , over Albania . After sending a Fiat G.50 down in flames while escorting Allied bombers , he discovered two formations of CR.42s nearby and shot down one of them . Cullen later remarked , " The others made off at once . Just as well — I hadn 't any ammo left . " He had also been slightly wounded in the hand by a bullet .
Although the RAF claimed six Italian aircraft destroyed and two probables , including Cullen 's , on 20 February , Italian sources reported only the Fiat G.50 of Tenente Alfredo Fusco of the 361a Squadriglia as shot down , killing the pilot , and the G.50 of Tenente Livio Bassi of 395a Squadriglia as damaged in combat and later destroyed by fire in an attempted forced landing at Berat . On 23 February , Cullen attacked a CANT Z.506 three @-@ engined floatplane as it was taking off at Preveza in Greece , at first simply attempting to prevent it from getting airborne but then , when it refused to stop , destroying it on a second pass . The result did not add to his official score , however , as the Italian plane was not in full flight at the time of its destruction .
= = = Hurricanes = = =
By the time No. 80 Squadron began re @-@ equipping with Hawker Hurricanes in February 1941 , Cullen 's total of aerial victories stood at six enemy aircraft destroyed , plus one probable . He had earned a reputation for extreme aggression and doggedness in the air . His favourite tactic was to duel head @-@ on with his intended victim , two aircraft firing at each other with a closing speed of over 500 miles per hour ( 800 km / h ) ; he was quoted as saying , " It 's always interesting to see who will pull away first " . His colleagues reportedly said of him , " He never came out of a fight while a single enemy aircraft was left in the sky to give battle . He came home only when his guns were empty . " Cullen opened his score in the Hurricane on 27 February , shooting down a Fiat CR.42 while escorting Bristol Blenheim light bombers to Valona , Albania . The day after , in what has been described as " the greatest air battle of this period " , he was officially credited with shooting down five Italian planes in the one engagement , a record for his unit . His combat report read :
The battle exended right across Albania . First , I found four Breda 20s . I got one , which went down in flames . There we found three formations of SM.79s. I took on one and aimed at the starboard engine . It caught fire and crashed in flames . I climbed and dived on the next . He too crashed in flames . Then we attacked ten CR.42s , climbing to get above them . I got behind one , and he caught fire and went down in flames . Up again immediately – dived , fired into the cockpit and another one took fire , rolled over and crashed . I had to come home then – no more ammo .
For his achievements on 28 February , the RAF 's most successful day of the campaign , Cullen was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) . Italian sources recorded that a Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.79 was only damaged on 28 February , not shot down , and that the Breda 20s claimed by the RAF were in fact Fiat BR.20s. Cullen claimed another multiple kill on 3 March , when he and one of his comrades chased a group of CANT Z.1007bis that had just bombed Larissa , Greece . Catching the retreating bombers south @-@ west of Corfu , No. 80 Squadron claimed six destroyed and one probable . Cullen was credited with destroying four CANTs and probably destroying another , though the Italians reported that only two CANT bombers were lost .
The following day , 4 March , flying Hurricane V7288 , Cullen was escorting a group of Blenheims near Himarë in southern Albania . Once the Blenheims had bombed their target ( five Italian warships ) and were on their return flight , Flight Lieutenant Pattle ordered the Hurricanes to hunt in pairs over the warships , where a number of Italian fighters were seen . At once a lone G.50bis attacked Pattle and his wingman , on this occasion Cullen . Pattle reported shooting down the Fiat and watching it spiral into a mountainside , but at this moment a second Fiat jumped Cullen 's Hurricane and he was not seen again . His aircraft crashed near Himarë , and the Australian was killed ; he was twenty @-@ three years old . The citation for his DFC was promulgated in the London Gazette on 14 March :
In February , 1941 , this officer was pilot of one of a formation of aircraft which attacked a large force of enemy bombers escorted by at least 30 fighters . Displaying remarkable skill , Flight Lieutenant Cullen shot down five of the enemy 's aircraft in the ensuing action . He has now destroyed 11 enemy aircraft and has consistently shown great resource and courage .
Although the official history of Australia in the war puts the number of Cullen 's victories at thirteen , his total score is more commonly estimated as sixteen , or sixteen @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half . He is buried in Tirana Park Memorial Cemetery , Tirana , Albania . His name appears on the Commemorative Roll at the Australian War Memorial , Canberra .
= Interstate 705 =
Interstate 705 ( abbreviated I @-@ 705 , also known as the Tacoma Spur ) is a short Interstate Highway spur route of Interstate 5 located entirely within Tacoma , Pierce , Washington , United States . I @-@ 705 serves as the connector between Interstate 5 , Downtown Tacoma , Tacoma 's waterfront , North Tacoma , and the Tacoma Dome . I @-@ 705 was the last portion of the Interstate Highway System to be constructed in Washington .
= = Route description = =
The Tacoma Spur begins as a continuation of Washington State Route 7 ( SR 7 ) underneath I @-@ 5 in Tacoma , and has a posted speed limit of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) for the entire length ( 1 @.@ 5 Miles ) .
Traveling northbound as a continuation of SR 7 , the first exit is for South 26th Street , which provides access to the Tacoma Dome , the Tacoma Dome transit hub and the Tacoma Amtrak station . A single @-@ point urban interchange ( SPUI ) with SR 509 ( South 21st Street ) provides access to the University of Washington Tacoma campus , as well as the Port of Tacoma via the East 21st Street Bridge . The left two lanes of I @-@ 705 separate , providing access to A Street , as well as South 15th Street / Pacific Avenue , however travelers merging onto northbound I @-@ 705 can not access this exit . The Bridge of Glass , linking the Museum of Glass on the shorefront to downtown Tacoma , passes over I @-@ 705 as it continues north , paralleling the Thea Foss Waterway to the east , and Firemans Park to the west . A signalled at @-@ grade intersection with Stadium Way marks the end of I @-@ 705 northbound .
Traveling southbound towards I @-@ 5 , I @-@ 705 begins with on ramps from Stadium Way South and from Schuster Parkway . Passing Firemans Park on the south , traffic from South 9th Street and A Street merge onto I @-@ 705 . Traffic coming from Bates Technical College and South 13th Street join the freeway , as well as traffic from South A Street . A SPUI with SR 509 ( South 21st Street ) is the only exit in Tacoma , before either exiting onto I @-@ 5 southbound towards Portland , Oregon , I @-@ 5 northbound towards Seattle and Vancouver , British Columbia , or onto SR 7 .
Every year the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that as few as 26 @,@ 000 cars used the spur at the continuation point from SR 7 , and as many as 72 @,@ 000 cars between the onramp from I @-@ 5 and SR 509 . The entire Tacoma Spur is listed on both the WSDOT List of Highways of Statewide Significance , which marks the highway as a critical to connecting major communities in the state , and the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility .
= = History = =
The Tacoma Spur was first codified into law by the Washington State Legislature in 1979 ; however due to federal budget cuts , construction on the freeway was not completed until 1990 . The highway was the last Interstate to be completed in the state of Washington . The Tacoma City Council in 1992 proposed to name the freeway Martin Luther King Way , however that name was finally applied to nearby K Street . Work on the single @-@ point urban interchange , costing $ 29 @.@ 4 million ( equivalent to $ 48 million in 2016 ) , was completed in 1993 to accommodate the changes that were made to SR 509 through Tacoma .
= = Exit list = =
The entire highway is in Tacoma , Pierce County . All exits are unnumbered .
= George Harrison =
George Harrison , MBE ( 25 February 1943 – 29 November 2001 ) was an English guitarist , singer , songwriter , and music and film producer who achieved international fame as the lead guitarist of the Beatles . Often referred to as " the quiet Beatle " , Harrison embraced Indian mysticism and helped broaden the horizons of his fellow Beatles as well as their Western audience by incorporating Indian instrumentation in their music . Although the majority of the Beatles ' songs were written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney , most Beatles albums from 1965 onwards contained at least two Harrison compositions . His songs for the group included " Taxman " , " Within You Without You " , " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , " Here Comes the Sun " and " Something " , the last of which became the Beatles ' second @-@ most covered song .
Harrison 's earliest musical influences included George Formby and Django Reinhardt ; Carl Perkins , Chet Atkins and Chuck Berry were subsequent influences . By 1965 he had begun to lead the Beatles into folk rock through his interest in the Byrds and Bob Dylan , and towards Indian classical music through his use of the sitar on " Norwegian Wood ( This Bird Has Flown ) " . Having initiated the band 's embracing of Transcendental Meditation in 1967 , he subsequently developed an association with the Hare Krishna movement . After the band 's break @-@ up in 1970 , Harrison released the triple album All Things Must Pass , a critically acclaimed work that produced his most successful hit single , " My Sweet Lord " , and introduced his signature sound as a solo artist , the slide guitar . He also organised the 1971 Concert for Bangladesh with Indian musician Ravi Shankar , a precursor for later benefit concerts such as Live Aid . In his role as a music and film producer , Harrison produced acts signed to the Beatles ' Apple record label before founding Dark Horse Records in 1974 and co @-@ founding HandMade Films in 1978 .
Harrison released several best @-@ selling singles and albums as a solo performer , and in 1988 co @-@ founded the platinum @-@ selling supergroup the Traveling Wilburys . A prolific recording artist , he was featured as a guest guitarist on tracks by Badfinger , Ronnie Wood and Billy Preston , and collaborated on songs and music with Dylan , Eric Clapton , Ringo Starr and Tom Petty , among others . Rolling Stone magazine ranked him number 11 in their list of the " 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time " . He is a two @-@ time Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee – as a member of the Beatles in 1988 , and ( posthumously ) for his solo career in 2004 .
Harrison 's first marriage , to model Pattie Boyd in 1966 , ended in divorce in 1977 . The following year he married Olivia Harrison ( née Arias ) , with whom he had one son , Dhani . Harrison died in 2001 , aged 58 , from lung cancer . He was cremated and his ashes were scattered in the Ganges and Yamuna rivers in India , in a private ceremony according to Hindu tradition . He left an estate of almost £ 100 million .
= = Early years : 1943 – 57 = =
Born in Liverpool , England , on 25 February 1943 , Harrison was the youngest of four children of Harold Hargreaves Harrison and his wife Louise ( née French ) . He had one sister , Louise , and two brothers , Harry and Peter . His mother was a shop assistant from a Catholic family with Irish roots , and his father was a bus conductor who had worked as a ship 's steward on the White Star Line . His future wife , the model Pattie Boyd , described Harrison 's parents as " quite short and very Liverpudlian " . According to Boyd , Harrison 's mother was particularly supportive : " All she wanted for her children is that they should be happy , and she recognized that nothing made George quite as happy as making music . " An enthusiastic music fan , she was known among friends for her loud singing voice , which at times startled visitors by rattling the Harrisons ' windows . While pregnant with George , she often listened to the weekly broadcast Radio India . Harrison 's biographer Joshua Greene wrote , " Every Sunday she tuned in to mystical sounds evoked by sitars and tablas , hoping that the exotic music would bring peace and calm to the baby in the womb . "
Harrison was born and lived the first six years of his life at 12 Arnold Grove , Wavertree , Liverpool ; a terraced house in a dead end street . The home had an outdoor toilet and its only heat came from a single coal fire . In 1949 the family were offered a council house and moved to 25 Upton Green , Speke . In 1948 , at the age of five , Harrison enrolled at Dovedale Primary School . He passed the eleven plus exam and attended Liverpool Institute High School for Boys from 1954 to 1959 . Though the institute did offer a music course , Harrison was disappointed with the absence of guitars , and felt the school " moulded [ students ] into being frightened " .
Harrison 's earliest musical influences included George Formby , Cab Calloway , Django Reinhardt and Hoagy Carmichael ; by the 1950s , Carl Perkins and Lonnie Donegan were significant influences . In early 1956 he had an epiphany : while riding his bicycle , he heard Elvis Presley 's " Heartbreak Hotel " playing from a nearby house , and the song piqued his interest in rock and roll . He often sat at the back of the class drawing guitars in his schoolbooks , and later commented , " I was totally into guitars . " Harrison cited Slim Whitman as another early influence : " The first person I ever saw playing a guitar was Slim Whitman , either a photo of him in a magazine or live on television . Guitars were definitely coming in . "
Although apprehensive about his son 's interest in pursuing a music career , in late 1956 Harrison 's father bought him a Dutch Egmond flat top acoustic guitar . A friend of his father 's taught Harrison how to play " Whispering " , " Sweet Sue " and " Dinah " , and , inspired by Donegan 's music , Harrison formed a skiffle group called the Rebels with his brother Peter and a friend , Arthur Kelly . On the bus to school Harrison met Paul McCartney , and the pair bonded over their shared love of music .
= = The Beatles : 1958 – 70 = =
Harrison became part of the Beatles when they were still a skiffle group called the Quarrymen , with McCartney and John Lennon as members . McCartney told Lennon about his friend George Harrison , who could play " Raunchy " on his guitar . In March 1958 , Harrison auditioned for the Quarrymen at Rory Storm 's Morgue Skiffle Club , playing Arthur " Guitar Boogie " Smith 's " Guitar Boogie Shuffle " , but Lennon felt that Harrison , having just turned 15 , was too young to join the band . During a second meeting , arranged by McCartney , he performed the lead guitar part for the instrumental " Raunchy " on the upper deck of a Liverpool bus . He began socialising with the group , filling in on guitar as needed , and became accepted as a member . Although his father wanted him to continue his education , Harrison left school at 16 and worked for several months as an apprentice electrician at Blacklers , a local department store . During their first tour of Scotland , in 1960 , Harrison used the pseudonym " Carl Harrison " , in reference to Carl Perkins .
In 1960 , promoter Allan Williams arranged for the band , now calling themselves the Beatles , to play at the Kaiserkeller club in Hamburg owned by Bruno Koschmider . The impromptu musical education Harrison received while playing long hours with the Beatles , as well as the guitar lessons he took from Tony Sheridan while they briefly served as his backing group , laid the foundations of his sound and of his quiet , professional role within the group ; he was later known as " the quiet Beatle " . The band 's first residency in Hamburg ended prematurely when Harrison was deported for being too young to work in nightclubs . When Brian Epstein became their manager in December 1961 , he polished their image and secured them a recording contract with EMI . The group 's first single , " Love Me Do " , peaked at number seventeen on the Record Retailer chart , and by the time their debut album , Please Please Me , was released in early 1963 , Beatlemania had arrived . Their second album , With the Beatles ( 1963 ) , included " Don 't Bother Me " , Harrison 's first solo writing credit .
By 1965 's Rubber Soul , Harrison had begun to lead the other Beatles into folk rock through his interest in the Byrds and Bob Dylan , and towards Indian classical music through his use of the sitar on " Norwegian Wood ( This Bird Has Flown ) " . He later called Rubber Soul his " favourite [ Beatles ] album " . Revolver ( 1966 ) included three of his compositions : " Taxman " , " Love You To " and " I Want to Tell You " . His introduction of the drone @-@ like tambura part on Lennon 's " Tomorrow Never Knows " exemplified the band 's ongoing exploration of non @-@ Western instruments . The tabla @-@ driven " Love You To " was the Beatles ' first genuine foray into Indian music . According to the ethnomusicologist David Reck , the song set a precedent in popular music as an example of Asian culture being represented by Westerners respectfully and without parody . Harrison continued to develop his interest in non @-@ Western instrumentation , playing swarmandal on " Strawberry Fields Forever " .
By late 1966 Harrison 's interests had moved away from the Beatles , as reflected in his choice of Eastern gurus and religious leaders for inclusion on the album cover for Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band in 1967 . His sole composition on the album was the Indian @-@ inspired " Within You Without You " , to which no other Beatle contributed . He played sitar and tambura on the track , backed by musicians from the London Asian Music Circle on dilruba , swarmandal and tabla . He later commented on the Sgt. Pepper album : " It was a millstone and a milestone in the music industry ... There 's about half the songs I like and the other half I can 't stand . "
In 1968 his song " The Inner Light " was recorded at EMI 's studio in Bombay , featuring a group of local musicians playing traditional Indian instruments . Released as the B @-@ side to McCartney 's " Lady Madonna " , it was the first Harrison composition to appear on a Beatles single . Derived from a quotation from the Tao Te Ching , the song 's lyric reflected Harrison 's deepening interest in Hinduism and meditation , while musically it embraced the Karnatak discipline of Indian music , rather than the Hindustani style of his previous work in the genre . During the recording of The Beatles that same year , tensions within the group ran high , and drummer Ringo Starr quit briefly . Harrison 's songwriting contributions to the double album included " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , which featured Eric Clapton on lead guitar , " Piggies " , " Long , Long , Long " and " Savoy Truffle " .
Dylan and the Band were a major musical influence on Harrison at the end of his career with the Beatles . While on a visit to Woodstock in late 1968 , he established a friendship with Dylan and found himself drawn to the Band 's sense of communal music @-@ making and to the creative equality among the band members , which contrasted with Lennon and McCartney 's domination of the Beatles ' songwriting and creative direction . This coincided with a prolific period in his songwriting and a growing desire to assert his independence from the band . Tensions among the Beatles surfaced again in January 1969 , during the filming of rehearsals at Twickenham Studios for what became the album Let It Be . Frustrated by the poor working conditions in the cold and sterile film studio , as well as by what he perceived as Lennon 's creative disengagement from the Beatles and a domineering attitude from McCartney , Harrison quit the group on 10 January , but agreed to return twelve days later .
Relations among the Beatles were more cordial , though still strained , during sessions for their final recorded album , Abbey Road . The LP included two of Harrison 's most respected Beatles compositions : " Here Comes the Sun " and " Something " , which became one half of the Beatles ' first number one double A @-@ side single , Harrison 's first A @-@ side , and the first Harrison song to reach the top of the charts . In 1969 Frank Sinatra recorded " Something " , and later dubbed it " the greatest love song of the past fifty years " . Lennon considered it the best song on Abbey Road , and it became the Beatles ' second most covered song after " Yesterday " . Author Peter Lavezzoli wrote : " Harrison would finally achieve equal songwriting status ... with his two classic contributions to the final Beatles ' LP " .
In April 1970 when Harrison 's " For You Blue " was released in America as a double A @-@ side with McCartney 's " The Long and Winding Road " , it became the band 's second chart @-@ topping double A @-@ side and " For You Blue " became Harrison 's second number one hit . His increased productivity and the Beatles ' reluctance to include his songs on their albums meant that by the time of their break @-@ up he had amassed a stockpile of unreleased compositions . While Harrison grew as a songwriter , his compositional presence on Beatles albums remained
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otional song .
Everett described Harrison 's guitar solo from " Old Brown Shoe " as " stinging [ and ] highly Claptonesque " . He identified two of the composition 's significant motifs : a bluesy trichord and a diminished triad with roots in A and E. Huntley called the song " a sizzling rocker with a ferocious ... solo " . In Greene 's opinion , Harrison 's demo for " Old Brown Shoe " contains " one of the most complex lead guitar solos on any Beatles song " .
Harrison 's playing on Abbey Road , and in particular on " Something " , marked a significant moment in his development as a guitarist . The song 's guitar solo shows a varied range of influences , incorporating the blues guitar style of Clapton and the styles of Indian gamakas . According to author and musicologist Kenneth Womack : " ' Something ' meanders toward the most unforgettable of Harrison 's guitar solos ... A masterpiece in simplicity , [ it ] reaches toward the sublime " . Harrison received an Ivor Novello award in July 1970 for " Something " , as " The Best Song Musically and Lyrically of the Year " .
After Delaney Bramlett inspired him to learn slide guitar , Harrison began to incorporate it into his solo work , which allowed him to mimic many traditional Indian instruments , including the sarangi and the dilruba . Leng described Harrison 's slide guitar solo on Lennon 's " How Do You Sleep ? " as a departure for " the sweet soloist of ' Something ' " , calling his playing " rightly famed ... one of Harrison 's greatest guitar statements " . Lennon commented : " That 's the best he 's ever fucking played in his life . "
A Hawaiian influence is notable in much of Harrison 's music , ranging from his slide guitar work on Gone Troppo ( 1982 ) to his televised performance of the Cab Calloway standard " Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea " on ukulele in 1992 . Lavezzoli described Harrison 's slide playing on the Grammy @-@ winning instrumental " Marwa Blues " ( 2002 ) as demonstrating Hawaiian influences while comparing the melody to an Indian sarod or veena , calling it " yet another demonstration of Harrison 's unique slide approach " . Harrison was an admirer of George Formby and a member of the Ukulele Society of Great Britain , and played a ukulele solo in the style of Formby at the end of " Free as a Bird " . He performed at a Formby convention in 1991 , and served as the honorary president of the George Formby Appreciation Society . Harrison played bass guitar on numerous tracks , including the Beatles songs " She Said She Said " , " Golden Slumbers " , " Birthday " and " Honey Pie " . He also played bass on several solo recordings , including " Faster " , " Wake Up My Love " and " Bye Bye Love " .
= = = Guitars = = =
When Harrison joined the Quarrymen in 1958 his main guitar was a Höfner President Acoustic , which he soon traded for a Höfner Club 40 model . His first solid @-@ body electric guitar was a Czech @-@ built Jolana Futurama / Grazioso . The guitars he used on early recordings were mainly Gretsch models , played through a Vox amplifier , including a Gretsch Duo Jet that he bought secondhand in 1961 , and posed with on the album cover for Cloud Nine ( 1987 ) . He also bought a Gretsch Tennessean and a Gretsch Country Gentleman , which he played on " She Loves You " , and during the Beatles ' 1964 appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show . In 1963 he bought a Rickenbacker 425 Fireglo , and in 1964 he acquired a Rickenbacker 360 / 12 guitar , which was the second of its kind to be manufactured . Harrison obtained his first Fender Stratocaster in 1965 and used it in recording Rubber Soul , notably on the song " Nowhere Man " .
In early 1966 Harrison , Lennon , and McCartney each purchased Epiphone Casinos , which they used on Revolver . Harrison also used a Gibson J @-@ 160E and a Gibson SG Standard while recording the album . He later painted his Stratocaster in a psychedelic design that included the word " Bebopalula " above the pickguard and the guitar 's nickname , " Rocky " , on the headstock . He played this guitar in the Magical Mystery Tour film and throughout his solo career . In mid @-@ 1968 he acquired a Gibson Les Paul that he nicknamed " Lucy " . Around this time , he obtained a Gibson Jumbo J @-@ 200 , which he used for early demos of " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " . In late 1968 Fender Musical Instruments Corporation gave Harrison a custom @-@ made Fender Telecaster Rosewood prototype , made especially for him by Philip Kubicki ( who years later would start his own business , Factor ) , a Fender master builder who also crafted a prototype Stratocaster for Jimi Hendrix .
= = = Collaborations = = =
From 1968 onward Harrison collaborated with other musicians ; he brought in Eric Clapton to play lead guitar on " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " for the 1968 Beatles ' White Album , and collaborated with John Barham on his 1968 debut solo album , Wonderwall Music , which included contributions from Clapton again , as well as Peter Tork from the Monkees . He played on tracks by Dave Mason , Nicky Hopkins , Alvin Lee , Ronnie Wood , Billy Preston and Tom Scott . Harrison co @-@ wrote songs and music with Dylan , Clapton , Preston , Doris Troy , David Bromberg , Gary Wright , Wood , Jeff Lynne , and Tom Petty , among others . Harrison 's music projects during the final years of the Beatles included producing Apple Records artists Doris Troy , Jackie Lomax and Billy Preston .
Harrison co @-@ wrote the song " Badge " with Clapton , which was included on Cream 's 1969 album , Goodbye . Harrison played rhythm guitar on the track , using the pseudonym " L 'Angelo Misterioso " for contractual reasons . In May 1970 he played guitar on several songs during a recording session for Dylan 's album New Morning . In addition to his own work , between 1971 and 1973 he co @-@ wrote and / or produced three top ten hits for Starr : " It Don 't Come Easy " , " Back Off Boogaloo " and " Photograph " . In 1971 he played electric slide guitar on " How Do You Sleep ? " and a dobro on " Crippled Inside " , both from Lennon 's Imagine album . Also that year , he produced and played slide guitar on Badfinger 's top ten hit " Day After Day " , and a dobro on Preston 's " I Wrote a Simple Song " . He worked with Harry Nilsson on " You 're Breakin ' My Heart " ( 1972 ) and with Cheech & Chong on " Basketball Jones " ( 1973 ) . In 1973 he produced and made a guest appearance on the album Shankar Family & Friends .
In 1974 Harrison founded Dark Horse Records . In addition to eventually releasing his own albums on the label , he initially used the company as an avenue for collaboration with other musicians . He wanted Dark Horse to serve as a creative outlet for artists , as Apple Records had for the Beatles . Harrison explained : " Most of the stuff will be what I produce " . Eric Idle commented : " He 's extremely generous , and he backs and supports all sorts of people that you 'll never , ever hear of . " The first acts signed to the new label were Ravi Shankar and Splinter , whose album Harrison produced , which provided Dark Horse with their first hit , " Costafine Town " . Other artists signed by Dark Horse include Attitudes , Henry McCullough , Jiva , and Stairsteps .
Harrison collaborated with Tom Scott on Scott 's album New York Connection ( 1976 ) , and in 1981 he played guitar on " Walk a Thin Line " , from Mick Fleetwood 's The Visitor . In 1996 he recorded " Distance Makes No Difference With Love " with Carl Perkins , and played slide guitar on the title track of Dylan 's Under the Red Sky album . In 2001 he performed as a guest musician on Jeff Lynne and Electric Light Orchestra 's comeback album Zoom , and on the song " Love Letters " for Bill Wyman 's Rhythm Kings . He also co @-@ wrote a new song with his son Dhani , " Horse to the Water " , which was recorded on 1 October , eight weeks before his death . It appeared on Jools Holland 's album Small World , Big Band .
= = = Sitar and Indian music = = =
During the Beatles ' American tour in August 1965 , Harrison 's friend David Crosby of the Byrds introduced him to Indian classical music and the work of sitar maestro Ravi Shankar . Harrison described Shankar as " the first person who ever impressed me in my life ... and he was the only person who didn 't try to impress me . " Harrison became fascinated with the sitar and immersed himself in Indian music . According to Lavezzoli , Harrison 's introduction of the instrument on the Beatles ' song " Norwegian Wood " " opened the floodgates for Indian instrumentation in rock music , triggering what Shankar would call ' The Great Sitar Explosion ' of 1966 – 67 " . Lavezzoli described Harrison as " the man most responsible for this phenomenon " .
In June 1966 Harrison met Shankar at the home of Mrs Angadi of the Asian Music Circle , asked to be his student , and was accepted . On 6 July , Harrison travelled to India to buy a sitar from Rikhi Ram & Sons in New Delhi . Lavezzoli described Harrison 's sitar playing on the Revolver track " Love You To " as an " astonishing improvement " over " Norwegian Wood " and " the most accomplished performance on sitar by any rock musician " . In September , he returned to India to study sitar with Shankar . He initially stayed in Bombay , then moved to a houseboat on a remote lake where Shankar taught him for six weeks . After Shankar , he received tutelage from Shambu Das .
Harrison studied the instrument until 1968 , when an encounter with Clapton and Hendrix at a hotel in New York convinced him to put down the instrument and return to guitar playing . He commented : " I decided ... I should get back to the guitar because I 'm not getting any better at it , and I 'm not going to be a great sitar player ... because I should have started at least fifteen years earlier . "
= = Personal life = =
= = = Hinduism = = =
By the mid @-@ 1960s Harrison had become an admirer of Indian culture and mysticism , introducing it to the other Beatles . During the filming of Help ! in the Bahamas , they met the founder of Sivananda Yoga , Swami Vishnu @-@ devananda , who gave each of them a signed copy of his book , The Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga . Between the end of the last Beatles tour in 1966 and the beginning of the Sgt Pepper recording sessions , he made a pilgrimage to India with his wife Pattie ; there , he studied sitar with Ravi Shankar , met several gurus , and visited various holy places . In 1968 he travelled to Rishikesh in northern India with the other Beatles to study meditation with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi . Harrison 's use of psychedelic drugs encouraged his path to meditation and Hinduism . He commented : " For me , it was like a flash . The first time I had acid , it just opened up something in my head that was inside of me , and I realized a lot of things . I didn 't learn them because I already knew them , but that happened to be the key that opened the door to reveal them . From the moment I had that , I wanted to have it all the time – these thoughts about the yogis and the Himalayas , and Ravi 's music . "
In line with the Hindu yoga tradition , Harrison became a vegetarian in the late 1960s . After being given various religious texts by Shankar in 1966 , he remained a lifelong advocate of the teachings of Swami Vivekananda and Paramahansa Yogananda – yogis and authors , respectively , of Raja Yoga and Autobiography of a Yogi . In mid @-@ 1969 , he produced the single " Hare Krishna Mantra " , performed by members of the London Radha Krishna Temple . Having also helped the Temple devotees become established in Britain , Harrison then met their leader , A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada , whom he described as " my friend … my master " and " a perfect example of everything he preached " . Harrison embraced the Hare Krishna tradition , particularly japa @-@ yoga chanting with beads , and became a lifelong devotee .
Regarding other faiths he once remarked : " All religions are branches of one big tree . It doesn 't matter what you call Him just as long as you call . " He commented on his beliefs :
Krishna actually was in a body as a person ... What makes it complicated is , if he 's God , what 's he doing fighting on a battlefield ? It took me ages to try to figure that out , and again it was Yogananda 's spiritual interpretation of the Bhagavad Gita that made me realise what it was . Our idea of Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield in the chariot . So this is the point – that we 're in these bodies , which is like a kind of chariot , and we 're going through this incarnation , this life , which is kind of a battlefield . The senses of the body ... are the horses pulling the chariot , and we have to get control over the chariot by getting control over the reins . And Arjuna in the end says , " Please Krishna , you drive the chariot " because unless we bring Christ or Krishna or Buddha or whichever of our spiritual guides ... we 're going to crash our chariot , and we 're going to turn over , and we 're going to get killed in the battlefield . That 's why we say " Hare Krishna , Hare Krishna " , asking Krishna to come and take over the chariot .
Before his religious conversion , the only British performer known for similar activities had been Cliff Richard , whose conversion to Christianity in 1966 had gone largely unnoticed by the public . " By contrast , " wrote Inglis , " Harrison 's spiritual journey was seen as a serious and important development that reflected popular music 's increasing maturity ... what he , and the Beatles , had managed to overturn was the paternalistic assumption that popular musicians had no role other than to stand on stage and sing their hit songs . "
= = = Family and interests = = =
Harrison married the model Pattie Boyd on 21 January 1966 , with McCartney as best man . Harrison and Boyd had met in 1964 during the production of the film A Hard Day 's Night , in which the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Boyd had been cast as a schoolgirl . They separated in 1974 and their divorce was finalised in 1977 . Boyd said her decision to end their marriage and leave Harrison was due largely to his repeated infidelities , culminating in an affair with Starr 's wife Maureen , which Boyd called " the final straw " . She characterised the last year of their marriage as " fuelled by alcohol and cocaine " , and she stated : " George used coke excessively , and I think it changed him ... it froze his emotions and hardened his heart . " She subsequently moved in with Eric Clapton , and they married in 1979 .
Harrison married Dark Horse Records ' secretary Olivia Trinidad Arias on 2 September 1978 . They had met at the Dark Horse offices in Los Angeles in 1974 , and together had one son , Dhani Harrison , born on 1 August 1978 .
He restored the English manor house and grounds of Friar Park , his home in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames , where several of his music videos were filmed including " Crackerbox Palace " ; the grounds also served as the background for the cover of All Things Must Pass . He employed ten workers to maintain the 36 @-@ acre ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) garden . Harrison commented on gardening as a form of escapism : " Sometimes I feel like I 'm actually on the wrong planet , and it 's great when I 'm in my garden , but the minute I go out the gate I think : ' What the hell am I doing here ? ' " His autobiography , I , Me , Mine , is dedicated " to gardeners everywhere " . The former Beatles publicist Derek Taylor helped Harrison write the book , which said little about the Beatles , focusing instead on Harrison 's hobbies , music and lyrics . Taylor commented : " George is not disowning the Beatles ... but it was a long time ago and actually a short part of his life . "
Harrison had an interest in sports cars and motor racing ; he was one of the 100 people who purchased the McLaren F1 road car . He had collected photos of racing drivers and their cars since he was young ; at 12 he had attended his first race , the 1955 British Grand Prix at Aintree . He wrote " Faster " as a tribute to the Formula One racing drivers Jackie Stewart and Ronnie Peterson . Proceeds from its release went to the Gunnar Nilsson cancer charity , set up after the Swedish driver 's death from the disease in 1978 . Harrison 's first extravagant car , a 1964 Aston Martin DB5 , was sold at auction on 7 December 2011 in London . An anonymous Beatles collector paid £ 350 @,@ 000 for the vehicle that Harrison had bought new in January 1965 .
= = = Relationships with the other Beatles = = =
For most of the Beatles ' career the relationships in the group were close . According to Hunter Davies , " the Beatles spent their lives not living a communal life , but communally living the same life . They were each other 's greatest friends . " Harrison 's ex @-@ wife Pattie Boyd described how the Beatles " all belonged to each other " and admitted , " George has a lot with the others that I can never know about . Nobody , not even the wives , can break through or even comprehend it . "
Starr said , " We really looked out for each other and we had so many laughs together . In the old days we 'd have the biggest hotel suites , the whole floor of the hotel , and the four of us would end up in the bathroom , just to be with each other " . He added , " there were some really loving , caring moments between four people : a hotel room here and there – a really amazing closeness . Just four guys who loved each other . It was pretty sensational . "
Lennon stated that his relationship with Harrison was " one of young follower and older guy ... [ he ] was like a disciple of mine when we started . " The two later bonded over their LSD experiences , finding common ground as seekers of spirituality . They took radically different paths thereafter , Harrison finding God and Lennon coming to the conclusion that people are the creators of their own lives . In 1974 Harrison said of his former bandmate : " John Lennon is a saint and he 's heavy @-@ duty , and he 's great and I love him . But at the same time , he 's such a bastard – but that 's the great thing about him , you see ? "
Harrison and McCartney were the first of the Beatles to meet , having shared a school bus , and often learned and rehearsed new guitar chords together . McCartney stated that he and Harrison usually shared a bedroom while touring . McCartney was best man at Harrison 's wedding in 1966 , and was the only Beatle in attendance . McCartney has referred to Harrison as his " baby brother " . In a 1974 BBC radio interview with Alan Freeman , Harrison stated : " [ McCartney ] ruined me as a guitar player " . Perhaps the most significant obstacle to a Beatles reunion after the death of Lennon was Harrison and McCartney 's personal relationship , as both men admitted that they often got on each other 's nerves . Rodriguez commented : " Even to the end of George 's days , theirs was a volatile relationship " .
= = = Humanitarian work = = =
Harrison was involved in humanitarian and political activism throughout his life . In the 1960s , the Beatles supported the civil rights movement and protested against the Vietnam War . After the band 's break @-@ up , Ravi Shankar consulted Harrison about how to provide aid to the people of Bangladesh after the 1970 Bhola cyclone and the Bangladesh Liberation War . Harrison recorded the song " Bangla Desh " , and pushed Apple Records to release his song alongside Shankar 's " Joy Bangla " in an effort to raise funds . Shankar then asked for Harrison 's advice about planning a small charity event in the US . Harrison responded by organising the Concert for Bangladesh , which raised more than $ 240 @,@ 000 . In June 1972 , UNICEF honoured Harrison and Shankar with the " Child Is the Father of Man " award at an annual ceremony in recognition of their fundraising efforts for Bangladesh .
The George Harrison Humanitarian Fund for UNICEF , a joint effort between the Harrison family and the US Fund for UNICEF , aims to support programmes that help children caught in humanitarian emergencies . In December 2007 , they donated $ 450 @,@ 000 to help the victims of Cyclone Sidr in Bangladesh . On 13 October 2009 , the first George Harrison Humanitarian Award went to Ravi Shankar for his efforts in saving the lives of children , and his involvement with the Concert for Bangladesh .
= = HandMade Films = =
In 1973 Peter Sellers introduced Harrison to Denis O 'Brien . Soon after , the two went into business together . In 1978 , in an effort to produce Monty Python 's Life of Brian , they formed the film production and distribution company HandMade Films . Harrison explained : " The name of the company came about as a bit of a joke . I 'd been to Wooky Hole in Somerset ... [ near ] an old paper mill where they show you how to make old underpants into paper . So I bought a few rolls , and they had this watermark ' British Handmade Paper ' ... So we said ... we 'll call it Handmade Films . "
Their opportunity for investment came after EMI Films withdrew funding at the demand of their Chief Executive , Bernard Delfont . Harrison financed the production of Life of Brian in part by mortgaging his home , which Idle later called " the most anybody 's ever paid for a cinema ticket in history . " The film grossed $ 21 million at the box office in the US . The first film distributed by HandMade Films was The Long Good Friday ( 1980 ) , and the first they produced was Time Bandits ( 1981 ) , co @-@ scripted project by Monty Python 's Terry Gilliam and Michael Palin . The film featured a new song by Harrison , " Dream Away " , in the closing credits . Time Bandits became one of HandMade 's most successful and acclaimed efforts ; with a budget of $ 5 million , it earned $ 35 million in the US within ten weeks of its release .
Harrison served as executive producer for 23 films with HandMade , including Mona Lisa , Shanghai Surprise and Withnail and I. He made several cameo appearances in these films , including a role as a nightclub singer in Shanghai Surprise , for which he recorded five new songs . According to author and musicologist Ian Inglis , Harrison 's " executive role in HandMade Films helped to sustain British cinema at a time of crisis , producing some of the country 's most memorable movies of the 1980s . " A series of box office bombs in the late 1980s caused HandMade to cease operations in 1991 ; three years later , the company was sold .
= = Legacy = =
In June 1965 , Harrison and the other Beatles were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) . They received their insignia from the Queen at an investiture at Buckingham Palace on 26 October . In 1971 the Beatles received an Academy Award for the best Original Song Score for the film Let It Be . The minor planet 4149 Harrison , discovered in 1984 , was named after him , as was a variety of Dahlia flower . In December 1992 he became the first recipient of the Billboard Century Award , an honour presented to music artists for significant bodies of work . Rolling Stone magazine ranked him number 11 in their list of the " 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time " .
In 2002 , on the first anniversary of his death , the Concert for George was held at the Royal Albert Hall . Clapton organised the event , which included performances by many of Harrison 's friends and musical collaborators , including McCartney and Starr . Eric Idle , who described Harrison as " one of the few morally good people that rock and roll has produced " , performed Monty Python 's " Lumberjack Song " . The profits from the concert went to Harrison 's charity , the Material World Charitable Foundation .
In 2004 , Harrison was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist by his former bandmates Lynne and Petty , and into the Madison Square Garden Walk of Fame in 2006 for the Concert for Bangladesh . On 14 April 2009 , the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce awarded Harrison a star on the Walk of Fame in front of the Capitol Records Building . McCartney , Lynne and Petty were present when the star was unveiled . Harrison 's widow Olivia , the actor Tom Hanks and Idle made speeches at the ceremony , and Harrison 's son Dhani spoke the Hare Krishna mantra .
A documentary film entitled George Harrison : Living in the Material World , directed by Martin Scorsese , was released in October 2011 . The film features interviews with Olivia and Dhani Harrison , Klaus Voormann , Terry Gilliam , Starr , Clapton , McCartney , Keltner and Astrid Kirchherr .
Harrison was posthumously honoured with The Recording Academy 's Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award at the Grammy Awards in February 2015 .
= = Discography = =
Wonderwall Music ( 1968 )
Electronic Sound ( 1969 )
All Things Must Pass ( 1970 )
Living in the Material World ( 1973 )
Dark Horse ( 1974 )
Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) ( 1975 )
Thirty Three & 1 / 3 ( 1976 )
George Harrison ( 1979 )
Somewhere in England ( 1981 )
Gone Troppo ( 1982 )
Cloud Nine ( 1987 )
Brainwashed ( 2002 )
= George Moore ( novelist ) =
George Augustus Moore ( 24 February 1852 – 21 January 1933 ) was an Irish novelist , short @-@ story writer , poet , art critic , memoirist and dramatist . Moore came from a Roman Catholic landed family who lived at Moore Hall in Carra , County Mayo . He originally wanted to be a painter , and studied art in Paris during the 1870s . There , he befriended many of the leading French artists and writers of the day .
As a naturalistic writer , he was amongst the first English @-@ language authors to absorb the lessons of the French realists , and was particularly influenced by the works of Émile Zola . His writings influenced James Joyce , according to the literary critic and biographer Richard Ellmann , and , although Moore 's work is sometimes seen as outside the mainstream of both Irish and British literature , he is as often regarded as the first great modern Irish novelist .
= = Life = =
= = = Family origins = = =
George Moore 's family had lived in Moore Hall , near Lough Carra , County Mayo for almost a century . The house was built by his paternal great @-@ grandfather — also called George Moore — who had made his fortune as a wine merchant in Alicante . The novelist 's grandfather was a friend of Maria Edgeworth , and author of An Historical Memoir of the French Revolution . His great @-@ uncle , John Moore , was president of the short @-@ lived Republic of Connacht during the Irish Rebellion of 1798 . The novelist 's father , George Henry Moore , sold his stable and hunting interests during the Great Irish Famine , and from 1847 – 1857 , served as an Independent Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Mayo in the British House of Commons . George Henry was renowned as a fair landlord , fought to uphold the rights of tenants , and was a founder of the Catholic Defence Association . His estate consisted of 5000 ha ( 50 km ² ) in Mayo , with a further 40 ha in County Roscommon .
= = = Early life = = =
George Moore was born in Moore Hall in 1852 . As a child , Moore enjoyed the novels of Walter Scott , which his father read to him . He spent a good deal of time outdoors with his brother , Maurice George Moore , and also became friendly with the young Willie and Oscar Wilde , who spent their summer holidays at nearby Moytura . Oscar was to later quip of Moore : " He conducts his education in public " .
His father had again turned his attention to horse breeding and in 1861 brought his champion horse , Croagh Patrick , to England for a successful racing season , together with his wife and nine @-@ year @-@ old son . For a while George was left at Cliff 's stables until his father decided to send George to his alma mater facilitated by his winnings . Moore 's formal education started at St. Mary 's College , Oscott , a Catholic boarding school near Birmingham where he was the youngest of 150 boys . He spent all of 1864 at home , having contracted a lung infection brought about by a breakdown in his health . His academic performance was poor while he was hungry and unhappy . In January 1865 , he returned to St. Mary 's College with his brother Maurice , where he refused to study as instructed and spent time reading novels and poems . That December the principal , Spencer Northcote , wrote a report that : " he hardly knew what to say about George . " By the summer of 1867 he was expelled , for ( in his own words ) ' idleness and general worthlessness ' , and returned to Mayo . His father once remarked , about George and his brother Maurice : " I fear those two redheaded boys are stupid " , an observation which proved untrue for all four boys .
= = = London and Paris = = =
In 1868 , Moore 's father was again elected MP for Mayo and the family moved to London the following year . Here , Moore senior tried , unsuccessfully , to have his son follow a career in the military though , prior to this , he attended the School of Art in the South Kensington Museum where his achievements were no better . He was freed from any burden of education when his father died in 1870 . Moore , though still a minor , inherited the family estate that was valued at £ 3 @,@ 596 . He handed it over to his brother Maurice to manage and in 1873 , on attaining his majority , moved to Paris to study art . It took him several attempts to find an artist who would accept him as a pupil . Monsieur Jullian , who had previously been a shepherd and circus masked man , took him on for 40 francs a month . At Académie Jullian he met Lewis Weldon Hawkins who became Moore 's flat @-@ mate and whose trait , as a failed artist , show up in Moore 's own characters . He met many of the key artists and writers of the time , including Pissarro , Degas , Renoir , Monet , Daudet , Mallarmé , Turgenev and , above all , Zola , who was to prove an influential figure in Moore 's subsequent development as a writer .
While still in Paris his first book , a collection of lyric poems called The Flowers of Passion , was self @-@ published in 1877 . The poems were derivative , maliciously reviewed by the critics who were offended by some of the depravities in store for moralistic readers and was withdrawn by Moore . He was forced to return to Ireland in 1880 to raise £ 3 @,@ 000 to pay debts incurred on the family estate due to his tenants refusing to pay their rent and the drop in agricultural prices . During his time back in Mayo , he gained a reputation as a fair landlord , continuing the family tradition of not evicting tenants and refusing to carry firearms when travelling round the estate . While in Ireland , he decided to abandon art and move to London to become a professional writer . There he published his second poetry collection , Pagan Poems , in 1881 . These early poems reflect his interest in French symbolism and are now almost entirely neglected . In 1886 Moore published Confessions of a Young Man , a lively and energetic memoir about his 20s spent in Paris and London among bohemian artists . It contains a substantial amount of literary criticism for which it has received a fair amount of praise , for instance The Modern Library chose it in 1917 to be included in the series as " one of the most significant documents of the passionate revolt of English literature against the Victorian tradition . "
= = = Controversy in England = = =
During the 1880s , Moore began work on a series of novels in a realist style . His first novel , A Modern Lover ( 1883 ) was a three @-@ volume work , as preferred by the circulating libraries , and deals with the art scene of the 1870s and 1880s in which many characters are identifiably real . The circulating libraries in England banned the book because of its explicit portrayal of the amorous pursuits of its hero . At this time the British circulating libraries , such as Mudie 's Select Library , controlled the market for fiction and the public , who paid fees to borrow their books , expected them to guarantee the morality of the novels available . His next book , a novel in the realist style , A Mummers Wife ( 1885 ) was also regarded as unsuitable by Mudie 's and W H Smith refused to stock it on their news @-@ stalls . Despite this , during its first year of publication the book was in its fourteenth edition mainly due to the publicity garnered by its opponents . The French newspaper Le Voltaire published it in serial form as La Femme du cabotin in July – October 1886 . His next novel A Drama in Muslin was banned by Mudie 's and Smith 's . In response Moore declared war on the circulating libraries by publishing two provocative pamphlets ; Literature at Nurse and Circulating Morals . In these , he complained that the libraries profit from salacious popular fiction while refusing to stock serious literary fiction .
Moore 's publisher Henry Vizetelly began to issue unabridged mass @-@ market translations of French realist novels that endangered the moral and commercial influence of the circulating libraries around this time . In 1888 , the circulating libraries fought back by encouraging the House of Commons to implement laws to stop ' the rapid spread of demoralising literature in this country ' . However , Vizetelly was brought to court by the National Vigilance Association ( NVA ) for ' obscene libel ' . The charge arose due to the publication of the English translation of Zola 's La Terre . A second case was brought the following year in order to force implementation of the original judgement and to remove all of Zola 's works . This led to the 70 @-@ year @-@ old publisher becoming involved in the literary cause . Throughout Moore stayed loyal to Zola 's publisher , and on 22 September 1888 , about a month before the trial , wrote a letter that appeared in the St. James Gazette . In it Moore suggested it was improper that Vizetelly 's fate be determined by a jury of twelve tradesmen , explaining it would be preferable to be judged by three novelists . Moore pointed out that the NVA could make the same claims against such books as Madame Bovary and Gautier 's Mademoiselle de Maupin , as their morals are equivalent to Zola 's , though their literary merits might differ .
Because of his willingness to tackle such issues as prostitution , extramarital sex and lesbianism , Moore 's novels were initially met with disapprobation . However , as the public 's taste for realist fiction grew , this subsided . Moore began to find success as an art critic with the publication of books such as Impressions and Opinions ( 1891 ) and Modern Painting ( 1893 ) — which was the first significant attempt to introduce the Impressionists to an English audience . By this time Moore was first able to live from the proceeds of his literary work .
Other realist novels by Moore from this period include A Drama in Muslin ( 1886 ) , a satiric story of the marriage trade in Anglo @-@ Irish society that hints at same @-@ sex
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2 @,@ 500 patrons proved an expensive proposition , even with the help of the crowd @-@ generating MASSIVE software . Early suggestions were to show cutaways of just a small portion of the audience , but the full effect was achieved by only showing the back of the audience . To save time , most of the audience models were borrowed from the previous Pixar film , Ratatouille . Additionally , Presto 's body ( from the neck down ) is Skinner 's lawyer , and the carrot was one of the many food props from that film .
= = Reception = =
Reaction to the short film was positive . Carl Cortez of If called Presto a " winner through and through " . Jake Coyle of the Associated Press found Presto to be " a delightful and cartoonish appetizer " which kept the tradition of short pre @-@ feature films alive . Darren Bevan of Television New Zealand thought that although WALL @-@ E was a " delightful tale " and " truly gorgeous " , Presto " very nearly stole Wall @-@ E 's thunder " . James Sanford of the Kalamazoo Gazette called the short a superb and hilarious curtain @-@ raiser , describing it as a Bugs Bunny Looney Tunes version of The Prestige . Presto was nominated for the 36th Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject . The short was also nominated for the Academy Award for Animated Short Film , but lost to La Maison en Petits Cubes .
= Fluor Corporation =
Fluor Corporation is a multinational engineering and construction firm headquartered in Irving , Texas . It is a holding company that provides services through its subsidiaries in the following areas : oil and gas , industrial and infrastructure , government and power . It is the largest engineering & construction company in the Fortune 500 rankings and lists 136th overall in the same rankings .
Fluor was founded in 1912 by John Simon Fluor as Fluor Construction Company . It grew quickly , predominantly by building oil refineries , pipelines and other facilities for the oil and gas industry , at first in California , and then in the Middle East and globally . In the late 1960s , it began diversifying into oil drilling , coal mining and other raw materials like lead . A global recession in the oil and gas industry and losses from its mining operation led to restructuring and layoffs in the 1980s . Fluor sold its oil operations and diversified its construction work into a broader range of services and industries .
In the 1990s , Fluor introduced new services like equipment rentals and staffing . Nuclear waste cleanup projects and other environmental work became a significant portion of Fluor 's revenues . The company also did projects related to the Manhattan Project , rebuilding after the Iraq War , recovering from Hurricane Katrina and building the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System .
= = Corporate history = =
= = = Early history = = =
Fluor Corporation 's predecessor , Rudolph Fluor & Brother , was founded in 1890 by John Simon Fluor and his two brothers in Oshkosh , Wisconsin as a saw and paper mill . John Fluor acted as its president and contributed $ 100 in personal savings to help the business get started . The company was renamed Fluor Bros. Construction Co. in 1903 .
In 1912 John Fluor moved to Santa Ana , California for health reasons without his brothers and founded Fluor Corporation out of his garage under the name Fluor Construction Company . By 1924 the business had annual revenues of $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @.@ 36 million in 2013 dollars ) and a staff of 100 employees . John Fluor delegated most of the company 's operations to his sons , Peter and Simon Fluor . A $ 100 @,@ 000 capital investment was made that year and it was incorporated . John 's eldest son Peter served as head of sales and grew the company to $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( $ 20 @.@ 4 million in 2013 dollars ) in revenues by 1929 . In 1929 the company re @-@ incorporated as Fluor Corporation . By the 1930s , Fluor had operations in Europe , the Middle East and Australia . Business declined rapidly during the Great Depression , but picked up again during World War II . During the war Fluor manufactured synthetic rubber and was responsible for a substantial portion of high @-@ octane gasoline production in the United States . A Gas @-@ Gasoline division of Fluor was created in Houston in 1948 .
Fluor 's headquarters were moved to Los Angeles in 1940 in order to be closer to its oil and gas clients , before moving again to Orange County , California in the 1960s due to concerns about the cost of living and traffic . John Simon Fluor died in 1944 . He was succeeded by his son Peter Fluor , who died three years later . Peter was followed by Shirley Meserve ( 1947 ) and Donald Darnell ( 1949 ) , then John Simon " Si " Fluor Jr. in 1952 and J. Robert ( Bob ) Fluor in 1962 . Fluor was listed on the New York Stock Exchange in the 1950s . In 1961 Fluor acquired an interest in construction , design and contracting firm William J. Moran .
= = = Diversification and restructuring = = =
Fluor diversified its business more extensively in 1967 , when five companies were merged into a division called Coral Drilling and it started a deep @-@ water oil exploration business in Houston called Deep Oil Technology . It also created Fluor Ocean Services in Houston in 1968 and acquired an interest in other fossil fuel operations in the 1970s . Fluor acquired a construction company , Pike Corp. of America and the engineering division of its prior partner in Australia , Utah Construction . In 1972 , Fluor bought land in Irvine , California and started building its new headquarters on it . The following year , the company 's oil and gas operations were consolidated under a new entity , Fluor Oil and Gas Corp.
In 1977 , Fluor acquired Daniel International Corporation . Fluor 's business had become predominantly international , while Daniel International 's $ 1 billion construction business was mostly domestic . The acquisition allowed the company to use union labor at Fluor , or non @-@ union labor at Daniel , for each client . Fluor made a $ 2 @.@ 9 billion acquisition of a zinc , gold , lead and coal mining operation , St. Joe Minerals , in 1981 after a bidding competition for the business with Seagram .
By the 1980s , Fluor 's primary business was building large refineries , petrochemical plants , oil pipelines and other facilities for the gas and oil industry , especially in the Middle East . By 1981 , Fluor 's staff had grown to 29 @,@ 000 and revenue , backlog , and profits had each increased more than 30 percent over the prior year . However , by 1984 the mining operation was causing heavy losses and the oil and gas industry Fluor served was in a worldwide recession due to declining oil prices . From 1981 to 1984 , Fluor 's backlog went from $ 16 billion to $ 4 billion . In 1985 it reported $ 633 million in losses . David Tappan took Bob Fluor 's place as CEO in 1984 after Bob died from cancer and led a difficult restructuring .
The company sold $ 750 million in assets , including Fluor 's headquarters in Irvine , in order to pay $ 1 billion in debt . Staff were reduced from 32 @,@ 000 to 14 @,@ 000 . In 1986 Fluor sold all of its oil assets and some of its gold mining operations . Fluor Engineers , Inc. and Daniel International were merged , forming Fluor Daniel . By 1987 , Fluor had returned to profitability with $ 26 @.@ 6 million in profits and $ 108 @.@ 5 million by 1989 . By the end of the restructuring , Fluor had three major divisions : Fluor Daniel , Fluor Construction International and St. Joe Minerals Corp. Each division had its own smaller subsidiaries . Fluor started being named by Engineering News as the largest construction and engineering company in the United States . Fluor 's international revenues rebounded . Having postponed his retirement to help Fluor , Tappan stepped down at the end of 1989 and was replaced by Leslie McCraw .
= = = Recent history = = =
During the restructuring , Fluor 's core construction and engineering work was diversified into 30 industries including food , paper manufacturers , prisons and others to reduce its vulnerability to market changes in the oil and gas market . In the 1990s , the company tried to change its image , calling itself a " diversified technical services " firm . It started offering equipment rentals , staffing services , and financing for construction projects . The company began offering environmental cleanup and pollution control services , which grew to half of its new business by 1992 . Fluor 's mining business grew from $ 300 million in 1990 to $ 1 billion in 1994 . The US government passed environmental regulations in 1995 that led to growth for the Massey Coal Co. business , because it had large reserves of low @-@ sulfur coal . In 1992 , Fluor sold its ownership of Doe Run Company , the world 's largest producer of refined lead , which was losing money at the time due to declining lead prices . By 1993 , Fluor had revenues of $ 4 @.@ 17 billion and 22 @,@ 000 staff .
In 1997 , Fluor 's revenues fell almost 50 percent , in part due to the Asian financial crisis and a decrease in overseas business . Additionally , it suffered losses from an over @-@ budget power plant project in Rabigh , Saudi Arabia . Fluor was a sub @-@ contractor to General Electric for the project . Fluor 's subsidiaries sued GE alleging that it misrepresented the complexity of the project . Though revenues declined further the following year , profits were increasing . In 1999 , nearly 5 @,@ 000 workers were laid off from Fluor Daniel and 15 offices were closed . Fluor Daniel was re @-@ structured into four business groups : an engineering and construction firm called Fluor Daniel ; an equipment rental , staffing and telecommunications division called Fluor Global Services ; a coal @-@ mining business called A.T. Massey Coal Co. and an administrative and support division called Fluor Signature Services .
In January 1998 McCraw ( age 63 ) resigned after being diagnosed with bladder cancer and was replaced by former Shell President , Philip J. Carroll . That same year , IT Group purchased a 54 percent interest in Fluor Daniel GTI , Fluor 's environmental division , for $ 36 @.@ 3 million . Two years later , the coal mining operation under the A.T. Massey Coal Co. name ( part of St. Joe ) was spun off into its own business . In 2001 , Fluor 's four primary subsidiaries were consolidated into a single Fluor Corporation . In 2002 Alan Boeckmann was appointed as the CEO , followed by David Seaton in 2011 . In 2005 , Fluor 's headquarters were moved to the Las Colinas area in Irving , Texas .
In December 2015 Fluor announced that it would take over Dutch industrial services company Stork . The acquisition of this company , which modifies and maintains large power plants , was completed in March of 2016 , in a stock purchase worth $ 755 million .
= = Organization = =
Fluor is the largest construction and engineering company in the Fortune 500 and the 136th largest company in the ranking overall . It has offices in 25 countries . Many of Fluor 's operations are located near natural resources , such as uranium in Canada , oil reserves in the Middle East and mines in Australia . About 30 percent of Fluor 's revenues are based in the United States as of 2011 . The Fluor family owns a 3 @.@ 5 percent interest in the company , while employees own six percent through its profit @-@ sharing program .
Fluor 's Board of Directors has 12 " Independent Directors " and the CEO . The Independent Directors elect a Lead Independent Director every three years that acts as a liaison to the CEO . Each Independent Director is on two or more of four committees : audit , executive , governance , and organization & compensation . Directors serve a three @-@ year term and are elected by shareholders . Corporate officers , such as the CEO , are elected each year by a vote of the board .
Fluor received an " A " ranking in Transparency International 's 2012 anti @-@ corruption study . The company hosts online and in @-@ person anti @-@ corruption training sessions for staff and operates an ethics hotline . Former CEO Alan Boeckmann helped create the Partnering Against Corruption Initiative ( PACI ) , whereby companies agree to a set of ethics principles . A MarketLine SWOT analysis said Fluor 's environmental work " enhances the company 's brand image , " while often lengthy and unpredictable legal disputes " tarnish the company 's brand image and will erode customer confidence . "
According to the Los Angeles Times , Fluor is a " major corporate citizen " that supports local charities and civic groups . It started the Fluor Foundation for its charitable work in 1952 and Fluor Cares in 2010 . The company started the largest employer @-@ sponsored apprenticeship program in California with a four @-@ year program for designers in 1982 . Fluor operates a virtual college for employees called Fluor University .
= = Services = =
Fluor is a holding company that provides services through its subsidiaries . Its subsidiaries provide engineering , procurement , construction , maintenance and project management services . The company has also developed pollution control products , such as the Econamine lineup of carbon capture products . According to Fluor 's 2014 annual report , 67 percent of its work backlog is from the oil and gas industry . According to the company 's website , Fluor 's work includes designing and building power plants , petrochemical factories , mining facilities , roads and bridges , government buildings , and manufacturing facilities . The company also performs nuclear cleanup and other services .
Separate teams of experts , procurement staff , project managers and workers are provided for large projects that are supported by a centralized administrative staff . Fluor has trained more than 100 @,@ 000 craft workers in Indonesia , the Philippines , Korea , Pakistan , Kuwait and other countries , where the needed labor skills weren 't available locally . It may also serve clients through a joint venture with another construction firm when a local infrastructure or niche expertise is needed .
Fluor acquired shares of Genetech Inc. in 1981 and it bought a 10 percent interest in a smelter and refinery facility in Gresik , Indonesia in 1995 for $ 550 million . In 1994 , it invested $ 650 million with the Beacon Group Energy Investment fund to finance energy projects . Fluor also has a majority interest in NuScale LLC . , which is developing a new type of 45 @-@ megawatt nuclear reactor called a small modular reactor ( SMR ) .
= = Notable projects = =
Fluor 's first projects were in constructing and grading roads , but by the 1920s it was known for building public facilities , industrial complexes and serving a growing California oil and gas industry . It started building office and meter manufacturing facilities for the Southern California Gas Company in 1915 , as well as a compressor station for the Industrial Fuel Supply Company in 1919 . Fluor built the first " Buddha Tower " in 1921 in Signal Hill , California for the Industrial Fuel Supply Company . The Buddha Tower was a design of water @-@ cooling tower named after the Buddha temples they resemble . The following year Fluor was awarded a contract by Richfield Oil to build a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ gallon @-@ per @-@ day gasoline plant .
Against his father 's wishes , Peter Fluor expanded Fluor 's business outside of California in the 1930s . It built refineries in Texas , as well as oil pipelines and compressor stations from Panhandle , Texas to Indianapolis , Indiana for the Panhandle Eastern Pipeline Company . Fluor constructed the Escondida in Chile , which is the second largest copper mine in the world . In 1942 , Fluor constructed cooling towers and other facilities in Hanford , Washington for the Manhattan Project . It built an expansion of the Dhahran Aire Force Base in Saudi Arabia for the United States Army in the 1950s and accepted its first international project for ARAMCO in the Middle East .
In the 1960s and 1970s , Fluor built the first all @-@ hydrogen refinery in Kuwait and the first exclusively offshore power plant for the Atlantic Richfield Company . It also constructed pumps and ports for the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System , which traversed 800 miles from Northern Alaska to Valdez , Alaska and the world 's largest offshore facility for natural gas on the island of Java in Indonesia . In 1976 , it was awarded a $ 5 billion project for ARAMCO in Saudi Arabia , to design facilities that capture sour gas , which is expelled from oil wells as waste in order to refine it into fuel . That same year a partially completed copper and cobalt mine in Africa was cancelled due to a war in the neighboring region of Angola and declining copper prices . In 1979 , Fluor had 13 projects for building United States power plants and had served more than half of the world 's government @-@ owned oil companies .
Fluor has been working on the cleanup and shutdown of atomic energy plants in Ohio and Washington since the 1990s . In 1992 , Fluor won a contract with the United States Energy Department to clean up nuclear waste . By 1996 Hanford was the most contaminated nuclear site in the US and the US Department of Energy was conducting a $ 50 billion to $ 60 billion cleanup of the site . Fluor Hanford Inc. replaced Westinghouse Hanford Co. on the project . After a chemical explosion in 1997 , 11 workers filed a lawsuit alleging they were denied appropriate medical attention and protective gear . Fluor and the workers disagreed on whether the explosion resulted in any injuries . In 2005 the US Department of Energy fined Fluor for safety violations and that same year a jury awarded $ 4 @.@ 7 million in damages to 11 pipe fitters that claimed they were fired after complaining that a valve rated for 1 @,@ 975 pounds @-@ per @-@ inch was being used where 2 @,@ 235 were needed .
Fluor built the Aladdin Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas in 2001 for $ 1 @.@ 4 billion . In 2004 , the company was awarded a $ 1 @.@ 1 billion project with AMEC to help rebuild the water , power and civic infrastructure of Iraq after the Iraq War . Fluor has also built a rail line in Europe and missile sites in Arizona . The company provided disaster recovery services in Louisiana after Hurricane Katrina . In 2010 Fluor provided workers to cleanup oil tar on beaches in Florida and Alabama after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill . In December 2012 , Fluor was awarded a $ 3 @.@ 14 billion contract to build a new Tappan Zee Bridge over the Hudson River .
= Constitution of the Roman Republic =
The constitution of the Roman Republic was a set of guidelines and principles by which the Roman Republic was governed . The constitution evolved over time and was largely unwritten and uncodified , being passed down mainly through precedent . Nevertheless , the constitution was also shaped by the body of written Roman law .
Rather than creating a government that was primarily a democracy ( as in ancient Athens ) , an aristocracy ( as in ancient Sparta ) , or a monarchy ( as in the Roman state before and , in many respects , after the Republic ) , the Roman Republic had a mixed constitution , with three separate branches of government :
The democratic element took the form of the legislative assemblies .
The aristocratic element took the form of the Senate .
The monarchical element took the form of the term @-@ limited consuls .
The ultimate source of sovereignty in this ancient republic , as in modern republics , was the people of Rome ( Latin : populus Romanus ) . The Roman people gathered into legislative assemblies to pass laws and to elect executive magistrates , such as consuls . The Senate managed the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs in Rome , while magistrates presided over the courts . Executive magistrates enforced the law and presided over the Senate and over the legislative assemblies .
A complex set of checks and balances developed between these three branches , so as to minimize the risk of tyranny and corruption , and to maximize the likelihood of good government . However , the separation of powers between these three branches of government was not absolute ; and moreover , a magistrate 's term of office was often extended beyond one year , although this conflicted with the constitution . A constitutional crisis began in 133 BC as a result of the struggles between the aristocracy and the common people . Many years later this led to the collapse of the Roman Republic and its subversion into a much more autocratic form of government , the Roman Empire .
= = Constitutional history ( 509 – 133 BC ) = =
The republican constitution evolved gradually over time , largely shaped by the class struggle between the aristocratic patricians and the common people , the plebeians . The main historical sources for the origins of the Roman political system , Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus , relied heavily on the Roman annalists , who supplemented what little written history existed with oral history . This lack of evidence poses problems for the reliability of the traditional account of the republic 's origins .
According to this traditional account , Rome had been ruled by a succession of kings . The Romans believed that this era , that of the Roman Kingdom , began in 753 BC and ended in 510 BC . After the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the Roman Republic , the people of Rome began electing two consuls each year . According to the consular fasti , the first consuls were chosen in 509 BC .
According to historian Andrew Lintott , some scholars doubt this traditional account . They argue that instead of being overthrown , the monarchy evolved into a government led by elected magistrates . Remnants of the monarchy , however , were reflected in republican institutions , such as the office of rex sacrorum ( " king of the sacred " ) and the interregnum ( the period of time presided over by an interrex when the consulship or other magistracy was vacant ) .
In 501 BC , the temporary office of dictator was first created to control popular unrest . In the year 494 BC , the plebeians seceded to the Mons Sacer and demanded of the patricians the right to elect their own officials . The patricians agreed , and the plebeians ended their secession . The plebeians called these new officials plebeian tribunes and gave these tribunes two assistants , called plebeian aediles . In 449 BC , the Senate , in an effort to satisfy the plebeians , promulgated the Twelve Tables , the first and only codification of law during the republic .
In 446 BC , quaestors were first elected , and the office of censor was created in 443 BC . In 367 BC , plebeians were allowed to stand for the consulship , and this implicitly opened both the censorship as well as the dictatorship to plebeians . In 366 BC , in an effort by the patricians to reassert their influence over the magisterial offices , two new offices were created . These two offices , the praetorship and the curule aedileship ( so @-@ called because its holder , like consuls and praetors , had the right to sit in a curule seat ) , were at first open only to patricians , but within a generation they were open to plebeians as well .
Beginning around the year 350 BC , the senators and the plebeian tribunes began to grow closer . The Senate began giving tribunes more power , and the tribunes began to feel indebted to the Senate . As the tribunes and the senators grew closer , plebeian senators began to routinely secure the office of tribune for members of their own families . Also , this period saw the enacting of the Ovinian Law , which transferred the power to appoint new senators from the consuls to the censors . This law also required the censors to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the Senate , which probably resulted in a significant increase in the number of plebeian senators .
As the privileged status of the old patrician elite eroded over time , a plebeian aristocracy developed whose status was theoretically based on merit and popular election rather than birth . Because patricians were ineligible to run for plebeian offices , the new plebeian aristocracy actually had more opportunities for advancement than their patrician counterparts . Over time distinctions between patricians and plebeian aristocrats became less important , giving rise to a new " patricio @-@ plebeian aristocracy " termed the nobilitas .
In 287 BC , the plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill . To end the secession , the Hortensian Law was passed to end the requirement that patrician senators consent before a bill could be brought before the Plebeian Council for a vote . This was not the first law to require that an act of the Plebeian Council have the full force of law ( over both plebeians and patricians ) , since the Plebeian Council had acquired this power in 449 BC . However , this new law robbed the patricians of their last major political power .
The Hortensian Law resolved the last great political question of the earlier era ; no important political changes occurred over the next 150 years ( between 287 BC and 133 BC ) . The electoral and legislative sovereignty of the assemblies was confirmed and would remain part of the constitution . Nevertheless , the critical laws of this era were still enacted by the Senate due to the difficulty and inconvenience of organizing popular assemblies simply for the passage of ordinary legislation . The Senate as an institution was stronger since it now represented noble plebeians as well as patricians .
= = Senate = =
The Senate was the predominant political institution in the Roman Republic . The Senate 's authority derived from custom and tradition . The Senate 's principal role was as an advisory council to the consuls on matters of foreign and military policy , and it exercised a great deal of influence over consular decision @-@ making . A decree from the Senate was called senatus consultum ( plural senatus consulta ) . While this was formally " advice " from the Senate to a magistrate , the senatus consulta were usually obeyed by the magistrates . If a senatus consultum conflicted with a law that was passed by a popular assembly , the law overrode the senatus consultum .
The Senate also managed civil administration within the city . For example , only the Senate could authorize the appropriation of public money from the treasury , unless a consul demanded it . In addition , the Senate would try individuals accused of political crimes ( such as treason ) . In addition , the Senate could invalidate laws passed by popular assemblies in violation of the proper procedures .
Meetings could take place either inside or outside of the formal boundary of the city ( the pomerium ) , and were usually presided over by a consul . Meetings were suffused in religious ritual . Temples were a preferred meeting site and auspices would be taken before the meeting could commence .
The presiding consul began each meeting with a speech on an issue , and then referred the issue to the senators , who discussed the matter by order of seniority . Unimportant matters could be voted on by a voice vote or by a show of hands , while important votes resulted in a physical division of the house , with senators voting by taking a place on either side of the chamber . Any vote was always between a proposal and its negative .
Since all meetings had to end by nightfall , a senator could talk a proposal to death ( a filibuster ) if he could keep the debate going until nightfall . Any proposed motion could be vetoed by a tribune , and if it was not vetoed , it was then turned into a final senatus consultum . Each senatus consultum was transcribed into a document by the presiding magistrate , and then deposited into the building that housed the treasury .
= = Legislative assemblies = =
The right to make and repeal laws belonged to the Roman people voting in legislative meetings . There were two types of formal legislative gatherings . The first , the comitia ( or comitiatus ) , was an assembly of all Roman citizens convened to take a legal action , such as enacting laws , electing magistrates , and trying judicial cases . The second type of legislative meeting was the council ( Latin : concilium ) , which was a gathering of a specific group of citizens . For example , the Plebeian Council were meetings of the plebeians only .
A third type of gathering , the convention ( Latin : contio or conventio ) , was an unofficial forum for communication where citizens gathered to hear public announcements and arguments debated in speeches as well to witness the examination or execution of criminals . In contrast to the formal assembly or council , no legal decisions were made by the convention . Voters met in conventions to deliberate prior to meeting in assemblies or councils to vote .
Assemblies and councils operated according to established procedures overseen by the augurs . They could only be convened by magistrates , and citizens only voted on matters proposed by the presiding magistrate . Roman citizens were organized into three types of voting units — curiae ( familial groupings ) , centuries ( for military purposes ) and tribes ( for civil purposes ) — corresponding to three assemblies : the Curiate Assembly , the Centuriate Assembly , and the Tribal Assembly . Each unit ( curia , century or tribe ) cast one vote before the assembly . The majority of individual votes in any century , tribe , or curia decided how that unit voted .
The Curiate Assembly served only a symbolic purpose in the late Republic . At some point , the 30 curiae ceased to actually meet and were instead represented by 30 lictors . It was this assembly that ratified the powers of newly elected magistrates by passing laws known as leges curiatae .
The Centuriate Assembly was divided into 193 ( later 373 ) centuries , with each century belonging to one of three classes : the officer class , the enlisted class , and the unarmed adjuncts . Citizens were grouped into centuries according to the amount of property they owned , and wealthier centuries received more votes . During a vote , the centuries voted one at a time by class . Only the Centuriate Assembly could elect consuls , praetors , and censors . Only it could declare war . It was also the only institution that could ratify the results of a census . This assembly rarely passed other kinds of legislation or heard capital trials .
Tribal Assemblies were convened by consuls , praetors , or curule aediles . The organization of the Tribal Assembly was much simpler than the Centuriate Assembly , since its organization was based on the thirty @-@ five tribes . The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups , but rather geographical divisions ( similar to modern electoral districts or constituencies ) . Most legislation was enacted in the Tribal Assembly . In addition , these assemblies elected quaestors , curule aediles , and military tribunes .
The Plebeian Council was identical to the Tribal Assembly with one key exception : only plebeians had the power to vote before it . Members of the aristocratic patrician class were excluded from this assembly . In contrast , both classes were entitled to a vote in the Tribal Assembly . Under the presidency of a plebeian tribune , the Plebeian Council elected plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles , enacted laws called plebiscites , and presided over judicial cases involving plebeians .
= = Executive magistrates = =
Magistrates were elected officials of the Roman Republic . Each magistrate was vested with a degree of power . The dictator ( when there was one ) had the highest level of power . After the dictator was the censor ( when they existed ) , the consuls , the praetors , the curule aediles , and finally the quaestors . Each magistrate could only veto an action that was taken by an equally or lower ranked magistrate . Since plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were not magistrates of the republic , they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct unwanted actions . When the tribune interposed his person to obstruct a political action it was known as intercessio . When the tribune interposed his person to aid an individual against a magistrate or another citizen , it was called auxilium . Any resistance against the tribune was considered to be a capital offense .
The most significant constitutional power that a magistrate could hold was that of imperium or command , which was held only by consuls and praetors . This gave a magistrate the constitutional authority to issue commands ( military or otherwise ) .
Election to a magisterial office resulted in automatic membership in the Senate ( for life , unless impeached ) . Once a magistrate 's annual term in office expired , he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again . Occasionally a magistrate had his command powers extended through prorogation , which , in effect , allowed him to retain the powers of his office as a promagistrate .
The consul was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate . Two consuls were elected every year , and they had supreme power in both civil and military matters . Throughout the year , one consul was superior in rank to the other consul , and this ranking flipped every month between the two consuls . Praetors administered civil law , presided over the courts , and commanded provincial armies . The censors conducted the census , during which time they could appoint people to the Senate . Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome and were vested with powers over the markets , public games and shows . Quaestors usually assisted the consuls in Rome and the governors in the provinces with financial tasks . The plebeian tribunes and the plebeian aediles were considered to be the representatives of the people . Thus , they acted as a popular check over the Senate through their veto powers and safeguarded the civil liberties of all Roman citizens .
In times of military emergency , a dictator was appointed for a term of six months . Constitutional government dissolved , and the dictator became the absolute master of the state . The dictator then appointed a magister equitum ( " master of the horse " ) to serve as his most senior lieutenant . Often the dictator resigned his office as soon as the matter that caused his appointment was resolved . When the dictator 's term ended , constitutional government was restored . The last ordinary dictator was appointed in 202 BC . After 202 BC , extreme emergencies were addressed through the passage of the decree senatus consultum ultimum ( " ultimate decree of the senate " ) . This suspended civil government , declared martial law , and vested the consuls with dictatorial powers .
= = Constitutional instability ( 133 – 49 BC ) = =
By the middle of the 2nd century BC , the economic position of the average plebeian had declined significantly . The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms to fight , only to return to farms that had fallen into disrepair . The landed aristocracy began buying bankrupted farms at discounted prices , making it impossible for the average farmer to operate his farm at a profit . Masses of unemployed plebeians soon began to flood into Rome , and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies , where their economic status usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered the most for them or who sponsored the most impressive games . A new culture of dependency was emerging , and hostility between the rich and the poor was growing .
In 133 BC , Tiberius Gracchus was elected plebeian tribune and attempted to enact a law to distribute land to Rome 's landless citizens . Gracchus ' law was vetoed by an aristocrat named Marcus Octavius . In an attempt to force Octavius to capitulate , Tiberius tried to turn the mob against Octavius by enacting a blanket veto over all governmental functions , which , in effect , shut down the entire city and precipitated rioting . While the land law was enacted , Tiberius was murdered when he stood for reelection to the tribunate . In 123 BC , Tiberius ' brother Gaius was elected plebeian tribune . After passing a series of laws which were intended to weaken the Senate , Gaius Gracchus was murdered by agents of the aristocracy . The people , however , had finally realized how weak the Senate had become .
In 88 BC , an aristocratic senator named Lucius Cornelius Sulla was elected consul and soon left for war in the east . When a tribune revoked Sulla 's command of the war , Sulla brought his army back to Italy , marched on Rome , secured the city , and left for the east again . In 83 BC , he returned to Rome , and captured the city a second time . In 82 BC , he made himself dictator , and then used his status as dictator to pass a series of constitutional reforms that were intended to strengthen the Senate . In 80 BC , he resigned his dictatorship , and by 78 BC he was dead . While he thought that he had firmly established aristocratic rule , his own career had illustrated the fatal weakness in the constitution : that it was the army , not the Senate , which dictated the fortunes of the state . In 70 BC , the generals Pompey the Great and Marcus Licinius Crassus were both elected consul and quickly dismantled Sulla 's constitution .
In 62 BC , Pompey returned to Rome from battle in the east but found the Senate refusing to ratify the arrangements that he had made . Thus , when Julius Caesar returned from his governorship in Spain in 61 BC , he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey . Caesar and Pompey , along with Crassus , established a private agreement , known as the First Triumvirate . Under the agreement , Pompey 's arrangements were to be ratified , Crassus was to be promised a future consulship , and Caesar was to be promised a consulship in 59 BC and then the governorship of Gaul ( modern France ) immediately afterwards . Caesar became consul in 59 BC , and , when his term as consul ended , he took command of four provinces . Eventually , the triumvirate was renewed , and Caesar 's term as governor was extended for five years . In 54 BC , violence began sweeping the city . The triumvirate ended in 53 BC when Crassus was killed in battle . In 50 BC , near the end of his term as governor , Caesar demanded the right to stand for election to the consulship in absentia . Without the protection afforded to him by the consulship or his army , he could be prosecuted for crimes he had committed . The Senate refused Caesar 's demand , and in January 49 BC , the Senate resolved that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year he would be considered an enemy of the republic . In response , Caesar quickly crossed the Rubicon with his veteran army and marched towards Rome . Caesar 's rapid advance forced Pompey , the consuls and the Senate to abandon Rome for Greece and allowed Caesar to enter the city unopposed .
= = Transition to empire ( 49 – 27 BC ) = =
By 48 BC , after having defeated the last of his major enemies , Caesar tried to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed . He increased his own authority and decreased the authority of Rome 's other political institutions . Caesar held the office of dictator and alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship ( in effect , a military governorship ) . In 48 BC , Caesar was given the powers of a plebeian tribune , which made his person sacrosanct , gave him the power to veto the Senate , and allowed him to dominate the legislative process . In 46 BC , Caesar was given the powers of censor , which he used to fill the Senate with his own partisans . Caesar then raised the membership of the Senate from 600 to 900 , which robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige , and made it increasingly subservient to him . Near the end of his life , Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire . Since his absence from Rome would limit his ability to install his own consuls , he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates for the year 43 BC , and all consuls and plebeian tribunes for the year 42 BC ; so that the magistrates were appointees of the dictator rather than representatives of the people .
After Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC , Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar 's adopted son and great @-@ nephew , Gaius Octavian . Along with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , they formed an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate , and held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution . In effect , there was no constitutional difference between an individual who held the title of dictator and an individual who held the title of triumvir . While the conspirators who had assassinated Caesar were defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC , the peace that resulted was only temporary . Antony and Octavian fought each other for the last time at Actium in 31 BC . Antony was defeated , and he committed suicide in 30 BC . In 29 BC , Octavian returned to Rome as the unchallenged master of the state . He enacted a series of constitutional reforms , the most important of which , in 27 BC , overthrew the republic . The reign of Octavian , whom history remembers as Augustus , the first Roman Emperor , marked the dividing line between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire . By the time this process was complete : Rome had completed its transformation from a city @-@ state with a network of dependencies into the capital of a world empire .
= Hughie Lehman =
Frederick Hugh " Old Eagle Eyes " Lehman ( October 27 , 1885 – April 12 , 1961 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender . He started his ice hockey career playing for the Pembroke Lumber Kings and the Berlin Dutchmen . In 1911 , Lehman joined the New Westminster Royals , playing for the Royals for three seasons , before joining the Vancouver Millionaires in 1914 . Lehman played half of his 22 @-@ year professional career with Vancouver , winning his only Stanley Cup ; he would be unsuccessful in seven other attempts . In 1926 , he joined the Chicago Black Hawks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , playing a full season and splitting the second one as player and head coach . Although some ice hockey historians credit Jacques Plante for originating the practice , Lehman was the first goaltender to regularly pass the puck to his fellow forwards and defensemen ; he even scored a goal by shooting the puck in the opponent 's net while playing for the Professionals . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1958 .
= = Playing career = =
Lehman began his playing career in 1903 – 04 , playing for the Pembroke Lumber Kings of the Ottawa Valley Hockey League ( OVHL ) for the first three seasons of his career . In the 1906 – 07 season , Lehman was signed as free agent by the Canadian Soo of the International Professional Hockey League ( IPHL ) ; the IPHL was the first fully professional ice hockey league . Lehman returned to Pembroke for the 1907 – 08 season , appearing in four games . For the 1908 – 09 season , Lehman joined the Berlin Dutchmen of the Ontario Professional Hockey League ( OPHL ) . In the 1909 – 10 season , Lehman was in two different Stanley Cup playoff series , with two different teams , the Berlin Dutchmen and the Galt Professionals , but he lost both times . During those playoff series , he appeared in three games , giving up 22 goals . Lehman played with the Berlin Dutchmen until 1911 .
In 1911 – 12 , Lehman played for the New Westminster Royals of the newly founded Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) . He played three seasons for New Westminster , winning the league championship in his first season . In 1914 – 15 , Lehman joined the Vancouver Millionaires of the PCHA . In his first season with the Millionaires , Lehman posted a 14 – 3 record , with a 4 @.@ 08 goals @-@ against average , which was a very good average in an era when goaltenders were not allowed to drop on their knees to make a save . In the Stanley Cup playoffs , Lehman helped the Millionaires become the first PCHA team to win the Stanley Cup , with a 3 – 0 record and 2 @.@ 67 goals against average . This would be the only Stanley Cup victory of Lehman 's career , as he was on the losing side in seven other attempts . The Millionaires squad consisted of seven future members of the Hockey Hall of Fame when they won the Cup : Lehman , Frank Nighbor , Cyclone Taylor , Si Griffis , Barney Stanley , Frank Patrick , and Mickey MacKay .
Lehman played with the Millionaires until the 1925 – 26 season . During that time , Lehman and some of his teammates were involved in a humorous incident when going back to Canada after an exhibition game against the Montreal Wanderers in New York City . In New York , Lehman 's wife bought numerous women 's designer outfits , after being treated to a shopping spree by him . When going back to Canada , Lehman , on the advice of Cyclone Taylor , who was both a professional ice hockey player and a Canadian immigration officer , split up all outfits among his teammates to avoid paying additional taxes he would have had to pay if he had brought all the clothing by himself at once ; this puzzled the Customs officers . In 1922 – 23 , the Millionaires were renamed the Maroons , and joined the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) . The WCHL was renamed to the Western Hockey League in 1925 – 26 ; however , the league disbanded at the conclusion of that season . While playing for the Millionaires , Lehman appeared in six Stanley Cup finals , losing every time , except in his first season , in 1914 – 15 .
Following the collapse of the WHL , Lehman joined the Chicago Black Hawks for the 1926 – 27 season . While in Chicago , Lehman mentored future Chicago goaltender and captain Charlie Gardiner . Lehman played one full season , and another four games the next one . During the 1926 season , Lehman became the oldest goaltender to win his first NHL game .
= = Coaching career = =
During the 1927 – 28 season , Black Hawks owner and manager Frederic McLaughlin was sketching some plays for his team ; after Lehman was shown the plays by McLaughlin , Lehman responded by calling it " the craziest bunch of junk [ he 's ] ever seen " . Expecting to be fired after that outburst , Lehman was later told to go to McLaughlin 's office . It was how Lehman 's playing career ended : McLaughlin appointed Lehman to be Chicago 's new head coach . Lehman coached Chicago for part of one season , finishing with a 3 – 17 – 1 record over 21 games . He was replaced by Herb Gardiner the following season .
= = Playing style = =
As a goaltender , Lehman was a strong skater and good puckhandler . He chased down loose pucks , and was able to pass the puck to his forwards , surprising the other team 's defenders . Playing in the OPHL , Lehman scored a goal by shooting the puck in the opponent 's net . The first NHL goaltender to duplicate such a feat was Ron Hextall , who did it in 1987 .
= = Legacy = =
After retiring from ice hockey , Lehman worked in the road construction business , eventually becoming the president of a paving company . Lehman was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1958 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Coaching record = =
= Kevin O 'Halloran =
Kevin O 'Halloran ( 3 March 1937 – 5 July 1976 ) was an Australian freestyle swimmer of the 1950s who won a gold medal in the 4 × 200 @-@ metre freestyle relay at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne . The first Western Australian to win Olympic gold , O 'Halloran learnt to swim in his home town of Katanning . He moved to Perth to attend secondary schooling at Guildford Grammar School , where he became more committed to swimming . Competitive swimming was not well developed in Western Australia : races were held in muddy river pools ; hence , in late 1955 , O 'Halloran moved to the east coast to support his attempt to qualify for the Olympics . His new coach , Frank Guthrie , overhauled his training regimen and within a year O 'Halloran had reduced his times by approximately ten percent . He gained Olympic selection in the relay and the 400 @-@ metre freestyle . O 'Halloran led off the Australian quartet on the way to a new world record , before placing sixth in the 400 @-@ metre . Thereafter , O 'Halloran 's career was beset by ear problems , and he retired in 1958 after failing to qualify for the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games . In 1976 , O 'Halloran died after tripping and accidentally shooting himself .
= = Early years = =
Born in Katanning , O 'Halloran grew up on his family 's 9 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 36 km2 ) sheep property at Kojonup — 40 km ( 25 mi ) to the west of his birthplace — on a property established by his grandfather in 1900 . He had two brothers and a sister . After his father enlisted during the Second World War , his mother could no longer run the farm and raise the children by herself , so the family moved to Katanning for seven years .
Katanning was one of the few country towns in Western Australia that had a public swimming pool . Along with his siblings , O 'Halloran learned to swim there , often defeating local boys who were four years his senior . At the age of 8 , he was taught to swim competitively by his teacher at Katanning State Primary School , who was an age group champion in her youth . The boom in wool prices at the time of the Korean War inflated his family 's income , allowing them to send O 'Halloran to Guildford Grammar School in Perth , the state 's capital city . At the age of 14 , he won five events in the school championships , and led the school to its first state championship in 29 years . He also competed for his school in Australian rules football and rowing .
O 'Halloran attracted the attention of the leading Western Australian coach Don Gravenall , but his schoolwork limited him to a few weeks of intense training over Christmas . In 1952 , at the age of 15 , O 'Halloran began to make his mark at the state level . He played a major role in Guildford 's win at the interschool championships , placing second in the individual points tally . He won the 100 m freestyle , 50 m breaststroke and 400 m freestyle .
Competitive swimming was slow to develop in Western Australia and O 'Halloran 's state debut came in 1952 , only the second time the Western Australian Championships had been held . He won the junior 110 yd freestyle and butterfly and the 220 yd freestyle and was second in the open 110 yd freestyle , in a muddy pool on the Swan River in the Perth suburb of Crawley . The arena was such that the bottom could not be seen and jellyfish lurked in the area , sometimes climbing onto the swimmers ' bodies . When O 'Halloran returned to his home , he often trained in a muddy waterhole .
= = Swimming career = =
In 1953 , O 'Halloran placed second in the 110 yd and 440 yd freestyle events at the Western Australian Championships in the open division and won the 110 yd breaststroke and the 110 and 220 yd freestyle in the junior division . In the process , he cut six seconds from the state record in the 440 yd event . He was selected for the Western Australian team for the Australian Championships , but his parents and headmaster decided that his schooling was more important , much to Gravenall 's chagrin . In 1954 , O 'Halloran was the state champion in the 110 yd and 220 yd freestyle , and in 1955 he added the 440 yd individual medley title to the successful defence of his freestyle crowns . In his final year at Guildford , O 'Halloran was the School Captain , led the swimming and shooting team , and was a member of the rowing eights in the Head of the River . O 'Halloran made his national debut at the 1955 Australian Championships in Adelaide ; he finished fifth in the 110 yd freestyle behind future Olympians Jon Henricks and John Devitt .
Upon the recommendation of his parents , O 'Halloran moved to Sydney in late 1955 to train with Frank Guthrie in an attempt to qualify for the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne , Australia . O 'Halloran boarded with a host family and worked in a wool store to pay his expenses . O 'Halloran 's initiation into Guthrie 's training program was difficult . After seeing O 'Halloran 's freestyle technique for the first time , Guthrie asked him " Can you swim any other stroke ? If you are going to swim for me you 'll have to learn all over again . " O 'Halloran refined his style and increased his workload to around 10 km a day , something that was normal for competitive swimmers in the eastern states , but uncommon in Western Australia . In one month , he cut 17 s off his personal best time in the 440 yd freestyle , reducing it to 4 min 55 s . At the 1956 New South Wales Championships , he finished third in the 220 yd freestyle behind Gary Chapman and Devitt ; his time of 2 min 12 @.@ 6 s was 10 s faster than the times he had recorded in Western Australia . He came fourth in both the 110 yd and 440 yd ; his time in the latter event was more than 30 s faster than his best time in Western Australia , and in the former event he breached the 60 s barrier for the first time . At the Australian Championships , he came third in the 440 yd freestyle in a time of 4 min 37 @.@ 8 s behind Murray Rose and Murray Garretty . He did this despite suffering from ear trouble , making him the fifth fastest swimmer in the world for the calendar year , which earned him an individual berth in the 400 m event at the Olympics . O 'Halloran came fourth in the 220 yd in a time of 2 min 9 @.@ 2 s to earn a berth on the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay squad . With Rose , Henricks and Chapman regarded as certain selections for the final quartet , O 'Halloran was expected to battle for the fourth relay position . At the end of the trials , Guthrie claimed that O 'Halloran was " the find of the recently held Australian Championships and the future swimmer for Australia . I am confident that we did not see Kevin 's best times this season . "
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League . He moved his primary residence to Hermosillo during his two @-@ year stint in Mexico . In August 1982 , he joined the Spokane Indians , who were Triple @-@ A affiliates of the California Angels at the time . With the Indians that season , McLaughlin went 1 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 26 ERA , and nine strikeouts in six games , one of which was a start .
After spring training in 1983 , the California Angels assigned McLaughlin to minor league camp in Casa Grande , Arizona . He was eventually assigned to the Triple @-@ A Edmonton Trappers , but was called up to the majors in June after pitcher Bruce Kison was placed on the disabled list . McLaughlin made his season debut with the Angels on June 7 , against the Chicago White Sox , pitching 11 ⁄ 3 innings , giving up one earned run . When asked what it felt like to be back in the majors , McLaughlin responded , " I 'm just thankful the Angels gave me this an opportunity to get back in the big leagues [ ... ] I always knew I could pitch but I had been labeled a trouble @-@ maker " . McLaughlin commented that the personnel on his previous teams felt he had an attitude problem , but that he did not want that to affect him while playing with the Angels , and that it was " in the past " . He picked up his first win of the season on July 1 , against the Kansas City Royals . McLaughlin was optioned to the minor leagues in August . After hearing the news , McLaughlin was reportedly furious at the Angels front office staff and even threatened to retire . However , McLaughlin continued to play in the California minor league system , and even returned to the majors in September . In the minors that year , he played for the Triple @-@ A Edmonton Trappers and the Double @-@ A Beaumont Golden Gators , going a combined 5 – 4 with a 4 @.@ 26 ERA in 26 games in 961 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . With the Angels , McLaughlin compiled a 2 – 4 record with a 5 @.@ 17 ERA , and 45 strikeouts in 16 games , seven of which were starts .
= = Later life = =
In October 1984 , a warrant was issued for McLaughlin 's arrest after he failed to appear in court on previous charges . McLaughlin was arrested in for illegally trafficking counterfeit shoes and money laundering in 1990 . According The New Yorker , McLaughlin , who had ties in Mexico from when he played baseball there , made deals with Korean businesspeople to make counterfeit footwear . The brands that he counterfeited included Converse , Vans , and Adidas , which he manufactured to sell in the Mexican market . Harley Lewin , a lawyer who pursued people in the counterfeit business , found that McLaughlin was making 80 @,@ 000 pairs of sneakers for about $ 750 @,@ 000 any given month . Lewin also discovered that half of all counterfeit footwear in Mexico could be traced back to McLaughlin 's business . McLaughlin pleaded guilty to the money laundering charges , but fled the county before being sentenced . While it is believed he has been living near Cannes in France for years , he has moved from that spot and his whereabouts are now unknown as he is a fugitive from justice .
= Hellenic Naval Air Service =
The Hellenic Naval Air Service ( Greek : Ναυτική Αεροπορική Υπηρεσία ) or ΝΑΥ was the air arm of the Hellenic Navy from 1915 to 1930 .
The first aviation units in the Greek Armed Forces were formed in June 1912 . In the following Balkan Wars , the Hellenic Navy was the first in military history to use aircraft to track down and bomb the enemy fleet ( 1913 ) . The Naval Air Service was officially established during the First World War and participated with the Allies in several missions over the Aegean . After participation in the Greco @-@ Turkish War ( 1919 – 1922 ) a long period of peace followed during which the Naval Air Service was reorganized and upgraded , especially with the establishment of the State Aircraft Factory , which manufactured various types of aircraft . In 1930 the Naval Air Service was merged with the Hellenic Army Aviation and formed the third branch in the Greek Armed Forces , the Hellenic Air Force .
The Hellenic Naval Air Service must not be confused with the current aviation branch of the Hellenic Navy , which includes the helicopter @-@ equipped Navy Helicopter Command ( Διοίκηση Ελικοπτέρων Ναυτικού – ΔΕΝ ) and the 353rd Naval Cooperation Squadron ( 353 ΜΝΑΣ ) , run jointly with the Hellenic Air Force .
= = History = =
= = = Preparations and Balkan Wars ( 1912 – 1913 ) = = =
Aviation had been introduced to Greece in February 1912 , when Emmanouil Argyropoulos performed a flight , with his privately owned Nieuport IV.G aircraft , around Athens . An hour later a second flight was carried on with the Prime Minister of Greece , Eleftherios Venizelos as passenger . Venizelos , impressed by the potential of air warfare , suggested that Greece should take advance of this new weapon . The following months a French military mission took up the development of Greek aviation by creating a fleet of four Maurice Farman MF.7 airplanes . In June 1912 , aviator Dimitrios Kamperos modified one of the Farmans into a hydroplane , giving it the name of the mythical hero Daedalus .
When the Balkan Wars broke out in October 1912 , these airplanes performed a number of reconnaissance and bombing missions ; the most notable was a sortie against the Ottoman fleet anchorage in the Dardanelles , where First Lieutenant Michael Moutoussis and Ensign Aristeidis Moraitinis spotted the Ottoman fleet and dropped four bombs . This mission is regarded as the first naval @-@ air operation in military history and was widely commented upon in the press , both Greek and international . Meanwhile , the Hellenic Navy , in the process of setting up its air arm , bought a fleet of Sopwith Gunbus seaplanes ( also known as Greek Seaplanes ) .
= = = World War I = = =
At the beginning of 1914 credits were voted for the creation of a naval aerodrome in Eleusina , Attica . Meanwhile , despite limited funds Aristeidis Moraitinis managed to establish the first naval aviation school and corps . In spring 1915 the establishment of an independent Naval Aviation Department within the Ministry of Naval Affairs and the incorporation of the Greek naval air fleet into the Greek Navy ensured the foundation of the Naval Air Service ( NAY ) . Meanwhile , disagreements between King Constantine I and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos over whether Greece should enter World War I , lead to political instability and the National Schism ( 1914 – 1916 ) . Greece officially joined the Triple Entente at June 1917 , however the anti @-@ royalist party of the country under the leadership of Venizelos formed a Movement of National Defence that supported the Allied military operations in the region from December 1916 .
During the following years ( 1917 – 1918 ) , a fighter and bomber squadron , known as " Z " Squadron ( Greek : Ζήτα Σμήνος ) , was created by Greek personnel under direct Royal Naval Air Service command and carried out operations in the northern Aegean , based at Moudros ( Lemnos ) and Thasos . Moreover , a joint Army @-@ Navy flight school was established at Moudros . The activity of " Z " Squadron included anti @-@ submarine sweeps , attacks against targets of vital importance , as well as dogfights . Among the most significant missions were the night raids against the Gallipoli @-@ Constantinople peninsula in June 1917 , the heavy bombings of enemy positions in the Macedonian front , as well as Izmir , Ottoman Empire . In 1918 the Naval Aviation had four squadrons of Sopwith Camel biplanes and other aircraft , while each one counted ca . 10 @-@ 12 aircraft .
Aristeidis Moraitinis , the commander of the Hellenic Naval Air Service , acquired the nickname the Fearless Aviator by his British colleagues and counted nine victories in total , becoming so Greece 's only World War I ace . In one occasion , on 20 January 1918 , Moraitinis , fought ten enemy aircraft which attacked two British Sopwith Baby seaplanes he was escorting on their way to bomb the Turkish battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim ( the former German SMS Goeben ) and managed to shoot down three of them .
= = = Greco @-@ Turkish War and Interwar period = = =
In the following Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1919 – 1922 the Naval Aviation formed one squadron , that together with additional four of the Army Aviation Service participated in operations in Asia Minor . This squadron ( Greek : Ναυτική Αεροπορική Μοίρα Σμύρνης ) initially consisted of 10 Airco DH.9 bombers and 15 Sopwith Camel F.1 fighters .
The Asia Minor Campaign was followed by a long period of peace during which both the Hellenic Army and Naval Aviation Services were reorganized and upgraded . From 1925 new types of aircraft of British and , mainly , French manufacture were delivered . At 1925 , in co @-@ operation with the British Company Blackburn Aircraft , the State Aircraft Factory ( KEA ) was set up in Phaleron , near Athens . The factory developed a number of aircraft that were designed by Blackburn Aircraft and built under license , like the two @-@ seat torpedo carrier , T3A Velos and the KEA Chelidon , as well as the Armstrong Whitworth Atlas and the Avro 504 . On the other hand , a new Naval Aviation school was established at Tatoi , Attica , in 1926 .
In 1930 the Air Ministry was founded and the Hellenic Air Force was established as a unified independent branch of the Hellenic Armed Forces . Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos was sworn in as the first Air Minister and assigned the reorganisation of the branch to the veteran aviator Alexandros Zannas .
= = Notable personnel = =
Aristeidis Moraitinis , commander of the Hellenic Naval Air Service ( 1917 – 1918 ) and World War I ace .
Konstantinos Panagiotou , commander ( 1918 ) .
Pantelis Psychas , World War I aviator , awarded the British Distinguished Service Cross .
Spyridon Hambas , World War I aviator .
Dimitrios Argyropoulos , World War I aviator and the first casualty of the Hellenic Naval Air Service ( 1917 ) .
Thanos Veloudios , distinguished during the Greco @-@ Turkish War ( 1919 – 1922 ) .
= = Aircraft of the Hellenic Naval Air Service = =
= Great Captain Island =
Great Captain Island , also known more familiarly as " Great Captain 's Island , " is an island off the coast of Greenwich , Connecticut . The 17 @.@ 2 @-@ acre ( 70 @,@ 000 m2 ) island is the largest of a three @-@ island group that also includes Little Captain and Wee Captain . The island is a remnant of a glacial moraine and has a large glacial erratic on the southern side , the island 's east and west sides are connected by a tombolo . The island has had several owners , but has been owned in whole by the Town of Greenwich since 1973 . The island is home to the Great Captain Island Light , a 19th @-@ century lighthouse that was restored in 2009 and relit as a non @-@ navigational aid in 2012 . The actual navigation aid is a skeletal tower erected in 1970 . Great Captain Island is one of the state 's 26 " important bird areas " according to the Connecticut Audubon Society . The town operates a ferry service to and from the island from about the second week in June through the second week of September . Trails have been laid out for visitors , and the western part of the island has picnic tables , grills , restrooms , and posted swimming areas . The island is open year round , with a ferry running during the summer . No public tours of the lighthouse or island are available .
= = Location and geology = =
The 17 @.@ 2 @-@ acre ( 70 @,@ 000 m2 ) island is the largest of a three @-@ island group that also includes Little Captain and Wee Captain . The Town of Greenwich states that the Great Captain Island " is a remnant of a glacial moraine . It contains a diversity of rock types- gneiss , schist , granite @-@ with a very large glacial erratic on the southern side . " The island 's east and west sides are connected by a tombolo , and the southern side has a lagoon that winds its way around the lighthouse .
= = History = =
There are two theories for how the island got its name , the first of which is that the island is named after Captain Kidd who was rumored to have buried a treasure of gold and silver on it . The Town of Greenwich acknowledges both this and another theory that states that " [ t ] he " Captain " of the title reportedly memorializes Captain Daniel Patrick , a partner in the first recorded real estate transaction in Greenwich in the 1640s and the town 's first military commander . "
In 1763 , George III granted the island to John Anderson . In 1829 , the federal government purchased 3 @.@ 5 acres of land on the southeast part of Great Captain Island from Samuel Lyons . The states of New York and Connecticut both claimed the island in the 19th century but , after 50 years , a commission resolved the dispute in favor of Connecticut . The lighthouse keepers and their families farmed on the tract of land and the other areas of the island were used for hunting , fishing and recreational use . In 1926 , the rest of the island was sold to a developer who built and opened an exclusive clubhouse on the site . Opening in 1930 , at the beginning of the Great Depression , it soon was closed . The Town of Greenwich acquired the island through foreclosure and sold the property to Port @-@ Green Corporation . During this time , the Coast Guard inadvertently destroyed the clubhouse by dropping flares on it while searching for a missing plane . A fire in 1955 would destroy the rest of the club . In 1955 , Areotech Industries purchased the island and used it as an employee recreational spot and built cabana cottages on it in 1957 . During its ownership with Areotech , it was re @-@ named Huckleberry Island , until the Town of Greenwich purchased it in 1966 for $ 90 @,@ 000 . In 1973 , the federal government turned over the remaining tract of land upon which the lighthouse rests .
= = Lighthouse = =
The Great Captain Island Light was first constructed in 1829 on the 3 @.@ 5 acre tract of land that Samuel Lyons sold to the government . The lighthouse was of poor construction and was replaced in 1868 with a new granite dwelling with attached lantern . The lighthouse is of the same design as lighthouses at Sheffield Island in Norwalk ; Morgan Point in Noank ; Old Field Point Light and Plum Island in New York ; and Block Island North in Rhode Island . The lighthouse was deactivated in 1970 when a skeletal tower replaced it . The Town of Greenwich acquired the property in 1973 and had full @-@ time caretakers on the site until the lighthouse became too dilapidated in 2003 . A successful restoration effort was completed in 2009 and a non @-@ navigational light was activated in 2012 . In 1991 , the Great Captain Island Light was added to the National Register of Historic Places . In 2010 , a September 11 memorial plaque was installed to " honor the 23 people who lived in Greenwich , or had a connection to the town " , who died in the September 11 attacks " . A non @-@ navigational 4 @-@ second flashing green light was installed in the lighthouse on February 13 , 2012 . The lighthouse is currently occupied by a family who act as caretakers of the property .
= = Wildlife = =
Great Captain Island is one of the state 's 26 " important bird areas " that provide an essential habitat for one or more bird species , according to the Connecticut Audubon Society . Great blue herons have been on the island since the 1990s . Great egrets , snowy egrets , and black @-@ crowned night herons also live on the island . The island was once known as the state 's largest heron and egret rookery , but in the early 2000s their populations shrunk dramatically , with summer counts down from a total of 364 in 1998 to 98 in 2004 . Patrick Comins , director of bird conservation for Audubon Connecticut , thinks that the bird populations have been hurt by human disturbances and possibly by competition from cormorants and a great horned owl that lives on the island and has fed on the birds . Comins also said that overall pollution in Long Island Sound waters might also have an effect .
Wading bird populations on the island by year
In the uplands of the island , an area that used to be lawn has been replaced with oak , hickory , ash , cherry , tree of heaven and sassafras . By the lighthouse , several openings in the shrubbery have been made to provide a variety of habitats for wildlife and a barrier of shrubs has been planted on the cliffs east of the lighthouse .
= = Access = =
The town operates a ferry service to and from the island from about the second week in June through the second week of September . Trails have been laid out for visitors , and the western part of the island has picnic tables , grills , restrooms , and posted swimming areas . The island is open year round , with a ferry running during the summer . No public tours of the lighthouse or island are available . In 2012 , Hurricane Sandy damaged the area and washed away the walkway .
= Diamonds ( Rihanna song ) =
" Diamonds " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for her seventh studio album , Unapologetic ( 2012 ) . It was written by Sia Furler together with its producers , Benny Blanco and StarGate . The song premiered on September 26 , 2012 , during the Elvis Duran and the Morning Show and was digitally released the following day as the lead single from Unapologetic . Def Jam Recordings serviced the single to contemporary hit radio in the United States on October 2 . " Diamonds " is a mid @-@ tempo electronic and pop ballad that features heavy synthesizers , orchestral sounds and electronic rhythms . The song 's lyrics serve as a departure from the themes of unhealthy relationships that were on Rihanna 's previous singles and contain a prominent concept of love .
" Diamonds " was well received by most critics , some of whom complimented Rihanna 's different musical direction , while others criticized the song 's production . The single topped music charts in over twenty countries , including the United States , where it became Rihanna 's twelfth number one single on the Billboard Hot 100 and tied her with Madonna and The Supremes for the fifth @-@ most number one singles in the chart 's history . " Diamonds " was certified five @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and sold over 3 @.@ 5 million digital copies in the country . By May 2013 , it had sold over 7 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide and became one of the best @-@ selling singles of all @-@ time .
The song 's music video was shot by director Anthony Mandler , a frequent collaborator of Rihanna 's , and depicts her in four environments that represent the elements of earth , air , water and fire . The video received positive reviews and was praised for its imagery . Some critics believe that the heavily tattooed man intertwined with Rihanna 's arm in the video resembles Chris Brown . The singer performed " Diamonds " on television shows such as Saturday Night Live and The X Factor and included it on the 777 , Diamonds and The Monster Tour set lists . The American Society of Composers , Authors , and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized it as one of the most performed songs of 2013 and 2014 . The official remix of " Diamonds " featured rapper Kanye West and was released on November 16 , 2012 . The song has been covered by various recording artists , including Josef Salvat , who released his own cover of " Diamonds " as a single .
= = Writing and production = =
In 2012 , American songwriter and record producer Benny Blanco met with Norwegian production duo StarGate at a recording studio in New York City to write new songs , including one for Rihanna . StarGate had previously produced her singles " Don 't Stop the Music " ( 2007 ) and " Only Girl ( In the World ) " ( 2010 ) . According to Blanco , he and StarGate wanted to deviate from Rihanna 's usual sound and produce as though the song would be for a rapper such as Kanye West : " It 's the one that we weren 't thinking Rihanna ... that turned into the Rihanna record ... But that 's how it always happens like with me " . They produced the song 's drum machine beat after the other instrumental music was recorded .
StarGate 's Mikkel Eriksen told The New York Times that Blanco took a recorded snippet of Eriksen 's singing , altered it electronically , and made it sound " dirtier " . He then applied timbre and used audio software to create ghostly accompaniment lines . Eriksen described Blanco 's style as " unorthodox , as he almost never plays the keyboards but throws in weird samples and alters them to the right pitch to go with the song . " Australian singer @-@ songwriter Sia later joined them and wrote the lyrics for " Diamonds " in 14 minutes .
After the song was completed , they wanted to play it to Rihanna , but Blanco was skeptical about the reaction towards the song because of its slow sound . After StarGate played it to her , they called Blanco from London and told him that she liked the song : " She 's flippin ' out . She played it like seven times in a row . It 's her favorite song . " Phil Tan and the assistant Daniela Rivera , mixed and mastered " Diamonds " . Recalling it , in an interview with The Huffington Post , Blanco commented , " we needed to have it recorded , the beat finished , mixed and mastered in 24 hours . She was recording in a separate part of the world , sending back the files , we 're finishing the music and then we 're mixing and mastering it , and then it was out in a few days . It 's fucking amazing and incredible . " Kuk Harrell produced Rihanna 's vocals on the song and recorded them together with Marcos Tovar .
= = Release and artwork = =
On September 12 , 2012 , Def Jam France announced via Twitter that Rihanna would release a new single the following week and that her seventh studio album will be released in November . However , the tweet was shortly deleted and replaced with another clarifying that more information will be given on September 13 . In an interview with iHeartRadio at their annual music festival in September , Rihanna confirmed " Diamonds " as her new single and said that it would first be played on American radio beginning September 26 . She described it as an easy @-@ going , but optimistic song that is " happy and hippy " rather than dance @-@ oriented and said that the song " gives me such a great feeling when I listen to it . The lyrics are very hopeful and positive , but it 's about love . "
The single 's cover artwork was revealed on September 24 and depicted Rihanna rolling diamonds in a manner suggestive of joint rolling . On September 26 , Rihanna posted the full lyrics of the song in a PDF on her official website Rihanna7.com. " Diamonds " premiered the same day on the Elvis Duran and the Morning Show , and on the following day , it was released as a digital download on the 7 Digital store . In the United Kingdom , the song was released to 7 Digital on September 28 . Def Jam Recordings solicited the single to contemporary hit radio in the United States on October 2 . On November 5 , it was released in Germany as a CD single , which it also contained the song 's Bimbo Jones Vocal Remix . On December 18 , eight digital remixes of the single were digitally released .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Diamonds " has a length of three minutes and forty @-@ five seconds . Allmusic critic Andy Kellman said that it is a mid @-@ tempo pop ballad , while Michael Baggs of Gigwise characterized it as a mid @-@ tempo electronic song . It features heavy synthesizers , orchestral sounds and electronic rhythms accompanied with Rihanna 's vocal performance . Rolling Stone magazine wrote that " the track 's production mainly stays out of Rihanna 's way , letting the pop star build hooks with layers of her voice . " In a review of Unapologetic , Stacy @-@ Ann Ellis of Vibe noted that an improvement in the singer 's singing is evinced by ballads such as " Diamonds " and Stay " . According to EMI Music Publishing 's digital sheet music for the song , " Diamonds " is composed in the key of B minor and set in common time signature , and has a moderately slow groove of 92 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocals span from the low note of F ♯ 3 to the high note of F ♯ 5 .
Lyrically , " Diamonds " is a departure from Rihanna 's recurring themes of unhealthy relationships on her other songs , and contains a prominent concept of love . The first verse introduces the song 's concept : " Find light in the beautiful sea / I choose to be happy / You and I , you and I / We 're like diamonds in the sky . " The hook continues this metaphor : " So shine bright , tonight , you and I / We 're beautiful like diamonds in the sky / Eye to eye , so alive . " According to Glenn Yoder of The Boston Globe , the song shows Rihanna differently than how she is viewed by the public because of lyrics such as " I choose to be happy " and " We 're like diamonds in the sky " . James Montgomery of MTV News commented that she embraces the positivity and fulfillment of a realized relationship , particularly with the line " When you hold me , I 'm alive " , and admits " I knew that we 'd become one right away " . Lindsay DiMattina of Hollywood.com interpreted that Rihanna is crying out for her lover when she sings lines such as , " When you hold me , I 'm alive , " and " At first sight I felt the energy of sun rays / I saw the life inside your eyes . " The Herald Sun asserted that the lyrics were most likely inspired by Rihanna 's private life .
= = Critical reception = =
" Diamonds " was well received by most critics . In a positive review of the song , Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave it four out of five stars and praised Rihanna 's direction towards a " softer and more prolific edge " . Brittany Lewis of GlobalGrind called " Diamonds " a catchy song and felt that it had the potential to be another hit for Rihanna . Glenn Gamboa of Newsday said that , although it does not sound like an emphatic hit , the lyrical content of the song depicts a " personal shift " for Rihanna . According to James Montgomery of MTV News , " Diamonds " is more positive than previous singles such as " We Found Love " and " Where Have You Been " , despite its moderate tempo . Lindsey DiMattina of Hollywood.com said that Rihanna 's singing is stronger than ever . Contactmusic 's reviewer described it as a " laid @-@ back track " , and suggested that the lyrical content is related to her former boyfriend Chris Brown . In a track @-@ by @-@ track review of Unapologetic , Andrew Hampp of Billboard found the song inspiring and commented that it " finds Rihanna doing one of her throatiest , most impassioned vocals to date " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic cited the song as one of the highlights on Unapologetic , and gave it three and a half stars .
In a less enthusiastic critique , Jon Caramanica of The New York Times likened " Diamonds " to a James Bond movie theme song , but with " insipid lyrics " . Jim Farber of the New York Daily News felt that the song is not as evocative as it attempts to be and lacks the sense of mystery and engaging production found on " We Found Love " . Kevin Blair of the Irish Independent 's , Independent Woman , was critical of the song for deviating from Rihanna 's previous dance and R & B songs and dismissed it as a " chugging , faintly misty @-@ eyed , middle of the road pop song " . Chris Richards of The Washington Post panned the song as a " power ballad without much power " .
= = Recognition and accolades = =
Ernest Baker and Lauren Nostro of Complex ranked " Diamonds " atop their list of The 10 Best Guilty Pleasure Songs of 2012 and wrote that , although the song is unlike Rihanna 's louder , more anthemic songs , " apparently the world loves to see a softer side of her , too . " Black Entertainment Television placed the single at number six on their 50 Best Songs of 2012 list and called it one of Rihanna 's most emotive performances . UK E ! Online 's reviewer named it the fifth best song of the year and said that Rihanna 's vocal performance on the song validates the attention she had received since her breakthrough with " Umbrella " . Irish Independent 's Jim Hayes ranked it as the year 's tenth @-@ best song and described it as " a laid back slow burner that invades and refuses to leave " . A reviewer from The Huffington Post named " Diamonds " one of The 12 Best Songs by Women in 2012 .
At the ASCAP Pop Music Awards , the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized it as one of the most performed songs of 2013 and 2014 respectively . " Diamonds " received the Billboard accolade for Top R & B Song at the 2013 award ceremony held at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas . At the 2013 BET Awards , the song was nominated for the Coca @-@ Cola Viewer 's Choice accolade , however , it lost to " Started from the Bottom " by Drake . It also received nominations for Best International Song at the NRJ Music Awards of 2013 in France and for Hit of the Year at the 2013 Echo Awards in Germany . " Diamonds " received a nomination for Best Song at the 2013 MTV Europe Music Awards .
= = Commercial performance = =
= = = North America = = =
In the US , " Diamonds " debuted at number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 and sold 133 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . In its fourth week , it climbed to number eight on the chart and became Rihanna 's twenty @-@ third top @-@ ten single . For the week ending December 1 , 2012 , the song became Rihanna 's twelfth number @-@ one on the chart , which ended the nine @-@ week reign of Maroon 5 's " One More Night " . With the feat , Rihanna tied Madonna and Supremes as the artists with the fifth @-@ most number ones in the chart 's history . Rihanna also passed Mariah Carey as the female artist to mark 12 number @-@ one songs the fastest on the chart by achieving the feat in six years and seven months , which bested Carey 's stretch of seven years , one month , and two weeks . " Diamonds " charted for a second consecutive week atop the Hot 100 , while her album Unapologetic topped the Billboard 200 . As a result , Rihanna became only the second artist of 2012 to top both the Billboard singles and albums charts simultaneously ; the first to do so was English singer Adele .
On the Radio Songs chart , " Diamonds " debuted at number 28 . In its fourth week , it climbed to number ten , becoming Rihanna 's 19th top ten , breaking a tie with Lil Wayne for the second @-@ best sum in the list 's 22 @-@ year history ; only Mariah Carey ( 23 ) has more . For the issue dated December 15 , the song topped the chart , becoming Rihanna 's tenth number one and placing second for female artists with the most chart toppers , only behind Mariah Carey ( 11 ) . On the Pop Songs chart , " Diamonds " debuted at number 29 , extending Rihanna 's lead as the artist with the most appearances on the chart . On October 11 , 2012 , Billboard unveiled new methodology for the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , newly factoring digital download sales and streaming data into the 50 @-@ position rankings , along with existing radio airplay data monitored by Nielsen BDS . Due to this , " Diamonds " saw a huge leap from number 66 to number one , marking Rihanna 's second single as a lead artist to top the chart ; it topped the chart for fourteen consecutive weeks . " Diamonds " topped the Hot Dance / Club Songs chart , becoming Rihanna 's nineteenth number one , tying her with Janet Jackson for the second @-@ most number ones in the chart 's 36 @-@ year history . Only Madonna has more ( 43 ) . " Diamonds " was certified five @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and sold over 3 @.@ 52 million copies in the country .
In Canada , the song debuted at number nine on the Canadian Hot 100 for the issue dated October 13 , 2012 . The song peaked at number one on the issue dated November 24 , 2012 , becoming Rihanna 's sixth single to reach number one on the chart . It remained atop of it for four consecutive weeks . It was certified platinum by Music Canada denoting sales of over 80 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Europe and Oceania = = =
" Diamonds " made its first chart appearance in Ireland on September 27 , 2012 , where it debuted at number 17 . It reached its peak of number two on October 25 , 2012 . The single debuted at number one on both the United Kingdom 's pop and R & B singles charts on October 7 , 2012 , with over 105 @,@ 000 copies sold . This gave Rihanna her seventh number @-@ one single in the country . After nine weeks on the pop chart , " Diamonds " rose from number ten to three , following Rihanna 's performance of the song on The X Factor the previous week . From its debut , the song remained atop the R & B chart for three consecutive weeks before being deposed of the top spot by Labrinth and Emeli Sandé 's " Beneath Your Beautiful " . As of March 2014 , " Diamonds " has sold over one million copies in the UK , and became Rihanna 's fourth single to achieve that feat . With that , the singer became only the second artist to have most million selling singles in the country , only behind The Beatles . The single is the 30th best @-@ selling song of all time by a female artist in the country .
" Diamonds " debuted at number one in France , becoming Rihanna 's fourth number @-@ one single in the country and remaining at the top spot for three consecutive weeks . " Diamonds " also peaked at number one in Germany for ten consecutive weeks , becoming Rihanna 's fifth number @-@ one single in the country and surpassing " Umbrella " ( 2007 ) as her longest @-@ running German number @-@ one single . The song was placed at number seven on the German 2012 Year @-@ End singles chart and was certified platinum , denoting sales of 300 @,@ 000 copies in the country . " Diamonds " remained number one in Norway for eleven consecutive weeks , the Czech Republic for eight , Denmark for six , Switzerland for five , Austria for four , Finland for three weeks and Scotland one .
" Diamonds " entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number five on October 8 , 2012 . After eight weeks in the top ten , the song peaked at number two . The single has received a double @-@ platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand , denoting sales of 30 @,@ 000 copies . " Diamonds " debuted at number eight on the Australian Singles Chart on October 14 , 2012 . The song reached a peak of number six on November 4 , 2012 . The song has been certified five @-@ times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association , denoting sales of 350 @,@ 000 copies . By May 2013 , it had sold over 7 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide and became one of the best @-@ selling singles of all @-@ time .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
Rihanna began to film the music video for " Diamonds " on October 21 , 2012 , at the Mojave Desert in Lancaster , California . It was directed by her regular collaborator Anthony Mandler , who previously directed her videos for " Russian Roulette " ( 2009 ) and " Man Down " ( 2011 ) . Photographs of the production leaked to the press the same day and showed Rihanna in a white and black dress in front of a fire . Ethan Sacks of the New York Daily News remarked that she " looked like a gem on the set of her video shoot . " Rihanna said that she wanted the video 's abstract scenes to capture the appropriate emotion for the audience . Mandler sought to create a " wider landscape " by suggesting and transfiguring ideas for viewers through the video : " [ T ] hey needed to feel like dream vignettes , like , when you wake up from a dream , you realize what you were dreaming about is not really what it was about , it was about something else . " He also tried to relate the video 's concept to Rihanna 's personal life : " What 's truth or fiction ? You know ' Is she drowning , or is she in complete ecstasy ? Are those hands coming apart , or are they finding each other ? ' ... we tried to bring up these deeper questions that relate to song and her life and finding beauty in chaos and finding beauty in pain and finding pain in beauty . " On November 7 , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video was posted on MTV 's official website . It featured Rihanna in a " leopard @-@ print " robe as she emerged from a trailer and headed to the shooting set . The scenes were intercut with police officers who chase armed fighters . Rihanna stands in a deserted landscape in the video 's other scenes . The music video for " Diamonds " premiered November 8 on MTV . The video was also made available for streaming at Rihanna.MTV.com. It was digitally released on November 14 via the iTunes Store .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video opens with a view of Rihanna lying in open waters , as other scenes of diamonds being rolled in a manner suggestive of making a joint are intercut – a scene reminiscent of the single 's artwork . As the video progresses Rihanna is shown running on a highway . In a black @-@ and @-@ white scene , Rihanna licks the joint and begins smoking it . The image fades to black as the song begins . Rihanna performs in the same black @-@ and @-@ white setting while in a black corset . Images of Rihanna on a bed in a room while singing are shown , with objects breaking , curtains falling and roses burning in reverse effect . Rihanna is shown again on the highway , running away from what appears to be the headlights of a chasing car . She then stops as she looks up to the night sky at an aurora view . Throughout the video , Rihanna 's hand is shown intertwined with that of a heavily tattooed man , whose face is not shown in the video . As the second verse starts , Rihanna is shown in a desert where horses run freely . Scenes of a street battle are later shown , depicting burning cars and broken glass around the environment . As the video continues , the singer and her lover 's hands are shown slowly slipping apart , with only their fingertips touching towards the conclusion of the video . The video ends with Rihanna once again floating alone in the open waters .
= = = Reception = = =
Upon its release , the video received positive response from critics . James Montgomery of MTV News called it visually striking and observed a great deal of " evocative imagery ( glamorous black @-@ and @-@ white close @-@ ups , thick plumes of translucent smoke , oversaturated hill @-@ scapes , artfully silhouetted stallions ) " . He said that , like the song , the video is by turns garish and very intimate . The website 's Jocelyn Vena thought that it had dreamlike and surrealistic images of Rihanna , who moves through set @-@ ups that are occasionally exceptional . E ! Online 's Bruna Nessif said that the video shows an abundance of elaborate imagery , narratives , and especially a " mysterious and sexy " Rihanna . Additionally , she found it obvious that the body of a heavily tattooed man 's arm , which Rihanna clings to desperately , is a reference to Chris Brown . NME magazine observed Rihanna being shown in four environments that represent the four elements of the earth , air , water and fire . Billy Johnson Jr. of Yahoo ! Canada felt the video had failed to capture the song 's vivid celebration of a love affair and stated , " It seems as though [ Rihanna is ] in chaos , reflecting on happier times . " Marc Hogan of Spin concluded that the video was a " confirmation of Rihanna 's awkward segue into adult @-@ contemporary @-@ dom . " The video for " Diamonds " was Vevo 's fourth most @-@ viewed visual of 2013 .
= = Live performances = =
Rihanna first performed " Diamonds " on November 7 , 2012 , at the Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show , where she wore black lingerie with black thigh high stockings and ankle boots ; the show was aired by CBS on December 4 . On November 10 , Rihanna performed the song on Saturday Night Live . New York magazine 's Joe Reid said that her performance was the highlight of the show 's episode and favored the digitized background in particular , which he described as " overt weirdness " that was ultimately " pretty endearing " . Tess Lynch of Gratland was impressed by Rihanna 's " exceptional singing " and wrote that the background imagery was a " powerful " and " crazy spectacle that astonished viewers " . Lynch agreed with episode host Anne Hathaway , who had said that Rihanna was " a goddess . "
" Diamonds " was included on the set list for Rihanna 's 2012 promotional tour , the 777 Tour . On November 25 , the singer performed the song on series 9 of The X Factor in the UK . The performance featured the singer dressed in a black gown on a square platform . As the chorus began , water effects poured down around her on the outside of the stage . By the final chorus , the water centered into the platform and wet the singer . Hayes of Irish Independent praised the performance and stated that it " put everything – and everybody – else to shame . " On December 8 , Rihanna performed the song on Wetten , dass .. ? ( " Wanna bet that .. ? " ) in Germany . She wore futuristic sunglasses , a white top , and leather pants . She also performed " Diamonds " on La Chanson de l 'année ( " The song of the Year " ) in France , on December 10 , 2012 , which was broadcast on December 29 , 2012 . She performed the song also on the season three finale of the American television series The Voice , where she wore long metallic talons . The single was included as the closing song on the set list of Rihanna 's fifth worldwide tour titled the Diamonds World Tour ( 2013 ) .
Rihanna performed " Diamonds " at the 2013 American Music Awards on November 24 , 2013 , during the acceptance of the Icon Award . The performance featured the singer wearing a long black dress plunged down to her navel and diamond adornments in her hair . She was joined by an orchestra that included a conductor which accompanied her as a rock band produced the beat . Kory Grow of Rolling Stone magazine labeled the performance as " stunning " . Additionally , out of a total sixteen performances at the ceremony , he placed Rihanna 's rendition of " Diamonds " at number one writing , " she gave a performance that showed she could live up to the honor " . Los Angeles Times ' Mikael Wood stated that during the performance Rihanna dominated the stage pointing that she looked like a young version of Grace Jones . The single was included on the set list of Rihanna 's joint 2014 tour with rapper Eminem , The Monster Tour . Rihanna performed " Diamonds " on November 11 , 2014 during the Concert for Valor held in Washington , D.C.
= = Cover versions and remixes = =
On BBC Radio 1 's live lounge , Jessie Ware performed a slightly jazzy version of the song , which Spin magazine 's Marc Hogan said was musically reminiscent of the xx and vocally similar to D 'Angelo . Sia Furler , who co @-@ wrote " Diamonds " , performed it with a keyboard accompaniment at the Norwegian @-@ American Achievement Ceremony on November 18 . On November 15 , American singer @-@ songwriter Zola Jesus recorded a cover version of " Diamonds " . " Diamonds
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Irvine , the emperor was in Lahore in January 1712 when his " health failed " . On 24 February he made his final public appearance , and died during the night of 27 – 28 February ; according to Mughal noble Kamwar Khan , he died of " enlargement of the spleen " . On 11 April , his body was sent to Delhi under the supervision of his widow Mihr @-@ Parwar and Chin Qilich Khan . He was buried on 15 May in the courtyard of the Moti Masjid ( Pearl Mosque ) in Mehrauli , which he built near the dargah of Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki . He was succeeded by his son Jahandar Shah who ruled until 1713 .
= = Coins = =
He issued gold , silver and copper coins , although his predecessors ' coins were also used to pay government officials and in commerce . Copper coins from Aurangzeb 's reign were re @-@ minted with his name . Unlike the other Mughal emperors , his coins did not use his name in a couplet ; poet Danishmand Khan composed two lines for the coins , but they were not approved .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Name , title and lineage = = =
His full name , including his titles , was " Abul @-@ nasr Sayyid Qutb @-@ ud @-@ din Muhammad Shah Alam Bahadur Shah Badshah " . After his death , contemporary historians began calling him " Khuld @-@ Manzil " ( Departed to Paradise ) . He was the only Mughal emperor to have the title Sayyid , used by descendants of the prophet Muhammad . According to William Irvine , his maternal grandfather was Sayyid Shah Mir ( whose daughter , Begum Nawab Bai , married Aurangzeb ) .
= = = Children = = =
Source : Irvine , pp. 143 – 144
= A Flash Flood of Colour =
A Flash Flood of Colour is the third studio album by English rock band Enter Shikari , and was produced by Dan Weller . The album was recorded in May and June 2011 at Karma Sound Studios in Bang Saray , Thailand , and at the Fortress in London , United Kingdom . It was released internationally on 16 January 2012 by Ambush Reality , the band 's record label in the United Kingdom , and Hopeless Records in North America .
Lyrically , the album deals with current affairs ( primarily the Great Recession ) . It confronts flaws in government action to end the global recession , also touching on the political situation in Israel and climate change . A Flash Flood of Colour demonstrated Enter Shikari 's continued fusion of electronic and rock music influences . The album 's cover depicts an inverted social hierarchy .
A Flash Flood of Colour received generally positive reviews from music critics and an average Metacritic score of 75 out of 100 . It debuted at number four on the UK Albums Chart after a band @-@ led campaign to get the album to number one , and appeared on several album @-@ of @-@ the @-@ year lists . To promote the album , Enter Shikari made A Flash Flood of Colour World Tour .
= = Background and recording = =
Enter Shikari took a different lyrical direction with the release of their 2009 album Common Dreads , which focused on financial meltdown , economic collapse and widespread discontent . Journalists such as Ian Winwood credited the band 's lyrical direction as a reaction to the evolution of politics since their 2007 debut album , Take to the Skies ; there is now " ongoing Orwellian overseas conflicts , riots in England 's major cities , endless austerity programmes the end date of which stretch years into the distance " . The change in lyrics began with Reynolds ' belief that music is an effective way of conveying political ideas .
The record was produced by former SikTh guitarist Dan Weller , who helped with guitar production on Common Dreads , and sound engineer Tim Morris . Enter Shikari recorded the album in May and June 2011 , primarily at Karma Sound Studios in Bang Saray , Thailand . Its recording began at Weller 's Old Street London @-@ based recording studio . When he told the band that a friend owned a recording studio in Thailand , it became a running joke that they would record there instead . Eventually , they decided that it would be financially , logistically and artistically advantageous to record at Karma Sound . The studio in Thailand was described by drummer Rob Rolfe as " four walls in a little compound in the middle of the jungle " an hour @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half drive south of Bangkok and a " fantastic studio in paradise " . The band recorded the album 's music before adding the vocals , since Reynolds knew the album 's themes and that it would be " uniting and empowering " . The album was mixed in Vancouver by Mike Fraser .
Within the first 10 days of recording , the album 's most @-@ complete songs were its most aggressive — particularly the tentatively @-@ titled " Tyrannosaurus " ( later known as " Hello Tyrannosaurus , Meet Tyrannicide " ) . During its production , the album went through several changes ; " Stalemate " was intended as an acoustic introduction , and " System Meltdown " was intended to be a single song . Recording was completed within a month .
= = Style and themes = =
A Flash Flood of Colour is noted for its fusion of genres : electronic music , rock music , hip @-@ hop music and hardcore punk . The album is considered to " contain at least two or three different genres within each track " , blending elements of other styles ( alternative rock , dubstep , drum and bass , industrial , techno , trance , electro , British hip hop , grime and metalcore ) into post @-@ hardcore and metal . Fusing electronic music with heavy rock music has led to the album 's style being described as electronicore .
The theme of A Flash Flood of Colour is politically progressive . The album 's treatment of current affairs and environmental issues takes aim " at the failings of capitalism , the hypocrisy of modern politics and the blatant disregard of human health and happiness " and has been compared to the calculated approach of the Occupy movement , rather than an ensuing class conflict . Despite its political themes , Reynolds denied that the album was politically motivated : " This album is anti @-@ politics . We say that politics is an outdated system . It is time that we embrace technological developments and no longer have to rely on a rule . Our lives should develop according to scientific findings . " He described A Flash Flood of Colour 's recurring theme as " perspective " : " We 're not trying to think subjectively . " The Real News , Democracy Now ! and journalist John Pilger have all influenced Reynolds ' political views .
= = = Tracks = = =
A Flash Flood of Colour opens with the trance @-@ like , spoken @-@ word introduction to " System ... " , featuring synthesised strings , a " battle cry " buildup and an outline of the album 's lyrical themes ( metaphorically comparing Britain 's economy to an eroded cliff @-@ top house ) . The next track , " ... Meltdown " , opens with a dubstep @-@ influenced breakdown . Both songs " surf a plateau musically " , highlighting the album 's diversity and acting as a " paean to internationalist idealism " . " Ssssnakepit " mixes jungle music " fury " , thrash metal guitar riffing , an electro interlude and a catchy chorus ; Reynolds also noted drum @-@ and @-@ bass and hardcore @-@ punk influences . " Ssssnakepit " focuses on partying more than politics ; Reynolds said about the song , " It ’ s hard to write positive songs with everything going on in the world , but this track is basically one full @-@ on party — it 's about cherishing your friendships and living compassionately . "
The title of " Arguing with Thermometers " refers to climate @-@ change deniers . " Stalemate " is a ballad about war profiteering , condemning Israel 's use of white phosphorus in Palestine and noting that wars " make trillionaires out of billionaires " . The song 's combination of acoustic guitar , vocal harmonies and rock drumming produces a " radio @-@ friendly hook " .
With its " furious , anarchist edge " , " Gandhi Mate , Gandhi " focuses on the distinction between social and economic stability , summarising capitalism as " a long outdated system ... that does nothing but divide and segregate us " . The song has been seen as supporting the Occupy London movement ; Reynolds called it a " very frustrated and confused song " reflecting the current Zeitgeist : " People know we have the resources , the creativity , and the ingenuity to do better than what we have at the moment and are struggling to come to terms with the short term love of money over the long @-@ term stability and progression of our species . " The song focuses on two characters ; Reynolds ' vocals supply a revolutionary perspective , and Rory Clewlow 's are those of a person in power . " Gandhi mate , Gandhi " has unconventional lyrics for its characters ; " Yabba Dabba do one , son " was described by Reynolds as the product of a drunken MC battle , and during the song the other band members pause and urge Reynolds to calm down . Reynolds described " Gandhi mate , Gandhi " as a " lively electro influenced dubstep " and a " rap rock pileup " textured over " wobbly dubstep bass " .
" Warm Smiles Do Not Make You Welcome Here " incorporates stadium rock into Enter Shikari 's typical style . Reynolds described " Hello Tyrannosaurus , Meet Tyrannicide " as a critique of certain democracies which are " polite dictatorships " , specifically referring to those in the Arab Spring movement . The album closes with " Constellations " , a " rallying call about the future of the human race " . With a " swirling " string quartet resembling " System ... " ' s , the anthemic song has a post @-@ rock sound .
= = Cover and packaging = =
The title of A Flash Flood of Colour was intended to describe the album 's music , and Reynolds noted its colourful blend of musical genres . He said that the band wanted a title with a " big sound " which was positive and forward @-@ thinking , and it derives from the lyrics of " Warm Smiles Do Not Make You Welcome Here " .
The cover art is a reversal of society 's hierarchical structure based on social stratification . Although it was introduced to Enter Shikari as a set design for their live shows , they thought it would be a " solid symbol " for the album . Guitarist Rory Clewlow described the cover art : " Our society is often depicted as a pyramid , with the few at the top with all the wealth and the masses at the bottom with no wealth , but supporting the pyramid for the few at the top . Our upside down triangle represents this system being flipped on [ its ] head . "
= = Release and promotion = =
Enter Shikari released two non @-@ album singles , " Destabilise " and " Quelle Surprise " , before A Flash Flood of Colour 's release . Although " Quelle Surprise " ( released on 19 May 2011 ) was intended as the first single from the new album , it was later decided that it ( like " Destabilise " ) would be a stand @-@ alone track . They were included as bonus tracks on selected versions of A Flash Flood of Colour .
The album 's first single , " Sssnakepit " , was released on 20 September 2011 . On 5 December " Gandhi Mate , Gandhi " was released as a preview of the album . On 5 January 2012 Enter Shikari released the studio version of " Arguing with Thermometers " on their YouTube page , and it was played on Lowe 's show as his " Hottest Record in the World " . On 4 January 2013 , the band released an animated music video for " Hello Tyrannosaurus , Meet Tyrannicide " on their YouTube page .
When it was released , A Flash Flood of Colour was one of two new entries in the United Kingdom 's top 20 mainstream album chart ( the other was Tribes ' début album , Baby ) . The album reached number one halfway through its first week , with over 2 @,@ 500 copies sold ( rivalling Adele , Bruno Mars and Ed Sheeran ) . After the announcement of the midweek chart , Rou Reynolds called A Flash Flood of Colour 's success a victory for " independent music , for socially conscious music and for alternative music " in a blog post on the Enter Shikari website . Although the album fell to fourth behind 21 , + and Mylo Xyloto , it reached number one on the UK Rock Chart and number two on the UK independent album charts and sold over 19 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Tour and performances = = =
As a " first big test " Enter Shikari introduced songs from A Flash Flood of Colour at Soundwave in Australia , and they were pleased by the positive reaction to their new music . When the band was touring at the time of the album 's release , they distributed leaflets with interviews answering questions they are not usually asked . On 12 February 2012 they played a subdued , well @-@ attended show at the Bull and Gate , a Kentish Town pub , which was filmed for Scuzz . The show , filmed and edited by Stand Your Ground Media , aired on 31 March at 5 pm . Enter Shikari played three small shows in the UK to celebrate the album 's release : 16 January 2012 ( its release date ) at the Borderline in London , 17 January at the Hippodrome in Kingston and 18 January at the Cockpit in Leeds . The shows were sponsored by HMV , Banquet Records , Jumbo Records and Crash Records ; those pre @-@ ordering from these sources received tickets to the shows .
After the album 's release , Enter Shakiri toured Europe , North America and Australasia with a full production and light show . The band 's touring schedule , and their confidence , expanded across the United States and they played with two- or three @-@ band bills to play longer sets .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
A Flash Flood of Colour received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received a score of 75 based on 13 reviews ( categorised as " generally favorable reviews " ) . Drew Beringer of AbsolutePunk praised the album in an eight @-@ out @-@ of @-@ ten review : " The quartet has a much bigger goal than just getting kids to dance to their breakdowns , rather they focus on putting a lot of substance into each track , hoping to inspire this generation to take a stand and make change amongst the broken systems throughout the world " .
Ian Winwood gave the album four out of five " Ks " for the British magazine Kerrang ! , an " excellent " review . He called the music far more upbeat than Enter Shikari 's serious message : " This 11 @-@ song set is a good deal of fun to listen to , even if its lyrics ' subject matters are the exact opposite . " Winwood also reviewed the album favourably for BBC Music , comparing its lyrics to The King Blues ' Punk & Poetry and calling Enter Shikari " the only other mainstream @-@ breaching British rock band concerning itself with the news of the world " . Johnny Firecloud gave the album an eight @-@ out @-@ of @-@ ten rating on CraveOnline : " Enter Shikari have found a balance while honing a voice of rebellion – at a time where tearing down boundaries and microanalyzing the current structure is more vital and valuable than ever before in our lives . " Iain Moffat of The Fly said of the album that ' Disenchantment should always be this spellbinding . ' In NME , Dan Martin gave the album an eight @-@ out @-@ of @-@ ten rating : " All of that surface tension lands Enter Shikari in a pretty powerful position for their third – and , as the title promises fabulously , they respond to the challenge in explosive style to deliver something like their defining statement . " Rocksound writer Ryan Bird gave the album a nine @-@ out @-@ of @-@ ten score , praising the band for their emotional cultural and sonic development and noting the importance of their message : " In a world edging ever closer to complete and utter destruction , Enter Shikari remain fearless and uncompromising leaders in a field of one . "
Not all reviews were positive . Jon O 'Brien of Allmusic gave the album three stars out of five , saying that the album 's " rebellious stance rarely transcends " Beginners Guide to Politics " territory " and considering its music a " hyperactive Wall of Sound " . O 'Brien summarised his review by calling the album " a demanding and often exhausting listen , [ however ] it 's a call to arms which the flagging U.K. guitar band scene could do with more of . " John Calvert of Drowned In Sound gave the album a five @-@ out @-@ of @-@ ten rating , calling its sound " sports metal " and noting a decline in Enter Shikari 's music : " Forward rewind to 2011 and it 's all Nero @-@ grade dubstep , amateurish drum 'n'bass and mid @-@ twenties pot bellies . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Roughton " Rou " Reynolds , all music composed by Enter Shikari .
Limited edition bonus DVD
DVD bonus dell 'edizione limitata
= = Personnel = =
Enter Shikari
Roughton " Rou " Reynolds – lead vocals , MC , growls , electronics , acoustic guitar , celesta , piano , brass and string arrangements , lyrics
Liam " Rory " Clewlow – guitar , backing vocals , co @-@ lead vocals on " Sssnakepit " , " Gandhi Mate , Gandhi " and " Destabilise "
Chris Batten – bass , backing vocals , co @-@ lead vocals on " ... Meltdown " , " Search Party " , " Gandhi Mate , Gandhi " and " Pack of Thieves "
Rob Rolfe – drums , percussion , backing vocals , co @-@ lead vocals on " Gandhi Mate , Gandhi "
Additional personnel
Dan Weller – producer
Tim Morris – engineer
Bobo Ekrangsi – engineer
Mike Fraser – mixing
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Susianna Kentikian =
Susianna " Susi " Levonovna Kentikian ( Armenian : Սյուզի Կենտիկյան , born Syuzanna Kentikyan on September 11 , 1987 ) is a German @-@ Armenian professional boxer now residing in Germany . She was born in Yerevan , Armenian SSR , but she left the country with her family at the age of five because of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War . Kentikian has lived in Hamburg since 1996 and began boxing when she was twelve years old . Following a successful amateur career , she turned professional in 2005 when she signed with the Hamburg boxing promoter Spotlight Boxing . Kentikian won her first world championship fight in February 2007 , and she is a former World Boxing Association ( WBA ) , World Boxing Organization ( WBO ) and Women 's International Boxing Federation ( WIBF ) World Flyweight Champion , and is considered Top Female fighter pound for pound .
Kentikian was undefeated , having won 16 of her first 30 professional fights by knockout . The German television station ZDF broadcasts her fights since July 2009 . She had previously headlined fight cards for the television station ProSieben from 2007 to 2009 . Kentikian has gained minor celebrity status in Germany and she hopes to reach a popularity similar to that of the retired German female boxing star Regina Halmich .
= = Early life = =
Susianna Kentikian was born in Yerevan , Armenian SSR , the daughter of veterinary doctor Levon Kentikian and his wife Makruhi . At the age of five , she left Armenia with her parents and her nine @-@ year @-@ old brother , Mikael , because her father was called up to serve in the military during the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War . In 1992 , the family first moved to Berlin , Germany and stayed at asylum seekers ' homes . However , due to the violence at these facilities and their poor knowledge of the German language , they left Berlin and moved to Moldova and later to Russia , where Kentikian went to school for a short period of time . The family returned to Germany in 1996 and relocated in Hamburg , again living in government facilities for asylum seekers . Kentikian 's residence status remained uncertain for almost a decade . Several times , she and her family were taken to the airport for deportation , but the intervention of local friends such as her amateur trainer , Frank Rieth , who called lawyers , the media and local politicians , prevented their final expulsion . Her family received a permanent residence permit in 2005 when she signed a three @-@ year professional boxing contract that established a stable income .
At the age of 16 , Kentikian began working as a cleaner in a local fitness center to help her family financially . She graduated from high school ( Realschule ) in the summer of 2006 and she eventually became a German citizen in June 2008 . She has applied for dispensation to be allowed to retain her Armenian citizenship . Kentikian now lives with her family in an apartment near her Hamburg boxing gym .
= = Amateur career = =
Kentikian discovered her enthusiasm for boxing when she was twelve years old after accompanying her brother to his boxing training . She started with regular training herself and stated that boxing had allowed her to forget the difficulties of her life for a short time : " I could let everything out , my whole energy . If you have so many problems like our family , you need something like that . "
Kentikian won the Hamburg Championships for juniors from 2001 to 2004 . She also won the Northern German Championships for juniors in 2003 and 2004 , and in October 2004 , she had her biggest amateur success by winning the International German Women 's Amateur Championships in the featherweight division for juniors . Kentikian found it increasingly difficult to find opponents in the amateur ranks , as few boxers wanted to face her in the ring , and her status as an asylum seeker did not allow her to box outside Hamburg . Kentikian 's final amateur record stood at 24 wins and one loss . She later blamed overeagerness for her single loss , having fought despite health problems at the time . Her aggressive style and fast combinations , and her ambition to always attack until she knocked out the opponent earned her the nickname " Killer Queen " ; she has often used the identically @-@ named song by the English rock band Queen as her entrance music .
= = Professional career = =
Kentikian was discovered as a professional boxer at an exhibition fight during qualifications for the World Amateur Boxing Championships . At the beginning of 2005 , she signed a three @-@ year contract with the Hamburg boxing promoter Spotlight Boxing , a joint venture of Universum Box @-@ Promotion , focusing on young athletes . Since then , she has been coached by Universum trainer Magomed Schaburow . Kentikian started her professional career on January 15 , 2005 , with a win by unanimous decision over Iliana Boneva of Bulgaria on the undercard of German female boxing star Regina Halmich . Over the next 14 months , Kentikian won nine of her eleven fights by knockout . Her unusually high knockout percentage , rarely seen in lower female weight classes , began to draw attention . On July 25 , 2006 , she won her first belt , the International German flyweight title , against Daniela Graf by unanimous decision . In her first international title fight on September 9 , 2006 , Kentikian beat Maribel Zurita from the United States with a fourth round technical knockout for the WIBF InterContinental Flyweight title ; the fight was stopped when Zurita was cut over the left eyebrow .
= = = 2007 = = =
In her 15th professional bout , Kentikian fought for her first world championship in Cologne , Germany , on February 16 , 2007 ; it was also her first time headlining a fight card . She won by a ninth round technical knockout against Carolina Alvarez of Venezuela , thereby winning the vacant WBA Flyweight title . Alvarez took unanswered punches in most of the rounds and was bleeding heavily from her nose and the referee eventually stopped the fight in round nine in concern for Alvarez 's health . Six weeks later , on March 30 , 2007 , Kentikian made her first title defense . Before a crowd of 19 @,@ 500 in the Kölnarena , she fought on the undercard of the popular exhibition bout between German comedian Stefan Raab and WIBF World Champion Regina Halmich . Kentikian beat María José Núñez from Uruguay with a third round technical knockout . Núñez was knocked down in round two and Kentikian finished the fight one round later with a right cross followed up by combinations that left Núñez defenseless on the ropes , causing the referee to step in .
Kentikian next faced Nadia Hokmi of France in her second title defense on May 25 , 2007 . Hokmi , using her height and reach advantage , proved to be the first test of Kentikian 's professional career and both boxers fought a competitive bout . While Hokmi started out slower , she managed to win several of the later rounds by landing repeated combinations . Kentikian won through a split decision for the first time in her career . The fight was voted among the five " Top Fights of the Year " by WomenBoxing.com. On September 7 , 2007 , Kentikian defended her title against Shanee Martin from the United Kingdom , winning by a third round technical knockout . Kentikian controlled her opponent from the opening bell and the referee stopped the fight after Martin was knocked down from a straight right hand in round three .
Following the retirement of long @-@ standing WIBF belt holder Regina Halmich , Kentikian unified the WBA and vacant WIBF Flyweight titles in her hometown of Hamburg on December 7 , 2007 . She met Nadia Hokmi in a rematch of their contest six months earlier . The French boxer again proved to be a tough opponent and the fight developed very similarly to their first encounter . Once more , Kentikian had the better start , but Hokmi scored during the second half of the fight , again making it a close bout . This time however , Kentikian was ahead on all three of the judges ' scorecards , winning by unanimous decision .
= = = 2008 = = =
Kentikian successfully defended her titles against Sarah Goodson of the Philippines by a third round technical knockout on February 29 , 2008 . Goodson , who had fought almost exclusively in lower weight classes before , was overpowered by Kentikian and the referee ended the fight after a series of body punches in round three . In her next title defense on May 10 , 2008 , Kentikian beat Mary Ortega from the United States with a first round technical knockout . Ortega , who had previously fought against well @-@ known opponents such as Elena Reid and Hollie Dunaway , was knocked down twice by straight right hands during the first 90 seconds of the fight . When Kentikian had Ortega pinned against the ropes again , the referee stepped in shortly before the end of round one . The quick stoppage came as a surprise to many , including television commentator Regina Halmich , who had expected a hard @-@ fought bout .
In her next title defense on August 29 , 2008 , Kentikian met Hager Finer of Israel , Halmich 's last opponent before retiring . Following a close opening round , the boxing match turned into a brawl and Finer scored during the first half of the fight . From round five onwards , Kentikian managed to take over the bout by landing the cleaner punches and she won by unanimous decision . On December 5 , 2008 , Kentikian faced Anastasia Toktaulova of Russia , the reigning GBU Flyweight Champion , although the GBU title was not on the line . During the uncharacteristic tactical fight , Kentikian managed to control her opponent from the middle of the ring in most of the rounds . The three judges all scored the bout in favor of Kentikian . In December 2008 , she was named Germany 's female boxer of the year for the first time .
= = = 2009 = = =
Kentikian retained her WIBF and WBA belts with a unanimous decision win over Elena Reid from the United States on March 20 , 2009 . Reid , who was well known in Germany after two controversial bouts with Halmich in 2004 and 2005 , remained largely passive from the opening bell and Kentikian controlled her through the majority of the fight . Reid did not win a single round on the official scorecards . On July 4 , 2009 , Kentikian fought the Interim WBA Super Flyweight Champion Carolina Gutierrez Gaite of Argentina . Kentikian used her speed and combinations to dominate her opponent through the ten rounds , winning every round on the judges ' scores . Kentikian ended 2009 by fighting the undefeated Turkish @-@ German Julia Sahin ( 20 – 0 ) on 10 October for the vacant WBO Female Flyweight title . Kentikian overwhelmed Sahin with her higher work rate early on . Sahin spent most of the fight covering up from Kentikian 's many flurries . Kentikian gave Sahin a ten @-@ round beating and won a unanimous decision to become the new WBO Female Flyweight Champion .
= = = 2010 = = =
Kentikian , now the WIBF , WBA and WBO Female Flyweight Champion , made the first defense of all her titles against Nadia Raoui on 24 April 2010 . The bout was very close , with Kentikian landing more cleaner and harder shots , yet Raoui finding much success as well . After ten close rounds , Kentikian won via split decision .
On 17 July , Susi Kentikian defended all of her titles once again against Mexico 's Arely Mucino . In a disappointing turn of events , the bout was stopped in the third round after an accidental clash of heads left Kentikian with an injury , leaving her unable to continue . The fight was declared a no contest . Up until the stoppage , Kentikian was giving Mucino problems with her fast combinations , in and out attacks and power shots .
= = = 2011 = = =
Kentikian retained her WIBF Flyweight title against Ana Arrazola on 26 March 2011 . It was an action packed ten round fight , with Susi winning almost every round on her way to a unanimous decision victory . Arrazola was docked a point in round six for a low blow . Kentikian finished the year by scoring another unanimous decision win , this time against Thai Teeraporn Pannimit , to retain her WIBF , WBA and WBO Female Flyweight titles . Kentikian won every round on every scorecard ( 100 @-@ 90 , 100 @-@ 90 , 100 @-@ 90 ) .
= = = 2012 = = =
Kentikian attempted to defend her WIBF and WBO Female Flyweight titles next on 16 May 2012 in Frankfurt , Germany against Melissa McMorrow . Kentikian lost via controversial majority decision with scores of 95 @-@ 95 , 94 @-@ 96 and 94 @-@ 96 . McMorrow had won the early rounds , but Kentikian dominated the remainder of the fight . Months later , Kentikian defend WBA Female title against Carina Moreno , but lost a close split decision .
= = = 2013 = = =
On February 1 , 2013 , Kentikian defeated Sanae Jah and won the Interim WBA Female Flyweight title . On June 7 , 2013 , Kentikian defeated Carina Moreno and won WBA Female Flyweight title . On December 7 , 2013 , Kentikian defeated Simona Galassi and defended the WBA Female Flyweight title .
= = = 2014 = = =
On May 31 , 2014 , Kentikian defeated Dan @-@ Bi Kim and defended the WBA Female Flyweight title . On November 8 , 2014 , Kentikian defeated Naoko Fujioka ( Japan ) and again defended the WBA Female Flyweight title .
= = In the media = =
At the beginning of her professional career , Kentikian was primarily featured in the local media in Hamburg and occasionally in national German newspapers ; in particular , her difficult childhood and her long @-@ time uncertain asylum status sparked interest in the press and led to comparisons with the boxing film Million Dollar Baby . Her height of 1 @.@ 54 m ( 5 ft 1 in ) also drew attention , and she was dubbed " Germany 's smallest professional boxer " . Early on , Kentikian was considered one of the big talents in German boxing and the media mentioned her as the potential successor of record world champion Regina Halmich , a goal she had also set out for herself .
In 2007 , Kentikian was introduced to a much larger audience due to cooperation between German television station ProSieben and her promoter Spotlight Boxing . In addition to live broadcasts of her fights during so @-@ called " ProSieben Fight Nights , " she appeared several times on the popular television show TV total . She also took part in a four @-@ round sparring session with the show 's host , Stefan Raab , and participated in the competitive entertainment event World Wok Championships , where she teamed with Sven Hannawald , Christina Surer and Markus Beyer to win the four @-@ person competition . Her first world title defense , fighting María José Núñez on the undercard of the popular Raab vs. Halmich exhibition bout , was seen by 4 @.@ 69 million television viewers — her most watched fight to date . A camera crew visited her for one year prior to her first world championship fight against Carolina Alvarez ; the documentary aired in June 2007 on the German public broadcaster Das Erste . A shortened version with commentary in English was aired by the German international broadcaster Deutsche Welle in October 2007 .
= = Other activities = =
On 24 November 2010 it was announced Susi Kentikian is the patron of an organization called Lebensbaum für Armenien ( Tree of Life for Armenia ) , whose aim is to plant 300 @,@ 000 trees in Armenia and to create jobs in Kentikian ´ s homeland .
= = Boxing championships and honors = =
Amateur titles
Hamburg Champion for juniors – 2001 to 2004
Northern German Champion for juniors – 2003 and 2004
International German Amateur Featherweight Champion for juniors – 2004
Professional titles
International German Flyweight Title – won July 25 , 2006 ( later vacated )
WIBF InterContinental Flyweight Title – won September 9 , 2006 ( later vacated )
WBA World Flyweight Champion – won February 16 , 2007
WIBF World Flyweight Champion – won December 7 , 2007
WBO World Flyweight Champion – won October 10 , 2009
WBA World Flyweight Champion – won July 6 , 2013
Awards
Hamburg 's sportswoman of the year – 2007
WBA Best Female Boxer – 2007 / 2008
Germany 's female boxer of the year – 2008
= = Professional boxing record = =
= Canadian National Vimy Memorial =
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial is a memorial site in France dedicated to the memory of Canadian Expeditionary Force members killed during the First World War . It also serves as the place of commemoration for First World War Canadian soldiers killed or presumed dead in France who have no known grave . The monument is the centrepiece of a 100 @-@ hectare ( 250 @-@ acre ) preserved battlefield park that encompasses a portion of the ground over which the Canadian Corps made their assault during the initial Battle of Vimy Ridge offensive of the Battle of Arras .
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first occasion on which all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle as a cohesive formation , and it became a Canadian national symbol of achievement and sacrifice . France ceded to Canada perpetual use of a portion of land on Vimy Ridge on the understanding that Canada use the land to establish a battlefield park and memorial . Wartime tunnels , trenches , craters , and unexploded munitions still honeycomb the grounds of the site , which remains largely closed off for reasons of public safety . Along with preserved trench lines , a number of other memorials and cemeteries are contained within the park .
The memorial took designer Walter Seymour Allward 11 years to see built . King Edward VIII unveiled it on 26 July 1936 in the presence of French President Albert Lebrun and more than 50 @,@ 000 Canadian and French veterans and their families . Following an extensive multi @-@ year restoration , Queen Elizabeth II re @-@ dedicated the monument on 9 April 2007 at a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle . The site is maintained by Veterans Affairs Canada . This Vimy Memorial and the Beaumont @-@ Hamel Newfoundland Memorial are the only two National Historic Sites of Canada outside of Canada .
= = Background = =
= = = Topography = = =
Vimy Ridge is a gradually rising escarpment on the western edge of the Douai Plains , eight kilometres northeast of Arras . The ridge gradually rises on its western side , dropping more quickly on the eastern side . The ridge is approximately seven kilometres in length and culminates at an elevation of 145 metres ( 476 ft ) above sea level , or 60 metres ( 200 ft ) above the Douai Plains , providing a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions .
= = = Early conflicts on site = = =
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914 , during the Race to the Sea , as the Franco @-@ British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France . The French Tenth Army attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette . During the attack , the French 1st Moroccan Division briefly captured the height of the ridge , where the Vimy memorial is currently located , but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements . The French made another attempt during the Third Battle of Artois in September 1915 , but were once again unsuccessful in capturing the top of the ridge . The French suffered approximately 150 @,@ 000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory .
The British XVII Corps relieved the French Tenth Army from the sector in February 1916 . On 21 May 1916 , the German infantry attacked the British lines along a 1 @,@ 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 000 yd ) front in an effort to force them from positions along the base of the ridge . The Germans captured several British @-@ controlled tunnels and mine craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions . Temporary Lieutenant Richard Basil Brandram Jones was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his ultimately unsuccessful defence of the Broadmarsh Crater during the attack . British counter @-@ attacks on 22 May did not manage to change the situation . The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916 .
= = = Battle of Vimy Ridge = = =
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions participated in a battle together , as a cohesive formation . The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities . Consequently , the British 5th Infantry Division and supplementary artillery , engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions already in place . The 24th British Division of I Corps supported the Canadian Corps along its northern flank while the XVII Corps did so to the south . The ad hoc Gruppe Vimy formation , based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander General der Infanterie Karl Ritter von Fasbender , was the principal defending formation with three divisions responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps .
The attack began at 5 : 30 am on Easter Monday , 9 April 1917 . Light field guns laid down a barrage that advanced in predetermined increments , often 91 metres ( 100 yd ) every three minutes , while medium and heavy howitzers established a series of standing barrages against known defensive systems further ahead . The 1st , 2nd , and 3rd Canadian Divisions quickly captured their first objectives . The 4th Canadian Division encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later . The 1st , 2nd , and 3rd Canadian Division captured their second objective by approximately 7 : 30 am . The failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge delayed further advances and forced the 3rd Canadian Division to expend resources establishing a defensive line to its north . Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division renewed the attack on the German positions on the top of the ridge and eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill 145 to withdraw .
On the morning of 10 April , Canadian Corps commander Lieutenant @-@ General Julian Byng moved up three fresh brigades to support the continued advance . The fresh units leapfrogged units already in place and captured the third objective line , including Hill 135 and the town of Thélus , by 11 : 00 am . By 2 : 00 pm both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reported capturing their final objectives . By this point the " Pimple " , a heavily defended knoll west of the town of Givenchy @-@ en @-@ Gohelle , was the only German position remaining on Vimy Ridge . On 12 April , the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked and quickly overcame the hastily entrenched German troops , with the support of artillery and the 24th British Division . By nightfall on 12 April , the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge . The Canadian Corps suffered 10 @,@ 602 casualties : 3 @,@ 598 killed and 7 @,@ 004 wounded . The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties , and around 4 @,@ 000 men became prisoners of war .
Although the battle is not generally considered Canada 's greatest military achievement , the image of national unity and achievement imbued the battle with considerable national significance for Canada . According to Pierce , " the historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada 's coming of age as a nation . " The idea that Canada 's identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada .
= = History = =
= = = Selection = = =
In 1920 , the Government of Canada announced that the Imperial War Graves Commission had awarded Canada eight sites — five in France and three in Belgium — on which to erect memorials . Each site represented a significant Canadian engagement and the Canadian government initially decided that each battlefield be treated equally and commemorated with identical monuments . In September 1920 , the Canadian government formed the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission to discuss the process and conditions for holding a memorial competition for the sites in Europe . The commission held its first meeting on 26 November 1920 and during this meeting decided that the architectural design competition would be open to all Canadian architects , designers , sculptors , and artists . The jury consisted of Charles Herbert Reilly representing the Royal Institute of British Architects , Paul Philippe Cret representing the Société centrale des architectes français and Frank Darling representing the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada . Each jury member was a leader in the architectural field ; Reilly was training students in design and development of war memorials and Cret had been selected by the United States to design national monuments in Europe . Interested parties submitted 160 design drawings and the jury selected 17 submissions for consideration , commissioning each finalist to produce a plaster maquette of their respective design . The jury recommended in a 10 September 1921 report to the commission that two of the designs be executed . In October 1921 , the commission formally selected the submission of Toronto sculptor and designer Walter Seymour Allward as the winner of the competition and that of Frederick Chapman Clemesha as runner @-@ up . The complexity of Allward 's design precluded the possibility of duplicating the design at each site . The approach of selecting one primary memorial ran counter to the recommendation of Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission architectural advisor Percy Erskine Nobbs , who had consistently expressed his preference for a series of smaller monuments . The consensus however went in Allward 's favour with his design receiving both public and critical approval . The commission revised its initial plans and decided to build two distinctive memorials — those of Allward and Clemesha — and six smaller identical memorials .
At the outset , members of the commission debated where to build Allward 's winning design . The jury 's assessment was that Allward 's submission was best suited to a " low hill rather than to a continuous and lofty bluff or cliff like Vimy Ridge " . The commission committee initially took the position of placing the monument in Belgium on Hill 62 , near the location of the Battle of Mont Sorrel , as the site provided an imposing view . This however ran counter to the desires of the Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King who , while speaking in the House of Commons of Canada in May 1922 , argued in favour of placing the memorial at Vimy Ridge . King 's position received unanimous support of the House and , in the end , the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred site . The government announced its desire to acquire a more considerable tract of land along the ridge after the commission selected Vimy Ridge as the preferred location for Allward 's design . In the interval between the 1st and 2nd session of the 14th Canadian Parliament , Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons Rodolphe Lemieux went to France to negotiate the acquisition of more land . On 5 December 1922 , Lemieux concluded an agreement with France in which France granted Canada " freely and for all time " the use of 100 hectares ( 250 acres ) of land on Vimy Ridge , in recognition of Canada 's war effort . The only condition placed on the donation was that Canada use the land to erect a monument commemorating Canadian soldiers killed during the First World War and assume the responsibility for the maintenance of the memorial and the surrounding battlefield park .
= = = Memorial construction = = =
Following the competition , Allward spent the remainder of 1921 and the Spring of 1922 preparing for his move to Europe . After selling his home and studio , Allward finally departed for Belgium on 6 June 1922 and spent a number of months seeking a suitable studio in Belgium and then Paris , though Allward eventually set up a studio in London , England .
Allward had initially hoped to use white marble for the memorial 's facing stone , but Percy Nobbs suggested this would be a mistake because marble was unlikely to weather well in northern France and the memorial would have a " ghost like " appearance . Allward undertook a tour of almost two years to find stone of the right colour , texture , and luminosity . He found it in the ruins of the Diocletian 's Palace at Split , Croatia ; he observed that the palace had not weathered over the years , which Allward took as evidence of the stone 's durability . His choice — Seget limestone — came from an ancient Roman quarry located near Seget , Croatia . The difficulties with the quarrying process , coupled with complicated transportation logistics , delayed delivery of the limestone and thus construction of the memorial . The first shipment did not arrive at the site until 1927 and the larger blocks , intended for the human figures , did not begin to arrive until 1931 .
On Allward 's urging the Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission hired Oscar Faber , a Danish structural engineer , in 1924 to prepare foundation plans and provide general supervision of the foundation work . Faber had recently designed the substructure for the Menin Gate at Ypres and he selected a design that employed cast @-@ in @-@ place reinforced concrete to which the facing stone would be bonded . Major Unwin Simson served as the principal Canadian engineer during the construction of the memorial and oversaw much of the daily operations at the site . Allward moved to Paris in 1925 to supervise construction and the carving of the sculptures . Construction commenced in 1925 and took eleven years to complete . The Imperial War Graves Commission concurrently employed French and British veterans to carry out the necessary roadwork and site landscaping .
While awaiting the first delivery of stone , Simson noticed that the battlefield landscape features were beginning to deteriorate . Seeing an opportunity to not only preserve a portion of the battlefield but also keep his staff occupied , Simson decided to preserve a short section of trench line and the Grange Subway more accessible . Labourers rebuilt and preserved sections of sandbagged trench wall , on both the Canadian and German sides of the Grange crater group , in concrete . The workforce also built a new concrete entrance for the Grange Subway and , after excavating a portion of the tunnel system , installed electric lighting .
Allward chose a relatively new construction method for the monument : limestone bonded to a cast concrete frame . A foundation bed of 11 @,@ 000 tonnes of concrete , reinforced with hundreds of tonnes of steel , served as the support bed for the memorial . The memorial base and twin pylons contained almost 6 @,@ 000 tonnes of Seget limestone . Sculptors carved the 20 human figures on site from large blocks of stone . The carvers used half @-@ size plaster models produced by Allward in his studio , now on display at the Canadian War Museum , and an instrument called a pantograph to reproduce the figures at the proper scale . The carvers conducted their work year @-@ round inside temporary studios built around each figure . The inclusion of the names of those killed in France with no known grave was not part of the original design and Allward was unhappy when the government asked him to include them . Allward argued that the inclusion of names was not part of the original commissioning . Through a letter to Canadian Battlefields Memorials Commission in October 1927 , Allward indicated his intention to relegate the names of the missing to pavement stones around the monument . The collective dismay and uproar of the commission forced Allward to relent and incorporate the names of the missing on the memorial walls . The task of inscribing the names did not begin until the early 1930s and employed a typeface that Allward designed for the monument .
= = = Pilgrimage and unveiling = = =
In 1919 , the year after the war ended , around 60 @,@ 000 British tourists and mourners made pilgrimages to the Western Front . The transatlantic voyage was however longer and more expensive from Canada . Many attempts to organize large pilgrimages failed , and journeys overseas were largely made individually or in small , unofficial groups . The delegates of the 1928 national convention of the Canadian Legion passed a unanimous resolution asking that a pilgrimage be organized to the Western Front battlefields . A plan began to take form wherein the Legion aimed to coordinate the pilgrimage with the unveiling of the Vimy memorial , which at the time was expected to be completed in 1931 or 1932 . Due to construction delays with the memorial , it was not until July 1934 that the Canadian Legion announced a pilgrimage to former battlefield sites in conjunction with the unveiling of the memorial . Although the exact date of the memorial unveiling was still not set , the Legion invited former service members to make tentative reservations with their headquarters in Ottawa . The response from veterans and their families was enthusiastic — 1 @,@ 200 inquiries by November 1934 . The Legion presumptuously announced that the memorial would be unveiled on Dominion Day , 1 July 1936 , even though the government still did not know when it would be completed .
For event planning purposes the Legion and the government established areas for which each was responsible . The government was responsible for selection of the official delegation and the program for the official unveiling of the memorial . The Legion was responsible for the more challenging task of organizing the pilgrimage . For the Legion this included planning meals , accommodations and transportation for what was at the time the largest single peacetime movement of people from Canada to Europe . The Legion took the position that the pilgrimage would be funded by its members without subsidies or financial aid from Canadian taxpayers , and by early 1935 they had established that the price of the 3 ½ -week trip , inclusive of all meals , accommodation , health insurance , and sea and land transportation would be CA $ 160 per person ( $ 2 @,@ 779 @.@ 18 in present terms ) . Indirect assistance came in a number of forms . The government waived passport fees and made a special Vimy passport available to pilgrims at no extra cost . The government and a number of private sector firms also provided paid leave for their participating employees . It was not until April 1936 that the government was prepared to publicly commit to an unveiling date , 26 July 1936 . On 16 July 1936 , the five transatlantic liners , escorted by HMCS Champlain and HMCS Saguenay , departed the Port of Montreal with approximately 6 @,@ 200 passengers and arrived in Le Havre on 24 and 25 July . The limited accommodation made it necessary for the Legion to lodge pilgrims in nine cities throughout northern France and Belgium and employ 235 buses to move the pilgrims between various locations .
On 26 July 1936 , the day of the ceremony , pilgrims spent the morning and early afternoon exploring the landscape of the memorial park before congregating at the monument . For the ceremony , sailors from HMCS Saguenay provided the guard of honour . Also present were The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery Band , French army engineers , and French @-@ Moroccan cavalry who had fought on the site during the Second Battle of Artois . The ceremony itself was broadcast live by the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission over shortwave radio , with facilities of the British Broadcasting Corporation transmitting the ceremony to Canada . Senior Canadian , British , and European officials , including French President Albert Lebrun , and over 50 @,@ 000 Canadian , British , and French veterans and their families attended the event . Absent , however , was Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , it being well understood that he was generally not comfortable around veterans and felt it more appropriate for a war veteran in Cabinet to act as minister in attendance .
Before the ceremony began , King Edward VIII , present in his capacity as king of Canada , inspected the guard of honour , was introduced to the honoured guests , and spent approximately half an hour speaking with veterans in the crowd . Two Royal Air Force and two French Air Force squadrons flew over the monument and dipped their wings in salute . The ceremony itself began with prayers from chaplains representing the Church of England , the United Church of Canada , and the Roman Catholic Church . Ernest Lapointe , Canadian Minister of Justice , spoke first , followed by Edward VIII , who , in both French and English , thanked France for its generosity and assured those assembled that Canada would never forget its war missing and dead . The King then pulled the Royal Union Flag from the central figure of Canada Bereft and the military band played the Last Post . The ceremony was one of the King 's few official duties before he abdicated the throne . The pilgrimage continued , and most participants toured Ypres before being taken to London to be hosted by the British Legion . One @-@ third of the pilgrims left from London for Canada on 1 August , while the majority returned to France as guests of the government for another week of touring before going home .
= = = Second World War = = =
In 1939 , the increased threat of conflict with Nazi Germany amplified the Canadian government 's level of concern for the general safety of the memorial . Canada could do little more than protect the sculptures and the bases of the pylons with sandbags and await developments . When war did break out , the British Expeditionary Force deployed to France and assumed responsibility for the Arras sector , which included Vimy . In late May 1940 , following the British retreat after the Battle of Arras , the status and condition of the memorial became unknown to Allied forces . The Germans took control of the site and held the site 's caretaker , George Stubbs , in an Ilag internment camp for Allied civilians in St. Denis , France . The rumoured destruction of the Vimy Memorial , either during the fighting or at the hands of the Germans , was widely reported in Canada and the United Kingdom . The rumours led the German Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda to formally deny accusations that Germany had damaged or desecrated the memorial . To demonstrate the memorial had not been desecrated Adolf Hitler , who reportedly admired the memorial for its peaceful nature , was photographed by the press while personally touring it and the preserved trenches on 2 June 1940 . The undamaged state of the memorial was not confirmed until September 1944 when the Welsh Guards recaptured Vimy Ridge .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
Immediately following the Second World War very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial , having been overshadowed by more contemporary events . The Winnipeg Free Press and The Legionary , the magazine of the Canadian Legion , were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952 . The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice with only the Halifax Herald making any mention . Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the fiftieth anniversary of the battle , paired with the Canadian Centennial . A heavily attended ceremony at the memorial in April 1967 was broadcast live on television . Commemoration of the battle decreased once again throughout the 1970s and only returned in force with the 125th anniversary of Canadian Confederation and the widely covered 75th anniversary of the battle in 1992 . The 1992 ceremony at the memorial was attended by Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and at least 5 @,@ 000 people . Subsequent smaller @-@ scale ceremonies were held at the memorial in 1997 and 2002 .
= = = Restoration and rededication = = =
By the end of the century , the large number of repairs undertaken since the memorial 's construction had left a patchwork of materials and colours , and a disconcerting pattern of damage from water intrusion at the joints . In May 2001 , the Government of Canada announced the Canadian Battlefield Memorials Restoration Project , a major $ 30 million Canadian dollar restoration project to restore Canada 's memorial sites in France and Belgium , in order to maintain and present them in a respectful and dignified manner . In 2005 , the Vimy memorial closed for major restoration work . Veterans Affairs Canada directed the restoration of the memorial in cooperation with other Canadian departments , the Commonwealth War Graves Commission , consultants and specialists in military history .
Time , wear , and severe weather conditions led to many identified problems , the single most pervasive being water damage . In building a memorial made of cast concrete covered in stone , Allward had failed to take into account how these materials would shift over time . The builders and designer failed to incorporate sufficient space between the concrete and stones , which resulted in water infiltrating the structure through its walls and platforms , dissolving lime in the concrete foundation and masonry . As the water exited , it deposited the lime on exterior surfaces , obscuring many of the names inscribed thereon . Poor drainage and water flows off the monument also caused significant deterioration of the platform , terrace , and stairs . The restoration project intended to address the root causes of damage and included repairs to the stone , walkways , walls , terraces , stairs , and platforms . In order to respect Allward 's initial vision of a seamless structure , the restoration team were required to remove all foreign materials employed in patchwork repairs , replace damaged stones with material from the original quarry in Croatia , and correct all minor displacement of stones caused by the freeze @-@ thaw activity . Underlying structural flaws were also corrected .
Queen Elizabeth II , escorted by Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , rededicated the restored memorial on 9 April 2007 in a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle . Other senior Canadian officials , including Prime Minister Stephen Harper , and senior French representatives , Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin among them , attended the event , along with thousands of Canadian students , veterans of the Second World War and of more recent conflicts , and descendants of those who fought at Vimy . The crowd attending the rededication ceremony was the largest crowd on the site since the 1936 dedication .
= = Site = =
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site is located approximately eight kilometres north of Arras , France , near the towns of Vimy and Neuville @-@ Saint @-@ Vaast . The site is one of the few places on the former Western Front where a visitor can see the trench lines of a First World War battlefield and the related terrain in a preserved natural state . The total area of the site is 100 hectares ( 250 acres ) , much of which is forested and off limits to visitors to ensure public safety . The site 's rough terrain and unearthed unexploded munitions make the task of grass cutting too dangerous for human operators . Instead , sheep graze the open meadows of the site .
The memorial site was established to honour the memory of the Canadian Corps , but it also contains a number of other memorials . These include memorials dedicated to the French Moroccan Division , Lions Club International , and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mike Watkins . There are also two Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries on site : Canadian Cemetery No. 2 and Givenchy Road Canadian Cemetery . Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours , the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War battlefield archaeology , because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state . The site 's interpretive centre helps visitors fully understand the Vimy Memorial , the preserved battlefield park , and the history of the Battle of Vim
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long and weighed 1 @.@ 8 kg ( 4 lb ) . The molars grew larger and contained more ridges with each replacement . The woolly mammoth is considered to have had the most complex molars of any elephant .
Distortion in the molars is the most common health problem found in woolly mammoth fossils . Sometimes the replacement was disrupted , and the molars were pushed into abnormal positions , but some animals are known to have survived this . Teeth from Britain showed that 2 % of specimens had periodontal disease , with half of these containing caries . The teeth also sometimes had cancerous growths .
= = Palaeobiology = =
Adult woolly mammoths could effectively defend themselves from predators with their tusks , trunks and size , but juveniles and weakened adults were vulnerable to pack hunters such as wolves , cave hyenas and large felines . The tusks may also have been used in intra @-@ species fighting , such as territorial fights or fights over mates . Display of the large tusks of males could also have been used to attract females , and to intimidate rivals . Because of their curvature , the tusks were not suitable for stabbing , but may have been used for hitting , as indicated by injuries to some fossil shoulder blades . The very long hairs on the tail probably compensated for the shortness of the tail , enabling its use as a flyswatter , similar to the tail on modern elephants . As in modern elephants , the sensitive and muscular trunk worked as a limb @-@ like organ with many functions . It was used for manipulating objects , and in social interactions . The well @-@ preserved foot of the adult male " Yukagir mammoth " shows that the soles of the feet contained many cracks that would have helped in gripping surfaces during locomotion . Like modern elephants , woolly mammoths walked on their toes and had large , fleshy pads behind the toes .
Like modern elephants , woolly mammoths were likely very social and lived in matriarchal ( female @-@ led ) family groups . This is supported by fossil assemblages and cave paintings showing groups . It is therefore probable that most of their other social behaviour was similar to that of modern elephants . It is unknown how many mammoths lived at one location at a time , as fossil deposits are often accumulations of individuals that died over long periods of time . It is likely that the amounts varied by season and life @-@ cycle events . Modern elephants can form large herds , sometimes consisting of multiple family groups , and these herds can include thousands of animals migrating together . Mammoths may have formed large herds more often , since animals that live in open areas are more likely to do this than those in forested areas . Trackways made by a woolly mammoth herd 11 @,@ 300 – 11 @,@ 000 years ago have been found in the St. Mary Reservoir in Canada , showing that there were in this case almost equal numbers of adults , sub @-@ adults and juveniles . The adults had a stride of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , and the juveniles ran to keep up .
The woolly mammoth was probably the most specialised member of the family Elephantidae . They had lipopexia ( fat storage ) in their neck and withers , for times when food availability was insufficient during winter , and their first three molars grew more quickly than in the calves of modern elephants . The expansion identified on the trunk of " Yuka " and other specimens was suggested to function as a " fur mitten " ; the trunk tip was not covered in fur , but was used for foraging during winter , and could have been heated by curling it into the expansion . It was also suggested that the expansion could be used to melt snow if there was shortage of water to drink , as melting it directly inside the mouth could disturb the thermal balance of the animal . As in reindeer and musk oxen , the haemoglobin of the woolly mammoth was adapted to the cold , with three mutations to improve oxygen delivery around the body and prevent freezing . This feature may have helped the mammoths to live in high latitudes .
In a 2015 study , high @-@ quality genome sequences from three Asian elephants and two woolly mammoths were compared . Approximately 1 @.@ 4 million DNA nucleotide differences were found between mammoths and elephants , which affect the sequence of more than 1 @,@ 600 proteins . Differences were noted in genes for a number of aspects of physiology and biology that would be relevant to Arctic survival , including development of skin and hair , storage and metabolism of adipose tissue , and perceiving temperature . Genes related to both sensing temperature and transmitting that sensation to the brain were altered . One of the heat @-@ sensing genes encodes a protein , TRPV3 , found in skin which also affects hair growth . When inserted into human cells , the mammoth 's version of the protein was found to be less sensitive to heat than the elephant 's . This is consistent with a previous observation that mice lacking active TRPV3 are likely to spend more time in cooler cage locations than wild type mice , and have wavier hair . There were also several alterations in circadian clock genes , perhaps needed to cope with the extreme polar variation in length of daylight . Similar mutations are known in other Arctic mammals , such as reindeer .
= = = Diet = = =
Food at various stages of digestion has been found in the intestines of several woolly mammoths , giving a good picture of their diet . Woolly mammoths sustained themselves on plant food , mainly grass and sedges , which were supplemented with herbaceous plants , flowering plants , shrubs , mosses , and tree matter . The composition and exact varieties differed from location to location . Woolly mammoths needed a varied diet to support their growth , like modern elephants . An adult of six tonnes would need to eat 180 kg ( 397 lb ) daily , and may have foraged as long as twenty hours every day . The two @-@ fingered tip of the trunk was probably adapted for picking up the short grasses of the last ice age ( Quaternary glaciation , 2 @.@ 58 million years ago to present ) by wrapping around them , whereas modern elephants curl their trunks around the longer grass of their tropical environments . The trunk could also be used for pulling off large grass tufts , delicately picking buds and flowers , and tearing off leaves and branches where trees and shrubs were present . The " Yukagir mammoth " had ingested plant matter that contained spores of dung fungus . Isotope analysis shows that woolly mammoths fed mainly on C3 plants , unlike horses and rhinos .
Scientists identified milk in the stomach and faecal matter in the intestines of the mammoth calf " Lyuba " . The faecal matter may have been eaten by " Lyuba " to promote development of the intestinal microbes necessary for digestion of vegetation , as is the case in modern elephants . An isotope analysis of woolly mammoths from Yukon showed that the young nursed for at least three years , and were weaned and gradually changed to a diet of plants when they were two to three years old . This is later than in modern elephants and may be due to a higher risk of predator attack or difficulty in obtaining food during the long periods of winter darkness in high latitudes .
The molars were adapted to their diet of coarse tundra grasses , with more enamel plates and a higher crown than their earlier , southern relatives . The woolly mammoth chewed its food by using its powerful jaw muscles to move the mandible forwards and close the mouth , then backwards while opening ; the sharp enamel ridges thereby cut across each other , grinding the food . The ridges were wear @-@ resistant to enable the animal to chew large quantities of food , which often contained grit . Woolly mammoths may have used their tusks as shovels to clear snow from the ground and reach the vegetation buried below , and to break ice to drink . This is indicated on many preserved tusks by flat , polished sections up to 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) long on the part of the surface that would have reached the ground . The tusks were also used for obtaining food in other ways , such as digging up plants and stripping off bark .
= = = Life history = = =
The lifespan of mammals is related to their size , and since modern elephants can reach the age of 60 years , the same is thought to be true for woolly mammoths which were of a similar size . The age of a mammoth can be roughly determined by counting the growth rings of its tusks when viewed in cross section , but this does not account for their early years , as these are represented by the tips of the tusks , which are usually worn away . In the remaining part of the tusk , each major line represents a year , and weekly and daily ones can be found in between . Dark bands correspond to summers , and it is therefore possible to determine the season in which a mammoth died . The growth of the tusks slowed when it became harder to forage , for example during winter , during disease , or when a male was banished from the herd ( male elephants live with their herds until about the age of ten ) . Mammoth tusks dating to the harshest period of the last glaciation 25 – 20 @,@ 000 years ago show slower growth rates . Woolly mammoths continued growing past adulthood , like other elephants . Unfused limb bones show that males grew until they reached the age of 40 , and females grew until they were 25 . The frozen calf " Dima " was 90 cm ( 35 in ) tall when it died at the age of 6 – 12 months . At this age , the second set of molars would be in the process of erupting , and the first set would be worn out at 18 months of age . The third set of molars lasted for ten years , and this process was repeated until the final , sixth set emerged when the animal was 30 years old . When the last set of molars was worn out , the animal would be unable to chew and feed , and it would die of starvation . A study of North American mammoths found that they often died during winter or spring , the hardest times for northern animals to survive .
The best preserved head of a frozen adult specimen , that of a male nicknamed the " Yukagir mammoth " , shows that woolly mammoths had temporal glands between the ear and the eye . This feature indicates that , like bull elephants , male woolly mammoths also entered " musth " , a period of heightened aggressiveness . The glands are used especially by males to produce an oily substance with a strong smell called temporin . Their fur may have helped in spreading the scent further .
Examination of preserved calves show that they were all born during spring and summer , and since modern elephants have gestation periods of 21 – 22 months , it is probable that the mating season was from summer to autumn. δ15N isotopic analysis of the teeth of " Lyuba " has demonstrated their prenatal development , and indicates its gestation period was similar to that of a modern elephant , and that it was born in spring .
Evidence of several different bone diseases has been found in woolly mammoths . The most common of these diseases was osteoarthritis , found in 2 % of specimens . One specimen from Switzerland had several fused vertebrae as a result of this condition . The " Yukagir mammoth " had suffered from spondylitis in two vertebrae , and osteomyelitis is also known from some specimens . Several specimens have healed bone fractures , showing that the animals had survived these injuries . An abnormal number of cervical vertebrae has been found in 33 % of specimens from the North Sea region , probably due to inbreeding in a declining population . Parasitic flies and protozoa were identified in the gut of the calf " Dima " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The habitat of the woolly mammoth is known as " mammoth steppe " or " tundra steppe " . This environment stretched across northern Asia , many parts of Europe , and the northern part of North America during the last ice age . It was similar to the grassy steppes of modern Russia , but the flora was more diverse , abundant , and grew faster . Grasses , sedges , shrubs , and herbaceous plants were present , and scattered trees were mainly found in southern regions . This habitat was not dominated by ice and snow , as is popularly believed , since these regions are thought to have been high @-@ pressure areas at the time . The habitat of the woolly mammoth also supported other grazing herbivores such as the woolly rhinoceros , wild horses and bison . A 2014 study concluded that forbs ( a group of herbaceous plants ) were more important in the steppe @-@ tundra than previously acknowledged , and that it was a primary food source for the ice @-@ age megafauna .
The southernmost woolly mammoth specimen known is from the Shandong province of China , and is 33 @,@ 000 years old . The southernmost European remains are from the Depression of Granada in Spain and are of roughly the same age . DNA studies have helped determine the phylogeography of the woolly mammoth . A 2008 DNA study showed there were two distinct groups of woolly mammoths : one that became extinct 45 @,@ 000 years ago and another one that became extinct 12 @,@ 000 years ago . The two groups are speculated to be divergent enough to be characterised as subspecies . The group that became extinct earlier stayed in the middle of the high Arctic , while the group with the later extinction had a much wider range . Recent stable isotope studies of Siberian and New World mammoths have shown there were also differences in climatic conditions on either side of the Bering land bridge , with Siberia being more uniformly cold and dry throughout the Late Pleistocene . During the Younger Dryas age , woolly mammoths briefly expanded into north @-@ east Europe , whereafter the mainland populations became extinct .
A 2008 genetic study showed that some of the woolly mammoths that entered North America through the Bering land bridge from Asia migrated back about 300 @,@ 000 years ago and had replaced the previous Asian population by about 40 @,@ 000 years ago , not long before the entire species became extinct . Fossils of woolly mammoths and Columbian mammoths have been found together in a few localities of North America , including the Hot Springs sinkhole of South Dakota where their regions overlapped . It is unknown whether the two species were sympatric and lived there simultaneously , or if the woolly mammoths may have entered these southern areas during times when Columbian mammoth populations were absent there .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Modern humans coexisted with woolly mammoths during the Upper Palaeolithic period when the humans entered Europe from Africa between 30 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 years ago . Prior to this , Neanderthals had coexisted with mammoths during the Middle Palaeolithic , and these humans already utilised mammoth bones for tool making and building materials . Woolly mammoths were very important to ice @-@ age humans , and human survival may have depended on the mammoth in some areas . Evidence for such coexistence was not recognised until the 19th century . William Buckland published his discovery of the Red Lady of Paviland skeleton in 1823 , which was found in a cave alongside woolly mammoth bones , but he mistakenly denied that these were contemporaries . In 1864 , Édouard Lartet found an engraving of a woolly mammoth on a piece of mammoth ivory in the Abri de la Madeleine cave in Dordogne , France . The engraving was the first widely accepted evidence for the coexistence of humans with prehistoric extinct animals and is the first contemporary depiction of such a creature known to modern science .
The woolly mammoth is the third most depicted animal in ice @-@ age art , after horses and bison , and these images were produced between 35 @,@ 000 and 11 @,@ 500 years ago . Today , more than five hundred depictions of woolly mammoths are known , in media ranging from cave paintings and engravings on the walls of 46 caves in Russia , France and Spain to engravings and sculptures ( termed " portable art " ) made from ivory , antler , stone and bone . Cave paintings of woolly mammoths exist in several styles and sizes . The French Rouffignac Cave has the most depictions , 159 , and some of the drawings are more than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in length . Other notable caves with mammoth depictions are the Chauvet Cave , Les Combarelles Cave , and Font @-@ de @-@ Gaume . A depiction in the Cave of El Castillo may instead show Palaeoloxodon , the " straight @-@ tusked elephant " .
" Portable art " can be more accurately dated than cave art since it is found in the same deposits as tools and other ice age artefacts . The largest collection of portable mammoth art , consisting of 62 depictions on 47 plaques , was found in the 1960s at an excavated open @-@ air camp near Gönnersdorf in Germany . There does not seem to be a correlation between the number of mammoths depicted and the species that were most often hunted , since reindeer bones are the most frequently found animal remains at the site . Two spear throwers shaped as woolly mammoths have also been found in France . Some portable mammoth depictions may not have been produced where they were discovered , but could have moved around by ancient trading .
= = = Exploitation = = =
Woolly mammoth bones were used as construction material for dwellings by both Neanderthals and modern humans during the ice age . More than 70 such dwellings are known , mainly from the Russian Plain . The bases of the huts were circular , and ranged from 8 to 24 square metres ( 86 to 258 sq ft ) . The arrangement of dwellings varied , and ranged from 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) to 20 m ( 66 ft ) apart , depending on location . Large bones were used as foundations for the huts , tusks for the entrances , and the roofs were probably skins held in place by bones or tusks . Some huts had floors that extended 40 cm ( 16 in ) below ground . Some huts included fireplaces , which used bones as fuel , probably because wood was scarce . It is possible that some of the bones used for materials came from mammoths killed by humans , but the state of the bones , and the fact that bones used to build a single dwelling varied by several thousands of years in age , suggests that they were collected remains of long @-@ dead animals . Woolly mammoth bones were also made into various tools , furniture , and musical instruments . Large bones , such as shoulder blades , were also used to cover dead human bodies during burial .
Woolly mammoth ivory was used to create art objects . Several Venus figurines , including the Venus of Brassempouy and the Venus of Lespugue , were made from this material . Weapons made from ivory , such as daggers , spears , and a boomerang , are also known . To be able to process the ivory , the large tusks had to be chopped , chiselled and split into smaller , more manageable pieces . Some ivory artefacts show that tusks had been straightened , and it is unknown how this was achieved .
Several woolly mammoth specimens show evidence of being butchered by humans , which is indicated by breaks , cut @-@ marks , and associated stone tools . It is not known how much prehistoric humans relied on woolly mammoth meat , since there were many other large herbivores available . Many mammoth carcasses may have been scavenged by humans rather than hunted . Some cave paintings show woolly mammoths in structures interpreted as pitfall traps . Few specimens show direct , unambiguous evidence of having been hunted by humans . A Siberian specimen with a spearhead embedded in its shoulder blade shows that a spear had been thrown at it with great force . A specimen from the Mousterian age of Italy shows evidence of spear hunting by Neanderthals . The juvenile specimen nicknamed " Yuka " is the first frozen mammoth with evidence of human interaction . It shows evidence of having been killed by a large predator , and of having been scavenged by humans shortly after . Some of its bones had been removed , and were found nearby . A site near the Yana River in Siberia has revealed several specimens with evidence of human hunting , but the finds were interpreted to show that the animals were not hunted intensively , but perhaps mainly when ivory was needed . Two woolly mammoths from Wisconsin , the " Schaefer " and " Hebior mammoths " , show evidence of having been butchered by Palaeoamericans .
= = Extinction = =
Most woolly mammoth populations disappeared during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene , alongside most of the Pleistocene megafauna ( including the Columbian mammoth ) . This extinction formed part of the Quaternary extinction event , which began 40 @,@ 000 years ago and peaked between 14 @,@ 000 and 11 @,@ 500 years ago . Scientists are divided over whether hunting or climate change , which led to the shrinkage of its habitat , was the main factor that contributed to the extinction of the woolly mammoth , or whether it was due to a combination of the two . Whatever the cause , large mammals are generally more vulnerable than smaller ones due to their smaller population size and low reproduction rates . Different woolly mammoth populations did not die out simultaneously across their range , but gradually became extinct over time . Most populations disappeared between 14 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago . The last mainland population existed in the Kyttyk Peninsula of Siberia 9 @,@ 650 years ago . A small population of woolly mammoths survived on St. Paul Island , Alaska , until 6 @,@ 400 years ago . The last known population remained on Wrangel Island in the Arctic Ocean until 4 @,@ 000 years ago , well into the start of human civilization and concurrent with the construction of the Great Pyramid of ancient Egypt .
DNA sequencing of remains of two mammoths , one from Siberia 44 @,@ 800 years BP and one from Wrangel Island 4 @,@ 300 years BP , indicates two major population crashes : one around 280 @,@ 000 years ago from which the population recovered , and a second about 12 @,@ 000 years ago , near the ice age 's end , from which it did not . The Wrangel Island mammoths were isolated for 5000 years , and due to the small population present when the island was isolated by rising post @-@ ice @-@ age sea level , about 300 to 1000 individuals experienced a 20 % to 30 % loss of heterozygosity , and a 65 % loss in mitochondrial DNA diversity . However , the population seems to have subsequently been stable , without suffering further significant loss of genetic diversity . Genetic evidence thus implies the extinction of this final population was sudden , rather than the culmination of a gradual decline ; the disappearance coincides roughly in time with the first evidence for humans on the island . The woolly mammoths of eastern Beringia ( modern Alaska and Yukon ) had similarly died out about 13 @,@ 300 years ago , soon ( roughly 1000 years ) after the first appearance of humans in the area , which parallels the fate of all the other late Pleistocene proboscids ( mammoths , gomphotheres and mastodons ) , as well as most of the rest of the megafauna , of the Americas . In contrast , the St. Paul Island mammoth population apparently died out prior to human arrival due to habitat shrinkage resulting from the post @-@ ice @-@ age sea @-@ level rise .
A 2008 study estimated that changes in climate shrank suitable mammoth habitat from 7 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq mi ) 42 @,@ 000 years ago to 800 @,@ 000 km2 ( 310 @,@ 000 sq mi ) 6 @,@ 000 years ago . Woolly mammoths survived an even greater loss of habitat at the end of the Saale glaciation 125 @,@ 000 years ago , and it is likely that humans hunted the remaining populations to extinction at the end of the last glacial period . Studies of an 11 @,@ 300 – 11 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old trackway in south @-@ western Canada showed that M. primigenius was in decline while coexisting with humans , since far fewer tracks of juveniles were identified than would be expected in a normal herd .
A 2010 study suggests that the decline of the woolly mammoth could have increased temperatures by up to 0 @.@ 2 ° C ( 0 @.@ 36 ° F ) at high latitudes in the northern hemisphere . Mammoths frequently ate birch trees , creating a grassland habitat . With the disappearance of mammoths , birch forests , which absorb more sunlight than grasslands , expanded , leading to regional warming .
= = Fossil specimens = =
Woolly mammoth fossils have been found in many different types of deposits , including former rivers and lakes , and also in " Doggerland " in the North Sea , which was dry at times during the ice age . Such fossils are usually fragmentary and contain no soft tissue . Accumulations of modern elephant remains have been termed " elephants ' graveyards " , as these sites were erroneously thought to be where old elephants went to die . Similar accumulations of woolly mammoth bones have been found ; it is thought these are the result of individuals dying near or in the rivers over thousands of years , and their bones eventually being brought together by the streams . Some accumulations are also thought to be the remains of herds that died together at the same time , perhaps due to flooding . Natural traps , such as kettle holes , sink holes , as well as mud , have also trapped mammoths in separate events over time .
Apart from frozen remains , the only soft tissue known is from a specimen that was preserved in a petroleum seep in Starunia , Poland . Frozen remains of woolly mammoths have been found in the northern parts of Siberia and Alaska , with far fewer finds in the latter . Such remains are mostly found above the Arctic Circle , in permafrost . It appears that soft tissue was less likely to be preserved between 30 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 years ago , perhaps because the climate was milder during that period . Most specimens have partially degraded prior to discovery , due to exposure or to being scavenged . This " natural mummification " required the animal to have been buried rapidly in liquid or semi @-@ solids such as silt , mud and icy water , which then froze .
The presence of undigested food in the stomach and seed pods still in the mouth of many of the specimens suggests neither starvation nor exposure are likely . The maturity of this ingested vegetation places the time of death in autumn rather than in spring , when flowers would be expected . The animals may have fallen through ice into small ponds or potholes , entombing them . Many are certainly known to have been killed in rivers , perhaps through being swept away by floods . In one location , by the Berelekh River in Yakutia in Siberia , more than 8 @,@ 000 bones from at least 140 mammoths have been found in a single spot , apparently having been swept there by the current .
= = = Frozen specimens = = =
Between 1692 and 1806 , only four descriptions of frozen mammoths were published in Europe . None of the remains of those five were preserved , and no complete skeleton was recovered during that time . While frozen woolly mammoth carcasses had been excavated by Europeans as early as 1728 , the first fully documented specimen was discovered near the delta of the Lena River in 1799 by Ossip Schumachov , a Siberian hunter . Schumachov let it thaw until he could retrieve the tusks for sale to the ivory trade . While in Yakutsk in 1806 , Michael Friedrich Adams heard about the frozen mammoth . Upon arrival at the location , Adams discovered that wild animals had eaten most of the organs and flesh of the mammoth , including the trunk . He examined the carcass and realised what was left would still be the most complete mammoth recovered by that time . Adams recovered the entire skeleton , apart from the tusks , which Shumachov had already sold , and one foreleg , most of the skin , and nearly 18 kg ( 40 lb ) of hair . During his return voyage he purchased a pair of tusks that he believed were the ones that Shumachov had sold . Adams brought it to the Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences , and the task of mounting the skeleton was given to Wilhelm Gottlieb Tilesius . The Kunstkamera , the museum established by Peter the Great , contained the skeleton of an Indian elephant that could be used as reference . This was one of the first attempts at reconstructing the skeleton of an extinct animal . Most of the reconstruction is correct , but Tilesius placed each tusk in the opposite socket , so that they curved outward instead of inward . The error was not corrected until 1899 , and the correct placement of mammoth tusks was still a matter of debate into the twentieth century .
The 1901 excavation of the " Berezovka mammoth " is the best documented of the early finds . It was discovered at the Siberian Berezovka River , and the Russian authorities financed its excavation . Its head was exposed , and the flesh had been scavenged . The animal still had grass between its teeth and on the tongue , showing that it had died suddenly . The entire expedition took 10 months , and the specimen had to be cut to pieces before it could be transported to St. Petersburg . It was identified as a 35- to 40 @-@ year @-@ old male , which had died 35 @,@ 000 years ago . One of its shoulder blades was broken , which may have happened when it fell into a crevasse .
By 1929 , the remains of 34 mammoths with frozen soft tissues ( skin , flesh , or organs ) had been documented . Only four of them were relatively complete . Since then , about that many more have been found . In most cases , the flesh showed signs of decay before its freezing and later desiccation . Since 1860 , Russian authorities have offered rewards of up to руб.1000 for finds of frozen woolly mammoth carcasses . Often such finds were kept secret due to superstition . Several carcasses have been lost because they were not reported , and one was fed to dogs . In more recent years , scientific expeditions have been devoted to finding carcasses instead of relying solely on chance encounters . The most famous frozen specimen from Alaska is a calf nicknamed " Effie " , which was found in 1948 . It consists of the head , trunk , and a foreleg , and is about 25 @,@ 000 years old .
In 1977 , the well @-@ preserved carcass of a seven- to eight @-@ month @-@ old woolly mammoth calf named " Dima " was discovered . This carcass was recovered near a tributary of the Kolyma River in northeastern Siberia . This specimen weighed approximately 100 kg ( 220 lb ) at death and was 104 cm ( 41 in ) high and 115 cm ( 45 in ) long . Radiocarbon dating determined that " Dima " died about 40 @,@ 000 years ago . Its internal organs are similar to those of modern elephants , but its ears are only one @-@ tenth the size of those of an African elephant of similar age . A less complete juvenile , nicknamed " Mascha " , was found on the Yamal Peninsula in 1988 . It was 3 – 4 months old , and a laceration on its right foot may have been the cause of death . It is the westernmost frozen mammoth found .
In 1997 , a piece of mammoth tusk was discovered protruding from the tundra of the Taymyr Peninsula in Siberia , Russia . In 1999 , this 20 @,@ 380 @-@ year @-@ old carcass and 25 tons of surrounding sediment were transported by an Mi @-@ 26 heavy lift helicopter to an ice cave in Khatanga . The specimen was nicknamed the " Jarkov mammoth " . In October 2000 , the careful defrosting operations in this cave began with the use of hair dryers to keep the hair and other soft tissues intact .
In 2002 , a well @-@ preserved carcass was discovered near the Maxunuokha River in northern Yakutia , which was recovered during three excavations . This adult male specimen was called the " Yukagir mammoth " , and is estimated to have lived around 18 @,@ 560 years ago , and to have been 282 @.@ 9 cm ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) tall at the shoulder , and weighed between 4 and 5 tonnes . It is one of the best preserved mammoths ever found due to the almost complete head , covered in skin , but without the trunk . Some postcranial remains were also found , some with soft tissue .
In 2007 , the carcass of a female calf nicknamed " Lyuba " was discovered near the Yuribey River , where it had been buried for 41 @,@ 800 years . By cutting a section through a molar and analysing its growth lines , they found that the animal had died at the age of one month . The mummified calf weighed 50 kg ( 110 lb ) , was 85 cm ( 33 in ) high and 130 cm ( 51 in ) in length . At the time of discovery , its eyes and trunk were intact and some fur remained on its body . Its organs and skin are very well preserved . " Lyuba " is believed to have been suffocated by mud in a river that its herd was crossing . After death , its body may have been colonised by bacteria that produce lactic acid , which " pickled " it , preserving the mammoth in a nearly pristine state .
In 2012 , a juvenile was found in Siberia , which had man @-@ made cut marks . Scientists estimated its age at death to be 2 @.@ 5 years , and nicknamed it " Yuka " . Its skull and pelvis had been removed prior to discovery , but were found nearby . After being discovered , the skin of " Yuka " was prepared to produce a taxidermy mount . Another mammoth discovery was reported in October 2012 , when it was excavated on the Taymyr Peninsula . It was dated to 30 @,@ 000 years old . Formally known as the Sopkarga mammoth , it was nicknamed " Zhenya " after the boy who found it .
In 2013 , a well @-@ preserved carcass was found on Maly Lyakhovsky Island , one of the islands in the New Siberian Islands archipelago , a female between 50 and 60 years old at the time of death . The carcass contained well @-@ preserved muscular tissue . When it was extracted from the ice , liquid blood spilled from the abdominal cavity . The finders interpreted this as indicating woolly mammoth blood possessed anti @-@ freezing properties .
= = = Recreating the species = = =
The existence of preserved soft tissue remains and DNA of woolly mammoths has led to the idea that the species could be recreated by scientific means . Several methods have been proposed to achieve this . Cloning would involve removal of the DNA @-@ containing nucleus of the egg cell of a female elephant , and replacement with a nucleus from woolly mammoth tissue . The cell would then be stimulated into dividing , and inserted back into a female elephant . The resulting calf would have the genes of the woolly mammoth , although its fetal environment would be different . Most intact mammoths have had little usable DNA because of their conditions of preservation . There is not enough to guide the production of an embryo .
A second method involves artificially inseminating an elephant egg cell with sperm cells from a frozen woolly mammoth carcass . The resulting offspring would be an elephant – mammoth hybrid , and the process would have to be repeated so more hybrids could be used in breeding . After several generations of cross @-@ breeding these hybrids , an almost pure woolly mammoth would be produced . The fact that sperm cells of modern mammals are potent for 15 years at most after deep @-@ freezing is a hindrance to this method . In one case , an Asian elephant and an African elephant produced a live calf named Motty , but it died of defects at less than two weeks old .
In 2008 , a Japanese team found usable DNA in the brains of mice that had been frozen for 16 years . They hope to use similar methods to find usable mammoth DNA . In 2009 , the Pyrenean ibex ( a subspecies of the Spanish ibex ) was the first extinct animal to be cloned back to life ; the clone lived for only seven minutes before dying of lung defects . As the woolly mammoth genome has been fully sequenced , it may be possible to recreate a complete set of woolly mammoth chromosomes in the future by adding mammoth @-@ only sequences to Asian elephant chromosomes , which represents a more feasible but extremely difficult and expensive means of recreating the species . If the process is ever successful , there are plans to introduce woolly mammoths to Pleistocene Park , a wildlife reserve in Siberia .
By March 2015 , woolly mammoth genes had been copied into the genome of an Asian elephant , using the CRISPR DNA editing technique . Genetic segments from frozen mammoth specimens , including genes for the ears , subcutaneous fat , and hair attributes , were copied into the DNA of skin cells from a modern elephant . This marked the first time that woolly mammoth genes had been functionally active since the species became extinct .
Mammoth researchers question the ethics of such recreation attempts . In addition to the technical problems , there is not much habitat left that would be suitable for woolly mammoths . Because the species was social and gregarious , creating a few specimens would not be ideal . The time and resources required would be enormous , and the scientific benefits would be unclear , suggesting these resources should instead be used to preserve extant elephant species which are endangered . The ethics of using elephants as surrogate mothers in cloning attempts has also been questioned , as most embryos would not survive , and it would be impossible to know the exact needs of a resurrected calf .
= = Cultural significance = =
The woolly mammoth has remained culturally significant long after its extinction . Indigenous peoples of Siberia had long found what are now known to be woolly mammoth remains , collecting their tusks for the ivory trade . Native Siberians believed woolly mammoth remains to be those of giant mole @-@ like animals that lived underground and died when burrowing to the surface . Woolly mammoth tusks had been articles of trade in Asia long before Europeans became acquainted with them . Güyük , the 13th @-@ century Khan of the Mongols , is reputed to have sat on a throne made from mammoth ivory . Inspired by the Siberian natives ' concept of the mammoth as an underground creature , it became recorded in the Chinese pharmaceutical encyclopedia , Ben Cao Gangmu , as yin shu , " the hidden rodent " .
The indigenous peoples of North America also used woolly mammoth ivory and bone for tools and art . As in Siberia , North American natives had " myths of observation " explaining the remains of woolly mammoths and other elephants ; the Bering Strait Inupiat also believed the bones came from underground burrowing creatures , while other peoples associated them with primordial giants or " great beasts " . Observers have interpreted legends from several Native American peoples as containing folk memory of extinct elephants , though other scholars are sceptical that folk memory could survive such a long time .
Siberian mammoth ivory is reported to have been exported to Russia and Europe in the 10th century . The first Siberian ivory to reach western Europe was brought to London in 1611 . When Russia occupied Siberia , the ivory trade grew and it became a widely exported commodity , with huge amounts being excavated . From the 19th century and onwards , woolly mammoth ivory became a highly prized commodity , used as raw material for many products . Today it is still in great demand as a replacement for the now @-@ banned export of elephant ivory , and has been referred to as " white gold " . Local dealers estimate that there are 10 million mammoths still frozen in Siberia , and conservationists have suggested that this could help save the living species of elephants from extinction . Elephants are hunted by poachers for their ivory , but if this could instead be supplied by the already extinct mammoths , the demand could instead be met by these . Trade in elephant ivory has been forbidden in most places following the 1989 Lausanne Conference , but dealers have been known to label it as mammoth ivory to get it through customs . Mammoth ivory looks similar to elephant ivory , but the former is browner and the Schreger lines are coarser in texture . In the 21st century , global warming has made access to Siberian tusks easier , since the permafrost thaws more quickly , exposing the mammoths embedded within it .
Stories abound about frozen woolly mammoth meat that was consumed once defrosted , especially that of the " Berezovka mammoth " , but most of these are considered dubious . The carcasses were in most cases decayed , and the stench so unbearable that only wild scavengers and the dogs accompanying the finders showed any interest in the flesh . It appears that such meat was once recommended against illness in China , and Siberian natives have occasionally cooked the meat of frozen carcasses they discovered .
= = = Cryptozoology = = =
There have been occasional claims that the woolly mammoth is not extinct , and that small isolated herds might survive in the vast and sparsely inhabited tundra of the Northern Hemisphere . In the 19th century , several reports of " large shaggy beasts " were passed on to the Russian authorities by Siberian tribesmen , but no scientific proof ever surfaced . A French chargé d 'affaires working in Vladivostok , M. Gallon , said in 1946 that in 1920 he had met a Russian fur @-@ trapper who claimed to have seen living giant , furry " elephants " deep into the taiga . Gallon added that the fur @-@ trapper had not heard of mammoths before . Due to the large area of Siberia , it cannot be completely ruled out that woolly mammoths survived into more recent times , but all evidence indicates that they became extinct thousands of years ago . It is likely that these natives had gained their knowledge of woolly mammoths from carcasses they encountered , and that this is the source for their legends of the animal .
In the late 19th century , there were persistent rumours about surviving mammoths in Alaska . In October 1899 , Henry Tukeman detailed his killing of a mammoth in Alaska and his subsequent donation of the specimen to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , D.C. The museum denied the existence of any mammoth corpse ; the story was a hoax . Bengt Sjögren believed that the myth began when the American biologist Charles Haskins Townsend travelled in Alaska , saw Eskimos trading mammoth tusks , asked if there were still living mammoths in Alaska , and provided them with a drawing of the animal .
= William Jennings Bryan presidential campaign , 1896 =
In 1896 , William Jennings Bryan ran unsuccessfully for President of the United States . Bryan , a former Democratic congressman from Nebraska , gained his party 's presidential nomination in July of that year after electrifying the Democratic National Convention with his Cross of Gold speech . He was defeated in the general election by the Republican candidate , former Ohio governor William McKinley .
Born in 1860 , Bryan grew up in rural Illinois and in 1887 moved to Nebraska , where he practiced law and entered politics . He won election to the House of Representatives in 1890 , and was re @-@ elected in 1892 , before mounting an unsuccessful US Senate run . He set his sights on higher office , believing he could be elected president in 1896 even though he remained a relatively minor figure in the Democratic Party . In anticipation of a presidential campaign , he spent much of 1895 and early 1896 making speeches across the United States ; his compelling oratory increased his popularity in his party .
Bryan often spoke on the issue of the currency . The economic Panic of 1893 had left the nation in a deep recession , which still persisted in early 1896 . Bryan and many other Democrats believed the economic malaise could be remedied through a return to bimetallism , or free silver — a policy they believed would inflate the currency and make it easier for debtors to repay loans . Bryan went to the Democratic convention in Chicago as an undeclared candidate , whom the press had given only a small chance of becoming the Democratic nominee . His ' Cross of Gold ' speech , given to conclude the debate on the party platform , immediately transformed him into a favorite for the nomination , and he won it the next day . The Democrats nominated Arthur Sewall , a wealthy Maine banker and shipbuilder , for vice president . The left @-@ wing Populist Party ( which had hoped to nominate the only silver @-@ supporting candidate ) endorsed Bryan for president , but found Sewall unacceptable , substituting Thomas E. Watson of Georgia .
Abandoned by many gold @-@ supporting party leaders and newspapers after the Chicago convention , Bryan undertook an extensive tour by rail to bring his campaign to the people . He spoke some 600 times , to an estimated 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 listeners . His campaign focused on silver , an issue that failed to appeal to the urban voter , and he was defeated .
The 1896 race is generally seen as a realigning election . The coalition of wealthy , middle @-@ class and urban voters that defeated Bryan kept the Republicans in power for most of the time until 1932 . Although defeated in the election , Bryan 's campaign made him a national figure , which he remained until his death in 1925 .
= = Background = =
= = = Bryan = = =
William Jennings Bryan was born in rural Salem , Illinois in 1860 . His father , Silas Bryan , was a Jacksonian Democrat , judge , lawyer and local party activist . As a judge 's son , the younger Bryan had ample opportunity to observe the art of speechmaking in courtrooms , political rallies , and at church and revival meetings . In post @-@ Civil War America , oratory was highly prized , and Bryan showed aptitude for it from a young age , raised in his father 's house in Salem . Attending Illinois College beginning in 1877 , Bryan devoted himself to winning the school prize for speaking . He won the prize in his junior year , and also secured the affection of Mary Baird , a student at a nearby women 's academy . She became his wife , and was his principal assistant throughout his career .
While attending law school from 1881 to 1883 , Bryan was a clerk to former Illinois senator Lyman Trumbull , who influenced him in a dislike for wealth and business monopolies . Bryan was strongly affected by the emerging Social Gospel movement that called on Protestant activists to seek to cure social problems such as poverty . Looking for a growing city in which his practice could thrive , he moved to Lincoln , Nebraska in 1887 .
Bryan quickly became prominent in Lincoln as a lawyer and a public speaker , becoming known as the " Boy Orator of the Platte " . In 1890 , he agreed to run for Congress against William J. Connell , a Republican , who had won the local congressional seat in 1888 . At that time , Nebraska was suffering hard times as many farmers had difficulties making ends meet due to low grain prices , and many Americans were discontented with the existing two major political parties . As a result , disillusioned farmers and others formed a new far @-@ left party , which came to be known as the Populist Party . The Populists proposed both greater government control over the economy ( with some calling for government ownership of railroads ) and giving the people power over government through the secret ballot , direct election of United States Senators ( who were , until 1913 , elected by state legislatures ) , and replacement of the Electoral College with direct election of the president and vice president by popular vote . Party members in many states , including Nebraska , demanded inflation of the currency through issuance of paper or silver currency , allowing easier repayment of debt . After a candidate backed by the nascent Populists withdrew , Bryan defeated Connell for the seat by 6 @,@ 700 votes ( nearly doubling Connell 's 1888 margin ) , receiving support from the Populists and Prohibitionists .
In Congress , Bryan was appointed to the powerful Ways and Means Committee and became a major spokesman on the tariff and money questions . He introduced several proposals for the direct election of senators and to eliminate tariff barriers in industries dominated by monopolies or trusts . This advocacy brought him contributions from silver mine owners in his successful re @-@ election bid in 1892 . In the 1892 presidential election , former Democratic president Grover Cleveland defeated the Republican incumbent , Benjamin Harrison , to regain his office . Bryan did not support Cleveland , making it clear he preferred the Populist candidate , James B. Weaver , though he indicated that as a loyal Democrat , he would vote the party ticket .
In May 1894 , Bryan announced he would not seek re @-@ election to the House of Representatives , feeling the incessant need to raise money to campaign in a marginal district was inhibiting his political career . Instead , he sought the Senate seat that the Nebraska legislature would fill in January 1895 . Although Bryan was successful in winning the non @-@ binding popular vote , Republicans gained a majority in the legislature and elected John Thurston as senator .
= = = Economic depression ; rise of free silver = = =
The question of the currency had been a major political issue since the mid @-@ 1870s . Advocates of free silver ( or bimetallism ) wanted the government to accept all silver bullion presented to it and to return it , struck into coin , at the historic value ratio between gold and silver of 16 to 1 . This would restore a practice abolished in 1873 . A free silver policy would inflate the currency , as the silver in a dollar coin was worth just over half the face value / Someone who presented ten dollars in silver bullion would receive back almost twice that in silver coin . Advocates believed these proposals would lead to prosperity , while opponents warned that varying from the gold standard ( which the United States had , effectively , used since 1873 ) would cause problems in international trade .
The 1878 Bland @-@ Allison Act and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 required the government to buy large quantities of silver and strike it into coin . They had been passed as compromises between free silver and the gold standard . Bryan , who had been elected after the passage of the latter enactment , initially had little to say on the subject . Free silver was very popular among Nebraskans , though many powerful Democrats opposed it . After his election to Congress , Bryan studied the currency question carefully , and came to believe in free silver ; he also saw its political potential . By 1893 , Bryan had become a leading supporter of free silver , arguing in a speech in St. Louis that the gold standard was deflationary " making a man pay a debt with a dollar larger than the one he borrowed ... If this robbery is permitted , the farmer will be ruined , and then the cities will suffer . "
Even as Cleveland took office as president in March 1893 , there were signs of an economic decline . Sherman 's act required the government to pay out gold in exchange for silver and paper currency , and through the early months of 1893 gold flowed out of the Treasury . On April 22 , 1893 , the amount of gold in the Treasury dropped below $ 100 million for the first time since 1879 , adding to the unease . Rumors that Europeans were about to redeem a large sum for gold caused desperate selling on the stock market , the start of the Panic of 1893 . By August , many firms had gone bankrupt , and a special session of Congress convened , called by Cleveland to repeal the silver purchase act . Bryan , who was still in Congress , spoke eloquently against the repeal , but Cleveland forced it through . The President 's uncompromising stand for gold alienated many in his own party ( most southern and western Democrats were pro @-@ silver ) . The economy failed to improve , and when the President in 1894 sent federal troops to Illinois to break up the Pullman strike , he outraged even more Democrats . In late 1894 , pro @-@ silver Democrats began to organize in the hope of taking control of the party from Cleveland and other Gold Democrats and nominating a silver candidate in 1896 . In this , they were led by Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld , who had opposed Cleveland over the Pullman strike . The Democrats lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1894 midterm elections , with a number of southern states , usually solid for the Democrats , electing Republican or Populist congressmen .
In 1893 , bimetallism had been just one of many proposals by Populists and others . As the economic downturn continued , free silver advocates blamed its continuation on the repeal of the silver purchase act , and the issue of silver became more prominent . Free silver especially resonated among farmers in the South and West , as well as miners . June 1894 marked the publication of William H. Harvey 's Coin 's Financial School . The book , composed of accounts of ( fictitious ) lectures on the silver issue given by an adolescent named Coin to Chicago audiences , became an immense bestseller . The book included ( as foils to the title character ) many of Chicago 's most prominent men of business ; some , such as banker and future Secretary of the Treasury Lyman Gage , issued denials that they had participated in any such lectures . This popular treatment of the currency issue was highly influential . A Missourian , Ezra Peters , wrote to Illinois Senator John M. Palmer , " Coins [ sic ] Financial School is raising h — in this neck of the woods . If those in favor of honest money don 't do something to offset its influence the country is going to the dogs . " A Minnesota correspondent wrote in Outlook magazine : " high school boys are about equally divided between silver and baseball , with a decided leaning toward the former " .
= = Dark horse candidate = =
= = = Preparation = = =
In March 1895 , the same month he left Congress , Bryan passed his 35th birthday , making him constitutionally eligible for the presidency . By then , he had come to see his nomination for that office as possible , even likely . Bryan believed he could use the coalition @-@ building techniques he had applied in gaining election to Congress , uniting pro @-@ silver forces behind him to gain the Democratic nomination and the presidency . To that end , it was important that the Populists not nominate a rival silver candidate , and he took pains to cultivate good relations with Populist leaders . Through 1895 and early 1896 , Bryan sought to make himself as widely known as an advocate for silver as possible . He had accepted the nominal editorship of the Omaha World @-@ Herald in August 1894 . The position involved no day @-@ to @-@ day duties , but allowed him to publish his political commentaries . In the 17 months between his departure from Congress and the Democratic National Convention in July 1896 , Bryan travelled widely through the South and West , speaking on silver . At every stop , he made contacts that he later cultivated . Several times , in his addresses , Bryan repeated variations on lines he had spoken in Congress in December 1894 , decrying the gold standard , " I will not help to crucify mankind upon a cross of gold . I will not aid them to press down upon the bleeding brow of labor this crown of thorns . "
Historian H. Wayne Morgan described Bryan :
Robert La Follette remembered Bryan as " a tall , slender , handsome fellow who looked like a young divine " . A streak of the moralist preacher raised his political chances among a people attuned to the biblical phrase and Shakespearan [ sic ] stance . He was a fine actor , with a justly famous voice , but was not a charlatan . Bryan believed in the out @-@ dated Jeffersonian virtues he preached in the Hamiltonian world of 1896 ... He was young , had a respectable but not burdensome record , came from the West , and understood the arts of conciliation . Though men thought otherwise at the time , neither fate nor accident created his position in the party .
Through early 1896 , Bryan quietly sought the nomination . Any possible candidacy depended on silver supporters being successful in electing the bulk of convention delegates ; accordingly Bryan backed such efforts . He maintained contact with silver partisans in other parties , hopeful of gathering them in after a nomination . His campaign was low @-@ key , without excessive publicity : Bryan did not want to attract the attention of more prominent candidates . He continued to give speeches , and collected his traveling expenses , and most often a speaking fee , from those who had invited him .
Bryan faced a number of disadvantages in seeking the Democratic nomination : he was little @-@ known among Americans who did not follow politics closely , he had no money to pour into his campaign , he lacked public office , and had incurred the enmity of Cleveland and his administration through his stance on silver and other issues . There was little advantage to the Democratic Party in nominating a candidate from Nebraska , a state small in population that had never voted for a Democrat . As state conventions met to nominate delegates to the July national convention , for the most part , they supported silver , and sent silver men to Chicago . Gold Democrats had success in the Northeast , and little elsewhere . Most state conventions did not bind , or " instruct " , their delegates to vote for a specific candidate for the nomination ; this course was strongly supported by Bryan . Once delegates were selected , Bryan wrote to party officials and obtained a list ; he sent copies of his speeches , clippings from the World @-@ Herald , and his photograph to each delegate .
In June 1896 , Bryan 's old teacher , former senator Trumbull died ; on the day of his funeral , Bryan 's mother also died , suddenly in Salem . Bryan spoke at her funeral , quoting lines from Second Timothy : " I have fought a good fight , I have finished my course , I have kept the faith . " He also attended , as a correspondent for the World @-@ Herald , the Republican convention that month in St. Louis . The Republicans , at the request of their nominee for president , former Ohio governor William McKinley , included a plank in their party platform supporting the gold standard . Bryan was deeply moved when , after the adoption of the platform , Colorado Senator Henry M. Teller led a walkout of silver @-@ supporting Republicans . Bryan 's
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.@ 14 knots ( 33 @.@ 60 km / h ; 20 @.@ 88 mph ) on her trials . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 050 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 030 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 4 @,@ 200 miles ( 3 @,@ 600 nmi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Charlemagne carried her main armament of four 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of ten 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1893 guns , eight of which were mounted in individual casemates and the remaining pair in shielded mounts on the forecastle deck amidships . She also carried eight 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 100 mm Modèle 1893 guns in shielded mounts on the superstructure . The ship 's anti @-@ torpedo boat defences consisted of twenty 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 47 mm Modèle 1885 Hotchkiss guns , fitted in platforms on both masts , on the superstructure , and in casemates in the hull . Charlemagne mounted four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside . Two of these were submerged , angled 20 ° from the ship 's axis , and the other two were above the waterline . They were provided with twelve Modèle 1892 torpedoes . As was common with ships of her generation , she was built with a plough @-@ shaped ram .
The Charlemagne @-@ class ships carried a total of 820 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 807 @.@ 7 long tons ) of Harvey armour . They had a complete waterline armour belt that was 3 @.@ 26 metres ( 10 ft 8 in ) high . The armour belt tapered from its maximum thickness of 400 mm ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) to a thickness of 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) at its lower edge . The armoured deck was 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick on the flat and was reinforced with an additional 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) plate where it angled downwards to meet the armoured belt . The main turrets were protected by 320 mm ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) of armour and their roofs were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Their barbettes were 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The outer walls of the casemates for the 138 @.@ 6 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 46 in ) guns were 55 mm thick and they were protected by transverse bulkheads 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The conning tower walls were 326 mm ( 12 @.@ 8 in ) thick and its roof consisted of 50 mm armour plates . Its communications tube was protected by armour plates 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick .
= = Construction and career = =
Charlemagne , named after the first Holy Roman Emperor , was authorised on 30 September 1895 as the name ship of the three battleships of her class . The ship was laid down at the Arsenal de Brest on 2 August 1894 and launched on 17 October 1895 . She was completed on 12 September 1897 and commissioned three days later .
Charlemagne was initially assigned to the Northern Squadron ( escadre du Nord ) , but , together with Gaulois , she was transferred to the 1st Battleship Division of the Mediterranean Squadron in January 1900 . On 18 July , after combined manoeuvres with the Northern Squadron , the ship participated in a naval review conducted by the President of France , Émile Loubet , at Cherbourg . She escorted Louis André , the Minister of War and Jean de Lanessan , the Minister of Marine on their tours of Corsica and Tunisia later in October . The following year , Charlemagne and the Mediterranean Squadron participated in an international naval review by President Loubet in Toulon with ships from Spain , Italy and Russia .
In October 1901 , the 1st Battleship Division , under the command of Rear Admiral Leonce Caillard , was ordered to proceed to the port of Mytilene . After landing two companies of marines that occupied the major ports of the island on 7 November , Sultan Abdul Hamid II agreed to enforce contracts made with French companies and to repay loans made by French banks . The 1st Division departed Lesbos in early December and returned to Toulon . In January – March 1902 , Charlemagne was deployed in Moroccan waters and participated in the summer fleet exercises later that year . Naval historians Paul Silverstone and Eric Gille claim that the ship collided with Gaulois on 2 March 1903 , but was not damaged . In April 1904 , she was one of the ships that escorted President Loubet during his state visit to Italy and participated in the annual fleet manoeuvers later that summer . A 100 mm cartridge spontaneously ignited in a magazine in January 1905 , but Charlemagne suffered no damage from the incident . Together with the destroyer Dart , the ship was the French contribution to an international squadron that briefly occupied Mytilene in November – December 1905 and participated in a naval review by President Armand Fallières in September of the following year . She engaged in the summer naval manoeuvres in 1907 and 1908 and was transferred to the 4th division in September 1908 .
Charlemagne was transferred back to the Northern Squadron in October 1909 . She made port visits to Oran , Cadiz , Lisbon and Quiberon before having her bottom cleaned in Brest in January 1910 . The ship participated in a large naval review by President Fallières off Cap Brun on 4 September 1911 . Charlemagne was placed in reserve in Brest in September 1912 for an overhaul ; the ship rolled 34 ° during sea trials in May 1913 , after completion of the overhaul . She was assigned to the training squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet from August 1913 until the beginning of World War I a year later .
= = = World War I = = =
Together with the older French pre @-@ dreadnoughts , Charlemagne escorted Allied troop convoys through the Mediterranean until November when she was ordered to the Dardanelles to guard against a sortie by the Goeben . During the bombardment on 25 February 1915 , the ship engaged the fort at Kum Kale with some effect . On 18 March , Charlemagne , together with Bouvet , Suffren , and Gaulois , was to penetrate deep into the Dardanelles after six British battleships suppressed the defending Turkish fortifications and attack those same fortifications at close range . After the French ships were ordered to be relieved by six other British battleships , Bouvet struck a mine and sank almost instantly while Gaulois was hit twice , one of which opened a large hole in her hull that began to flood the ship . Charlemagne escorted Gaulois to the Rabbit Islands , north of Tenedos , where the latter ship could be beached for temporary repairs . Charlemagne herself was moderately damaged during the bombardment and continued onwards to Bizerte for repairs that lasted through May .
Upon her return , she was assigned to the Dardanelles Squadron ( escadre des Dardanelles ) , although naval operations were limited to bombarding Turkish positions in support of Allied troops by that time . The ship was transferred to Salonica in October 1915 where she joined the French squadron assigned to prevent any interference by the Greeks with Allied operations in Greece . Charlemagne was relieved for a major refit at Bizerte in May 1916 that lasted until August . She returned to Salonica later that month and was assigned to the Eastern Naval Division ( division navale d 'Orient ) . The ship remained there until she was ordered to Toulon in August 1917 . Charlemagne was placed in reserve on 17 September and disarmed on 1 November . She was condemned on 21 June 1920 and later sold for scrap in 1923 .
= Emily ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Emily " is the seventh episode of the fifth season of American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by Vince Gilligan , John Shiban and Frank Spotnitz and directed by Kim Manners . The episode explores the series ' overarching mythology . The episode premiered in the United States on December 14 , 1997 on the Fox network , earning a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 4 and being watched by 20 @.@ 94 million people in its initial broadcast . It received mixed reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Scully fights to protect her daughter ’ s life , while Mulder discovers her true origins . It is eventually discovered that Emily was created during Scully 's abduction . Emily suffers from a tumorous infection and subsequently dies .
" Emily " is the second of a two @-@ part story that began with episode six , " Christmas Carol " . The young actress who originally played Emily was terrified of the hospital setting in the episode 's sequel " Emily " , and as a result the producers had to recast the role and reshoot all footage featuring her including her scene featured in this episode . Filming for the episode was also disrupted when angry demonstrators protested at one of the show 's filming sites .
= = Plot = =
In a dream @-@ like sequence , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) walks through a desert and picks up a gold cross necklace on the ground .
Continuing from the previous episode , agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) arrives at the hospital in San Diego where Scully introduces him to Emily . Mulder tells Scully that he had Melvin Frohike look into Emily 's case : her surrogate mother is a woman named Anna Fugazzi ( slang for fake ) , and there are no true records of how Emily came into the world . Mulder , along with Scully 's family , attend a meeting regarding Emily 's adoption at the San Diego Hall of Justice . Mulder tells the Judge that Emily was conceived from Scully 's ova , which was taken from her during her abduction , which the Judge does not believe . Later , Scully receives a call from the County Children 's Center that cuts off abruptly . She and Mulder head there , where they find Emily safe , but coming down with a fever . They find a greenish cyst on the back of Emily 's neck . Later , when a nurse pierces the cyst with a needle , green liquid comes out , causing her to become gravely ill , yet Emily appears unaffected . Mulder believes that Emily has the same body chemistry that they have seen before with alien @-@ human hybrids .
Dr. Calderon , Emily 's doctor who works for a company called Prangen , refuses to transfer Emily 's medical records to the County Children 's Center , prompting Mulder to rough him up . Later , Mulder follows Calderon after he leaves his office . Scully has imaging tests conducted on Emily . Calderon goes to see the Dark Suited Men , one of whom kills him by stabbing him in the neck with an alien stiletto ; both men then morph into Calderon . Mulder follows as one of them leaves . The results of Emily 's tests show her to be suffering from a tumorous infection . The other Calderon arrives at the hospital and injects Emily with an unknown green substance ; he escapes by morphing into someone else . Scully believes that he is continuing the treatments , and the Sims were murdered because they were trying to stop him . Mulder follows the first Calderon clone into a building , where he meets Anna Fugazzi , an elderly woman in a nursing home .
The doctor tells Scully that Emily is getting worse . A woman from the adoption agency arrives and wants to stop Scully from making decisions for Emily . Mulder connects the names of the women in the nursing home to recent births and finds that Dr. Calderon was treating them . Emily reacts badly to being placed in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber . Mulder finds medical records with Scully 's name on them at the nursing home , along with a live fetus in a refrigerated chamber . Mulder finds Calderon entering soon after , and Detective Kresge arrives as well . Mulder and Kresge confront Calderon , who attacks Kresge . Despite Mulder 's warning Kresge shoots Calderon , whose wounds cause him to spew green blood which incapacitates Kresge . Mulder quickly leaves the building to avoid being affected by the blood . Calderon morphs into Kresge , and deceives Mulder and escapes . Mulder returns to the hospital , where Emily has gone into a coma . Days later Emily has died . Mulder visits Scully at the funeral chapel , telling her that Kresge is recovering and all evidence at the nursing home and Prangen is gone . The only evidence left is Emily 's body , but the agents instead find sand bags in her coffin along with Scully 's cross necklace , which she had previously given to Emily .
= = Production = =
The young actress who originally played Emily was terrified of the hospital setting in this episode , and as a result the producers had to recast the role and reshoot all footage featuring her in the previous episode " Christmas Carol " . Director Kim Manners recalls , " I called Bob Goodwin and said , ' We 're dead in the water here , pal . This little actress is not cooperating at all ' . We recast that role and started up again the next day . " The show 's casters replaced her with Lauren Diewold , who had previously appeared on an episode of Millennium . Due to the show 's shooting schedule , the producers were unable to use Gillian Anderson to reshoot the previous episode 's scenes , resulting in Anderson 's double being used instead , with the footage pieced together in the editing room .
The building used for the nursing home in this episode was picketed by anti @-@ redevelopment protesters due to the building being converted into a condominium complex . As a result , the producers kept a low profile by removing all X @-@ Files insignia from their clothing . A number of protestors still arrived , forcing the police to get involved .
= = Reception = =
" Emily " premiered on the Fox network on December 14 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 4 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 20 @.@ 94 million viewers .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics ; many were more critical of the episode than " Christmas Carol " . Todd VanDerWerff from The A.V. Club gave the episode a B and wrote that he did not " totally buy “ Emily ” [ … ] even though I like large portions of " the episode . VanDerWerff wrote positively of " most of the Scully scenes " , noting that Anderson " found some of the raw sense of hope and loss " that the shots required . However , he was critical of the episode 's plot , arguing that it only " goes through the motions " and " is about everybody getting really worked up over a little girl we ’ ve just met . " He concluded that " two @-@ parter is strongest when it grabs hold of this notion . But it ’ s at its weakest when it turns into just another episode of The X @-@ Files . " John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a 7 out of 10 , and wrote " Overall , this episode was not as strong as the previous installment , largely due to the shift from in @-@ depth character exploration to a rehashing of earlier elements of the mythology . Emily is a good plot device in terms of personalizing the conspiracy ’ s depredations just a bit more , but at times , it seems like the writers are victimizing Scully a bit more than necessary . Unlike the later mythology episodes , however , this one manages to avoid any unnecessary new elements . "
Other reviews were decidedly more mixed to negative . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . The two wrote that " Mulder catches up with the store and immediately this all becomes a little more formulaic . " The two praised the episode 's teaser , referring to it as " deathless prose " , but were more critical of the plot , arguing that the episode " feels too soon to see yet more sequences of people standing around emoting as they watch the dying in the hospital " , a reference to the show 's earlier arc involving Scully 's cancer . Shearman and Pearson , however , did compliment the performance of both Diewold and Anderson , and called the finale scene " wonderful " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique , on the other hand , gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one star out of four . She heavily criticized the episode 's characterization , noting that the episode 's opening sequence was " ludicrous " and its revelations were " out of the blue " . Vitaris reasoned that , because Scully had spent time with her mother , remembered fondly her sister , and reconnected her faith in God in " Redux II " , " this development just doesn 't track . " Vitaris also criticized Mulder 's antics , calling him a " thug " for beating up " an unarmed man and kicking him while he 's down . "
= John Archibald Wheeler =
John Archibald Wheeler ( July 9 , 1911 – April 13 , 2008 ) was an American theoretical physicist . He was largely responsible for reviving interest in general relativity in the United States after World War II . Wheeler also worked with Niels Bohr in explaining the basic principles behind nuclear fission . Together with Gregory Breit , Wheeler developed the concept of Breit – Wheeler process . He is best known for linking the term " black hole " to objects with gravitational collapse already predicted early in the 20th century , for coining the terms " quantum foam " , " neutron moderator " , " wormhole " and " it from bit " , and for hypothesizing the " one @-@ electron universe " .
Wheeler earned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins University under the supervision of Karl Herzfeld , and studied under Breit and Bohr on a National Research Council fellowship . In 1939 he teamed up with Bohr to write a series of papers using the liquid drop model to explain the mechanism of fission . During World War II , he worked with the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago , where he helped design nuclear reactors , and then at the Hanford Site in Richland , Washington , where he helped DuPont build them . He returned to Princeton after the war ended , but returned to government service to help design and build the hydrogen bomb in the early 1950s .
For most of his career , Wheeler was a professor at Princeton University , which he joined in 1938 , remaining until his retirement in 1976 . At Princeton he supervised 46 PhDs , more than any other professor in the Princeton physics department .
= = Early life and education = =
Wheeler was born in Jacksonville , Florida on July 9 , 1911 to librarians Joseph Lewis Wheeler and Mabel Archibald ( Archie ) Wheeler . He was the oldest of four children , having two younger brothers , Joseph and Robert , and a younger sister , Mary . Joseph earned a Ph.D. from Brown University and a Master of Library Science from Columbia University . Robert earned a Ph.D. in geology from Harvard University and worked as a geologist for oil companies and at colleges . Mary studied library science at the University of Denver and became a librarian . They grew up in Youngstown , Ohio , but spent a year in 1921 to 1922 on a farm in Benson , Vermont , where Wheeler attended a one @-@ room school . After they returned to Youngstown he attended Rayen High School .
After graduating from the Baltimore City College high school in 1926 , Wheeler entered Johns Hopkins University with a scholarship from the state of Maryland . He published his first scientific paper in 1930 , as part of a summer job at the National Bureau of Standards . He earned his doctorate in 1933 . His dissertation research work , carried out under the supervision of Karl Herzfeld , was on the " Theory of the Dispersion and Absorption of Helium " . He received a National Research Council fellowship , which he used to study under Gregory Breit at New York University in 1933 and 1934 , and then in Copenhagen under Niels Bohr in 1934 and 1935 . In a 1934 paper , Breit and Wheeler introduced the Breit – Wheeler process , a mechanism by which photons can be potentially transformed into matter in the form of electron @-@ positron pairs .
= = Early career = =
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill made Wheeler an associate professor in 1937 , but he wanted to be able work more closely with the experts in particle physics . He turned down an offer in 1938 of an associate professorship at Johns Hopkins University in favor of an assistant professorship at Princeton University . Although it was a lesser position , he felt that Princeton , which was building up its physics department , was a better career choice . He remained a member of the faculty there until 1976 .
In a 1937 paper " On the Mathematical Description of Light Nuclei by the Method of Resonating Group Structure " , Wheeler introduced the S @-@ matrix – short for scattering matrix – " a unitary matrix of coefficients connecting the asymptotic behavior of an arbitrary particular solution [ of the integral equations ] with that of solutions of a standard form . " Werner Heisenberg subsequently developed the idea of the S @-@ matrix in the 1940s . Due to the problematic divergences present in quantum field theory at that time , Heisenberg was motivated to isolate the essential features of the theory that would not be affected by future changes as the theory developed . In doing so he was led to introduce a unitary " characteristic " S @-@ matrix , which became an important tool in particle physics .
Wheeler did not develop the S @-@ matrix , but joined Edward Teller in examining Bohr 's liquid drop model of the atomic nucleus . They presented their results at a meeting of the American Physical Society in New York in 1938 . Wheeler 's Chapel Hill graduate student Katharine Way also presented a paper , which she followed up in a subsequent article , detailing how the liquid drop model was unstable under certain conditions . Due to a limitation of the liquid drop model , they all missed the opportunity to predict nuclear fission . The news of Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch 's discovery of fission was brought to America by Bohr in 1939 . Bohr told Leon Rosenfeld , who informed Wheeler .
Bohr and Wheeler set to work applying the liquid drop model to explain the mechanism of nuclear fission . As the experimental physicists studied fission , they uncovered puzzling results . George Placzek asked Bohr why uranium seemed to fission with both very fast and very slow neutrons . Walking to a meeting with Wheeler , Bohr had an insight that the fission at low energies was due to the uranium @-@ 235 isotope , while at high energies it was mainly due to the far more abundant uranium @-@ 238 isotope . They co @-@ wrote two more papers on fission . Their first paper appeared in the Physical Review on September 1 , 1939 , the day Germany invaded Poland , starting World War II in Europe .
Considering the notion that positrons were electrons that were traveling backwards in time , he came up in 1940 with his one @-@ electron universe postulate : that there was in fact only one electron , bouncing back and forth in time . His graduate student , Richard Feynman , found this hard to believe , but the idea that positrons were electrons traveling backwards in time intrigued him and Feynman incorporated the notion of the reversibility of time into his Feynman diagrams .
= = Nuclear weapons = =
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
Soon after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor brought the United States into World War II , Wheeler accepted a request from Arthur Compton to join the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago . He moved there in January 1942 , joining Eugene Wigner 's group , which was studying nuclear reactor design . He co @-@ wrote a paper with Robert F. Christy on " Chain Reaction of Pure Fissionable Materials in Solution " , which was important in the plutonium purification process . It would not be declassified until December 1955 . He gave the neutron moderator its name , replacing the term " slower downer " used by Enrico Fermi .
After the United States Army Corps of Engineers took over the Manhattan Project , it gave responsibility for the detailed design and construction of the reactors to DuPont . Wheeler became part of the DuPont design staff . He worked closely with its engineers , commuting between Chicago and Wilmington , Delaware , where DuPont had its headquarters . He moved his family to Wilmington in March 1943 . DuPont 's task was not just to build nuclear reactors , but an entire plutonium production complex at the Hanford Site in Washington . As work progressed , Wheeler relocated his family again in July 1944 , this time to Richland , Washington , where he worked in the scientific buildings known as the 300 area .
Even before the Hanford Site started up the B Reactor , the first of its three reactors , on September 15 , 1944 , Wheeler had been concerned that some nuclear fission products might turn out to be nuclear poisons , the accumulation of which would impede the ongoing nuclear chain reaction by absorbing many of the thermal neutrons that were needed to continue a chain reaction . In an April 1942 report , he predicted that this would reduce the reactivity by less than one percent so long as no fission product had a neutron capture cross section of more than 100 @,@ 000 barns . After the reactor unexpectedly shut down , and then just as unexpectedly restarted about fifteen hours later , he suspected iodine @-@ 135 , with a half life of 6 @.@ 6 hours , and its daughter product , xenon @-@ 135 , which has a half life of 9 @.@ 2 hours . Xenon @-@ 135 turned out to have a neutron capture cross @-@ section of well over 2 million barns . The problem was corrected by adding additional fuel rods to burn out the poison .
Wheeler had a personal reason for working on the Manhattan Project . His brother Joe , fighting in Italy , sent him a postcard with a simple message : " Hurry up " . It was already too late : Joe was killed in October 1944 . " Here we were , " Wheeler later wrote , " so close to creating a nuclear weapon to end the war . I couldn 't stop thinking then , and haven 't stopped thinking since , that the war could have been over in October 1944 . " Joe left a widow and baby daughter , Mary Jo , who later married physicist James Hartle .
= = = Hydrogen bomb = = =
In August 1945 Wheeler and his family returned to Princeton , where he resumed his academic career . Working with Feynman , he explored the possibility of physics with particles , but not fields , and carried out theoretical studies of the muon with Jayme Tiomno , resulting in a series of papers on the topic , including a 1949 paper in which Tiomno and Wheeler introduced the " Tiomno Triangle " , which related different forms of radioactive decay . He also suggested the use of muons as a nuclear probe . This paper , written and privately circulated in 1949 but not published until 1953 , resulted in a series of measurements of the Chang radiation emitted by muons . Muons are a component of cosmic rays , and Wheeler became the founder and first director of Princeton 's Cosmic Rays Laboratory , which received a substantial grant of $ 375 @,@ 000 from the Office of Naval Research in 1948 . He received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1946 , which allowed him to spend the 1949 – 50 academic year in Paris .
The 1949 detonation of Joe @-@ 1 by the Soviet Union prompted an all @-@ out effort by the United States , led by Teller , to develop the more powerful hydrogen bomb in response . Henry D. Smyth , Wheeler 's department head at Princeton , asked him to join the effort . Most physicists were , like Wheeler , trying to re @-@ establish careers interrupted by the war and were reluctant to face more disruption . Others had moral objections . Those who agreed to participate included Emil Konopinski , Marshall Rosenbluth , Lothar Nordheim and Charles Critchfield , but there was also now a body of experienced weapons physicists at the Los Alamos Laboratory , led by Norris Bradbury . Wheeler agreed to go to Los Alamos after a conversation with Bohr . Two of his graduate students from Princeton , Ken Ford and John Toll , joined him there .
At Los Alamos , Wheeler and his family moved into the house on " Bathtub Row " that had been occupied by Robert Oppenheimer and his family during the war . In 1950 there was no practical design for a hydrogen bomb . Calculations by Stan Ulam and others showed that Teller 's " Classical Super " would not work . Teller and Wheeler created a new design known as " Alarm Clock " , but it was not a true thermonuclear weapon . Not until January 1951 did Ulam come up with a workable design .
In 1951 Wheeler obtained permission from Bradbury to set up a branch office of the Los Alamos laboratory at Princeton , known as Project Matterhorn , which had two parts . Matterhorn S ( for stellarator , another name coined by Wheeler ) , under Lyman Spitzer , investigated nuclear fusion as a power source . Matterhorn B ( for bomb ) , under Wheeler , engaged in nuclear weapons research . Senior scientists remained disinterested and aloof from the project , so he staffed it with young graduate and post @-@ doctoral students . In January 1953 he was involved in a security breach when he lost a highly classified paper on lithium @-@ 6 and the hydrogen bomb design during an overnight train trip . This resulted in Wheeler being given an official reprimand . Matterhorn B 's efforts were crowned by the success of the Ivy Mike nuclear test at Enewetak Atoll in the Pacific , on November 1 , 1953 , which Wheeler witnessed . The yield of the Ivy Mike " Sausage " device was reckoned at 10 @.@ 4 megatons of TNT ( 44 PJ ) , about 30 percent higher than Matterhorn B had estimated . Matterhorn B was discontinued , but Matterhorn S endures as the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory .
= = Personal life = =
For 72 years , Wheeler was married to Janette Hegner , a teacher and social worker . They became engaged on their third date , but agreed to defer marriage until after he returned from Europe . They were married on June 10 , 1935 , five days after his return . They had three children : Letitia , James English and Alison Wheeler . Jobs were hard to come by during the Great Depression , but Arthur Ruark offered him a position as an assistant professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , at an annual salary of $ 2 @,@ 300 , which was less than the $ 2 @,@ 400 Janette was offered to teach at the Rye Country Day School . In their later years , she accompanied him on sabbaticals to places such as France , Los Alamos , New Mexico , the Netherlands , and Japan . Wheeler and Hegner were founding members of the Unitarian Church of Princeton , and she initiated the Friends of the Princeton Public Library . Hegner died in October 2007 at the age of 99 .
= = Later life = =
= = = Geometrodynamics = = =
After concluding his Matterhorn Project work , Wheeler resumed his academic career . In a 1955 paper he theoretically investigated the geon , an electromagnetic or gravitational wave that is held together in a confined region by the attraction of its own field . He coined the name as a contraction of " gravitational electromagnetic entity . " He found that the smallest geon was a toroid the size of the Sun , but millions of times heavier . While working on mathematical extensions to Einstein 's Theory of General Relativity in 1957 , Wheeler introduced the concept and word wormhole to describe hypothetical " tunnels " in space @-@ time . Bohr asked if they are stable and further research by Wheeler determined that they are not .
During the 1950s Wheeler formulated geometrodynamics , a program of physical and ontological reduction of every physical phenomenon , such as gravitation and electromagnetism , to the geometrical properties of a curved space @-@ time . Wormholes were just one manifestation of what Wheeler envisaged as the fabric of the universe , a chaotic sub @-@ atomic realm of quantum fluctuations , which he called " quantum foam " . For a few decades , general relativity had not been considered a very respectable field of physics , being detached from experiment . Wheeler was a key figure in the revival of the subject , leading the school at Princeton , while Dennis William Sciama and Yakov Borisovich Zel 'dovich developed the subject at Cambridge University and the University of Moscow . The work of Wheeler and his students made high contributions to the Golden Age of General Relativity . His work in general relativity included the theory of gravitational collapse . He used the term black hole in 1967 during a talk he gave at the NASA Goddard Institute of Space Studies ( GISS ) . He was also a pioneer in the field of quantum gravity due to his development , with Bryce DeWitt , of the Wheeler – DeWitt equation , which is the equation governing the " wave function of the Universe " .
= = = Quantum = = =
Alluding to Wheeler 's " mass without mass " , the festschrift honoring his 60th birthday was titled Magic Without Magic : John Archibald Wheeler : A Collection of Essays in Honor of his Sixtieth Birthday ( 1972 ) . His writing style could also attract parodies , including one by " John Archibald Wyler " that was affectionately published by a relativity journal . Wheeler wrote Geometrodynamics ( 1962 ) , and teamed up with Edwin F. Taylor to write Spacetime Physics ( 1966 ) and Scouting Black Holes ( 1996 ) . With Kent Harrison , Kip Thorne and Masami Wakano he wrote Gravitation Theory and Gravitational Collapse ( 1954 ) . This led to the voluminous general relativity textbook Gravitation ( 1973 ) , co @-@ written with Misner and Thorne . Its timely appearance during the golden age of general relativity and its comprehensiveness made it an influential relativity textbook for a generation .
Wheeler retired from Princeton University in 1976 at the age of 65 . He was the director of the Center for Theoretical Physics at the University of Texas at Austin from 1976 until 1986 , when he retired and became a professor emeritus there . Misner , Thorne and Wojciech Zurek , all former students of Wheeler , wrote that :
Looking back on Wheeler 's 10 years at Texas , many quantum information scientists now regard him , along with IBM 's Rolf Landauer , as a grandfather of their field . That , however , was not because Wheeler produced seminal re @-@ search papers on quantum information . He did not — with one major exception , his delayed @-@ choice experiment . Rather , his role was to inspire by asking deep questions from a radical conservative viewpoint and , through his questions , to stimulate others ’ research and discovery .
Wheeler 's delayed choice experiment is actually several thought experiments in quantum physics that he proposed , with the most prominent among them appearing in 1978 and 1984 . These experiments are attempts to decide whether light somehow " senses " the experimental apparatus in the double @-@ slit experiment it will travel through and adjusts its behavior to fit by assuming the appropriate determinate state for it , or whether light remains in an indeterminate state , neither wave nor particle , and responds to the " questions " asked of it by responding in either a wave @-@ consistent manner or a particle @-@ consistent manner depending on the experimental arrangements that ask these " questions " .
Over the years , Wheeler 's graduate students included Katharine Way , Richard Feynman , David Hill , Bei @-@ Lok Hu , Kip Thorne , Jacob Bekenstein , John R. Klauder , William Unruh , Robert M. Wald , Arthur Wightman , Charles Misner and Hugh Everett . Wheeler gave a high priority to teaching , and continued to teach freshman and sophomore physics , saying that the young minds were the most important . At Princeton he supervised 46 PhDs , more than any other professor in the Princeton physics department .
In 1979 Wheeler spoke to the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , asking it to expel parapsychology , which had been admitted ten years earlier at the request of Margaret Mead . He called it a pseudoscience , saying he did not oppose earnest research into the questions , but he thought the " air of legitimacy " of being an AAAS @-@ Affiliate should be reserved until convincing tests of at least a few so @-@ called psi effects could be demonstrated . During his presentation Wheeler incorrectly stated that J. B. Rhine had committed fraud as a student , and was forced to retract that statement in a letter to the journal Science . His request was turned down and the Parapsychological Association remained a member of the AAAS .
= = = It from bit = = =
In 1990 Wheeler suggested that information is fundamental to the physics of the universe . According to this " it from bit " doctrine , all things physical are information @-@ theoretic in origin .
Wheeler : It from bit . Otherwise put , every it — every particle , every field of force , even the space @-@ time continuum itself — derives its function , its meaning , its very existence entirely — even if in some contexts indirectly — from the apparatus @-@ elicited answers to yes @-@ or @-@ no questions , binary choices , bits . It from bit symbolizes the idea that every item of the physical world has at bottom — a very deep bottom , in most instances — an immaterial source and explanation ; that which we call reality arises in the last analysis from the posing of yes @-@ no questions and the registering of equipment @-@ evoked responses ; in short , that all things physical are information @-@ theoretic in origin and that this is a participatory universe .
Wheeler speculated that reality is created by observers in the universe . " How does something arise from nothing ? " , he asked about the existence of space and time . He also coined the term " Participatory Anthropic Principle " ( PAP ) , a version of a Strong Anthropic Principle . From a transcript of a radio interview on " The anthropic universe " :
Wheeler : We are participators in bringing into being not only the near and here but the far away and long ago . We are in this sense , participators in bringing about something of the universe in the distant past and if we have one explanation for what 's happening in the distant past why should we need more ? Martin Redfern : Many don 't agree with John Wheeler , but if he 's right then we and presumably other conscious observers throughout the universe , are the creators — or at least the minds that make the universe manifest .
Wheeler had repeatedly reflected , since 1981 , on Benjamin Gal @-@ Or 's " Gravitism " that maintains that the expansion of the universe ( manifested by the expansion of the cold , dark voids between all non @-@ expanding , visible clusters of galaxies ) is the root @-@ cause of the Second Law of Thermodynamics and of all asymmetry in time , as an unsaturable , expanding , universal " sink " :
" I continue to reflect , again and again , on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time . "
= = Death and Legacy = =
Over the years Wheeler gathered numerous prizes and awards , including the Enrico Fermi Award in 1968 , the Franklin Medal in 1969 , the National Medal of Science in 1971 , the Einstein Prize in 1969 , the Niels Bohr International Gold Medal in 1982 , the Oersted Medal in 1983 , the J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize in 1984 and the Wolf Foundation Prize in 1997 . He was a member of the American Philosophical Society , the Royal Academy , the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei , and the Century Association . He received honorary degrees from 18 different institutions and , in 2001 , Princeton used a $ 3 million gift to establish the John Archibald Wheeler / Battelle Professorship in Physics . After his death , the University of Texas named the John A. Wheeler Lecture Hall in his honor . He was influential in mentoring a generation of physicists of the Golden Age of General Relativity , who made notable contributions to quantum mechanics and gravitation .
On April 13 , 2008 , Wheeler died of pneumonia at the age of 96 in Hightstown , New Jersey .
= Niagara Parkway =
The Niagara Parkway , formerly known as Niagara Boulevard and historically as the Niagara Road , is a scenic road in the province of Ontario that travels on the Canadian side of the Niagara River from the town of Fort Erie to Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake . The portion north of Table Rock in Niagara Falls is designated as an Ontario Scenic Highway . The Niagara Boulevard was originally the section only from Fort Erie to Chippawa and the northern portion was referred to as the Niagara Parkway .
The Niagara Parkway begins at Fort Erie in the south . It passes through several villages along the river before passing through the tourist district of Niagara Falls . North of the city it provides access to several attractions , including the Whirlpool Rapids , Butterfly Conservatory , and Brock 's Monument at Queenston Heights . The route ends at Fort George , southeast of the urban centre of Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake .
Construction on the modern Niagara Parkway began in 1908 ; it was completed from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario in 1931 as a scenic road with gardens and manicured lawns throughout its length . The parkway was referred to by Sir Winston Churchill , having been driven down it , as " the prettiest Sunday afternoon drive in the world . "
= = Route description = =
The Niagara Parkway is a two @-@ lane minor arterial road with a 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) speed limit for the majority of its length , although the section from Hiram Avenue to Upper Rapids Boulevard in Niagara Falls is a four lane divided road signed at 40 km / h ( 25 mph ) . It is 55 km ( 34 mi ) in length , crossing the entire Niagara Peninsula between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario . The route falls under the jurisdiction of the Niagara Parks Commission , an agency of the Government of Ontario , for most of its length . However , the section from Hiram Street to Glenview Avenue belongs to the City of Niagara Falls . Despite this , it is still signed as part of the Niagara Parkway . The Niagara River Recreation Trail , a mixed @-@ use pedestrian and cycling path , follows 53 km ( 33 mi ) of the length of the parkway between Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake and Fort Erie .
The parkway begins at the old Fort Erie , south of the Peace Bridge , where it is known as Lakeshore Road and connects with the Queen Elizabeth Way and the former Highway 3 . East of the Mather Circle , the road becomes known as Niagara Parkway and proceeds north through downtown Fort Erie , beneath the International Railway Bridge . It gradually curves to the east opposite the southern shore of Grand Island . Houses line the southern side of the parkway along this section . The road curves back northward as it crosses the Black Creek and passes through a sparsely populated stretch . It passes the Willoughby Historical Museum followed by the Legends on the Niagara Golf Course . Shortly thereafter , it enters Niagara Falls and meets the Welland River . Traffic is diverted west to cross the river at Portage Road , where it then resumes on the Niagara Parkway at King 's Bridge Park .
The Niagara Parkway travels alongside the Upper Rapids and passes adjacent to Horseshoe Falls . It crosses a park and enters downtown Niagara Falls , where it is known as River Road north of Clifton Hill . The parkway passes below the Rainbow Bridge ; side streets provide access to Highway 420 , but River Road itself does not meet it . As it progresses north , it passes beneath the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge before wrapping around the Whirlpool Rapids . At Victoria Avenue , River Road becomes the Niagara Parkway again . The parkway passes the Butterfly Conservatory and the Niagara Floral Clock , one of the largest floral clocks in the world with a diameter of 12 @.@ 2 m ( 40 ft ) . Shortly thereafter , the parkway crosses the Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations . It passes beneath Highway 405 at the Lewiston – Queenston Bridge , the interchange with which was removed by December 2006 .
North of the bridge , the route descends the Niagara Escarpment near Brock 's Monument , a column which commemorates the death of Sir Isaac Brock during the Battle of Queenston Heights . At the bottom of the escarpment , the route passes the village of Queenston . The parkway meanders north , parallel to the river , with houses lining the western side . Approaching the town of Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake , the road becomes known as Queen 's Parade . It diverges from the river and travels northwest towards the town , ending at Fort George .
= = History = =
The Niagara Parkway is one of the oldest roads in Ontario . Predating it , an aboriginal trail along the west side of the Niagara River existed before the arrival of Europeans . The first survey along the length of the river was done by Augustus Jones in 1786 . The survey set aside a one chain reserve along the bank of the river for military purposes ; one chain being equivalent to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) . Despite this reserve , early settlers extended their fences to the river . In 1791 , the Land Board ordered that the fences be removed to permit the reserve 's use as a public road . The Niagara Road quickly became the primary route between Fort Erie and Fort George . Its importance grew with the declaration of war against the Americans in June 1812 . During the war , the road became vital for the movement of militia and supplies , and accordingly it was one of the primary frontiers of the war .
When the First Welland Canal was opened in 1829 , the Niagara Road became a towpath for vessels exiting the Welland River . Oxen on the road would tow boats against the rapid current of the Niagara River as they exited the canal and continued south to Lake Erie . In 1833 , a large cut was made to connect the canal with Port Colborne , eliminating the use of the road as a towpath . It continued to be used as a public road until the government gave the reserve to the Niagara Parks Commission in 1891 .
In 1908 , after receiving approval from the government , the Parks Commission began to expropriate land along the length of the river . The broadened strip of land was used to construct a new paved parkway , which was opened in segments . The new parkway was ornamental and designed to be aesthetically pleasing , a prime consideration of road construction at that time . The section south of the falls was completed first , opening in 1912 . It was extended north to the Whirlpool Rapids , incorporating the existing River Road , by 1915 . The section between the rapids and Queenston was opened between 1921 and 1923 . Finally , the remaining section between Queenston and Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake opened in 1931 , completing the present parkway .
In mid @-@ August 1943 , Sir Winston Churchill came to Canada to attend the Quebec Conference , a then @-@ secret meeting in Quebec City to discuss a strategy for the invasion of France which would come to be known as D @-@ Day . Prior to the conference , he met with William Lyon Mackenzie King several times . Between the meetings and conference , Churchill visited Niagara Falls and was driven along the Niagara Parkway , after which he described it as " the prettiest Sunday afternoon drive in the world . "
On May 30 , 1977 , the City of Niagara Falls assumed River Road between Hiram Street , north of the Rainbow Bridge , and Glenview Avenue , east of Victoria Avenue . This section is still designated as part of the Niagara Parkway despite not being under the jurisdiction of the Niagara Parks Commission .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Niagara Parkway . The entire route is located in the Regional Municipality of Niagara .
= The Sea ( Corinne Bailey Rae album ) =
The Sea is the second studio album by English singer @-@ songwriter Cor
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inne Bailey Rae , released on 20 January 2010 by EMI . It is the follow @-@ up to her eponymous 2006 debut and was conceived following her hiatus from recording , taken in the wake of her husband Jason Rae 's death . She recorded the album at Limefield Studios in Manchester , England during 2009 , working mostly with a host of session musicians and the record producers Steve Brown and Steve Chrisanthou . The Sea features songs written by Rae before and after her husband 's death , touching on themes of love , lament , and solace .
In the United Kingdom , The Sea debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . It also charted at number seven on the Billboard 200 in the United States , where it reached sales of 156 @,@ 000 by April 2010 . A critical success , The Sea received mostly positive reviews and was nominated for the 2010 Mercury Prize . Rae toured in promotion of the album on The Sea Tour in early 2010 .
= = Writing and recording = =
Following the multi @-@ platinum and award @-@ winning success of her eponymous debut album in 2006 , Corinne Bailey Rae began to work on songs for a follow @-@ up album at the end of 2007 . She took a hiatus from music , however , after the death of her husband , Scottish saxophonist Jason Rae , in March 2008 to an accidental overdose of methadone and alcohol . For a long period of time , Rae said , " I didn 't really hear any songs . Normally in my everyday life , I 'd be in the car and come up with a little line , or I 'd look at something and try to describe it ... I didn 't really think in that way anymore . Nothing was coming in . " After months of grief and isolation , Rae revisited her work the following year and composed additional material for The Sea .
The Sea contains songs written before and after the death of Rae 's husband , all of which she said resonated with her : " The circumstances have cast it all in a different light . It began as a ' before and after ' record , but it 's become an ' after ' record " . The ballad " I 'd Do It All Again " was written by Rae in January 2008 after an argument with her husband . She told NME that writing the rest of the album helped her handle the different emotions she felt after her husband 's death : " When I started writing that I was thinking , ' I don 't really want this song to go into the world , ' cause it 's so naked … ' But I had to " . " I Would Like to Call it Beauty " , she said , was written about finding beauty in the " darkest times " , later telling journalist Sean O 'Hagan :
" There is something miraculous that pushes you along , makes you keep going , makes you carry on . It 's really about the mystery of that . In fact , the whole album is about that in a way ; it 's about loss but it 's also about hope , about keeping going and trying to find that beauty . "
Rae recorded most of The Sea in 2009 at Manchester 's Limefield Studios . She co @-@ produced the record mostly with Steve Brown and Steve Chrisanthou , both of whom had worked on her debut album . Rae pursued a sound more aggressive than on her debut . During the recording process , Rae listened to the 1973 Sly & the Family Stone record Fresh and Curtis Mayfield 's There 's No Place Like America Today ( 1975 ) , as well as the music of Nina Simone and Leonard Cohen . A live band was used in the album 's recording , which was also a departure from her debut . " On the first album , it was me and a producer in a basement going though hundreds of snare drum sounds to find the right one " , she recalled . " With a live band , you can stretch out more and try new things out without feeling you 're having to undo this meticulously built @-@ up track " .
The album was titled after the recurring theme of water in songs such as " Diving for Hearts " and " I Would Like to Call It Beauty " , while the music was said by Rae to possess " a kind of tidal movement to it too , in the way that we recorded the songs . You know , sometimes it would just be me and my guitar . Then we 'd really sort of swell up into these big arrangements , only to then retreat back to it just being me and my guitar again . " According to Chris Mugan from The Independent , The Sea was a departure from the polished sound of Rae 's debut album , while Paste magazine 's Steve Labate said Rae expanded on her debut 's mix of contemporary R & B and older soul music by incorporating pop rock , singer @-@ songwriter influences , and occasional elements of bossa nova and trip hop . In the opinion of Craig McLean from The Daily Telegraph , the record 's music evoked Simone 's singing and the 1968 Van Morrison album Astral Weeks .
= = Release and reception = =
Before releasing The Sea , Rae showcased songs from the album on a preview concert tour in late 2009 , playing venues in England , Canada , Los Angeles , and New York . She premiered the songs during a 23 November 2009 performance at The Tabernacle in London , her first complete gig since her hiatus from the music scene . She also showcased its songs on 7 December at New York City 's Hiro Ballroom , which was recorded for the public television series Live from the Artists Den . Rae also promoted the album with guest performances on the talk shows Today and Later ... with Jools Holland . Three singles were released from the album : " I 'd Do It All Again " on 12 January , " Paris Nights / New York Mornings " on 29 March , and " Closer " on 2 August . Rae 's record label EMI sent the singles to music video / radio stations of multiple formats , including urban adult contemporary , smooth jazz and adult album alternative .
When The Sea was released in 2010 , it debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart , and number seven on the Billboard 200 in the US , where it sold 53 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . On 19 February , the album was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , and by April , it had sold 156 @,@ 000 copies in the US , according to Nielsen SoundScan . On 27 February 2010 , Rae embarked on the European leg of her supporting tour for the album , The Sea Tour , which featured singer @-@ songwriter Daniel Merriweather as her opening act ; the tour began its North American leg on 9 April .
The Sea received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 78 , based on 21 reviews . AllMusic 's David Jeffries called it " a testament to Rae 's artistic growth " , and Kitty Empire from The Observer found it " saturated in feeling and graced by superior musicianship " . Steve Leftridge of PopMatters said it was " richer " than her debut , with a " darker and more sophisticated sonic palette " . Q credited Rae for making the album never sound " exploitative or mawkish , just truthful and real " . In the Los Angeles Times , Powers deemed the album a " remarkable accomplishment " and " a step toward something — Rae 's inner peace , and her next artistic breakthrough — that has its own considerable rewards " . In a less enthusiastic review , The Observer 's Graeme Thompson felt the album 's strong points offered " glimpses of a new horizon shining beyond the riptides of pain and sorrow " , but at times it sounded " dull and flat " . Slant Magazine 's Nick Day was more critical , finding the music forgettable and the lyrics introspective but vague . Hot Press critic Patrick Freyne believed the music exhibited an " excessive tastefulness " while panning the contributions of the session musicians , whom he said were " technically proficient " but sounded soulless .
At the end of 2010 , The Sea was named the year 's best album by The Guardian 's Caroline Sullivan , while Powers ranked it ninth on her year @-@ end list of 2010 's best albums . It was also nominated for the 2010 Mercury Prize , awarded annually for the best record from the UK or Ireland ; Rae lost out to The xx 's self @-@ titled 2009 album .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Release history = =
= Super Rich Kids =
" Super Rich Kids " is a song by American recording artist Frank Ocean , and the fifth single from his debut studio album , Channel Orange . It was first performed live by Ocean in 2011 and then on his channel ORANGE tour in 2012 . The single was released in March 2013 . The song is in the style of R & B and neo soul , and includes references to and samples of the songs " Bennie and the Jets " by Elton John , " Got to Give It Up " by Marvin Gaye , and " Real Love " by Mary J. Blige . It addresses young , wealthy characters ' ennui and fears of the financial crisis with dry humor . The song received positive critical responses and charted on the Billboard R & B Songs chart and the UK singles and R & B chart . The song also appeared on the TV show Gossip Girl and the film The Bling Ring .
= = Background = =
" Super Rich Kids " was written by Frank Ocean , Malay , Earl Sweatshirt , Kirk Robinson , Nathaniel Robinson Jr . , Roy Hammond , Mark Morales and Mark Rooney and produced by Malay . Ocean and Malay came up with " Super Rich Kids " on their first day working together on Ocean 's debut album , channel ORANGE . According to Ocean , the 2000 film Traffic was an inspiration for the song . Ocean first performed the song during his debut solo tour in 2011 , and later performed it on the Channel Orange tour . The single release was originally announced on January 23 , 2013 . It was released in Britain on March 11 , and in the United States on the 17th .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
" Super Rich Kids " is an R & B and neo soul ballad set in common time and a slow half @-@ time groove tempo of 60 beats per minute . The key the song is in is E ♭ major , with a chord progression of E ♭ maj9 − G ♭ 6 / A ♭ − D ♭ maj7 − B ♭ 7sus4 − B ♭ aug followed throughout the song . The song includes a piano part that references the thumping piano line of Elton John 's 1973 song " Bennie and the Jets " , and horns and synth arpeggios are also present . According to The Quietus , " a stomping piano and the steady smack of kickdrum anchors the ghostly crowd noise from a vast débutantes ball , as the synths quiver both nauseously and as subtly as candle @-@ smoke in a floor draft . "
= = = Lyrics = = =
" Super Rich Kids " addresses young , wealthy characters ' ennui and fears of the financial crisis with dry humor . The song 's chorus takes the lyrics from Mary J. Blige 's " Real Love " . The track includes a verse from Earl Sweatshirt , which , according to Complex , is a reminder of Ocean as " OFWGKTA at the end of the day . " Paste Magazine said that " Earl 's low verses push Ocean way up into his vocal range . "
According to Sound and Motion Magazine , the track
" is exactly as the title suggests ; Frank ’ s view on the children of parents who have inherited massive trust funds without the grasp of what a huge responsibility it is and the good they could do . From expensive cars to a different woman every night , the alleged social elite stumble through a charmed existence where the real world is buffered from them and then they breed a new generation with the same attitude . The track also contains brief glimpses into what he perceives as an alternative view of loneliness and isolation where all the super rich want is a love that ’ s not about money or anything material . "
" Super Rich Kids " is described by Muso 's Guide as " a contemporary version of a Jay McInerney novel , " and by The Independent as " something Carole King knocked out in the 1970s . " HipHopDX.com said that " at no point are the lyrics judgemental . If anything they ’ re compassionate . " The song also takes samples from Marvin Gaye 's " Got to Give It Up " , and a reference to the 1970s sitcom Good Times ( the " Dy @-@ no @-@ mite ! " catchphrase of the character J.J. Evans ) .
= = Critical reception = =
The single was positively reviewed by critics . Sound and Motion magazine said that it " could easily be listened to repeatedly or just set on in the background for an evening 's entertainment . " Muso 's Guide said the song " could be viewed as one of those tail end singles from a brilliant album that doesn 't stand strong on its own ( Can anyone remember ' Until The End of Time ' from FutureSex / LoveSounds or ' Broken @-@ Hearted Girl ' from I am ... Sasha Fierce ? ) . Ocean , proving his talent as a songwriter , and a jaded voice for this frustrated introspective generation is able to find something profound from a superficial world . " The song became an Editor 's Pick on djbooth.net.
Critical reactions of the song in reviews of channel ORANGE were also positive . Time called the track a " stand out , tying together the album ’ s two themes of class and love . " Billboard , in a track @-@ by @-@ track review , said that " the steadiness of the beat is immediately familiar but wholly fresh -- it 's like Ocean snatched ' Benny and the Jets ' and threw the composition down a trap door into another universe . " No Ripcord said that " it 's so incongruous against the crass commercialism and consuming greed that pervades so much of popular culture that it 's astonishing . "
Complex listed Earl Sweatshirt 's appearance in the song # 15 on their " 25 Best Guest Verses of 2012 " .
= = In other media = =
" Super Rich Kids " appeared on the Gossip Girl episode " Monstrous Ball " , along with four other Frank Ocean tracks : " Lost " , " Pyramids " , " Sweet Life " and " Thinkin Bout You " . The song also appears as the seventeenth track on the soundtrack for the film The Bling Ring . The song was also covered by Misha B.
= = Lawsuit = =
In 2014 , record label TufAmerica filled a copyright lawsuit against Vivendi and Universal Music Group for the sampling of Mary J. Blige 's " Real Love " in " Super Rich Kids " . This was because , according to the lawsuit , the sample included a sample of " Impeach the President " .
= = Chart positions = =
= Jovan Vladimir =
Jovan Vladimir or John Vladimir ( Serbian Cyrillic : Јован Владимир ; c . 990 – 22 May 1016 ) was the ruler of Duklja , the most powerful Serbian principality of the time , from around 1000 to 1016 . He ruled during the protracted war between the Byzantine Empire and the First Bulgarian Empire . Vladimir was acknowledged as a pious , just , and peaceful ruler . He is recognized as a martyr and saint , with his feast day being celebrated on 22 May .
Jovan Vladimir had a close relationship with Byzantium but this did not save Duklja from the expansionist Tsar Samuel of Bulgaria , who conquered the principality in around 1010 and took Vladimir prisoner . A medieval chronicle asserts that Samuel 's daughter , Theodora Kosara , fell in love with Vladimir and begged her father for his hand . The tsar allowed the marriage and returned Duklja to Vladimir , who ruled as his vassal . Vladimir took no part in his father @-@ in @-@ law 's war efforts . The warfare culminated with Tsar Samuel 's defeat by the Byzantines in 1014 and death soon after . In 1016 , Vladimir fell victim to a plot by Ivan Vladislav , the last ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire . He was beheaded in front of a church in Prespa , the empire 's capital , and was buried there . He was soon recognized as a martyr and saint . His widow , Kosara , reburied him in the Prečista Krajinska Church , near his court in southeastern Duklja . In 1381 , his remains were preserved in the Church of St Jovan Vladimir near Elbasan , and since 1995 they have been kept in the Orthodox cathedral of Tirana , Albania . The saint 's remains are considered Christian relics , and attract many believers , especially on his feast day , when the relics are taken to the church near Elbasan for a celebration .
The cross Vladimir held when he was beheaded is also regarded as a relic . Traditionally under the care of the Andrović family from the village of Velji Mikulići in southeastern Montenegro , the cross is only shown to believers on the Feast of Pentecost , when it is carried in a procession to the summit of Mount Rumija . Jovan Vladimir is regarded as the first Serbian saint and the patron saint of the town of Bar in Montenegro . His earliest , lost hagiography was probably written sometime between 1075 and 1089 ; a shortened version , written in Latin , is preserved in the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja . His hagiographies in Greek and Church Slavonic were first published , respectively , in 1690 and 1802 . The saint is classically depicted in icons as a monarch wearing a crown and regal clothes , with a cross in his right hand and his own head in his left hand . He is fabled to have carried his severed head to his place of burial .
= = Life = =
Duklja was an early medieval Serbian principality whose borders coincided for the most part with those of present @-@ day Montenegro . The state rose greatly in power after the disintegration of Serbia that followed the death of its ruler , Prince Časlav , around 943 . Though the extent of Časlav 's Serbia is uncertain , it is known that it included at least Raška ( now part of Central Serbia ) and Bosnia . Raška had subsequently come under Duklja 's political dominance , along with the neighboring Serbian principalities of Travunia and Zachlumia ( in present @-@ day Herzegovina and south Dalmatia ) . The Byzantines often referred to Duklja as Serbia .
Around 1000 , Vladimir , still a boy , succeeded his father Petrislav as the ruler of Duklja . Petrislav is regarded as the earliest ruler of Duklja whose existence can be confirmed by primary sources , which also indicate that he was in close relations with Byzantium . The principality consisted of two provinces : Zenta in the south and Podgoria in the north . A local tradition has it that Vladimir 's court was situated on the hillock called Kraljič , at the village of Koštanjica near Lake Skadar , in the Krajina region of southeastern Montenegro . Near Kraljič lie the ruins of the Prečista Krajinska Church ( dedicated to Theotokos ) , which already existed in Vladimir 's time . According to Daniele Farlati , an 18th @-@ century ecclesiastical historian , the court and residence of Serbian rulers once stood in Krajina .
Vladimir 's reign is recounted in Chapter 36 of the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja , completed between 1299 and 1301 ; Chapters 34 and 35 deal with his father and uncles . These three chapters of the chronicle are most likely based on a lost biography of Vladimir written in Duklja sometime between 1075 and 1089 . Both the chronicle and the 11th @-@ century Byzantine historian John Skylitzes described Vladimir as a wise , pious , just , and peaceful ruler .
Vladimir 's reign coincided with a protracted war between the Byzantine Emperor Basil II ( r . 976 – 1025 ) and the ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire , Tsar Samuel ( r . 980 – 1014 ) . Basil II might have sought the support of other Balkan rulers for his fight against Samuel , and he intensified diplomatic contacts with Duklja for this purpose . A Serbian diplomatic mission , most likely sent from Duklja , arrived in the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 992 and was recorded in a charter of the Great Lavra Monastery , written in 993 .
In 1004 or 1005 , Emperor Basil recovered from Samuel the city of Dyrrhachium , the major stronghold on the Adriatic coast , south of Duklja . Since 1005 , Basil had also controlled the coastal lands north and south of that city , parts of the Byzantine Theme of Dyrrhachium . Byzantium thus established a territorial contact with Prince Vladimir 's Duklja , which was in turn connected to the Byzantine Theme of Dalmatia , consisting of Adriatic towns northwest of Duklja . The Republic of Venice , an ally of Byzantium , militarily intervened in Dalmatia in 1000 to protect the towns from attacks by Croats and Narentines . Venetian rule over Dalmatia on behalf of Basil was confirmed by the emperor in 1004 or 1005 . Svetoslav Suronja , a Venetian ally , was crowned Croatian king . Venice , the Dalmatian towns , Croatia , and Vladimir 's Duklja , were thus aligned in a compact pro @-@ Byzantine bloc connected to Byzantium via Dyrrhachium .
The close relations with Byzantium , however , did not help Prince Vladimir . Samuel attacked Duklja in 1009 or 1010 , as part of his campaign aimed at breaking up that pro @-@ Byzantine bloc , which could have threatened him . Vladimir retreated with his army and many of his people to his fortress on a hill named Oblik , close to the southeastern tip of Lake Skadar . According to the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja , he performed a miracle there : the hill was infested with venomous snakes , but when he offered up a prayer to the Lord , their bites became harmless .
Part of Samuel 's army lay siege to the hill , and the remainder attacked the nearby coastal town of Ulcinj , which was part of the fortification system of the Theme of Dyrrhachium . Vladimir eventually surrendered , a decision the chronicle attributed to his wish to deliver his people from famine and the sword . He was sent to a prison in Samuel 's capital of Prespa , located in western Macedonia . Having failed to conquer Ulcinj , which received men and supplies by sea from Dalmatian towns , the tsar directed his forces towards Dalmatia . There , he burned the towns of Kotor and Dubrovnik , and ravaged the region as far northwest as Zadar . He then returned to Bulgaria via Bosnia and Raška . A consequence of this campaign was the Bulgarian occupation of Duklja , Travunia , Zachlumia , Bosnia , and Raška . Venetian , and indirectly Byzantine power in Dalmatia was weakened . Samuel had succeeded in breaking up the pro @-@ Byzantine bloc .
The chronicle states that while Vladimir languished in the Prespa prison , praying day and night , an angel of the Lord appeared to him and foretold that he would shortly be freed , but that he would die a martyr 's death . His fate in captivity was described in a romantic story involving him and Theodora Kosara , Tsar Samuel 's daughter . This is the chronicle 's description of how they met :
It came to pass that Samuel 's daughter , Cossara , was animated and inspired by a beatific soul . She approached her father and begged that she might go down with her maids and wash the head and feet of the chained captives . Her father granted her wish , so she descended and carried out her good work . Noticing Vladimir among the prisoners , she was struck by his handsome appearance , his humility , gentleness and modesty , and the fact that he was full of wisdom and knowledge of the Lord . She stopped to talk to him , and to her his speech seemed sweeter than honey and the honeycomb .
Kosara then begged her father for Vladimir 's hand , and the tsar granted her request . He restored his new son @-@ in @-@ law to the throne of Duklja . In reality , the marriage was probably a result of Samuel 's political assessment : he may have decided that Vladimir would be a more loyal vassal if he was married to his daughter . Resolving thus the question of Duklja , Samuel could concentrate more troops in Macedonia and Thessaly , the main site of his conflict with Byzantium . The chronicle claims that the tsar also gave Vladimir the whole territory of Dyrrachium . The prince could in fact have been given a northern part of that territory , which was partially under Samuel 's rule . A brief note on Vladimir by John Skylitzes may indicate that the prince also received some territory in Raška . His paternal uncle Dragimir , ruler of Travunia and Zachlumia , who had retreated before Samuel 's army , was given back his lands to rule , also as the tsar 's vassal .
Thereafter , as recorded in the chronicle , " Vladimir lived with his wife Cossara in all sanctity and chastity , worshipping God and serving him night and day , and he ruled the people entrusted to him in a Godfearing and just manner . " There are no indications that Vladimir took any part in his father @-@ in @-@ law 's war efforts . The warfare culminated in Samuel 's disastrous defeat by the Byzantines in 1014 , and on 6 October that same year , the tsar died of a heart attack . He was succeeded by his son , Gavril Radomir , whose reign was short : his cousin Ivan Vladislav killed him in 1015 and ruled in his stead . Vladislav sent messengers to Vladimir demanding his attendance at the court in Prespa , but Kosara advised him not to go and went there herself instead . Vladislav received her with honor and urged Vladimir to come as well , sending him a golden cross as a token of safe conduct . The chronicle relates the prince 's reply :
We believe that our Lord Jesus Christ , who died for us , was suspended not on a golden cross , but on a wooden one . Therefore , if both your faith and your words are true , send me a wooden cross in the hands of religious men , then in accordance with the belief and conviction of the Lord Jesus Christ , I will have faith in the life @-@ giving cross and holy wood . I will come .
Two bishops and a hermit came to Vladimir , gave him a wooden cross , and confirmed that the tsar had made a pledge of faith on it . Vladimir kissed the cross and clutched it to his chest , collected a few followers , and set off for Prespa . As he arrived , on 22 May 1016 , he went into a church to pray . When he exited the church , he was struck down by Vladislav 's soldiers and beheaded . According to Skylitzes , Vladimir believed Vladislav 's pledge , told to him by the Bulgarian archbishop David . He then allowed himself to fall into Vladislav 's hands , and was executed . The motivation behind the murder is unclear . Since Samuel 's defeat in 1014 , the Bulgarians had been losing battle after battle , and Vladislav probably suspected or was informed that Vladimir planned to restore Duklja 's alliance with Byzantium . This alliance would be particularly disturbing for Tsar Vladislav because of the proximity of Duklja to Dyrrhachium , which was a target of the tsar 's war efforts .
In early 1018 Vladislav led an unsuccessful attack against Dyrrhachium , outside whose walls he found his death . The chronicle asserts that Vladimir appeared before Vladislav when he dined in his camp outside Dyrrhachium , and slew him while he cried for help . In the same year , the Byzantine army — led by the victorious Emperor Basil — terminated the First Bulgarian Empire . As Vladimir and Kosara had no children , his successor was his uncle Dragimir , ruler of Travunia and Zachlumia . Accompanied by soldiers , he set off for Duklja to establish himself as its ruler , probably in the first half of 1018 . When he came to Kotor , the town 's inhabitants ambushed and killed him after inviting him to a banquet , and his soldiers returned to Travunia . Duklja was not mentioned again in the sources until the 1030s . Some scholars believe that it was placed under direct Byzantine rule around 1018 , while others believe it remained a Byzantine vassal state under an unknown native ruler .
= = Cult = =
Jovan Vladimir was buried in Prespa , in the same church in front of which he was martyred . His relics soon became famous as miraculously healing , attracting many people to his tomb . Shortly after his death he was recognized as a martyr and saint , being commemorated on 22 May , his feast day . At that time , saints were recognized without any formal rite of canonization . Vladimir was the first ruler of a Serbian state who was elevated to sainthood . The rulers from the Nemanjić dynasty , who reigned over the Serbian state which grew around Raška , would almost all be canonized — starting with Nemanja , the saintly founder of the dynasty .
Several years after his burial , Kosara transported the remains to Duklja . She interred him in the Prečista Krajinska Church , near his court , in the region of Skadarska Krajina . The relics drew many devotees to the church , which became a center of pilgrimage . Kosara did not remarry ; at her request , she was interred in Prečista Krajinska , at the feet of her husband . In around 1215 — when Krajina was under the rule of Serbian Grand Prince Stefan Nemanjić — the relics were presumably removed from this church and transported to Dyrrhachium by the troops of Michael I , the despot of Epirus . At that time Despot Michael had briefly captured from Serbia the city of Skadar , which is only about 20 km ( 12 mi ) east of the church . Jovan Vladimir was mentioned as the patron saint of Dyrrhachium in a Greek liturgical text .
In 1368 Dyrrhachium was taken from the Angevins by Karlo Thopia , an Albanian lord . In 1381 he rebuilt , in Byzantine style , a church ruined in an earthquake in the narrow valley of the stream Kusha , a tributary of the Shkumbin River — near the site of the town of Elbasan in central Albania ( built in the 15th century ) . The church was dedicated to Saint Jovan Vladimir , as the inscription which Thopia placed above its south entrance declared in Greek , Latin , and Serbian . The saint 's relics were kept in a reliquary , a wooden casket , which was enclosed in a shrine , 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in height , within the church .
Serbian scholar Stojan Novaković theorized that Vladimir was buried near Elbasan immediately after his death . Novaković conjectured that the earthquake which ruined the old church happened during Thopia 's rule , and that Thopia reinstated the relics in the rebuilt church . If Vladimir was previously buried in Duklja , Novaković reasoned , he would not be absent , as he was , from Serbian sources written during the reign of the Nemanjić dynasty , who ruled over Duklja ( later named Zeta ) from 1186 to 1371 . Novaković did not consider the idea that the relics might have been removed from Duklja to Dyrrhachium in around 1215 . He commented on the chronicle 's account that Kosara transported Vladimir 's body " to a place known as Krajina , where his court was " : While his court was possibly in the region of Krajina before his captivity , after he married Kosara it could have been near Elbasan , in the territory of Dyrrachium he received from Tsar Samuel . He was interred near the latter court , which was replaced in the chronicle with the former .
An Orthodox monastery grew around the church near Elbasan , and became the center of veneration of Saint Jovan Vladimir , which was limited to an area around the monastery . In the latter half of the 15th century , the territory of present @-@ day Albania was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire , in which Islam was the privileged religion . After losing the Battle of Vienna in 1683 , the Ottomans went on the defensive in Europe . In the climate of revival of Christianity in the Ottoman Empire , a hagiography of the saint and a service to him were written in Greek in 1690 at the monastery . It stood under the jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Ohrid , which became a notable spiritual and artistic force during the leadership of Archbishop Joasaph from 1719 to 1745 . In this period , the veneration of Saint Jovan Vladimir was promoted in southern Albania and western Macedonia , as well as beyond the archbishopric , in Bulgaria and among the Serbs in the Kingdom of Hungary .
The monastery became the see of the newly founded Archbishopric of Dyrrhachium in the second half of the 18th century . In more recent times the monastery fell into disrepair , and in the 1960s it was closed by Albania 's Communist authorities ; in 1967 the reliquary with the saint 's relics was moved to St Mary 's Church in Elbasan . The dilapidated monastery was returned to the Church in the 1990s . The restoration of its church and other buildings was completed in 2005 . Since around 1995 the relics have been kept in the Orthodox cathedral of Tirana , the capital of Albania , and are brought back to the monastery only for the saint 's feast day .
Each year on the Feast of Saint Jovan Vladimir , a great number of devotees come to the monastery , popularly known as Shingjon among Albanians . In the morning , the reliquary is placed at the center of the church under a canopy , before being opened . After the morning liturgy has been celebrated , chanting priests carry the reliquary three times around the church , followed by the devotees , who hold lit candles . The reliquary is then placed in front of the church , to be kissed by the believers . The priests give them pieces of cotton that have been kept inside the reliquary since the previous feast . There are numerous stories about people , both Christians and Muslims , who were healed after they prayed before the saint 's relics .
On the eve of the Feast of Saint Jovan Vladimir , an all @-@ night vigil is celebrated in the churches dedicated to the saint , as is celebrated in other Orthodox churches on the eves of their patron saints ' feasts . The liturgical celebration of Vladimir 's feast day begins on the evening of 21 May , because , in the Orthodox Church , the liturgical day is reckoned from one evening to the next . Despite the name of the service , the all @-@ night vigil is usually not held throughout the entire night , and may last only for two hours . In the Church of St Jovan Vladimir near Elbasan , it lasts from 9 pm to 3 am . Hymns either to Jovan Vladimir or to another saint whose commemoration falls on 22 May , are chanted , on that liturgical day , at set points during services in all Orthodox churches .
Saint Jovan Vladimir is the patron saint of the modern @-@ day town of Bar in south Montenegro , built at its present location in 1976 about 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the site of the old town of Bar , which was destroyed in a war and abandoned in 1878 . A religious procession celebrating the saint passes on his feast day through the town 's streets with church banners and icons . The procession is usually led by the Serbian Orthodox Metropolitan of Montenegro and the Littoral . The bronze sculpture King Jovan Vladimir , 4 m ( 13 ft ) in height , was installed at the central square of Bar in 2001 ; it is a work by sculptor Nenad Šoškić . Although Vladimir was only a prince , he is referred to as " king " in the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja . He is called the Holy King in southeastern Montenegro , and hence the hillock thought to be the site of his court is named Kraljič ( kralj means " king " ) .
= = = Cross of Vladimir = = =
A cross , held by tradition to be the one that Jovan Vladimir received from Ivan Vladislav , and had in his hands when he was martyred , is a highly valued relic . It is under the care of the Andrović family from the village of Velji Mikulići near Bar and , according to the Androvićs , has been for centuries . The cross is made of yew wood plated with silver , with a brass ball attached to its lower arm , into which a stick is inserted when the cross is carried . The cross is 45 cm ( 18 in ) high , 38 cm ( 15 in ) wide , and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
According to Russian scholars Ivan Yastrebov and Pavel Rovinski , the cross was originally kept in the Prečista Krajinska Church , in which Kosara had interred Vladimir . The peak of Islamization of the Krajina region was reached at the end of 18th century . The church was torn down , though it is uncertain when and by whom , but the cross was preserved by the people of the region . They believed that it could protect against evil and ensure a rich harvest , and kept it as sacred , although they had converted to Islam . The cross was later taken from them by the neighboring clan of Mrkojevići . As they too converted to Islam , they entrusted the cross to the Andrović family — their Orthodox Christian neighbors . The Mrkojevići considered it more appropriate for the cross to be kept in a Christian home , rather than in a Muslim one .
The cross , followed by a religious procession , is carried each year on the Feast of Pentecost from Velji Mikulići to the summit of Mount Rumija . The procession is preceded by a midnight liturgy in the village 's Church of St Nicholas . After the liturgy , the ascent begins up a steep path to the 1 @,@ 593 m ( 5 @,@ 226 ft ) summit of Rumija . The cross , carried by a member of the Andrović family , leads the procession , followed by an Orthodox priest and the other participants . Catholics and Muslims of the region have traditionally participated in the procession . It is carefully observed that no one precedes the cross ; to do so is considered a bad omen . The ascending devotees sing :
In the past , the standard @-@ bearer of the Mrkojevići clan , a Muslim , walked next to the cross with a flag in his left and a knife in his right hand , ready to use it if anyone attempted to take the cross . The clan especially feared that the participants from Krajina might try to recover the sacred object . At the end of 19th century the number of Muslims in the procession dropped as their religious and political leaders disapproved of their participation in it . After World War II , Yugoslavia 's socialist government discouraged public religious celebrations , and the procession was not held between 1959 and 1984 .
Tradition has it that a church dedicated to the Holy Trinity stood at the summit until it was razed by the Ottomans ; in another version , the church crumbled after a boy and a girl sinned within . Before 2005 , there was a custom to pick up a stone at a certain distance from the peak and carry it to the supposed site of the church in the belief that when a sufficient quantity of stones were collected , the church would rebuild itself . A new church dedicated to the Holy Trinity was consecrated on the site by the Serbian Orthodox Church on 31 July 2005 .
The procession arrives at the peak before dawn , and at sunrise the morning liturgy begins . After prayers have been offered , the procession goes back to Velji Mikulići , again following the cross . The participants would formerly gather on a flat area 300 m ( 980 ft ) from the peak , where they would spend some five or six hours in a joyous celebration and sports , and have a communal meal . On the way back , some people pick the so @-@ called herb of Rumija ( Onosma visianii ) , whose root is reputed for its medicinal properties . The procession ends at the Church of St Nicholas , and folk festivities at Velji Mikulići continue into the night . Until the next Feast of Pentecost , the cross is kept at a secret location . It was formerly known only to two oldest male members of the Andrović family , and since around 2000 the Androvićs have appointed a committee to keep the cross .
= = = Hagiography and iconography = = =
The oldest preserved hagiography of Saint Jovan Vladimir is contained in Chapter 36 of the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja . This chronicle , written in Latin , was completed between 1299 and 1301 in the town of Bar , then part of the Serbian Kingdom . Its author was Rudger , the Catholic Archbishop of Bar , who was probably of Czech origin . He wrote Chapter 36 as a summary of an older hagiography of Vladimir , written in Duklja most likely sometime between 1075 and 1089 . This is the period when Duklja 's rulers from the Vojislavljević dynasty endeavored to obtain the royal insignia from the Pope , and to elevate the Bar Bishopric to an archbishopric . They represented Prince Vladimir as the saintly founder of their dynasty ; they were , according to the chronicle , descendants of his uncle Dragimir . The Vojislavljevićs succeeded in those endeavors , though Vladimir was not recognized as a saint by the Catholic Church . Despite its hagiographic nature , Chapter 36 contains a lot of reliable historical data . Chapters 34 and 35 , which deal with Vladimir 's father and uncles , are probably based on the prologue of the 11th @-@ century hagiography . Chapters 1 – 33 of the chronicle are based on oral traditions and its author 's constructions , and are for the most part dismissed by historians .
The hagiography in the chronicle is the source for the " Poem of King Vladimir " composed in the 18th century by a Franciscan monk from Dalmatia , Andrija Kačić Miošić . The poem is part of Miošić 's history of the South Slavs in prose and verse , written in the Croatian vernacular of Dalmatia . This book was first printed in Venice in 1756 and was soon read beyond Dalmatia , including Serbia and Bulgaria ( then under Ottoman rule , as was most of the Balkans ) . The " Poem of King Vladimir " is composed in a manner derived from the style of the South Slavic oral epics . It describes Vladimir 's captivity in Bulgaria , the love between Kosara and him , Tsar Samuel 's blessing of their marriage , and their wedding . It concludes with the newlyweds setting off for Vladimir 's court , which Miošić places in the Herzegovinian city of Trebinje .
The Greek akolouthia on Saint Jovan Vladimir , containing his hagiography , prayers to him , and hymns to be chanted in church services on his feast day , was printed in Venice in 1690 . The book was reprinted with small changes in 1774 and 1858 . It was written from oral traditions by the deputy of the Orthodox Archbishop of Ohrid , Cosmas , who resided at the Monastery of St Jovan Vladimir , near Elbasan . Copies of the book were distributed to other Orthodox churches and individuals . The akolouthia was also published in 1741 in Moscopole , an Aromanian center in southeastern Albania , as part of a compilation dedicated to saints popular in that region . A shorter hagiography of the saint , based on his life contained in this akolouthia , was included in the Synaxarium composed by Nicodemus the Hagiorite , printed in Venice ( 1819 ) and Athens ( 1868 ) . Cosmas 's text was the basis for the Church Slavonic akolouthias on the saint , which appeared in Venice ( 1802 ) and Belgrade ( 1861 ) . The latter was printed as part of the third edition of Srbljak , a compendium of akolouthias on Serb saints , published by the Serbian Orthodox Church . The saint 's life in English , translated from Church Slavonic , appeared in the book Lives of the Serbian Saints , published in London in 1921 by the Anglican Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge .
In Cosmas 's writing , the saint was named " Jovan from Vladimir " ; his father was Nemanja ( historically , Grand Prince of Raška from 1166 to 1196 ) , and his grandfather was Simeon ( Bulgarian Tsar from 893 to 927 ) . He married a daughter of Samuel , the tsar of Bulgaria and Ohrid . He succeeded his father as emperor of Albania , Illyria , and Dalmatia . After Byzantine Emperor Basil defeated Tsar Samuel , Emperor Jovan defeated Basil . He also fought against the Bogomil and Messalian heretics . From his early youth , Jovan Vladimir longed for the Kingdom of God . After he was married , he prayed day and night , and abstained from intercourse with his wife . She was a heretic like her brother , whom she incited to kill Jovan . When the two brothers @-@ in @-@ law rode together , accompanied by soldiers , the heretic suddenly struck Jovan with a sword at a mountain pass named Derven , but could not cut him . Only when Jovan gave him his own sword was the murderer able to cut off his head . Jovan caught it in the air and rode on to the church he had built near Elbasan . There he put his head down , saying , " Lord Jesus Christ , in your hands I place my spirit , " and died ; it was AD 899 . He was buried in the church , which then became the scene of many miracles . The saint 's beneficent power is described in the hagiography :
According to Vladimir 's life in Church Slavonic , he succeeded his father Petrislav as the ruler of Serbian lands ; he ruled from the town of Alba . He was captured and imprisoned by the Bulgarian ruler Samuel . After marrying Samuel 's daughter Kosara , he returned to his country . Emperor Basil , having overcome Bulgaria , attacked the Serbian lands , but Vladimir repulsed him . Basil advised the new Bulgarian ruler , Vladislav , to kill Vladimir by trickery . Vladislav invited Vladimir to visit him , as if to discuss the needs of their peoples . When Kosara came to him instead , Vladislav received her with apparent kindness ; therefore Vladimir came as well . Vladislav was able to cut off his head only after Vladimir gave him his own sword . The saint then carried his severed head to the church he had built near Alba , and died there ; it was AD 1015 . He was buried in the church . During Vladislav 's siege of Dyrrachium , Vladimir appeared before his murderer when he dined , and slew him while he cried for help . The saint 's relics then gushed myrrh , curing various illnesses . The kontakion which is contained , among other hymns , in the Church Slavonic akolouthia published as part of Srbljak , praises the saint :
In a Bulgarian liturgical book written in 1211 , Vladimir was included in a list of tsars of the First Bulgarian Empire : " To Boris , . . . Samuel , Gavril Radomir , Vladimir , and Vladislav , ancient Bulgarian tsars , who inherited both the earthly and the heavenly empires , Memory Eternal . " According to the earliest work of Bulgarian historiography composed in 1762 by Paisius of Hilendar , Vladimir , also named Vladislav , was a Bulgarian tsar and saint . His father was Aron , Tsar Samuel 's brother . His wife and her brother murdered him because of his pure life and Orthodox faith . Paisius combined Ivan Vladislav and Jovan Vladimir into one character attributed with Vladislav 's parentage and Vladimir 's sainthood .
An important model for the iconography of Saint Jovan Vladimir is an engraving in the 1690 edition of the Greek akolouthia . It is a work by Venetian engraver Isabella Piccini . She depicted the saint with a mustache and short beard , wearing a cloak and a crown inscribed with lilies , holding a cross in his right hand , and his severed head in his left hand . A portable icon in Saint Catherine 's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula , dated around 1700 , shows the saint mounted on horseback .
An icon of Saints Marina and Jovan Vladimir , dated 1711 , is part of the iconostasis of the Monastery of St Naum near Ohrid in western Macedonia . The icon 's position on the iconostasis indicates that Vladimir was an important figure of local veneration . He was often depicted in the company of Saints Clement and Naum in Macedonian churches . A number of 18th @-@ century painters from central and southern Albania painted the saint in churches of the region , especially in the area of Moscopole . A portable icon of the saint was created in 1739 at the Ardenica Monastery in southwestern Albania . It depicts him seated on a throne , surrounded by twelve panels showing scenes of his life and miracles . Saint Jovan Vladimir is represented on frescos in three monasteries of Mount Athos : Hilandar , Zograf , and Philotheou ; and three Bulgarian monasteries : Rila , Troyan , and Lozen .
Hristofor Žefarović , an artist from Macedonia , painted the frescos in the rebuilt church of the Serbian Monastery of Bođani , in the Bačka region ( then part of the Kingdom of Hungary ) in 1737 . There , he depicted Jovan Vladimir in a row of six Serb saints , wearing a crown and sceptre , clad in a full @-@ length tunic , loros ( a type of stole ) , and chlamys . In the same row stands another Serb saint from present @-@ day Montenegro , Stefan Štiljanović . Žefarović 's frescos in Bođani are regarded as the earliest work showing Baroque traits in the Serbian art . Žefarović created in 1742 in Vienna a copperplate with scenes of the saint 's life and miracles . Its printed impressions were disseminated to many Orthodox Christian homes in the Balkans . The same author included him among the rulers and saints whom he illustrated in his Stemmatographia .
A lithography in the 1858 edition of the Greek akolouthia shows the saint wearing a crown with a double lily wreath , his right foot on a sword . He holds a cross , a sceptre , and an olive branch in his right hand , while his crowned severed head is in his left hand . He wears an ermine cloak and a robe with floral designs , adorned with large gems surrounded by pearls . The Greek text beneath the illustration names the saint as Jovan Vladimir , the pious Emperor of all Albania and Bulgaria , the graceful Wonderworker and Great Martyr , and true Myrrh @-@ gusher . In his hagiography included in the Synaxarium of Nicodemus the Hagiorite , the saint is referred to as Emperor of the Serbs ( τῶν Σέρβων βασιλεύς ) .
= = = Legends = = =
Several legends about Jovan Vladimir have been recorded in western Macedonia . One has it that , after he was beheaded , he brought his head to the Monastery of St John of Bigor . On a hill above the village of Pesočani in the Municipality of Debarca , there is a locality called Vladimirovo , at which some ruins can be seen . The locals claimed that Vladimir was born there , and brought his severed head there . The Church of St Athanasius near Pesočani , now in ruins , is reputed to have been built by Vladimir . People from the region gathered there each year on the eve of his feast day . They lit candles on the remains of the church 's walls , and prayed to the saint . Tradition has it that the Monastery of St Naum had a bell tower named after the saint , in the foundation of which a portion of his relics was placed .
In the western fringe of Macedonia , which is now part of Albania , Jovan Vladimir was remembered as a saintly ruler , cut down by his father @-@ in @-@ law , an emperor , who believed some slander that he was a womanizer . The enraged emperor , accompanied by soldiers , found Vladimir on a mountain pass named Qafë Thanë ( also known as Derven ) , on the road between the Macedonian town of Struga and Elbasan . He struck his son @-@ in @-@ law with a sword , but could not cut him . Only when Vladimir gave him his own sword was the emperor able to cut off his head . Vladimir took his severed head and went toward the site of his future church . There stood an oak , under which he fell after the tree bowed down before him . The saint was interred in the church which was subsequently built at that place and dedicated to him .
According to a legend recorded in the Greek hagiography , Jovan Vladimir built the church near Elbasan . Its location , deep in a dense forest , was chosen by God , and an eagle with a shining cross on its head showed it to Vladimir . After the saint was decapitated , he brought his head to the church , and was buried inside . A group of Franks once stole the casket with his miraculous relics . The casket turned out to be extremely heavy , breaking the backs of hinnies on which the Franks carried it . They eventually put it in the Shkumbin River to take it to the sea , but the river flooded , and the casket — radiating light — went back upstream toward the church . The inhabitants of that area took it out of the water and returned it to the church in a festive procession .
A group of thieves stole , on a summer day , horses that belonged to the Monastery of St Jovan Vladimir . When they came to the nearby stream of Kusha to take the horses across , it appeared to them like an enormous river . They moved away from it in fear , but when they looked back from a distance , the stream appeared small . As they approached it again , the Kusha again became huge and impassable . After several such attempts to cross the stream , the thieves realized that this was a miracle of the saint , so they released the monastery 's horses and ran away in horror .
A possible legend of Prince Vladimir was recorded by Branislav Nušić in the 19th century in the city of Korçë , southeastern Albania , close to Macedonia . Ruins on top of a hill above Korçë were said to be remains of the court of a Latin ( Catholic ) king , whose kingdom neighbored the state of an Orthodox emperor . The king asked the hand of the emperor 's daughter , who agreed to become his wife only if he built an Orthodox church . He did so , and she married him , but on the first night of marriage she killed him . She then became a nun , and the king 's body was taken somewhere — he was not buried near his court . Macedonian Slavs inhabiting Saint Achillius Island in the Small Prespa Lake in Greece told of an emperor named Mirče . He lived on their island , where he was killed by a cousin of his out of jealousy , and his body was taken via Ohrid to Albania .
= United States at the 2008 Summer Paralympics =
The United States sent a delegation to compete at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , China . A total of 213 U.S. competitors took part in 18 sports ; the only 2 sports Americans did not compete in were soccer 5 @-@ a @-@ side and 7 @-@ a @-@ side . The American delegation included 16 former members of the U.S. military , including 3 veterans of the Iraq War . Among them were shot putter Scott Winkler , who was paralyzed in an accident in Iraq , and swimmer Melissa Stockwell , a former United States Army officer who lost her left leg to a roadside bomb in the war .
The United States finished third in the gold and overall medal count , behind host nation China and Great Britain . The finish was an improvement from the 2004 Paralympics , where the U.S. finished fourth in the gold and overall medal count . The U.S. saw significant gains in Paralympic swimming , winning 17 gold medals and 44 total medals , 9 more than they took home from Athens . U.S. swimmers set a total of 16 world records , 23 Paralympic records , 48 Pan American records and 99 American records . U.S. coverage of the Games was provided by the Universal Sports Television Network and the official website of the U.S. Paralympic Team , usparalympics.org.
= = Disability classifications = =
Every participant at the Paralympics had their disability grouped into one of five disability categories : amputation ( either congenital or sustained through injury or illness ) ; cerebral palsy ; wheelchair athletes ( often overlapping with other categories ) ; visual impairment ( including blindness ) ; and les autres ( any physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other categories , for example dwarfism or multiple sclerosis ) . Each Paralympic sport then had its own classifications , depending on the specific physical demands of the competition . Events were given a code , made of numbers and letters , describing the type of event and classification of the athletes competing . Some sports , such as athletics , divided athletes by both the category and severity of their disabilities . Other sports , such as swimming , grouped competitors from different categories together , the only separation being based on the severity of the disability .
Athletes may have competed against individuals with different classifications in the same event . For example , track and field athlete Jim Bob Bizzell competed in the men 's 200 meters T44 ; the prefix T designated a track event and 44 was the disability classification . Although he finished behind Oscar Pistorius ( competing under the T43 class ) , Bizell set a world record in the T44 classification . For specific classification information , see the pages for individual sports at 2008 Summer Paralympics # Sports .
= = Medalists = =
The following American athletes won medals at the games ; all dates are for September 2008 . In the ' by discipline ' sections below , medalists ' names are in bold .
= = Archery = =
The American archery team consisted of seven men and one woman . The highest placed finishers were Lindsey Carmichael and Jeff Fabry , who each won a bronze medal . T. J. Pemberton and Joe Bailey competed against each other in the quarterfinals of the men 's individual compound open , with Pemberton winning and going on to finish fourth in that event .
= = Track and field ( athletics ) = =
The American track and field team consisted of 26 men and 17 women . Among them was shot putter Scott Winkler , a U.S. Army veteran who was paralyzed in Tikrit , Iraq in 2003 after he fell off a truck while holding 50 pounds of ammunition . The team set six world records and won a total of nine gold , fourteen silver , and five bronze medals , two more medals than the team won in Athens . Jessica Galli won five medals , more than any other team member , while Amanda McGrory , Tatyana McFadden , and Jim Bob Bizzell each won at least three medals . Jeremy Campbell was the only U.S. track and field athlete to win two golds .
Men
Legend : Q – Qualifiers for the final as decided on a basis of rank within heat ; WR = World Record ; PR = Paralympic Record
Women
Legend : Q – Qualifiers for the final as decided on a basis of rank within heat ; WR = World Record ; PR = Paralympic Record
= = Boccia = =
The U.S. boccia team consisted of a single competitor , T. J. Hawker . Hawker lost his four pool stage matches and did not advance to the knock @-@ out stage .
= = Cycling = =
The initial members of the 2008 U.S. Paralympic Cycling Team were named on June 6 , 2008 after the 2008 U.S. Paralympics Cycling National Championships in Morrison , Colorado . The final roster included thirteen athletes ( seven men and six women ) . The team entered the Games with a goal of two gold and ten medals total . They surpassed their goal , finishing with fourteen medals : five gold , five silver , and four bronze .
Factor time
To ensure a fair event when athletes with differing disabilities compete , times achieved were sometimes modified by a percentage rate , to produce a result known as " Factor Time " . It is this time that decided the result of the races , and is listed below . Where this differs from the actual time recorded , actual time is also listed .
= = = Road = = =
Men
Women
= = = Track = = =
Men
Women
= = Equestrian = =
The only equestrian events held in the Paralympic Games are in the Dressage discipline . Five American riders competed , in both individual and team events .
= = Goalball = =
Goalball is a Paralympic sport played by athletes who are blind and visually impaired . At the 2008 Paralympics , the U.S. men 's goalball team hoped to repeat their bronze medal performance in Athens , but lost to Sweden in the final . The U.S. women 's goalball team improved on their silver medal performance in Athens , defeating China in the gold medal match .
Men
Women
= = Judo = =
Jordan Mouton was selected as the only U.S. representative in the women 's division at the 2008 U.S. Paralympic Trials for Judo . All four American men went uncontested at the Trials and were automatically selected for the team . Greg DeWall , a first @-@ time Paralympian , won a bronze medal in the Men 's + 100 kilogram class .
= = Powerlifting = =
The U.S. powerlifting team consisted of two competitors , Mary Stack and Andy Wise . All of Stack 's lifts were declared invalid . She faltered and missed on her first two attempts to lift 110 kg . On her third attempt , Stack managed to lift the weight but the judges did not accept the lift and she was disqualified . Wise completed two valid lifts , the maximum of which was 150 kg , and finished in eleventh place .
Key : NMR = No marks recorded
= = Rowing = =
The 2008 U.S. Paralympic Rowing Team was selected after the 2008 U.S. Rowing National Championships in West Windsor , N.J. and was composed of nine athletes . This was the first time rowing has appeared as a medal sport in the Paralympic Games . Laura Schwanger , who has multiple sclerosis and won ten medals in track and field across three Paralympics , battled back from breast cancer treatment to win a bronze medal in women 's single sculls at age 49 . The U.S. mixed coxed four team rallied in the final 100 m of their 1000 m race to take the silver medal .
Qualification Legend : R = Repechage ; FA = Final A ( medal ) ; FB = Final B ( non @-@ medal )
= = Sailing = =
The United States entered crews in all three of the sailing events , held in the Qingdao International Sailing Centre . Maureen McKinnon @-@ Tucker and Nick Scandone clinched a gold medal in the SKUD @-@ 18 class with two races left in the series . First @-@ time Paralympian John Ruf won a bronze medal in a competitive 2 @.@ 4 mR final race , where the top seven players of the fleet started within single @-@ digit points of each other .
= = Shooting = =
The U.S. sent two athletes ( one man and one woman ) to compete in the shooting events at the Paralympics .
= = Swimming = =
The 2008 U.S. Paralympic Swimming Trials were held on April 3 – 5 at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis , Minnesota . A total of 38 swimming athletes ( 20 male and 18 female ) were selected to represent the U.S. at the 2008 Paralympic Games . Melissa Stockwell , a former United States Army officer who lost her left leg to a roadside bomb , became the first Iraq War veteran to be selected for the Paralympics . The roster also included Dave Denniston , an NCAA champion in the 200 @-@ yard breast stroke , two @-@ time Olympic hopeful , and world record breaker who was paralyzed in a 2005 sledding accident .
The U.S. Paralympic Swimming Team left Beijing with 17 gold , 14 silver and 13 bronze medals . The total of 44 medals was 9 more than they took home from Athens . Out of the 38 athletes on the team , 19 received a medal . U.S. swimmers set a total of 16 world records , 23 Paralympic records , 48 Pan American records and 99 American records .
Men
* Listed as finishing heats in ninth place , but started the final in place of eighth @-@ place qualifier Rudy Garcia @-@ Tolson Legend : Q – Qualifiers for the next round as decided on a time only basis . Ranks shown are overall rank against competitors in all heats ; WR = World Record ; PR = Paralympic Record
Women
Legend : Q – Qualifiers for the next round as decided on a time only basis . Ranks shown are overall rank against competitors in all heats ; WR = World Record ; PR = Paralympic Record
= = Table tennis = =
The United States sent four athletes ( three men and one woman ) to compete in Paralympic table tennis .
Men
Women
= = Volleyball = =
The U.S. women 's sitting volleyball team upset world number one Netherlands in five sets to reach the gold medal match , where they lost to China for a silver medal . The men 's sitting volleyball team failed to qualify for the Paralympics after losing to Brazil at the 2007 Parapan American Games .
Women 's sitting volleyball
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
The United States qualified for both men 's and women 's wheelchair basketball tournaments at the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation qualifying tournaments for the Americas . The men 's team finished in fourth place after losing to Great Britain in the bronze final . The women 's team successfully defended their 2004 gold medal with a win over Germany .
Men
* Iran withdrew from its quarterfinal match against the United States on September 19 , 2008 . The match had been rescheduled from 11 : 15am to 9 : 00am , but was changed without any logical reason according to the head of Iran 's delegation . As a result , the U.S. was awarded the win by the score of 20 – 0 and automatically advanced to the semi @-@ finals .
Women
= = Wheelchair fencing = =
The United States sent five athletes ( four men and one woman ) to compete in wheelchair fencing .
= = Wheelchair rugby = =
At the Paralympics teams in the sport of wheelchair rugby are made up of mixed classification quadriplegic athletes of both sexes . The United States qualified by winning the 2006 World Wheelchair Rugby Championships and went on to win its third gold medal since wheelchair rugby was introduced as a demonstration sport at the 1996 Atlanta Paralympics .
= = Wheelchair tennis = =
The American wheelchair tennis
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dangerous roads . Author Bill McGann believed Torriani designed the route to be relatively flat in order to increase the likelihood of Italian riders Giuseppe Saronni and Francesco Moser winning the race . Five @-@ time champion Eddy Merckx believed the route to be " decapitated . "
= = Race overview = =
The Giro began with a 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) prologue that navigated through the streets of Palermo , which was won by Urs Freuler by one second over the second @-@ placed finisher . Later that day , the first mass @-@ start stage was raced . The leg was marred by a large crash about 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) from the finish which saw Emilio Ravasio sustain heavy injuries and continue to race until the end of the leg . Shortly after the stage , he fell into a coma , only to die two weeks later . Sergio Santimaria won the stage through a field sprint , and , with the time bonus , he earned race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) . Stage 2 also culminated with a bunch sprint where Skala @-@ Skil 's Jean @-@ Paul van Poppel took the lead with 150 m ( 492 @.@ 1 ft ) left and held on to win , as well as take the overall lead . The third stage was a team time trial that traveled around Sicily . Del Tongo @-@ Colnago won the time trial by nine seconds over Supermercati Brianzoli @-@ Essebi , which put their rider Giuseppe Saronni into the pink jersey . Gianbattista Baronchelli rode away on a climb late into the fourth stage and rode by himself to victory , earning the race lead in the process . American Greg LeMond won the fifth stage after attacking a few kilometers from the finish . Saronni led the peloton across the finish line two seconds after LeMond crossed the finish line .
In the race 's sixth stage , Roberto Visentini won the leg after attacking a few kilometers from the finish . Saronni regained the race lead after finishing second on the stage and earning a fifteen @-@ second time bonus . The next two stages both resulted in a bunch sprint , with Guido Bontempi winning stage 7 and Franco Chioccioli , stage 8 . The ninth stage contained the climbs of Monte Terminillo and La Forca and was considered one of the tougher stages in the race . Malvor @-@ Bottecchia @-@ Vaporella rider Acácio da Silva won the stage as the top of the general classification rankings remained unchanged from the previous days .
The twelfth stage of the race was a 46 km ( 28 @.@ 6 mi ) individual time trial that stretched from Sinalunga to Siena . Lech Piasecki of Del Tongo @-@ Colnago won the stage and was one of five riders to complete the course in under an hour . Due to his strong time on the stage , Saronni increased his advantage over all of his rivals except for Visentini who finished quicker . The next day of racing saw several breakaway groups try to form , but all with no success as the main field finished the stage together with a field sprint that was won by van Poppel . The race 's fourteenth stage saw the race head back into the mountains , with a summit finish to Sauze d 'Oulx . As the peloton made its way up the final cllimb , Pedro Muñoz , Martin Earley , and Stefano Giuliani formed a breakaway group out in front . With about three kilometers left in the stage , Earley attacked and went on to win the stage after riding by himself for the remainder of the stage . Dag Erik Pedersen won the next stage through a bunch sprint .
The sixteenth stage saw the race travel across several mountain passes in the Alps , with Muñoz winning the stage after attacking on the day 's final climb of the day . Visentini , who finished third on the stage , gained enough time on Saronni to take the overall lead from him by over a minute . Bontempi won his fourth stage of the race after out @-@ sprinting the rest of the peloton for the victory the day after . The next leg of the race was another individual time trial that was 36 km ( 22 mi ) in length and very flat . Francesco Moser won the stage by forty @-@ nine seconds over the second placed rider and his time , when coupled with the performance of the other riders , moved him into third overall . Panasonic – Merckx – Agu rider Johan van der Velde won the next leg of the race after attacking on a descent before the stage 's final climb to Peio .
The twentieth stage of the race came down to a field sprint that was won by Bontempi . The penultimate stage of the race traversed several mountain passes in the Dolomites . Four riders escaped off the front of the peloton , meanwhile the general classification contenders remained together behind the leading group . As the leading group neared the finish , da Silva attacked and went on to win the stage by seven seconds . The general classification contenders finished together , despite attacks from LeMond . The race 's final stage began and ended in Merano and 108 @.@ 6 km ( 67 @.@ 5 mi ) . Belgian Eric Van Lancker won the leg by means of a bunch sprint .
Three riders achieved multiple stage victories : Bontempi ( stages 7 , 10 , 11 , 17 , and 20 ) , da Silva ( stages 9 and 21 ) , and van Poppel ( stages 2 and 13 ) . Stage wins were achieved by eleven of the nineteen competing squads , eight of which won multiple stages . Carrera @-@ Inoxpran collected a total of six stage wins through two riders , Bontempi and Visentini ( stage 6 ) . Del Tongo @-@ Colnago amassed a total of two stage victories through the team time trial and Piasecki ( stage 12 ) . Skala @-@ Skil also collected two stage successes with van Poppel . Ariostea – Gres achieved the same feat with individual stage wins from Santimaria ( stage 1 ) and Pedersen ( stage 15 ) . Fagor also secured two stage wins through Earley ( stage 14 ) and Muñoz ( stage 16 ) . Supermercati Brianzoli @-@ Essebi obtained two stage victories with Baronchelli ( stage 4 ) and Moser ( stage 18 ) . Malvor @-@ Bottecchia @-@ Vaporella also collected two stage successes with da Silva . Panasonic @-@ Merckx @-@ Agu recorded two stage victories with van der Velde ( stage 19 ) and Van Lancker ( stage 22 ) . Atala @-@ Ofmega , La Vie Claire , and Ecoflam @-@ Jollyscarpe @-@ BFB Bruc. all won a single stage at the Giro , the first through Freuler ( prologue ) , the second through LeMond ( stage 5 ) , and the third by Chioccioli ( stage 8 ) .
= = Classification leadership = =
Four different jerseys were worn during the 1986 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro .
For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category ( first being the highest ) , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this Giro was the Passo Pordoi . The first rider to cross the Pordoi Pass was Spanish rider Pedro Muñoz . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but considering only neo @-@ professional cyclists ( in their first three years of professional racing ) . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also one classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .
= = Final standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
= Roza Shanina =
Roza Georgiyevna Shanina ( Russian : Ро ́ за Гео ́ ргиевна Ша ́ нина , IPA : [ ˈrozə ɡʲɪˈorɡʲɪɪvnəˈʂanʲɪnə ] ; 3 April 1924 – 28 January 1945 ) was a Soviet sniper during World War II who was credited with fifty @-@ nine confirmed kills , including twelve soldiers during the Battle of Vilnius . Shanina volunteered for the military after the death of her brother in 1941 and chose to be a marksman on the front line . Praised for her shooting accuracy , Shanina was capable of precisely hitting enemy personnel and making doublets ( two target hits by two rounds fired in quick succession ) .
In 1944 , a Canadian newspaper described Shanina as " the unseen terror of East Prussia " . She became the first Soviet female sniper to be awarded the Order of Glory and was the first servicewoman of the 3rd Belorussian Front to receive it . Shanina was killed in action during the East Prussian Offensive while shielding the severely wounded commander of an artillery unit . Shanina 's bravery received praise already during her lifetime , but came at odds with the Soviet policy of sparing snipers from heavy fights . Her combat diary was first published in 1965 .
= = Early life = =
Roza Shanina was born on 3 April 1924 in the Russian village of Yedma ( Arkhangelsk Oblast ) to Anna Alexeyevna Shanina , a kolkhoz milkmaid , and Georgiy ( Yegor ) Mikhailovich Shanin , a logger who had been disabled by a wound received during World War I. Roza was reportedly named after the Marxist revolutionary Rosa Luxemburg and had six siblings : one sister Yuliya and five brothers : Mikhail , Fyodor , Sergei , Pavel and Marat . The Shanins also raised three orphans . Roza was above average height , with light brown hair and blue eyes , and spoke in a Northern Russian dialect . After finishing four classes of elementary school in Yedma , Shanina continued her education in the village of Bereznik . As there was no school transport at the time , when she was in grades five through seven Roza had to walk 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) to Bereznik to attend middle school . On Saturdays , Shanina again went to Bereznik to take care of her ill aunt Agnia Borisova .
At the age of fourteen , Shanina , against her parents ' wishes , walked 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) across the taiga to the rail station and travelled to Arkhangelsk to study at the college there ( the trek was later attested by Shanina 's school teacher Alexander Makaryin ) . Shanina left home with little money and almost no possessions ; and before moving to the college dormitory she lived with her elder brother Fyodor . Later in her combat diary Shanina would recall Arkhangelsk 's stadium Dinamo , and the cinemas , Ars and Pobeda . Shanina 's friend Anna Samsonova remembered that Roza sometimes returned from her friends in Ustyansky District to her college dormitory between 2 : 00 and 3 : 00 am . As the doors were locked by that time , the other students tied several bedsheets together to help Roza climb into her room . In 1938 , Shanina became a member of the Soviet youth movement Komsomol .
Two years later , Soviet secondary education institutes introduced tuition fees , and the scholarship fund was cut . Shanina received little financial support from home and on 11 September 1941 , she took a job in kindergarten No. 2 ( lately known as Beryozka ) in Arkhangelsk , with which she was offered a free apartment . She studied in the evenings and worked in the kindergarten during the daytime . The children liked Shanina and their parents appreciated her . Shanina graduated from college in the 1941 – 42 academic year , when the Soviet Union was in the grip of World War II .
= = Tour of duty = =
Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union , Arkhangelsk was bombed by the Luftwaffe , and Shanina and other townspeople were involved in firefighting and mounted voluntary vigils on rooftops to protect the kindergarten . Shanina 's two elder brothers had volunteered for the military . In December 1941 , a death notification was received for her 19 @-@ year @-@ old brother Mikhail , who had died during the Siege of Leningrad . In response , Shanina went to the military commissariat to ask for permission to serve . Two more of Shanina 's brothers died in the war . At that time the Soviet Union had begun deploying female snipers because they had flexible limbs , and it was believed that they were patient , careful and cunning . In February 1942 , Soviet women between the ages of 16 and 45 became eligible for the military draft , but Shanina was not drafted that month as the local military commissariat wanted to pinion her out of war 's way . She first learned to shoot at a shooting range . On 22 June 1943 , while still living in the dormitory , Shanina was accepted into the Vsevobuch program for universal military training . After Shanina 's several applications , the military commissariat finally allowed her to enroll in the Central Female Sniper Academy , where she met Aleksandra " Sasha " Yekimova and Kaleriya " Kalya " Petrova , who became her closest friends , with Shanina calling them " the vagrant three " . Honed to a fine point , Shanina scored highly in training and graduated from the academy with honours . She was offered to stay as an instructor there , but refused due to a call of duty . In 1941 – 1945 a total of 2 @,@ 484 Soviet female snipers were deployed for the war and their combined tally of kills is estimated to be at least 11 @,@ 280 .
After the momentous victory in the Battle of Stalingrad the Soviet troops proceeded to nationwide counter @-@ offensives and Shanina on 2 April 1944 joined the 184th Rifle Division , where a separate female sniper platoon had been formed . Shanina was appointed a commander of that platoon . Three days later , southeast of Vitebsk , Shanina killed her first German soldier . In Shanina 's own words , recorded by an anonymous author , her legs gave way upon that first encounter and she slid down into the trench , saying , " I 've killed a man . " Concerned , the other women ran up saying , " That was a fascist you finished off ! " Seven months later , Shanina wrote in her diary that she was now killing the enemy in cold blood and saw the meaning of her life in her actions . She wrote that if she had to do everything over again , she would still strive to enter the sniper academy and would go to the front again .
For her actions in the battle for the village of Kozyi Gory ( Smolensk Oblast ) , Shanina was awarded her first military distinction , the Order of Glory 3rd Class on 17 April 1944 . She became the first Soviet female sniper and the first servicewoman of the 3rd Belorussian Front to receive that order . According to the report of Major Degtyarev ( the commander of the 1138th Rifle Regiment ) for the corresponding commendation list , between 6 and 11 April Shanina killed 13 enemy soldiers while subjected to artillery and machine gun fire . By May 1944 , her sniper tally increased to 17 confirmed enemy kills , and Shanina was praised as a precise and brave soldier . The same year , on 9 June , Shanina 's portrait was featured on the front page of the Soviet newspaper Unichtozhim Vraga .
When Operation Bagration commenced in the Vitebsk region on 22 June 1944 , it was decided that female snipers would be withdrawn . They voluntarily continued to support the advancing infantry anyway , and despite the Soviet policy of sparing snipers , Shanina asked to be sent to the front line . Although her request was refused , she went anyway . Shanina was later sanctioned for going to the front line without permission , but did not face a court martial . She wanted to be attached to a battalion or a reconnaissance company , turning to the commander of the 5th Army , Nikolai Krylov . Shanina also wrote twice to Joseph Stalin with the same request .
From 26 to 28 June 1944 , Shanina participated in the elimination of the encircled German troops near Vitebsk during the Vitebsk – Orsha Offensive . As the Soviet army advanced further westward , from 8 to 13 July of the same year , Shanina and her sisters @-@ in @-@ arms took part in the struggle for Vilnius , which had been under German occupation since 24 June 1941 . The Germans were finally driven out from Vilnius on 13 July 1944 . During the Soviet summer offensives of that year Shanina managed to capture three Germans .
From her time at the military academy , Shanina became known for her ability to score doublets ( two target hits made in quick succession ) . During one period she crawled through a muddy communications trench each day at dawn to a specially camouflaged pit which overlooked German @-@ controlled territory . She wrote , " the unconditional requirement — to outwit the enemy and kill him — became an irrevocable law of my hunt " . Shanina successfully used counter @-@ sniper tactics against a German cuckoo sniper hidden in a tree , by waiting until dusk when the space between the tree branches would be backlit by sunlight and the sniper 's nest became visible . On one occasion , Shanina also made use of selective fire from a submachine gun .
= = = Diary = = =
Shanina enjoyed writing and would often send letters to her home village and to her friends in Arkhangelsk . She started writing a combat diary ; although diaries were strictly prohibited in the Soviet military , there were some furtive exceptions , such as The Front Diary of Izrael Kukuyev and The Chronicle of War of Muzagit Hayrutdinov . To preserve military secrecy , Shanina termed the killed and wounded " blacks " and " reds " respectively in her diary . Shanina kept the diary from 6 October 1944 to 24 January 1945 .
After Shanina 's death , the diary , consisting of three thick notebooks , was kept by the war correspondent Pyotr Molchanov for twenty years in Kiev . An abridged version was published in the magazine Yunost in 1965 , and the diary was transferred to the Regional Museum of Arkhangelsk Oblast . Several of Shanina 's letters and some data from her sniper log have also been published .
= = = East Prussia = = =
In August 1944 advancing Soviet troops had reached the Soviet border with East Prussia and by 31 August of that year Shanina 's battle count reached 42 kills . The following month the Šešupė River was crossed . Shanina 's 184th Rifle Division became the first Soviet unit to enter East Prussia . At that time , two Canadian newspapers , the Ottawa Citizen and Leader @-@ Post , reported that according to an official dispatch from the Šešupė River front , Shanina killed five Germans in one day as she crouched in a sniper hideout . Later in September her sniper tally had reached 46 kills , of which 15 were made on German soil and seven during an offensive . On 17 September , Unichtozhim Vraga credited Shanina with 51 hits . In the third quarter of 1944 , Shanina was given a short furlough and visited Arkhangelsk . She returned to the front on October 17 for one day , and later received an honourable certificate from the Central Committee of Komsomol . On 16 September 1944 , Shanina was awarded her second military distinction , the Order of Glory 2nd Class for intrepidity and bravery displayed in various battles against the Germans in that year .
On 26 October 1944 Shanina became eligible for the Order of Glory 1st Class for her actions in a battle near Schlossberg ( now Dobrovolsk ) , but ultimately received the Medal for Courage instead . Shanina was awarded the medal on 27 December for the gallant posture displayed during a German counter @-@ offensive on 26 October . There Shanina fought together with Captain Igor Aseyev , a Hero of the Soviet Union , and witnessed his death on 26 October . Shanina , who served as an assistant platoon commander , was ordered to commit the female snipers to combat . She was among the first female snipers to receive the Medal for Courage . Schlossberg was finally retaken from Germans by the troops of the 3rd Belorussian Front on 16 January 1945 during the Insterburg – Königsberg Operation .
On 12 December 1944 , an enemy sniper shot Shanina in her right shoulder . She wrote in her diary that she had not felt the pain , " the shoulder was just scalded with something hot . " Although the injury , which Shanina described as " two small holes " , seemed minor to her , she needed an operation and was incapacitated for several days . She reported in her diary that the previous day she had a prophetic dream in which she was wounded in exactly the same place .
On 8 January 1945 Nikolai Krylov formally allowed Shanina to participate in front @-@ line combat , albeit with great reluctance : previously Shanina was denied that permission by the commander of the 184th Rifle Division and the military council of the 5th Army as well . Five days later , the Soviets launched the East Prussian Offensive , which prompted heavy fighting in East Prussia . By 15 January , travelling with divisional logistics , Shanina reached the East Prussian town of Eydtkuhnen ( now Chernyshevskoye ) , where she used white military camouflage . Several days later , she experienced friendly fire from a Katyusha rocket launcher and wrote in her diary , " Now I understand why the Germans are so afraid of Katyushas . What a fire ! " At the border of East Prussia , Shanina killed 26 enemy soldiers . The last unit she served in was the 144th Rifle Division . According to the online Book of Memory of Arkhangelsk Oblast , Shanina served in the 205th Special Motorized Rifle Battalion of that division . Shanina had hoped to go to university after the war , or if that was not possible , to raise orphans .
In the course of her tour of duty Shanina was mentioned in despatches several times . Her final sniper tally reached fifty @-@ nine confirmed kills ( fifty @-@ four , according to other sources ) , including twelve kills during the Battle of Vilnius , with sixty @-@ two enemies knocked out of action . Domestically her achievements were acknowledged particularly by the war correspondent Ilya Ehrenburg and in the newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda , which said that Shanina was one of the best snipers in her unit and that even veteran soldiers were inferior to her in shooting accuracy . Shanina 's exploits were also reported in the Western press , particularly in Canadian newspapers , where she was called " the unseen terror of East Prussia " . She paid no special attention to the achieved renown , and once wrote that she had been overrated . On 16 January 1945 Shanina wrote in her combat diary : " What I 've actually done ? No more than I have to as a Soviet man , having stood up to defend the motherland . " She also wrote , " The essence of my happiness is fighting for the happiness of others . It 's strange , why is it that in grammar , the word " happiness " can only be singular ? That is counter to its meaning , after all . ... If it turns necessary to die for the common happiness , then I 'm braced to . "
= = = Death = = =
In the face of the East Prussian Offensive , the Germans tried to strengthen the localities they controlled against great odds . In a diary entry dated 16 January 1945 , Shanina wrote that despite her wish to be in a safer place , some unknown force was drawing her to the front line . In the same entry she wrote that she had no fear and that she had even agreed to go " to a melee combat " . The next day , Shanina wrote in a letter that she might be on the verge of being killed because her battalion had lost 72 out of 78 people . Her last diary entry reports that German fire had become so intense that the Soviet troops , including herself , had sheltered inside self @-@ propelled guns . On 27 January Shanina was severely injured while shielding a wounded artillery officer . She was found by two soldiers disemboweled , with her chest torn open by a shell fragment . Despite attempts to save her , Shanina died the following day near the Richau estate ( later a Soviet settlement of Telmanovka ) , 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) southeast of the East Prussian village of Ilmsdorf ( Novobobruysk ) . Nurse Yekaterina Radkina remembered Shanina telling her that she regretted having done so little . By the day of Shanina 's death the Soviets had overtaken several major East Prussian localities , including Tilsit , Insterburg and Pillau , and approached Königsberg . Recalling the moment Shanina 's mother received notification of her daughter 's death , her brother Marat wrote : " I clearly remembered mother 's eyes . They weren 't teary anymore . ... ' That 's all , that 's all ' — she repeated " . Shanina was buried under a spreading pear tree on the shore of the Alle River — now called the Lava — and was later reinterred in the settlement of Znamensk , Kaliningrad Oblast .
= = Posthumous honours = =
In 1964 – 65 a renewed interest in Shanina arose in the Soviet press , largely due to the publication of her diary . The newspaper Severny Komsomolets asked Shanina 's contemporaries to write what they knew about her . Streets in Arkhangelsk , Shangaly and Stroyevskoye were named after her , and the village of Yedma has a museum dedicated to Shanina . The local school where she studied in 1931 – 35 has a commemorative plate . In Arkhangelsk , regular shooting competitions were organized among members of the paramilitary DOSAAF sport organisation for the Roza Shanina Prize , while Novodvinsk organized an open shooting sports championship in her memory . The village of Malinovka in Ustyansky District started to hold annual cross @-@ country ski races for the Roza Shanina Prize .
In 1985 , the Council of Veterans of the Russian Central Women Sniper Academy unsuccessfully requested the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union to posthumously bestow the Order of Glory 1st Class on Shanina ( which would have made her a Full Cavalier of that order ) . In the same year , Russian author Nikolai Zhuravlyov published the book Posle boya vernulas ( Returned After Battle ) . Its title refers to Shanina 's words , " I will return after the battle , " which she uttered after receiving a note from her battalion commander urging her to return to the rear immediately . Verses have been composed about Shanina , such as those by writer Nikolai Nabitovich . A small memorial stele dedicated to Shanina ( part of a three @-@ piece monument ) was erected in Bogdanovsky settlement , Ustyansky District .
In 2000 , Shanina 's name appeared on the war memorial stone of the Siberian State Technological University , although there is no evidence she had any affiliation with it during her life . Russian author Viktor Logvinov controversially wrote in the 1970s that Shanina had studied in the Siberian Forestry Institute and that she was the daughter of an " old Krasnoyarsk communist " . The claim was continued by Krasnoyarsk publications in later years , particularly in 2005 . In 2013 , a wall of memory , featuring graffiti portraits of six Russian war honorees , including Roza Shanina , was opened in Arkhangelsk .
= = Character and personal life = =
The war correspondent Pyotr Molchanov , who had frequently met Shanina at the front , described her as a person of unusual will with a genuine , bright nature . Shanina described herself as " boundlessly and recklessly talky " during her college years . She typified her own character as like that of the Romantic poet , painter and writer Mikhail Lermontov , deciding , like him , to act as she saw fit . Shanina dressed modestly and liked to play volleyball . According to Shanina 's sister @-@ in @-@ arms Lidiya Vdovina , Roza used to sing her favourite war song " Oy tumany moi , rastumany " ( " O My Mists " ) each time she cleaned her weapon . Shanina had a straightforward character and valued courage and the absence of egotism in people . She once told a story when " about half a hundred frenzied fascists with wild cries " attacked a trench accommodating twelve female snipers , including Shanina : " Some fell from our well @-@ aimed bullets , some we finished with our bayonets , grenades , shovels , and some we took prisoners , having restrained their arms . "
Shanina 's personal life was thwarted by war . On 10 October 1944 , she wrote in her diary , " I can 't accept that Misha Panarin doesn 't live anymore . What a good guy ! [ He ] has been killed ... He loved me , I know , and I him ... My heart is heavy , I 'm twenty , but I have no close [ male ] friend " . In November 1944 , Shanina wrote that she " is flogging into her head that [ she ] loves " a man named Nikolai , although he " doesn 't shine in upbringing and education " . In the same entry she wrote that she did not think about marriage because " it 's not the time now " . She later wrote that she " had it out " with Nikolai and " wrote him a note in the sense of ' but I 'm given to the one and will love no other one ' " . Ultimately in her last diary record , filled with sombre tones , Shanina wrote that she " cannot find a solace " now and is " of no use to anyone " .
= Holliday junction =
A Holliday junction is a branched nucleic acid structure that contains four double @-@ stranded arms joined together . These arms may adopt one of several conformations depending on buffer salt concentrations and the sequence of nucleobases closest to the junction . The structure is named after the molecular biologist Robin Holliday , who proposed its existence in 1964 .
In biology , Holliday junctions are a key intermediate in many types of genetic recombination , as well as in double @-@ strand break repair . These junctions usually have a symmetrical sequence and are thus mobile , meaning that the four individual arms may slide though the junction in a specific pattern that largely preserves base pairing . Additionally , four @-@ arm junctions similar to Holliday junctions appear in some functional RNA molecules .
Immobile Holliday junctions , with asymmetrical sequences that lock the strands in a specific position , were artificially created by scientists to study their structure as a model for natural Holliday junctions . These junctions also later found use as basic structural building blocks in DNA nanotechnology , where multiple Holliday junctions can be combined into specific designed geometries that provide molecules with a high degree of structural rigidity .
= = Structure = =
Holliday junctions may exist in a variety of conformational isomers with different patterns of coaxial stacking between the four double @-@ helical arms . Coaxial stacking is the tendency of nucleic acid blunt ends to bind to each other , by interactions between the exposed bases . There are three possible stacking conformers : an unstacked form and two stacked forms . The unstacked form dominates in the absence of divalent cations such as Mg2 + , because of electrostatic repulsion between the negatively charged backbones of the strands . In the presence of at least about 0 @.@ 1 mM Mg2 + , the electrostatic repulsion is counteracted and the stacked structures predominate . As of 2000 , it was not known with certainty whether the electrostatic shielding was the result of site @-@ specific binding of cations to the junction , or the presence of a diffuse collection of the ions in solution .
The unstacked form is a nearly square planar , extended conformation . On the other hand , the stacked conformers have two continuous double @-@ helical domains separated by an angle of about 60 ° in a right @-@ handed direction . Two of the four strands stay roughly helical , remaining within each of the two double @-@ helical domains , while the other two cross between the two domains in an antiparallel fashion .
The two possible stacked forms differ in which pairs of the arms are stacked with each other ; which of the two dominates is highly dependent on the base sequences nearest to the junction . Some sequences result in an equilibrium between the two conformers , while others strongly prefer a single conformer . In particular , junctions containing the sequence A @-@ CC bridging the junction point appear to strongly prefer the conformer that allows a hydrogen bond to form between the second cytosine and one of the phosphates at the junction point . While most studies have focused on the identities of the four bases nearest to the junction on each arm , it is evident that bases farther out can also affect the observed stacking conformations .
In junctions with symmetrical sequences , the branchpoint is mobile and can migrate in a random walk process . The rate of branch migration varies dramatically with ion concentration , with single @-@ step times increasing from 0 @.@ 3 − 0 @.@ 4 ms with no ions to 270 − 300 ms with 10 mM Mg2 + . The change in rate is correlated with the formation of the stacked versus the unstacked structures .
Holliday junctions with a nick , or break in one of the strands , at the junction point adopt a perpendicular orientation , and always prefer the stacking conformer that places the nick on a crossover strand rather than a helical strand .
RNA Holliday junctions assume an antiparallel stacked conformation at high magnesium concentrations , a perpendicular stacked conformation at moderate concentrations , and rotate into a parallel stacked conformation at low concentrations , while even small calcium ion concentrations favor the antiparallel conformer .
= = Biological function = =
The Holliday junction is a key intermediate in homologous recombination , a biological process that increases genetic diversity by shifting genes between two chromosomes , as well as site @-@ specific recombination events involving integrases . They are additionally involved in repair of double @-@ strand breaks . In addition , cruciform structures involving Holliday junctions can arise to relieve helical strain in symmetrical sequences in DNA supercoils . While four @-@ arm junctions also appear in functional RNA molecules , such as U1 spliceosomal RNA and the hairpin ribozyme of the tobacco ringspot virus , these usually contain unpaired nucleotides in between the paired double @-@ helical domains , and thus do not strictly adopt the Holliday structure .
The Holliday junctions in homologous recombination are between identical or nearly identical sequences , leading to a symmetric arrangement of sequences around the central junction . This allows a branch migration process to occur where the strands move through the junction point . Cleavage , or resolution , of the Holliday junction can occur in two ways . Cleavage of the original set of strands leads to two molecules that may show gene conversion but not chromosomal crossover , while cleavage of the other set of two strands causes the resulting recombinant molecules to show crossover . All products , regardless of cleavage , are heteroduplexes in the region of Holliday junction migration .
Many proteins are able to recognize or distort the Holliday junction structure . One such class contains junction @-@ resolving enzymes that cleave the junctions , sometimes in a sequence @-@ specific fashion . Such proteins distort the structure of the junction in various ways , often pulling the junction into an unstacked conformation , breaking the central base pairs , and / or changing the angles between the four arms . Other classes are branch migration proteins that increase the exchange rate by orders of magnitude , and site @-@ specific recombinases . In prokaryotes , Holliday junction resolvases fall into two families , integrases and nucleases , that are each structurally similar although their sequences are not conserved .
In eukaryotes , two primary models for how homologous recombination repairs double @-@ strand breaks in DNA are the double @-@ strand break repair ( DSBR ) pathway ( sometimes called the double Holliday junction model ) and the synthesis @-@ dependent strand annealing ( SDSA ) pathway . In the case of double strand breakage , the 3 ' end is degraded and the longer 5 ' end invades the contiguous sister chromatid , forming a replication bubble . As this bubble nears the broken DNA , the longer 5 ' antisense strand again invades the sense strand of this portion of DNA , transcribing a second copy . When replication ends , both tails are reconnected to form two Holliday Junctions , which are then cleaved in a variety of patterns by proteins . An animation of this process can be seen here .
Double @-@ strand DNA breaks in bacteria are repaired by the RecBCD pathway of homologous recombination . Breaks that occur on only one of the two DNA strands , known as single @-@ strand gaps , are
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called " naked power " . In other words , naked power is the ruthless exertion of force without the desire for , or attempt at , consent . In all cases , the sources of naked power are the fears of the powerless and the ambitions of the powerful ( Russell 1938 : 127 ) . As an example of naked power , Russell recalls the story of Agathocles , the son of a potter who became the tyrant of Syracuse . ( Russell 1938 : 69 – 72 )
Russell argues that naked power arises within a government under certain social conditions : when two or more fanatical creeds are contending for governance , and when all traditional beliefs have decayed . A period of naked power may end by foreign conquest , the creation of stability , and / or the rise of a new religion ( Russell 1938 : 74 ) .
The process by which an organisation achieves sufficient prominence that it is able to exercise naked power can be described as the rule of three phases ( Russell 1938 : 63 ) . According to this rule , what begins as fanaticism on the part of some crowd eventually produces conquest by means of naked power . Eventually , the acquiescence of the outlying population transforms naked power into traditional power . Finally , once a traditional power has taken hold , it engages in the suppression of dissent by the use of naked power .
For Russell , economic power is parallel to the power of conditioning . ( Russell 1938 : 25 ) However , unlike Marx , he emphasises that economic power is not primary , but rather , derives from a combination of the forms of power . By his account , economics is dependent largely upon the functioning of law , and especially , property law ; and law is to a large degree a function of the power over opinion , which cannot be entirely explained by wage , labour , and trade . ( Russell 1938 : 95 )
Ultimately , Russell argues that economic power is attained through the ability to defend one 's territory ( and to conquer other lands ) , to possess the materials for the cultivation of one 's resources , and to be able to satisfy the demands of others on the market . ( Russell 1938 : 97 – 101 , 107 )
= = = = The power of ( and over ) opinion = = = =
In Russell 's model , power over the creeds and habits of persons is easy to miscalculate . He claims that , on the one hand , the economic determinists had underestimated the power of opinion . However , on the other hand , he argues that the case is easy to make that all power is power over opinion : for " Armies are useless unless the soldiers believe in the cause for which they are fighting ... Law is impotent unless it is generally respected . " ( Russell 1938 : 109 ) Still , he admits that military force may cause opinion , and ( with few exceptions ) be the thing that imbues opinion with power in the first place :
" We thus have a kind of see @-@ saw : first , pure persuasion leading to the conversion of a minority ; then force exerted to secure that the rest of the community shall be exposed to the right propaganda ; and finally a genuine belief on the part of the great majority , which makes the use of force again unnecessary . " ( Russell 1938 : 110 )
Thus , although " the power over opinion " may occur with or without force , the power of a creed arises only after a powerful and persuasive minority has willingly adopted the creed .
The exception here is the case of Western science , which seemingly rose in cultural appeal despite being unpopular with establishment forces . Russell explains the popularity of science is not grounded on a general respect for reason , but rather is grounded entirely on the fact that science produces technology , and technology produces things that people desire . Similarly , religion , advertising , and propaganda all have power because of their connections with the desires of their audiences . Russell 's conclusion is that reason has very limited , though specific , sway over the opinions of persons . For reason is only effective when it appeals to desire . ( Russell 1938 : 111 – 112 )
Russell then inquires into the power that reason has over a community , as contrasted with fanaticism . It would seem that the power of reason is that it is able to increase the odds of success in practical matters by way of technical efficiency . The cost of allowing for reasoned inquiry is the tolerance of intellectual disagreement , which in turn provokes scepticism and dims the power of fanaticism . Conversely , it would seem that a community is stronger and more cohesive if there is widespread agreement within it over certain creeds , and reasoned debate is rare . If these two opposing conditions are both to be fully exploited for short @-@ term gains , then it would demand two things : first , that some creed be held both by the majority opinion ( through force and propaganda ) , and second , that the majority of intellectual class concurs ( through reasoned discussion ) . In the long @-@ term , however , creeds tend to provoke weariness , light scepticism , outright disbelief , and finally , apathy . ( Russell 1938 : 123 – 125 )
Russell is acutely aware that power tends to coalesce in the hands of a minority , and no less so when it comes to power over opinion . The result is " systematic propaganda " , or the monopoly over propaganda by the state . Perhaps surprisingly , Russell avers that the consequences of systematic propaganda are not as dire as one might expect . ( Russell 1938 : 114 – 115 ) A true monopoly over opinion leads to careless arrogance among leaders , as well as to indifference to the well @-@ being of the governed , and a lack of credulity on behalf of the governed towards the state . In the long @-@ term , the net result is :
" [ to ] delay revolution , but to make it more violent when it comes . When only one doctrine is officially allowed , men get no practice in thinking or in weighing alternatives ; only a great wave of passionate revolt can dethrone orthodoxy ; and in order to make the opposition sufficiently whole @-@ hearted and violent to achieve success , it will seem necessary to deny even what was true in governmental dogma " ( Russell 1938 : 115 ) .
By contrast , the shrewd propagandist of the contemporary state will allow for disagreement , so that false established opinions will have something to react to . In Russell 's words : " Lies need competition if they are to retain their vigour . " ( Russell 1938 : 115 )
= = = = Revolutionary versus traditional power = = = =
Among the psychological types of influence , we have a distinction between " traditional , naked , and revolutionary power " . ( Naked power , as noted earlier , is the use of coercion without any pretense to legitimacy . )
By " traditional power " , Russell has in mind the ways in which people will appeal to the force of habit to justify a political regime . It is in this sense that traditional power is psychological and not historical ; since traditional power is not entirely based on a commitment to some linear historical creed , but rather , on mere habit . Moreover , traditional power need not be based on actual history , but rather be based on imagined or fabricated history . Thus he writes that " Both religious and secular innovators – at any rate those who have had most lasting success – have appealed , as far as they could , to tradition , and have done whatever lay in their power to minimise the elements of novelty in their system . " ( Russell 1938 : 40 )
The two clearest examples of traditional power are the cases of " kingly power " and " priestly power " . Russell traces both back historically to certain roles which served some function in early societies . The priest is akin to the medicine man of a tribe , who is thought to have unique powers of cursing and healing at their disposal ( Russell 1938 : 36 ) . In most contemporary cases , priests rely on religious social movements grounded in charismatic authority , which have been more effective at usurping power than those religions that lack iconic founders ( Russell 1938 : 39 – 40 ) . The history of the king is more difficult to examine , and the researcher can only speculate on their origins . At the very least , the power of kingship seems to be advanced by war , even if warmaking was not the king 's original function ( Russell 1938 : 56 ) .
When the forms of traditional power come to an end , there tends to be a corresponding change in creeds . If the traditional creeds are doubted without any alternative , then the traditional authority relies more and more on the use of naked power . And where the traditional creeds are wholly replaced with alternative ones , traditional power gives rise to revolutionary power ( Russell 1938 : 82 ) .
" Revolutionary power " contrasts with traditional power in that it appeals to popular assent to some creed , and not merely popular acquiescence or habit . Thus , for the revolutionary , power is a means to an end , and the end is some creed or other . Whatever its intentions , the power of the revolutionary tends to either devolve back into naked power over time , or else to transform into traditional power ( Russell 1938 : 82 ) .
The revolutionary faces at least two special problems . First , the transformation back into naked power occurs when revolutionary power has been around for a long period without achieving a resolution to its key conflict . At some point , the original goal of the creed tends to be forgotten , and consequently , the fanatics of the movement change their goals and aspire toward mere domination ( Russell 1938 : 92 ) . Second , the revolutionary must always deal with the threat of counter @-@ revolutionaries , and is hence faced with a dilemma : because revolutionary power must by definition think that the original revolution was justified , it " cannot , logically , contend that all subsequent revolutions must be wicked " ( Russell 1938 : 87 ) .
A transition into traditional power is also possible . Just as there are two kinds of traditional power — the priestly and the kingly — there are two kinds of revolutionary power , namely , the " soldier of fortune " and " the divine conqueror " . Russell classes Benito Mussolini and Napoleon Bonaparte as soldiers of fortune , and Adolf Hitler , Oliver Cromwell , and Vladimir Lenin as divine conquerors ( Russell 1938 : 12 ) . Nonetheless , the traditional forms bear only an imperfect relationship , if any , to the revolutionary forms .
= = = Structure of organisations = = =
Having introduced the reader to the forms of power , Russell applies those forms to a selection of organisations . The purpose of discussing organisations is that they seem to be one of the most common sources of social power . By an " organization " , Russell means a set of people who share some activities , and directed at common goals , which is typified by a redistribution of power ( Russell 1938 : 128 ) . Organizations differ in size and type , though common to them all is the tendency for inequality of power to increase as membership increases .
An exhaustive list of the types of organisation would be impossible , since the list would be as long as a list of human reasons to organise themselves in groups . However , Russell takes interest in only a small sample of organisations . The army and police , economic organisations , educational organisations , organisations of law , political parties , and churches are all recognised as societal entities . ( Russell 1938 : 29 – 34 @,@ 128 @,@ 138 @-@ 140 )
The researcher might also measure the organisation by its use of communication , transportation , size , and distribution of power relative to the population . ( Russell 1938 : 130 @,@ 132 @-@ 134 ) Improved abilities to communicate and transport tend to stabilise larger organisations and disrupt smaller ones .
Any given organisation cannot be easily reduced to a particular form of power . For instance , the police and army are quite obviously instruments of force and coercion , but it would be facile to say that they have power simply because of their ability to physically coerce . Rather , the police are regarded as instruments of a legitimate institution by some population , and the organisation depends upon propaganda and habit to maintain popular deference to their authority . Similarly , economic organisations operate by the use of conditioning , in the form of money ; but the strength of an economy arguably depends in large part on the functional operation of law enforcement which makes commerce possible , by the regulation of peace and property rights . ( Russell 1938 : 25 @,@ 95 )
The general effect of an organisation , Russell believes , is either to increase the well @-@ being of persons , or to aid the survival of the organisation itself : " [ I ] n the main , the effects of organisations , apart from those resulting from governmental self @-@ preservation , are such as to increase individual happiness and well @-@ being . " ( Russell 1938 : 170 )
= = = = Organizations and individuals = = = =
The types of relationship which any given individual may share with any given organisation can be assessed according to whether the organisation facilitates or suppresses the will of the person . The line between suppression and facilitation of the will is not absolute , but relative . An organisation may benefit one person or class of persons , while doing harm to another . Thus , for example , the police exist to enforce law and order , and this facilitates the will of the general populace ; yet they also suppress the will of the criminal . ( Russell 1938 : 166 – 171 )
Of those whose wills are facilitated by an organisation , kinds include " the gentleman , the sage , the economic magnate , the political statesman " , and " the covert manager " ( or political wire @-@ puller ) . Each beneficiary of power is parasitic upon certain kinds of organisations , and has certain key traits which uniquely put them at advantage ( Russell 1938 : 29 – 34 ) :
Thus , a political wire @-@ puller such as Grigori Rasputin enjoys power best when playing off another person 's hereditary power , or when the organisation benefits largely from an air of mystery . By contrast , the wirepuller suffers a wane in power when the organizational élite is made up of competent individuals ( Russell 1938 : 34 ) .
Of those whose wills may be suppressed , we may include " customers , voluntary members , involuntary members " , and " enemies " ( in order of ascending severity ) . Each form of membership is paired with typical forms of suppression . The will of the customer may be thwarted through fraud or deception , but this at least may be beneficial in providing the customer with the symbolic pleasure of some material goods . Voluntary organisations are able to threaten sanctions , such as expulsion , on its members . Voluntary organisations serve the positive function of providing relatively benign outlets for the human passion for drama , and for the impulse to power . Involuntary membership abandons all pretense to the benign . The clearest example of this kind of organisation , for Russell , is the State . ( Russell 1938 : 171 – 173 )
Organizations may also be directed specifically at influencing persons at some stage of life . Thus , we have midwives and doctors who are legally obliged to deliver the baby ; as the child grows , the school , parents , and mass media come to the fore ; as they reach working age , various economic organisations pull for the agent 's attention ; the church and the institution of marriage impact the actor in obvious ways ; and finally , the State may provide a pension to the elderly ( Russell 1938 : 166 – 168 ) .
= = = = Forms of governance = = = =
The forms of governance are the familiar ways in which organisations set up their leadership structures : as monarchies , oligarchies , and democracies . In these ways , any organisation – be it economic , or political – is able to seek out its goals .
Each form of government has its own merits and failings :
Russell notes that monarchy arises more naturally than any other form of government , and is most cohesive . All that a monarchy requires to remain in power is , first , for the population to be afraid of the monarch ; and second , that the inner circle of supporters be inspired with both confidence and an implicit lust for power . ( Russell 1938 : 149 – 150 )
However , monarchies have severe problems . Contra Hobbes , no monarchy can be said to arise from a [ [ social contract ] ] within the wide population . Moreover , if a monarchy is hereditary , then the royal offspring will likely have no skill at governance ; and if not , then civil war will ensue to determine the next in line . Finally , and perhaps most obviously , the monarch is not necessarily compelled to have any regard for the well @-@ being of his or her subjects ( Russell 1938 : 150 – 151 ) .
Oligarchy , or rule of a few over the many , comes in many different guises :
Hereditary landed aristocracy , which ( Russell argues ) tends to be " conservative , proud , stupid , and rather brutal " ( Russell 1938 : 151 ) ;
The bourgeoisie , a merchant class who had to earn their wealth . Historically , by Russell 's account , they have tended to be more clever , astute , and diplomatic ;
The industrial class , who are of " a totally different type " from the bourgeoisie , and are more apt to coerce than to behave diplomatically , due in large part to the impersonal relationships they have with their employees ; and
The ideological élite . Ideological élites tend to allow for the reversion into monarchy , as well as admit to heavy censorship . However , their rule also has certain strengths . For instance , they are more likely to arrive at common agreement immediately after a revolution ; they cannot represent a hereditary or economic minority of the population ; and they tend towards being more politically conscious and active . ( Russell 1983 : 152 – 153 )
Democracy , or the rule of the many over themselves . The rule of the masses is positive , in that it is less likely to lead to civil war than the alternatives . An ambivalent feature of democracy is the fact that representatives are forced to compromise their ideologies to stay in power , which can curb both positive and negative tendencies . On the negative side , democracies are not very good at dealing with subjects that demand expert authority or quick decisions . Moreover , a democracy is easily corruptible by politicians with agendas . Also , a democracy may easily slip into popular apathy which allows for corrupt politicians to go unchecked ( Russell 1938 : 154 – 159 ) .
= = = Ethics of power = = =
Having completed those chapters which analyse the relevant aspects of power in social life , Russell shifts his focus onto the philosophical issues that are connected with those problems . Moving into this new terrain , he wonders what can be done to curb the efforts of those who love power . The answers can be found either in possible collective actions , or in individual duties .
= = = = Positive and private morality = = = =
There is a distinction between positive and private forms of morality . Positive morality tends to be associated with traditional power and following ancient principles with a narrow focus ; for example , the norms and taboos of marital law . Personal morality is associated with revolutionary power and the following of one 's own conscience . ( Russell 1938 : 186 – 206 )
The dominant social system will have some impact on the reigning positive moral codes of the population . In a system where filial piety is dominant , there will be greater emphasis in a culture upon the wisdom of the elderly . ( Russell 1938 : 188 – 189 ) In a monarchy , the culture will be encouraged to believe in a morality of submission , with cultural taboos placed upon use of the imagination ; both of which increase social cohesion by encouraging the self @-@ censorship of dissent . ( Russell 1938 : 190 – 191 ) Priestly power is not as impressive , even when it is in full bloom . At its peak , priestly power depends on not being opposed by kingly power and not being usurped by a morality of conscience ; and even then , it faces the threat of wide scepticism . ( Russell 1938 : 192 – 193 ) Still , some moral convictions do not seem to have any source at all in the power elite : for example , the treatment of homosexuality in the early twentieth century does not seem to be tied to the success of a particular rulership . ( Russell 1938 : 194 )
Russell wonders whether some other basis for ethics can be found besides positive morality . Russell associates positive morality with conservatism , and understands it as a way of acting which stifles the spirit of peace and fails to curb strife . ( Russell 1938 : 197 ) Meanwhile , personal morality is the ultimate source of positive morality , and is more grounded in the intellect . ( Russell 1938 : 198 – 199 ) However , personal morality is so deeply connected with the desires of individuals that , if it were left to be the sole guide to moral conduct , it would lead to the social chaos of the " anarchic rebel " . ( Russell 1938 : 206 )
Advocating a compromise between positive and private morality , Russell first emphasises that there is such a thing as moral progress , a progress which may occur through revolutions . ( Russell 1938 : 199 ) Second , he provides a method by which we can test whether a particular sort of private morality is a form of progress :
" An individual may perceive a way of life , or a method of social organisation , by which more of the desires of mankind could be satisfied than under the existing method . If he perceives truly , and can persuade men to adopt his reform , he is justified [ in rebellion ] . " ( Russell 1938 : 206 )
= = = = Philosophy of power = = = =
Individual resistance to power can take two diametrically opposed forms : those which indulge the impulse to power , and those who seek to quell the impulse to power entirely .
Some of those who have attempted to find an escape from the impulse to power have resorted to forms of quietism or pacifism . One major proponent of such approaches was the philosopher Laozi . From Russell 's perspective , such views are incoherent , since they only deny themselves coercive power , but retain an interest in persuading others to their cause ; and persuasion is a form of power , for Russell . Moreover , he argues that the love of power can actually be a good thing . For instance , if one feels a certain duty towards their neighbours , they may attempt to attain power to help those neighbours ( Russell 1938 : 215 – 216 ) . In sum , the focus of any policy should not be on a ban on kinds of power , but rather , on certain kinds of use of power ( Russell 1938 : 221 ) .
Other thinkers have emphasised the pursuit of power as a virtue . Some philosophies are rooted in the love of power because philosophies tend to be coherent unification in the pursuit of some goal or desire . Just as a philosophy may strive for truth , it may also strive for happiness , virtue , salvation , or , finally , power . Among those philosophies which Russell condemns as rooted in love of power : all forms of idealism and anti @-@ realism , such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte 's solipsism ; certain forms of Pragmatism ; Henri Bergson 's doctrine of Creative evolution ; and the works of Friedrich Nietzsche ( Russell 1938 : 209 – 214 ) .
According to Russell 's outlook on power , there are four conditions under which power ought to be pursued with moral conviction . First , it must be pursued only as a means to some end , and not as an end in itself ; moreover , if it is an end in itself , then it must be of comparatively lower value than one 's other goals . Second , the ultimate goal must be to help satisfy the desires of others . Third , the means by which one pursues one 's goal must not be egregious or malign , such that they outweigh the value of the end ; as ( for instance ) the gassing of children for the sake of future democracy ( Russell 1938 : 201 ) . Fourth , moral doctrines should aim toward truth and honesty , not the manipulation of others ( Russell 1938 : 216 – 218 ) .
To enact these views , Russell advises the reader to discourage cruel temperaments which arise out of a lack of opportunities . Moreover , the reader should encourage the growth of constructive skills , which provide the person with an alternative to easier and more destructive alternatives . Finally , they should encourage cooperative feeling , and curb competitive desires ( Russell 1938 : 219 – 220 , 222 ) .
= = = = Taming arbitrary rule = = = =
Among the issues demanding collective ethical action , Russell identifies " political rule " , " economic competition " , " propagandistic competition " , and " psychological life " . To make positive changes in each of these spheres of collective behaviour , Russell believed that power would need to be made more diffuse and less arbitrary .
To succeed in the taming of arbitrary political rule , Russell says , a community 's goal ought to be to encourage democracy . Russell insists that the beginning of all ameliorative reforms to government must presuppose democracy as a rule . Even lip service to oligarchies – for example , support for purportedly benevolent dictators – must be dismissed as fantastic . ( Russell 1938 : 226 )
Moreover , democracy must be infused with a respect for the autonomy of persons , so that the political body does not collapse into the tyranny of the majority . To prevent this result , people must have a well @-@ developed sense of separation between acquiescence to the collective will , and respect for the discretion of the individual . ( Russell 1938 : 227 )
Collective action should be restricted to two domains . First , it should be used to treat problems that are primarily " geographical " , which include issues of sanitation , transportation , electricity , and external threats . Second , it ought to be used when a kind of individual freedom poses a major threat to public order ; for instance , speech that incites the breaking of law ( Russell 1938 : 227 – 228 ) . The exception to this rule is when there is a minority which densely populates a certain well @-@ defined area , in which case , political devolution is preferable .
In formulating his outlook on the preferable size of government , Russell encounters a dilemma . He notes that , the smaller the democracy , the more empowerment the citizen feels ; yet the larger the democracy , the more the citizen 's passions and interests are inflamed . In both situations , the result is voter fatigue . ( Russell 1938 : 229 ) There are two possible solutions to this problem : to organise political life according to vocational interests , as with unionisation ; or to organise it according to interest groups . ( Russell 1938 : 229 – 230 )
A federal government is only sensible , for Russell , when it has limited but well @-@ defined powers . Russell advocates the creation of a world government made up of sovereign nation @-@ states ( Russell 1938 : 197 , 230 – 31 ) . On his view , the function of a world government should only be to ensure the avoidance of war and the pursuit of peace ( Russell 1938 : 230 @-@ 31 ) . On the world stage , democracy would be impossible , because of the negligible power any particular individual could have in comparison with the entire human race .
One final suggestion for political policy reform is the notion that there ought to be a political balance in every branch of public service . Lack of balance in public institutions creates havens for reactionary forces , which in turn undermine democracy . Russell emphasises two conditions necessary for the achievement of balance . He advocates , first , the abolition of the legal standing of confessions as evidence , to remove the incentive for extraction of confession under torture by the police ( Russell 1938 : 232 ) . Second , the creation of dual branches of police to investigate particular crimes : one which presumes the innocence of the accused , the other presuming guilt ( Russell 1938 : 233 ) .
Competition , for Russell , is a word that may have many uses . Although most often meant to refer to competition between companies , it may also be used to speak of competition between states , between ideologues , between classes , rivals , trusts , workers , etc . On this topic , Russell ultimately wishes to answer two questions : " First , in what kinds of cases is competition technically wasteful ? Secondly , in what cases is it desirable on non @-@ technical grounds ? " ( Russell 1938 : 176 ) . In asking these questions , he has two concerns directly in mind : economic competition , and the competition of propaganda .
The question of whether or not economic competition is defensible requires an examination from two perspectives : the moral point of view and the technical point of view .
From the view of the technician , certain goods and services can only be provided efficiently by a centralised authority . For Russell , it seems to be an economic fact that bigger organisations were capable of producing items at a certain standard , and best suited to fill needs that are geographical in nature , such as railways and water treatment . By contrast , smaller organisations ( like businesses ) are best suited to create products that are customised and local . ( Russell 1938 : 176 – 177 ; 234 )
From the view of the ethicist , competition between states is on the same moral plane as competition between modern businesses ( Russell 1938 : 177 ) . Indeed , by Russell 's account , economic power and political power are both capable of devastation :
" In democratic countries , the most important private organisations are economic . Unlike secret societies , they are able to exercise their terrorism without illegality , since they do not threaten to kill their enemies , but only to starve them . " ( Russell 1938 : 147 )
Since they are morally equivalent , perhaps it is not surprising that the cure for political injustices is identical to the cure for economic ones : namely , the institution of democracy in both economic and political spheres ( Russell 1938 : 234 ) .
By ' economic democracy ' , Russell means a kind of democratic socialism , which at the very least involves the nationalisation of select industries ( railways , water , television ) . In order for this to operate effectively , he argues that the social system must be such that power is distributed across a society of highly autonomous persons . ( Russell 1938 : 238 – 240 )
Russell is careful to indicate that his support for nationalisation rests on the assumption that it can be accomplished under the auspices of a robust democracy , and that it may be safeguarded against statist tyranny . If either condition fail , then nationalisation is undesirable . In delivering this warning , Russell emphasises the distinction between ownership and control . He points out that nationalisation – which would allow the citizens to collectively own an industry – would not guarantee any of them control over the industry . In the same way , shareholders own parts of companies , but the control of the company ultimately rests with the CEO ( Russell 1938 : 235 ) .
Control over propaganda is another matter . When forming his argument here , Russell specifically targets the doctrines of John Stuart Mill . Russell argues that Mill 's argument for the freedom of speech is too weak , so long as it is balanced against the harm principle ; for any speech worth protecting for political reasons is likely to cause somebody harm . For example , the citizen ought to have the opportunity to impeach malicious governors , but that would surely harm the governor , at the very least ( Russell 1938 : 179 ) .
Russell replaces Mill 's analysis with an examination of the issue from four perspectives : the perspective of the governor , the citizen , the innovator , and the philosopher . The rational governor is always threatened by revolutionary activities , and can always be expected to ban speech which calls for assassination . Yet the governor would be advised to allow freedom of speech to prevent and diminish discontent among the subjects , and has no reason to suppress ideas which are unrelated to his governance , for instance the Copernican doctrine of heliocentrism . Relatedly , the citizen mainly understands free speech as an extension of the right to do peaceably that which could only otherwise be done through violence ( Russell 1938 : 179 – 182 ) .
The innovator does not tend to care much about free speech , since they engage in innovation despite social resistance . Innovators may be separated into three categories : the hard millenarians , who believe in their doctrine to the exclusion of all others , and who only seek to protect the dissemination of their own creeds ; the virtuous millenarians , who emphasise that revolutionary transitions must begin through rational persuasion and the guidance of sages , and so are supportive of free speech ; and the progressives , who cannot foresee the direction of future progress , but recognise that the free exchange of ideas is a prerequisite to it . For the philosopher , free speech allows people to engage in rational doubt , and to grow in their prudential duties . ( Russell 1938 : 182 – 185 )
In any case , the citizen 's right to dissent and to decide their governor is sacrosanct for Russell . He believes that a true public square could be operated by state @-@ run media outlets , like the BBC , which would be charged with the duty to provide a wide range of points of view on political matters . For certain other topics , like art and science , the fullest and freest competition between ideas must be guaranteed . ( Russell 1938 : 185 )
The final discussion in the work is concerned with Russell 's views on education . ( Russell 1938 : 242 – 251 ) Citizens of a healthy democracy must have two virtues , for Russell : the " sense of self @-@ reliance and confidence " necessary for autonomous action ; and the humility required to " submit to the will of the majority " when it has spoken . ( Russell 1938 : 244 ) The last chapter of Power : A New Social Analysis concentrates significantly on the question of how to inspire confidence in students , from an educator 's point of view .
Two major conditions are necessary . First , the citizen / student must be free from hatred , fear , and the impulse to submit . ( Russell 1938 : 244 – 245 ) Economic opportunities will have some impact on the student 's temperament in this regard , and so , economic reforms need to be made to create more opportunities . But reform to the education system is also necessary , in particular , to foster in the student a kindness , curiosity , and intellectual commitment to science . The common trait of students with the scientific mind is a sense of balance between dogmatism and scepticism . ( Russell 1938 : 246 )
Moreover , the student must have good instructors , who emphasise reason over rhetoric . Russell indicates that the critical mind is an essential feature of the healthy citizen of a democracy , since collective hysteria is one of the greatest threats to democracy ( Russell 1938 : 248 ) . To foster a critical mind , he suggests , the teacher ought to show the students the consequences of pursuing one 's feelings over one 's thoughts . For example , the teacher might allow students to choose a field trip between two different locations : one fantastic place which is given a dull overview , and a shabby place which is recommended by impressive advertisements . In teaching history , the teacher might examine a particular event from a multitude of different perspectives , and allow the students to use their critical faculties to make assessments of each . ( Russell 1938 : 247 ) In all cases , the object would be to encourage self @-@ growth , a willingness to be " tentative in judgment " , and " responsiveness to evidence " . ( Russell 1938 : 250 )
The work ends with the following words :
Fichte and the powerful men who have inherited his ideals , when they see children , think : ' Here is material that I can manipulate ' ... All this , to any person with natural affection for the young , is horrible ; just as we teach children to avoid being destroyed by motor cars if they can , so we should teach them to avoid being destroyed by cruel fanatics ... This is the task of a liberal education : to give a sense of the value of things other than domination , to help create wise citizens of a free community , and through the combination of citizenship with liberty in individual creativeness to enable men to give to human life that splendour which some few have shown that it can achieve ( Russell 1938 : 251 ) .
= = Historical context = =
Power ( 1938 ) is written with a mind toward the political ills that marred the headlines of the day . The work appeared at the brink of World War II , and contains more than one pointed reference to the dictatorships of Nazi Germany and fascist Italy , and one reference to the persecution of German Czechoslovakians . ( Russell 1938 : 147 ) When his remarks treat of current affairs , they are often pessimistic . " Although men hate one another , exploit one another , and torture one another , they have , until recently , given their reverence to those who preached a different way of life . " ( Russell 1938 : 204 ; emphasis added ) As Kirk Willis remarked on Russell 's outlook during the 1930s , " the foreign and domestic policies of successive national governments repelled him , as did the triumph of totalitarian regimes on the continent and the seemingly inexorable march to war brought in their wake ... Despairing that war could be avoided and convinced that such a European @-@ wide conflict would herald a new dark age of barbarism and bigotry , Russell gave voice to his despondency in Which Way to Peace ? ( 1936 ) – not so much a reasoned defence of appeasement as an expression of defeatism " . ( Russell 1938 : xxii @-@ xxiii )
Ultimately , with his new analysis in hand , Russell hoped to instruct others on how to tame arbitrary power . He hoped that a stable world government composed of sovereign nation @-@ states would eventually arise which would dissuade nations from engaging in war . In context , this argument was made years after the dissolution of the League of Nations ( and years before the creation of the United Nations ) . Also , at many times during the work , Russell also mentions his desire to see a kind of socialism take root . This was true to his convictions of the time , during a phase in his career where he was convinced in the plausibility of guild socialism . ( Sledd 1994 ; Russell 1918 )
= = Critical reception = =
Russell , a famous logician and epistemologist , had many side @-@ interests in history , politics , and social philosophy . The paradigmatic public intellectual , Russell wrote prolifically in the latter topics to a wide and receptive audience . As one scholar writes , " Russell 's prolific output spanned the whole range of philosophical and political thought , and he has probably been more widely read in his own lifetime than any other philosopher in history " . ( Griffin : 129 )
However , his writings in political philosophy have been relatively neglected by those working in the social sciences . From the point of view of many commentators , Power : A New Social Analysis has proven itself to be no exception to that trend . Russell would later comment that his work " fell rather flat " ( Russell 1969 ) . Both Samuel Brittan and Kirk Willis , who wrote the preface and introduction to the 2004 edition ( respectively ) , both observed the relative lack of success of the work ( Russell 1938 : viii , xxiv – xxv ) .
One reason why Power might be more obscure than competing texts in political philosophy is that it is written in a historical style which is not in keeping with its own theoretical goals . Willis remarked that , with hindsight , " Some of the responsibility for its tepid reception ... rests with the book itself . A work of political sociology rather than of political theory , it does not in fact either offer a comprehensive new social analysis or fashion new tools of social investigation applicable to the study of power in all times or places . " ( Russell 1938 : xxv )
Willis 's review , written more than half a century past the original writing of the volume , is in some respects a gentler way of phrasing the work 's immediate reception . One of Russell 's contemporaries wrote : " As a contribution to social science ... or to the study of government , the volume is very disappointing ... In this pretentious volume , Russell shows only the most superficial familiarity with progress made in the study of social phenomena or in any special field of social research , either with techniques of inquiry , or with materials assembled , or with interpretations developed ... it seems doubtful that the author knows what is going on in the world of social science . " ( Merriam , 1939 ) Indeed , the very preface of the work candidly states : " As usual , those who look in Russell 's pronouncements for dotty opinions will be able to find a few " . ( Russell 1938 : x ) Still , some scholars , like Edward Hallet Carr , found the work of some use . ( Carr 2001 : 131 )
Russell is routinely praised for his analytic treatment of philosophical issues . One commentator , quoted in ( Griffin : 202 ) , observes that " In the forty @-@ five years preceding publication of Strawson 's ' On Referring ' , Russell 's theory was practically immune from criticism . There is not a similar phenomenon in contemporary analytic philosophy " . Yet Power , along with many of his later works in social philosophy , is not obviously analytic . Rather , it takes the form of a series of examinations of semi @-@ related topics , with a narrative dominated by historical illustrations . Nevertheless , Brittan emphasised the strengths of the treatise by remarking that it can be understood as " an enjoyable romp through history , in part anticipating some of the 1945 History of Western Philosophy , but ranging wider " ( Russell 1938 : vii ) .
In his autobiography ( 1967 – 69 ) , Russell summarised the implications of Power , a new social analysis :
= = Chapter listing = =
= Gobrecht dollar =
The Gobrecht dollar , minted from 1836 to 1839 , was the first silver dollar struck for circulation by the United States Mint since production of that denomination was officially halted in 1806 . The coin was struck in small numbers to determine whether the reintroduced silver dollar would be well received by the public .
In 1835 , Director of the United States Mint Samuel Moore resigned his post , and Robert M. Patterson assumed the position . Shortly after , Patterson began an attempt to redesign the nation 's coinage . After Mint Chief Engraver William Kneass suffered a stroke later that year , Christian Gobrecht was hired as an engraver . On August 1 , Patterson wrote a letter to Philadelphia artist Thomas Sully laying out his plans for the dollar coin . He also asked Titian Peale to create a design for the coin . Sully created an obverse design depicting a seated representation of Liberty and Peale a reverse depicting a soaring bald eagle , which were converted into coin designs by Gobrecht . After the designs were created and trials struck , production of the working dies began in September 1836 .
After a small quantity was struck for circulation , the Mint received complaints regarding the prominent placement of Gobrecht 's name on the dollar , and the design was modified to incorporate his name in a less conspicuous position . In January 1837 , the legal standard for the percentage of precious metal in silver coins was changed from 89 @.@ 2 % to 90 % , and the Gobrecht dollars struck after that point reflect this change . In total , 1 @,@ 900 Gobrecht dollars were struck during the official production run . Production of the Seated Liberty dollar , which utilized the same obverse design as the Gobrecht dollar , began mintage in 1840 . In the 1850s , Mint officials controversially re @-@ struck the coins without authorization .
= = Background = =
= = = 1804 dollar = = =
The first silver dollars struck by the United States Mint were minted in 1794 . In 1804 , the Mint unofficially ended production of silver dollars because many of the coins produced since that denomination had first been struck in 1794 were exported for their silver content to Eastern Asia , especially Canton ( modern day Guangzhou ) . In 1806 , then Secretary of State James Madison issued an order officially halting mintage of the coins . In 1831 , Mint Director Samuel Moore noticed a reversal ; a large shipment of Spanish dollars had recently been shipped from Canton to the United States . Later that year , President Andrew Jackson , at Moore 's request , lifted the prohibition .
No further action was taken until the summer of 1834 , when officials suggested that proof coin sets be prepared as gifts for Asian dignitaries . After examining Mint records , personnel incorrectly concluded that the last Draped Bust dollars minted were dated 1804 , so they chose that date for the coins . It is unknown why the current date was not used , but numismatic historian R.W. Julian suggests the coins were predated to prevent coin collectors from becoming angered when they would be unable to obtain the newly dated coins , which were struck in very small numbers . It is unknown precisely how many 1804 dollars were struck , though eight are known to be extant .
= = = Design = = =
Later , in 1835 , Mint officials began preparations for a series of silver dollars which , unlike the 1804 dollar , were intended to enter circulation in order to determine whether the denomination would be well received by the public . In June 1835 , Moore resigned his post as director , and was replaced by Robert M. Patterson . Shortly thereafter , Director Patterson approached two well @-@ known Philadelphia artists , Titian Peale and Thomas Sully , to create a design that would be used to overhaul most of the American coins then in production . Mint Chief Engraver Kneass prepared a sketch based on Patterson 's conception , but soon suffered a stroke , leaving him partially incapacitated . Following Kneass ' stroke , government officials approved Patterson 's urgent request that Philadelphia medallist Christian Gobrecht be hired immediately to fulfill the duties of engraver ; Director Moore requested the same prior to his resignation , but no action was taken immediately .
In a letter dated August 1 , 1835 , Patterson proposed that Sully create a Seated Liberty figure for the obverse , suggesting that the " figure be in a sitting posture — sitting , for example , on a rock . " Patterson also suggested that the seated figure should hold in her right hand a pileus atop a pole to be " emblematic of Liberty " . Numismatic historian Don Taxay notes the similarity between Patterson 's Seated Liberty concept and designs already in use on British copper coinage : " Liberty thus emerged as a refurbished Britannia , her trident replaced by a staff and pileus . " In the same letter , Patterson also informed Sully of his vision for the reverse , which Peale would execute : " I propose an Eagle flying , and rising in flight , amidst a constellation , irregularly dispersed , of 24 stars [ representing the number of states then forming the Union ] , and carrying in its claws a scroll with the words E PLURIBUS UNUM " . Patterson preferred a soaring eagle because he believed that the heraldic eagle commonly used on American coins , which he dismissed as a " mere creature of imagination " , was unappealing as a design . According to a common story , the flying eagle seen on the Gobrecht dollar was modeled after Peter , the Mint 's pet eagle , who was taxidermied after his death by becoming caught in a coining press and remains on display at the Mint to this day .
In September 1835 , Thomas Sully received from Patterson a set of British coins and medals to help guide him while creating the Seated Liberty design . Sully sent Patterson three rough sketches near the beginning of October , and those were given to Gobrecht , who in turn set about making a copper engraving of the design . Gobrecht completed the engraving on October 14 , and Patterson presented prints created from it to several government officials in an effort to gain their approval . President Jackson , Treasury Secretary Levi Woodbury , and the rest of the cabinet all approved of the design . On October 17 , while Jackson and his cabinet were reviewing the design , Woodbury wrote Patterson giving permission to proceed with creating dies for the new coins based on the prints . In January 1836 , die trials were conducted in soft metal . These pieces were then circulated among the public for suggestions . Patterson then authorized production of a steel obverse die ; the reverse could not yet be created because Peale had yet to complete his design to Patterson 's satisfaction . While Peale continued his work , Gobrecht began work on a design for a gold dollar , which occupied much of his time at the Mint . On April 9 , Patterson wrote a letter to the Treasury secretary in which he included several of Peale 's drawings ; Patterson viewed one of the designs as the best created to date . Despite the director 's approval of the design , he instructed Peale to continue until Patterson was satisfied . This was evidently achieved , because Patterson had Gobrecht to begin work on a reverse die in June . In August , Patterson sent a uniface striking of the reverse die to President Jackson , who approved designs for both sides of the coin
= = Production = =
In September 1836 , Chief Coiner Adam Eckfeldt began sinking the working dies that would be used to strike the coins . However , before production could begin , Patterson ordered that Gobrecht 's name be added to the dollar . His name appeared as " C. GOBRECHT F " , short for " Christian Gobrecht Fecit " , meaning " Christian Gobrecht made it " . The Gobrecht dollar was first struck in December 1836 . Several pieces were produced and distributed throughout Philadelphia . Despite a positive reception for the overall design , many criticized the prominent display of Gobrecht 's name on the coin . Gobrecht requested that his name be removed entirely from the face of the coin ; instead , the engraver was instructed to change its size and placement at the behest of Patterson .
When the full @-@ scale production began , the reverse eagle was surrounded by 26 stars rather than 24 as Patterson had originally requested of Sully , as the states of Arkansas and Michigan had been admitted to the Union since Patterson 's letter was penned in 1835 . Some of the Gobrecht dollars produced were struck with ' medal alignment ' , meaning that the obverse and reverse images both face upward when the coin is rotated around its vertical axis . For the 1837 production ( which kept the 1836 date ) , Patterson ordered that the coins be struck in coin alignment , the opposite of medal alignment , and the practice with current US coins ( the two faces both are upright when the coin is rotated about its horizontal axis ) . An act of January 18 , 1837 , officially changed the legal standard for silver coins from 89 @.@ 2 % to 90 % silver . Numismatic historian Walter Breen asserts that those pieces struck before the passage of this act are technically patterns ( or coins created to test their design , composition or other points ) , as they were not authorized by Congress . In total , 1 @,@ 000 pieces dated 1836 were struck in 89 @.@ 2 % silver and 600 in 90 % silver . Gobrecht dollars struck prior to passage of the act weighed 26 @.@ 96 grams ( 0 @.@ 951 oz ) , while those struck later weighed 26 @.@ 73 grams ( 0 @.@ 943 oz ) .
Persistent public demand for the new coins prompted Woodbury to contact Patterson , requesting more silver dollars . In 1838 , the design was modified to remove the stars from the reverse . Throughout the production run , a number of different Gobrecht dollar patterns , which differed from the general issues , were struck . A small number were struck bearing the date of 1838 that did not bear Gobrecht 's initials in any form . In total , 300 dollars of this type dated 1839 were struck for circulation , all in medal alignment . Patterson 's trial issue had evidently been a success , as full @-@ scale production of the Seated Liberty dollar began in 1840 . The Seated Liberty dollar utilized an obverse design based on that of the Gobrecht dollar , though the reverse was altered from a soaring to a heraldic eagle .
= = = Restrikes = = =
Following an increase in coin collecting among the public in the mid @-@ nineteenth century , there arose considerable demand for older American coins . Mint Director James Ross Snowden began selling restrikes of Gobrecht dollars and trading them for rare medals ( especially those depicting or relating to former President George Washington ) , which were then added to the Mint 's coin collection , then known as a coin cabinet . The money generated from selling the restrikes went toward purchasing new items for the coin cabinet . The restrikes created under Snowden 's tenure were likely struck in 1859 and 1860 , but the practice was largely halted after the eruption of a public scandal ; other Mint employees were creating and selling restrikes of early American coins for their own profit . All Gobrecht dollar restrikes , when tilted on their axis , depict the reverse eagle flying level , rather than upward as it is depicted on the coins struck during the official production run . It is unknown precisely why the orientation of the eagle was altered , though it is believed by many numismatists that Snowden did this intentionally to make restrikes distinguishable from originals . Numismatic historian Walter Breen suggests that Snowden simply used the alignment because that was the same used on the Flying Eagle cent , which began production in 1856 . Mint Engraver James B. Longacre , its designer , had borrowed Gobrecht and Peale 's eagle reverse for the one @-@ cent coin 's obverse .
= Oscar Wilde =
Oscar Fingal O 'Flahertie Wills Wilde ( 16 October 1854 – 30 November 1900 ) was an Irish playwright , novelist , essayist , and poet . After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s , he became one of London 's most popular playwrights in the early 1890s . He is remembered for his epigrams , his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray , his plays , as well as the circumstances of his imprisonment and early death .
Wilde 's parents were successful Anglo @-@ Irish Dublin intellectuals . Their son became fluent in French and German early in life . At university , Wilde read Greats ; he proved himself to be an outstanding classicist , first at Dublin , then at Oxford . He became known for his involvement in the rising philosophy of aestheticism , led by two of his tutors , Walter Pater and John Ruskin . After university , Wilde moved to London into fashionable cultural and social circles .
As a spokesman for aestheticism , he tried his hand at various literary activities : he published a book of poems , lectured in the United States and Canada on the new " English Renaissance in Art " , and then returned to London where he worked prolifically as a journalist . Known for his biting wit , flamboyant dress and glittering conversation , Wilde became one of the best @-@ known personalities of his day .
At the turn of the 1890s , he refined his ideas about the supremacy of art in a series of dialogues and essays , and incorporated themes of decadence , duplicity , and beauty into his only novel , The Picture of Dorian Gray ( 1890 ) . The opportunity to construct aesthetic details precisely , and combine them with larger social themes , drew Wilde to write drama . He wrote Salome ( 1891 ) in French in Paris but it was refused a licence for England due to the absolute prohibition of Biblical subjects on the English stage . Unperturbed , Wilde produced four society comedies in the early 1890s , which made him one of the most successful playwrights of late Victorian London .
At the height of his fame and success , while his masterpiece , The Importance of Being Earnest ( 1895 ) , was still on stage in London , Wilde had the Marquess of Queensberry prosecuted for libel . The Marquess was the father of Wilde 's lover , Lord Alfred Douglas . The charge carried a penalty of up to two years in prison . The trial unearthed evidence that caused Wilde to drop his charges and led to his own arrest and trial for gross indecency with men . After two more trials he was convicted and imprisoned for two years ' hard labour .
In 1897 , in prison , he wrote De Profundis , which was published in 1905 , a long letter which discusses his spiritual journey through his trials , forming a dark counterpoint to his earlier philosophy of pleasure . Upon his release he left immediately for France , never to return to Ireland or Britain . There he wrote his last work , The Ballad of Reading Gaol ( 1898 ) , a long poem commemorating the harsh rhythms of prison life . He died destitute in Paris at the age of 46 .
= = Early life = =
Oscar Wilde was born at 21 Westland Row , Dublin ( now home of the Oscar Wilde Centre , Trinity College ) , the second of three children born to Sir William Wilde and Jane Wilde , two years behind William ( " Willie " ) . Wilde 's mother , under the pseudonym " Speranza " ( the Italian word for ' Hope ' ) , wrote poetry for the revolutionary Young Irelanders in 1848 and was a lifelong Irish nationalist . She read the Young Irelanders ' poetry to Oscar and Willie , inculcating a love of these poets in her sons . Lady Wilde 's interest in the neo @-@ classical revival showed in the paintings and busts of ancient Greece and Rome in her home . William Wilde was Ireland 's leading oto @-@ ophthalmologic ( ear and eye ) surgeon and was knighted in 1864 for his services as medical adviser and assistant commissioner to the censuses of Ireland . He also wrote books about Irish archaeology and peasant folklore . A renowned philanthropist , his dispensary for the care of the city 's poor at the rear of Trinity College , Dublin , was the forerunner of the Dublin Eye and Ear Hospital , now located at Adelaide Road . On his father 's side Wilde was descended from a Dutchman , Colonel de Wilde , who went to Ireland with King William of Orange 's invading army in 1690 . On his mother 's side Wilde 's ancestors included a bricklayer from County Durham who emigrated to Ireland sometime in the 1770s .
Wilde was baptised as an infant in St. Mark 's Church , Dublin , the local Church of Ireland ( Anglican ) church . When the church was closed , the records were moved to the nearby St. Ann 's Church , Dawson Street . Davis Coakley references a second baptism by a Catholic priest , Father Prideaux Fox , who befriended Oscar 's mother circa 1859 . According to Fox 's own testimony written by him years later in Donahoe 's Magazine in 1905 , Jane Wilde would visit his chapel in Glencree , Co Wicklow for Mass and would take her sons with her . She then asked Father Fox to baptise her sons . Fox described it in this way :
" I am not sure if she ever became a Catholic herself but it was not long before she asked me to instruct two of her children , one of them being the future erratic genius , Oscar Wilde . After a few weeks I baptized these two children , Lady Wilde herself being present on the occasion . "
In addition to his children with his wife , Sir William Wilde was the father of three children born out of wedlock before his marriage : Henry Wilson , born in 1838 , and Emily and Mary Wilde , born in 1847 and 1849 , respectively , of different maternity to Henry . Sir William acknowledged paternity of his illegitimate children and provided for their education , but they were reared by his relatives rather than with his wife and legitimate children .
In 1855 , the family moved to No. 1 Merrion Square , where Wilde
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gae and is performed in English , French , Spanish , and Wolof .
Daara J was formed in 1997 and quickly became popular in Senegal from the release of their first cassette album , Daara J. They followed in 1999 with a more politically themed recording , Xalima , which integrated numerous musical ideas and instruments from Senegal and other African countries . 2003 's Boomerang was critically acclaimed and furthered the combination of various musical and lyrical influences of the previous two recordings . Activism has also been an important aspect of the group 's philosophy since it was founded .
= = Formation = =
Daara J , formed in 1997 , was originally a trio that consisted of Faada Freddy , N 'Dongo D and Lord Alajiiman . Lord Alajiiman performed and toured throughout the world with the group until 2008 when the group split . Since then , Alajiman evolves in a solo career while contributing to the development of the music sector in Senegal . Daara J was formed when all of its members were in high school , where they were studying accounting . The rappers were influenced by American hip hop artists such as Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five and Afrika Bambaataa but also listened to their parents ' music , which included artists such as Sly & the Family Stone and Aretha Franklin , and musical styles which included Cuban music . Faada Freddy cites the group 's major inspiration as Das EFX . Originally , the members took instrumentals of hip hop tracks from the United States and France to rap over . Later they purchased a drum machine , but even with this equipment , a member of the group would have to imitate the other instruments in the song with his voice . Positive Black Soul , another Senegalese rap group , encouraged Daara J to record and perform .
= = Daara J and Xalima = =
Daara J and Xalima were both released on the label Déclic . The group 's 1998 eponymous debut album was produced by the reggae musician Mad Professor and was successful locally , selling 15 @,@ 000 copies . Their next album was released in 1999 and titled Xalima ( English : Quill and Ink ) . The album was politically themed and included guest performances from other Senegalese artists playing instruments such as the kora and balafon .
= = Boomerang = =
The group moved to Wrasse Records to release Boomerang in 2003 . It featured performances by guests including Rokia Traoré . The album 's title is based on the idea that hip hop music was born in Africa , spread around the world , then returned to the continent . Daara J note similarities between rap and tassou — a traditional African verbal performance technique used to discuss the social and political environment , daily life , and future aspirations . They believe it traveled from Africa by way of the United States slave trade . A year after the release of the album , Daara J won the Best African Act award from BBC Radio 3 .
The album itself was described as " one of the hip hop albums of the century " by the British newspaper The Observer and was successful on European music charts . Other reviews have been positive ; Matthew Pollesel of Splendid Magazine praised the album for its lyrical content : " ... as Daara J show throughout Boomerang , it 's possible to get the meaning of those words just by listening to the things that surround them — the intensity of the rappers ' delivery , the quality of the beats , and how well all those other factors coalesce around the words . And on that score , Daara J 's message comes through loud and clear . " However , Katharina Lobeck of BBC Music noted that one of the tracks , the R & B @-@ influenced " Hip Hop Civilization " is " too generically soppy for even the most hardened R & B fans " , but went on to say that the album is " a successful sonic adventure which thrives on its defiance of the margins of established sales categories " .
The group has made appearances at various WOMAD festivals around the world , the Live 8 concert in Eden Project , and Africa Calling . Daara J has also performed with other hip hop artists and groups including Public Enemy , Wyclef Jean , and Mos Def .
= = Activism = =
Like many other African hip hop groups including Positive Black Soul , Daara J takes an activist stance . Faada Freddy states : " We tell of peace and how we can live together because there are lots of conflicts going on nowadays . We 're here on behalf of the Africans to remind everybody that it shouldn 't be like that . There 's always a solution . Rather than fussing and fighting we should we 'd better learn to live in peace and live together , because that 's the only way to survive . " The group is especially focused on educating the world about Africa . Faada Freddy has also stressed the importance of understanding life on the continent : " Nowadays people are tending to show the negative part of Africa but Africa is not only about AIDS , heartache , corruption and all that even though it exists just like everywhere else . But Africa has a lot to provide . " In the Senegalese election of 2000 , Daara J were involved in editing speeches for political leaders and the promotion of that year 's campaign against corruption .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
1998 : Daara J
1999 : Xalima
2003 : Boomerang
2010 : School Of Life
= = Discography Faada Freddy = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = EPs = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= Idi Amin =
Idi Amin Dada ( / ˈiːdi ɑːˈmiːn / ; c . 1923 – 28 – 16 August 2003 ) was the third President of Uganda , ruling from 1971 to 1979 . Amin joined the British colonial regiment the King 's African Rifles in 1946 , serving in Kenya and Uganda . Eventually , Amin held the rank of major general in the post @-@ colonial Ugandan Army , and became its commander before seizing power in the military coup of January 1971 , deposing Milton Obote . He later promoted himself to field marshal while he was the head of state .
Amin 's rule was characterized by human rights abuses , political repression , ethnic persecution , extrajudicial killings , nepotism , corruption , and gross economic mismanagement . The number of people killed as a result of his regime is estimated by international observers and human rights groups to range from 100 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 .
During his years in power , Amin shifted in allegiance from being a pro @-@ Western ruler enjoying considerable Israeli support to being backed by Libya 's Muammar Gaddafi , Zaire 's Mobutu Sese Seko , the Soviet Union , and East Germany . In 1975 , Amin became the chairman of the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) , a Pan @-@ Africanist group designed to promote solidarity of the African states . During the 1977 – 1979 period , Uganda was a member of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights . Amin did however enjoy the support of the American CIA , which helped deliver bombs and other military equipment to Amin 's Army and helped take part in military operations with Amin 's forces in Uganda . In 1977 , when Britain broke diplomatic relations with Uganda , Amin declared he had defeated the British and added " CBE " , for " Conqueror of the British Empire " , to his title . Radio Uganda then announced his entire title : " His Excellency President for Life , Field Marshal Alhaji Dr. Idi Amin Dada , VC , DSO , MC , CBE " .
Dissent within Uganda and Amin 's attempt to annex the Kagera province of Tanzania in 1978 , led to the Uganda – Tanzania War and the demise of his eight @-@ year regime , leading Amin to flee into exile to Libya and then Saudi Arabia , where he lived until his death on 16 August 2003 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Amin never wrote an autobiography nor did he authorize any official written account of his life , so there are discrepancies regarding when and where he was born . Most biographical sources hold that he was born in either Koboko or Kampala around 1925 . Other unconfirmed sources state Amin 's year of birth from as early as 1923 to as late as 1928 . Amin 's son Hussein has stated that his father was born in Kampala in 1928 . According to Fred Guweddeko , a researcher at Makerere University , Idi Amin was the son of Andreas Nyabire ( 1889 – 1976 ) . Nyabire , a member of the Kakwa ethnic group , converted from Roman Catholicism to Islam in 1910 , and changed his name to Amin Dada . He named his first @-@ born son after himself . Abandoned by his father at a young age , Idi Amin grew up with his mother 's family in a rural farming town in northwestern Uganda . Guweddeko states that Amin 's mother was Assa Aatte ( 1904 – 1970 ) , an ethnic Lugbara and a traditional herbalist who treated members of Buganda royalty , among others . Amin joined an Islamic school in Bombo in 1941 . After a few years , he left school with only a fourth @-@ grade English @-@ language education , and did odd jobs before being recruited to the army by a British colonial army officer .
= = = Colonial British Army = = =
Amin joined the King 's African Rifles ( KAR ) of the British Colonial Army in 1946 , as an assistant cook . In later life he falsely claimed he was forced to join the Army during World War II and that he served in the Burma Campaign . He was transferred to Kenya for infantry service as a private in 1947 , and served in the 21st KAR infantry battalion in Gilgil , Kenya until 1949 . That year his unit was deployed to Northern Kenya to fight against Somali rebels in the Shifta War . In 1952 , his brigade was deployed against the Mau Mau rebels in Kenya . He was promoted to corporal the same year , then to sergeant in 1953 .
In 1959 , Amin was made Afande ( warrant officer ) , the highest rank possible for a Black African in the colonial British Army of that time . Amin returned to Uganda the same year and , in 1961 , he was promoted to lieutenant , becoming one of the first two Ugandans to become commissioned officers . He was assigned to quell the cattle rustling between Uganda 's Karamojong and Kenya 's Turkana nomads . In 1962 , following Uganda 's independence from the United Kingdom , Amin was promoted to captain and then , in 1963 , to major . He was appointed Deputy Commander of the Army in 1964 and , the following year , to Commander of the Army . In 1970 , he was promoted to commander of all the armed forces .
Amin was an athlete during his time in both the British and Ugandan army . At 193 cm ( 6 ft 4 in ) tall and powerfully built , he was the Ugandan light heavyweight boxing champion from 1951 to 1960 , as well as a swimmer . Idi Amin was also a formidable rugby forward , although one officer said of him : " Idi Amin is a splendid type and a good ( rugby ) player , but virtually bone from the neck up , and needs things explained in words of one letter " . In the 1950s , he played for Nile RFC . There is a frequently repeated urban myth that he was selected as a replacement by East Africa for their match against the 1955 British Lions . Amin , however , does not appear on the team photograph or on the official team list . Following conversations with a colleague in the British Army , Amin became a keen fan of Hayes Football Club – an affection that would remain for the rest of his life .
= = = Commander of the Army = = =
In 1965 , Prime Minister Milton Obote and Amin were implicated in a deal to smuggle ivory and gold into Uganda from the Democratic Republic of the Congo . The deal , as later alleged by General Nicholas Olenga , an associate of the former Congolese leader Patrice Lumumba , was part of an arrangement to help troops opposed to the Congolese government trade ivory and gold for arms supplies secretly smuggled to them by Amin . In 1966 , the Ugandan Parliament demanded an investigation . Obote imposed a new constitution abolishing the ceremonial presidency held by Kabaka ( King ) Mutesa II of Buganda , and declared himself executive president . He promoted Amin to colonel and army commander . Amin led an attack on the Kabaka 's palace and forced Mutesa into exile to the United Kingdom , where he remained until his death in 1969 .
Amin began recruiting members of Kakwa , Lugbara , South Sudanese , and other ethnic groups from the West Nile area bordering South Sudan . The South Sudanese had been residents in Uganda since the early 20th century , having come from South Sudan to serve the colonial army . Many African ethnic groups in northern Uganda inhabit both Uganda and South Sudan ; allegations persist that Amin 's army consisted mainly of South Sudanese soldiers .
= = = Seizure of power = = =
Eventually a rift developed between Amin and Obote , exacerbated by the support Amin had built within the army by recruiting from the West Nile region , his involvement in operations to support the rebellion in southern Sudan and an attempt on Obote 's life in 1969 . In October 1970 , Obote took control of the armed forces , reducing Amin from his months @-@ old post of commander of all the armed forces to that of commander of the army .
Having learned that Obote was planning to arrest him for misappropriating army funds , Amin seized power in a military coup on 25 January 1971 , while Obote was attending a Commonwealth summit meeting in Singapore . Troops loyal to Amin sealed off Entebbe International Airport and took Kampala . Soldiers surrounded Obote 's residence and blocked major roads . A broadcast on Radio Uganda accused Obote 's government of corruption and preferential treatment of the Lango region . Cheering crowds were reported in the streets of Kampala after the radio broadcast . Amin announced that he was a soldier , not a politician , and that the military government would remain only as a caretaker regime until new elections , which would be announced when the situation was normalised . He promised to release all political prisoners .
Amin gave former King ( Kabaka ) of Buganda and President , Sir Edward Mutesa ( who had died in exile ) , a state funeral in April 1971 , freed many political prisoners , and reiterated his promise to hold free and fair elections to return the country to democratic rule in the shortest period possible .
= = = Presidency = = =
= = = = Establishment of military rule = = = =
On 2 February 1971 , one week after the coup , Amin declared himself President of Uganda , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Armed Forces , Army Chief of Staff , and Chief of Air Staff . He announced that he was suspending certain provisions of the Ugandan constitution , and soon instituted an Advisory Defence Council composed of military officers with himself as the chairman . Amin placed military tribunals above the system of civil law , appointed soldiers to top government posts and parastatal agencies , and informed the newly inducted civilian cabinet ministers that they would be subject to military discipline . Amin renamed the presidential lodge in Kampala from Government House to " The Command Post " . He disbanded the General Service Unit ( GSU ) , an intelligence agency created by the previous government , and replaced it with the State Research Bureau ( SRB ) . SRB headquarters at the Kampala suburb of Nakasero became the scene of torture and executions over the next few years . Other agencies used to persecute dissenters included the military police and the Public Safety Unit ( PSU ) .
Obote took refuge in Tanzania , having been offered sanctuary there by the Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere . Obote was soon joined by 20 @,@ 000 Ugandan refugees fleeing Amin . The exiles attempted but failed to regain Uganda in 1972 , through a poorly organised coup attempt .
= = = = Persecution of ethnic and political groups = = = =
Amin retaliated against the attempted invasion by Ugandan exiles in 1972 , by purging the army of Obote supporters , predominantly those from the Acholi and Lango ethnic groups . In July 1971 , Lango and Acholi soldiers were massacred in the Jinja and Mbarara barracks , and , by early 1972 , some 5 @,@ 000 Acholi and Lango soldiers , and at least twice as many civilians , had disappeared . The victims soon came to include members of other ethnic groups , religious leaders , journalists , artists , senior bureaucrats , judges , lawyers , students and intellectuals , criminal suspects , and foreign nationals . In this atmosphere of violence , many other people were killed for criminal motives or simply at will . Bodies were often dumped into the River Nile .
The killings , motivated by ethnic , political , and financial factors , continued throughout Amin 's eight @-@ year reign . The exact number of people killed is unknown . The International Commission of Jurists estimated the death toll at no fewer than 80 @,@ 000 and more likely around 300 @,@ 000 . An estimate compiled by exile organizations with the help of Amnesty International puts the number killed at 500 @,@ 000 . Among the most prominent people killed were Benedicto Kiwanuka , a former prime minister and chief justice ; Janani Luwum , the Anglican archbishop ; Joseph Mubiru , the former governor of the central bank of Uganda ; Frank Kalimuzo , the vice chancellor of Makerere University ; Byron Kawadwa , a prominent playwright ; and two of Amin 's own cabinet ministers , Erinayo Wilson Oryema and Charles Oboth Ofumbi .
Amin recruited his followers from his own tribe , the Kakwas , along with South Sudanese . By 1977 , these three groups formed 60 percent of the 22 top generals and 75 percent of the cabinet . Similarly , Muslims formed 80 percent and 87 @.@ 5 percent of these groups even though they were only 5 percent of the population . This helps explain why Amin survived eight attempted coups . The army grew from 10 @,@ 000 to 25 @,@ 000 by 1978 . Amin 's army was largely a mercenary force . Half the soldiers were South Sudanese and 26 percent Congolese , with only 24 percent being Ugandan , mostly Muslim and Kakwa .
We are determined to make the ordinary Ugandan master of his own destiny and , above all , to see that he enjoys the wealth of his country . Our deliberate policy is to transfer the economic control of Uganda into the hands of Ugandans , for the first time in our country 's history .
In August 1972 , Amin declared what he called an " economic war " , a set of policies that included the expropriation of properties owned by Asians and Europeans . Uganda 's 80 @,@ 000 Asians were mostly from the Indian subcontinent and born in the country , their ancestors having come to Uganda when the country was still a British colony . Many owned businesses , including large @-@ scale enterprises , which formed the backbone of the Ugandan economy . On 4 August 1972 , Amin issued a decree ordering the expulsion of the 60 @,@ 000 Asians who were not Ugandan citizens ( most of them held British passports ) . This was later amended to include all 80 @,@ 000 Asians , except for professionals , such as doctors , lawyers , and teachers . A plurality of the Asians with British passports , around 30 @,@ 000 , emigrated to the UK . Others went to Australia , Canada , India , Kenya , Pakistan , Sweden , Tanzania , and the U.S. Amin expropriated businesses and properties belonging to the Asians and handed them over to his supporters . The businesses were mismanaged , and industries collapsed from lack of maintenance . This proved disastrous for the already declining economy .
In 1977 , Henry Kyemba , Amin 's health minister and a former official of the first Obote regime , defected and resettled in the UK . Kyemba wrote and published A State of Blood , the first insider exposé of Amin 's rule .
= = = = International relations = = = =
Initially , Amin was supported by Western powers such as Israel , West Germany and , in particular , Great Britain . During the late 1960s , Obote 's move to the left , which included his Common Man 's Charter and the nationalisation of 80 British companies , had made the West worried that he would pose a threat to Western capitalist interests in Africa and make Uganda an ally of the Soviet Union . Amin , who had served with the King 's African Rifles and taken part in Britain 's suppression of the Mau Mau uprising prior to Ugandan independence was known by the British as " intensely loyal to Britain " ; this made him an obvious choice as Obote 's successor . Although some have claimed that Amin was being groomed for power as early as 1966 , the plotting by the British and other Western powers began in earnest in 1969 , after Obote had begun his nationalisation programme .
Following the expulsion of Ugandan Asians in 1972 , most of whom were of Indian descent , India severed diplomatic relations with Uganda . The same year , as part of his " economic war " , Amin broke diplomatic ties with the UK and nationalised eighty @-@ five British @-@ owned businesses .
That year , relations with Israel soured . Although Israel had previously supplied Uganda with arms , in 1972 Amin expelled Israeli military advisers and turned to Muammar Gaddafi of Libya and the Soviet Union for support . Amin became an outspoken critic of Israel . In return , Gaddafi gave financial aid to Amin . In the 1974 French @-@ produced documentary film General Idi Amin Dada : A Self Portrait , Amin discussed his plans for war against Israel , using paratroops , bombers , and suicide squadrons .
The Soviet Union became Amin 's largest arms supplier . East Germany was involved in the General Service Unit and the State Research Bureau , the two agencies which were most notorious for terror . Later during the Ugandan invasion of Tanzania in 1979 , East Germany attempted to remove evidence of its involvement with these agencies .
In 1973 , U.S. Ambassador Thomas Patrick Melady recommended that the United States reduce its presence in Uganda . Melady described Amin 's regime as " racist , erratic and unpredictable , brutal , inept , bellicose , irrational , ridiculous , and militaristic " . Accordingly , the United States closed its embassy in Kampala .
In June 1976 , Amin allowed an Air France airliner from Tel Aviv to Paris hijacked by two members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – External Operations ( PFLP @-@ EO ) and two members of the German Revolutionäre Zellen to land at Entebbe Airport . There the hijackers were joined by three more . Soon after , 156 non @-@ Jewish hostages who did not hold Israeli passports were released and flown to safety , while 83 Jews and Israeli citizens , as well as 20 others who refused to abandon them ( among whom were the captain and crew of the hijacked Air France jet ) , continued to be held hostage . In the subsequent Israeli rescue operation , codenamed Operation Thunderbolt ( popularly known as Operation Entebbe ) , on the night of 3 – 4 July 1976 , a group of Israeli commandos were flown in from Israel and seized control of Entebbe Airport , freeing nearly all the hostages . Three hostages died during the operation and 10 were wounded ; 7 hijackers , about 45 Ugandan soldiers , and 1 Israeli soldier , Yoni Netanyahu , were killed . A fourth hostage , 75 @-@ year @-@ old Dora Bloch , an elderly Jewish Englishwoman who had been taken to Mulago Hospital in Kampala before the rescue operation , was subsequently murdered in reprisal . The incident further soured Uganda 's international relations , leading the United Kingdom to close its High Commission in Uganda .
Uganda under Amin embarked on a large military build @-@ up , which raised concerns in Kenya . Early in June 1975 , Kenyan officials impounded a large convoy of Soviet @-@ made arms en route to Uganda at the port of Mombasa . Tension between Uganda and Kenya reached its climax in February 1976 , when Amin announced that he would investigate the possibility that parts of southern Sudan and western and central Kenya , up to within 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) of Nairobi , were historically a part of colonial Uganda . The Kenyan Government responded with a stern statement that Kenya would not part with " a single inch of territory " . Amin backed down after the Kenyan army deployed troops and armored personnel carriers along the Kenya – Uganda border .
= = = Deposition and exile = = =
By 1978 , the number of Amin 's supporters and close associates had shrunk significantly , and he faced increasing dissent from the populace within Uganda as the economy and infrastructure collapsed as a result of the years of neglect and abuse . After the killings of Bishop Luwum and ministers Oryema and Oboth Ofumbi in 1977 , several of Amin 's ministers defected or fled into exile . In November 1978 , after Amin 's vice president , General Mustafa Adrisi , was injured in a car accident , troops loyal to him mutinied . Amin sent troops against the mutineers , some of whom had fled across the Tanzanian border . Amin accused Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere of waging war against Uganda , ordered the invasion of Tanzanian territory , and formally annexed a section of the Kagera Region across the boundary .
In January 1979 , Nyerere mobilised the Tanzania People 's Defence Force and counterattacked , joined by several groups of Ugandan exiles who had united as the Uganda National Liberation Army ( UNLA ) . Amin 's army retreated steadily , and , despite military help from Libya 's Muammar Gaddafi , Amin was forced to flee into exile by helicopter on 11 April 1979 , when Kampala was captured . He escaped first to Libya , where he stayed until 1980 , and ultimately settled in Saudi Arabia , where the Saudi royal family allowed him sanctuary and paid him a generous subsidy in return for his staying out of politics . Amin lived for a number of years on the top two floors of the Novotel Hotel on Palestine Road in Jeddah . Brian Barron , who covered the Uganda – Tanzania war for the BBC as chief Africa correspondent , together with cameraman Mohamed Amin of Visnews in Nairobi , located Amin in 1980 , and secured the first interview with him since his deposition .
During interviews he gave during his exile in Saudi Arabia , Amin held that Uganda needed him , and never expressed remorse for the nature of his regime . In 1989 , he attempted to return to Uganda , apparently to lead an armed group organised by Colonel Juma Oris . He reached Kinshasa , Zaire ( now the Democratic Republic of the Congo ) , before Zairian President Mobutu Sese Seko forced him to return to Saudi Arabia .
= = = Death = = =
On 19 July 2003 , one of Amin 's wives , Madina , reported that he was in a coma and near death at the King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre in Jeddah , Saudi Arabia , from kidney failure . She pleaded with the Ugandan President , Yoweri Museveni , to allow him to return to Uganda for the remainder of his life . Museveni replied that Amin would have to " answer for his sins the moment he was brought back " . Amin 's family decided to disconnect life support and Amin died at the hospital in Jeddah on 16 August 2003 . He was buried in Ruwais Cemetery in Jeddah in a simple grave without any fanfare . After Amin 's death , David Owen revealed that when he was the British Foreign Secretary , he had proposed having Amin assassinated . He has defended this , arguing : " I 'm not ashamed of considering it , because his regime goes down in the scale of Pol Pot as one of the worst of all African regimes " .
= = Family and associates = =
A polygamist , Idi Amin married at least six women , three of whom he divorced . He married his first and second wives , Malyamu and Kay , in 1966 . In 1967 , he married Nora , and then married Nalongo Madina in 1972 . On 26 March 1974 , he announced on Radio Uganda that he had divorced Malyamu , Nora , and Kay . Malyamu was arrested in Tororo on the Kenyan border in April 1974 and accused of attempting to smuggle a bolt of fabric into Kenya . She later moved to London where she operates a restaurant in East London . In 1974 , Kay Amin died under mysterious circumstances , with her body found dismembered . Nora fled to Zaire in 1979 ; her current whereabouts are unknown .
In July 1975 , Amin staged a £ 2 Million wedding to 19 year old Sarah Kyolaba , a go @-@ go dancer with the Revolutionary Suicide Mechanised Regiment Band , nicknamed " Suicide Sarah . " The wedding was held during the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) summit meeting in Kampala , and the chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organisation , Yasser Arafat served as Amin ’ s best man . The couple had four children , and enjoyed rally race driving Amin 's Citroën SM , with Sarah as navigator . Sarah was a hairdresser in Tottenham when she died in 2015 . Before she met Amin , she was living with a boyfriend , Jesse Gitta ; he vanished and it is not clear if he was beheaded , or detained before fleeing to Kenya .
By 1993 , Amin was living with the last nine of his children and one wife , Mama a Chumaru ( who appears to be his sixth and newest wife ) , the mother of the youngest four of his children . His last known child , daughter Iman , was born in 1992 . According to The Monitor , Amin married a few months before his death in 2003 .
Sources differ widely on the number of children Amin fathered ; most say that he had 30 to 45 . Until 2003 , Taban Amin ( born 1955 ) , Idi Amin 's eldest son , was the leader of West Nile Bank Front ( WNBF ) , a rebel group opposed to the government of Yoweri Museveni . In 2005 , he was offered amnesty by Museveni , and in 2006 , he was appointed Deputy Director General of the Internal Security Organisation . Another of Amin 's sons , Haji Ali Amin , ran for election as Chairman ( i.e. mayor ) of Njeru Town Council in 2002 but was not elected . In early 2007 , the award @-@ winning film The Last King of Scotland prompted one of his sons , Jaffar Amin ( born in 1967 ) , to speak out in his father 's defence . Jaffar Amin said he was writing a book to rehabilitate his father 's reputation . Jaffar is the tenth of Amin 's 40 official children by seven official wives .
On 3 August 2007 , Amin 's son ( with Sarah ) , Faisal Wangita ( born in 1983 ) , was convicted for playing a role in a murder in London .
Among Amin 's closest associates was the British @-@ born Bob Astles , who is considered by many to have been a malignant influence and by others as having been a moderating presence . Isaac Malyamungu was an instrumental affiliate and one of the more feared officers in Amin 's army .
= = Erratic behaviour , self @-@ bestowed titles , and media portrayal = =
Amin 's egotistical behaviour and mental health have been the subjects of much speculation throughout his reign and life . He was described as having a quick @-@ change and violent short temper ; being charming , happy , and charismatic one minute and then suddenly angry , violent , and brutal the next , with little or no warning . Many have speculated that his behaviour was either the result of long @-@ term syphilis of the brain or possibly undiagnosed and untreated bipolar disorder . As the years progressed , Amin 's behaviour became more erratic , unpredictable , and outspoken . After the United Kingdom broke off all diplomatic relations with his regime in 1977 , Amin declared he had defeated the British , and conferred on himself the decoration of CBE ( Conqueror of the British Empire ) . His full self @-@ bestowed title ultimately became : " His Excellency , President for Life , Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin Dada , VC , DSO , MC , Lord of All the Beasts of the Earth and Fishes of the Seas and Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular " , in addition to his officially @-@ stated claim of being the uncrowned King of Scotland . He never received the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) or the Military Cross ( MC ) . He conferred a doctorate of law on himself from Makerere University as well as the Victorious Cross ( VC ) , a medal made to emulate the British Victoria Cross .
Amin became the subject of rumours and myths , including a widespread belief that he was a cannibal . Some of the unsubstantiated rumours , such as the mutilation of one of his wives , were spread and popularised by the 1980 film Rise and Fall of Idi Amin and alluded to in the film The Last King of Scotland in 2006 , a movie which earned actor Forest Whitaker an Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Amin .
During Amin 's time in power , popular media outside of Uganda often portrayed him as an essentially comic and eccentric figure . In a 1977 assessment typical of the time , a Time magazine article described him as a " killer and clown , big @-@ hearted buffoon and strutting martinet " . The comedy @-@ variety series Saturday Night Live aired four Amin sketches between 1976 – 79 , including one in which he was an ill @-@ behaved houseguest in exile , and another in which he was a spokesman against venereal disease . In a Benny Hill show transmitted in January 1977 , Hill portrayed Amin sitting behind a desk that featured a placard reading " ME TARZAN , U GANDA " .
The foreign media were often criticised by Ugandan exiles and defectors for emphasizing Amin 's self @-@ aggrandizing eccentricities and taste for excess while downplaying or excusing his murderous behavior . Other commentators even suggested that Amin had deliberately cultivated his eccentric reputation in the foreign media as an easily parodied buffoon in order to defuse international concern over his administration of Uganda .
= = Portrayal in media and literature = =
= = = Film and television dramatisations = = =
Victory at Entebbe ( 1976 ) , a TV film about Operation Entebbe . Julius Harris plays Amin . Godfrey Cambridge was originally cast as Amin , but died of a heart attack on the set . Amin commented on Cambridge 's death , saying that it was " punishment from God " .
Raid on Entebbe ( 1977 ) , a film depicting the events of Operation Entebbe . Yaphet Kotto portrays Amin as a charismatic , but short @-@ tempered political and military leader .
In Mivtsa Yonatan ( 1977 ; also known as Operation Thunderbolt ) , an Israeli film about Operation Entebbe , Jamaican @-@ born British actor Mark Heath portrays Amin , who in this film is first angered by the Palestinian terrorists whom he later comes to support .
Comedian Richard Pryor portrayed a parodied version of Amin in his namesake show in 1977 .
Rise and Fall of Idi Amin ( 1981 ) , a film recreating Idi Amin 's atrocities . Amin is played by Kenyan actor Joseph Olita .
The Naked Gun : From the Files of Police Squad ! ( 1988 ) , a comedy film in which Amin , portrayed by Prince Hughes in a cameo appearance , is one of the real @-@ life figures in the Beirut meeting where he helps plan to attack the United States at the beginning of the movie . Frank Drebin injures Amin 's hand after blocking a punch with a spittoon , and uses it to knock Amin out a window .
Mississippi Masala ( 1991 ) , a film depicting the resettlement of an Indian family after the expulsion of Asians from Uganda by Idi Amin . Joseph Olita again plays Amin in a cameo .
The Last King of Scotland ( 2006 ) , a film adaptation of Giles Foden 's 1998 novel of the same name . For his portrayal of Idi Amin , Forest Whitaker won the Academy Award , British Academy Film Award , Broadcast Film Critics Association Award , Golden Globe Award , and Screen Actors Guild Award , thus becoming the fourth black actor to win the Oscar for Best Actor .
= = = Documentaries = = =
General Idi Amin Dada : A Self Portrait ( 1974 ) , directed by French filmmaker Barbet Schroeder .
Idi Amin : Monster in Disguise ( 1997 ) , a television documentary directed by Greg Baker .
The Man Who Ate His Archbishop 's Liver ? ( 2004 ) , a television documentary written , produced , and directed by Elizabeth C. Jones for Associated @-@ Rediffusion and Channel 4 .
The Man Who Stole Uganda ( 1971 ) , World In Action first broadcast 5 April 1971 .
Inside Idi Amin 's Terror Machine ( 1979 ) , World In Action first broadcast 13 June 1979 .
A Day in the Life of a Dictator ( 2013 ) , directed by Hendrick Dusollier
= = = Books = = =
State of Blood : The Inside Story of Idi Amin ( 1977 ) by Henry Kyemba
The General Is Up by Peter Nazareth
Ghosts of Kampala : The Rise and Fall of Idi Amin ( 1980 ) by George Ivan Smith
The Last King of Scotland ( 1998 ) by Giles Foden ( fictional )
Idi Amin Dada : Hitler in Africa ( 1977 ) by Thomas Patrick Melady
General Amin ( 1975 ) by David Martin
I Love Idi Amin : The Story of Triumph under Fire in the Midst of Suffering and Persecution in Uganda ( 1977 ) by Festo Kivengere
Impassioned for Freedom : Uganda , Struggle Against Idi Amin ( 2006 ) by Eriya Kategaya
Confessions of Idi Amin : The chilling , explosive expose of Africa 's most evil man – in his own words ( 1977 ) compiled by Trevor Donald
" Kahawa " by Donald Westlake ; a thriller in which Amin is a minor character , but Amin 's Uganda is portrayed in detail .
Culture of the Sepulchre ( 2012 ) by Madanjeet Singh ( former Indian Ambassador to Uganda ) , ISBN 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 08573 @-@ 1
= = = Music and audio = = =
" Idi Amin – the Amazin ' Man song " ( 1975 ) by John Bird
" Idi Amin " ( 1978 ) by Mighty Sparrow
" Idi Amin " ( 1978 ) by Black Randy and the Metrosquad
" Springtime in Uganda " ( 2004 ) by Blaze Foley ( posthumous release )
The Collected Broadcasts of Idi Amin ( 1975 ) based on The Collected Bulletins of President Idi Amin ( 1974 ) and Further Bulletins of President Idi Amin ( 1975 ) by Alan Coren , portraying Amin as an amiable , if murderous , buffoon in charge of a tin @-@ pot dictatorship . It was a British
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in August 1096 . They took different paths to Constantinople and gathered outside its city walls between November 1096 and April 1097 ; Hugh of Vermandois arrived first , followed by Godfrey , Raymond , and Bohemond . This time , Emperor Alexios was more prepared for the crusaders ; there were fewer incidents of violence along the way .
The size of the entire crusader army is difficult to estimate ; various numbers were given by the eyewitnesses , and equally various estimates have been offered by modern historians . Crusader military historian David Nicolle considers the armies to have consisted of about 30 @,@ 000 – 35 @,@ 000 crusaders , including 5 @,@ 000 cavalry . Raymond had the largest contingent of about 8 @,@ 500 infantry and 1 @,@ 200 cavalry .
The princes arrived in Constantinople with little food and expected provisions and help from Alexios . Alexios was understandably suspicious after his experiences with the People 's Crusade , and also because the knights included his old Norman enemy , Bohemond , who had invaded Byzantine territory on numerous occasions with his father , Robert Guiscard , and may have even attempted to organize an attack on Constantinople while encamped outside the city .
The crusaders may have expected Alexios to become their leader , but he had no interest in joining them , and was mainly concerned with transporting them into Asia Minor as quickly as possible . In return for food and supplies , Alexios requested the leaders to swear fealty to him and promise to return to the Byzantine Empire any land recovered from the Turks . Godfrey was the first to take the oath , and almost all the other leaders followed him , although they did so only after warfare had almost broken out in the city between the citizens and the crusaders , who were eager to pillage for supplies . Raymond alone avoided swearing the oath , instead pledging that he would simply cause no harm to the Empire . Before ensuring that the various armies were shuttled across the Bosporus , Alexios advised the leaders on how best to deal with the Seljuq armies that they would soon encounter .
= = = Siege of Nicaea = = =
The Crusader armies crossed over into Asia Minor during the first half of 1097 , where they were joined by Peter the Hermit and the remainder of his little army . In addition , Alexios also sent two of his own generals , Manuel Boutoumites and Tatikios , to assist the crusaders . The first objective of their campaign was Nicaea , previously a city under Byzantine rule , but which had become the capital of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum under Kilij Arslan I. Arslan was away campaigning against the Danishmends in central Anatolia at the time , and had left behind his treasury and his family , underestimating the strength of these new crusaders .
Subsequently , upon the Crusaders ' arrival , the city was subjected to a lengthy siege , and when Arslan had word of it he rushed back to Nicaea and attacked the crusader army on 16 May . He was driven back by the unexpectedly large crusader force , with heavy losses being suffered on both sides in the ensuing battle . The siege continued , but the crusaders had little success as they found they could not blockade the lake , which the city was situated on , and from which it could be provisioned . To break the city , Alexios sent the Crusaders ' ships rolled over land on logs , and at the sight of them the Turkish garrison finally surrendered on 18 June . The city was handed over to the Byzantine troops , which has often been depicted as a source of conflict between the Empire and the crusaders ; Byzantine standards flew from the walls while the crusaders were forbidden from looting the city or even entering it except in small escorted bands .
However , this policy was in accordance with the previous oaths made to Alexios , and the emperor ensured that the crusaders were well @-@ paid for their efforts . As Thomas Asbridge writes , " the fall of Nicaea was a product of the successful policy of close co @-@ operation between the crusaders and Byzantium . " After handing custody of Nicaea to the Byzantines , the crusaders resumed their march to Jerusalem . Stephen of Blois , in a letter to his wife Adela of Blois wrote that he believed the journey would take five weeks ; in reality , it took two years .
= = = Battle of Dorylaeum = = =
At the end of June , the crusaders marched on through Anatolia . They were accompanied by some Byzantine troops under Tatikios , and still harboured the hope that Alexios would send a full Byzantine army after them . They also divided the army into two more @-@ easily managed groups — one contingent led by the Normans , the other by the French . The two groups intended to meet again at Dorylaeum , but on 1 July the Normans , who had marched ahead of the French , were attacked by Kilij Arslan . Arslan had gathered a much larger army than he previously had after his defeat at Nicaea , and now surrounded the Normans with his fast @-@ moving mounted archers . The Normans " deployed in a tight @-@ knit defensive formation " , surrounding all their equipment and the non @-@ combatants who had followed them along the journey , and sent for help from the other group . When the French arrived , Godfrey broke through the Turkish lines and the legate Adhemar outflanked the Turks from the rear ; thus the Turks , who had expected to destroy the Normans and did not anticipate the quick arrival of the French , fled rather than face the combined crusader army .
The crusaders ' march through Anatolia was thereafter unopposed , but the journey was unpleasant , as Arslan had burned and destroyed everything he left behind in his army 's flight . It was the middle of summer , and the crusaders had very little food and water ; many men and horses died . Fellow Christians sometimes gave them gifts of food and money , but more often than not , the crusaders simply looted and pillaged whenever the opportunity presented itself . Individual leaders continued to dispute the overall leadership , although none of them were powerful enough to take command on their own , as Adhemar was always recognized as the spiritual leader . After passing through the Cilician Gates , Baldwin of Boulogne set off on his own towards the Armenian lands around the Euphrates ; his wife , his only claim to European lands and wealth , had died after the battle , giving Baldwin no incentive to return to Europe . Thus , he resolved to seize a fiefdom for himself in the Holy Land . Early in 1098 , he was adopted as heir by Thoros of Edessa , a ruler who was disliked by his Armenian subjects for his Greek Orthodox religion . Thoros was later killed , during an uprising that Baldwin may have instigated . Then , in March 1098 , Baldwin became the new ruler , thus creating the County of Edessa , the first of the crusader states .
= = = Siege of Antioch = = =
The crusader army , meanwhile , marched on to Antioch , which lay about halfway between Constantinople and Jerusalem . Described by Stephen of Blois as " a city great beyond belief , very strong and unassailable " , the idea of taking the city by assault was a discouraging one to the crusaders . Hoping rather to force a capitulation , or find a traitor inside the city — a tactic that had previously seen Antioch change to the control of the Byzantines and then the Seljuq Turks — the crusader army set Antioch to siege on 20 October 1097 . During the almost eight months of the siege , they were forced to defeat two large relief armies under the leadership of Duqaq and Fakhr al @-@ Mulk Radwan . Antioch was so large that the crusaders did not have enough troops to fully surround it , and as a result it was able to stay partially supplied . On 4 March 1098 , relief arrived in the form of a Crusader fleet , the " Saxon Crusade " , bringing much needed supplies from the west .
In May 1098 , Kerbogha of Mosul approached Antioch to relieve the siege . Bohemond bribed an Armenian guard named Firuz to surrender his tower , and in June the crusaders entered the city and killed most of the inhabitants . However , only a few days later the Muslims arrived , laying siege to the former besiegers . According to Raymond D 'Aguilers , it was at this point that a monk named Peter Bartholomew claimed to have discovered the Holy Lance in the city , and although some were skeptical , this was seen as a sign that they would be victorious .
On 28 June 1098 , the crusaders defeated Kerbogha in a pitched battle outside the city , a victory caused by Kerbogha 's inability to organize the different factions in his army . While the crusaders were marching towards the Muslims , the Fatimid section of the army deserted the Turkish contingent , as they feared Kerbogha would become too powerful were he able to defeat the Crusaders . According to Christian eyewitnesses , an army of Christian saints came to the aid of the crusaders during the battle and crippled Kerbogha 's army .
Stephen of Blois , a Crusade leader , was in Alexandretta when he learned of the situation in Antioch . It seemed like their situation was hopeless so he left the Middle East , warning Alexios and his army on his way back to France . Because of what looked like a massive betrayal , the leaders at Antioch , most notably Bohemond , argued that Alexios had deserted the Crusade and thus invalidated all of their oaths to him . While Bohemond asserted his claim to Antioch , not everyone agreed ( most notably Raymond of Toulouse ) , so the crusade was delayed for the rest of the year while the nobles argued amongst themselves . When discussing this period , a common historiographical viewpoint advanced by some scholars is that the Franks of northern France , the Provençals of southern France , and the Normans of southern Italy considered themselves separate " nations " , creating turmoil as each tried to increase its individual status . Others argue that while this may have had something to do with the disputes , personal ambition among the Crusader leaders might just be as easily blamed .
Meanwhile , a plague broke out , killing many among the army , including the legate Adhemar , who died on 1 August . There were now even fewer horses than before , and worse , the Muslim peasants in the area refused to supply the crusaders with food . Thus , in December , after the Arab town of Ma 'arrat al @-@ Numan was captured following a siege , history describes the first occurrence of cannibalism among the crusaders . Radulph of Caen wrote , " In Ma 'arrat our troops boiled pagan adults in cooking pots ; they impaled children on spits and devoured them grilled . " At the same time , the minor knights and soldiers had become increasingly restless and threatened to continue to Jerusalem without their squabbling leaders . Finally , at the beginning of 1099 , the march restarted , leaving Bohemond behind as the first Prince of Antioch .
= = = Continued march to Jerusalem = = =
Proceeding down the Mediterranean coast , the crusaders encountered little resistance , as local rulers preferred to make peace with them and furnish them with supplies rather than fight , with a notable exception of the abandoned siege of Arqa . On 7 June , the crusaders reached Jerusalem , which had been recaptured from the Seljuqs by the Fatimids only the year before . Many Crusaders wept upon seeing the city they had journeyed so long to reach .
= = = Siege of Jerusalem = = =
Crusaders ' arrival at Jerusalem revealed an arid countryside , lacking in water or food supplies . Here there was no prospect of relief , even as they feared an imminent attack by the local Fatimid rulers . There was no hope of trying to blockade the city as they had at Antioch ; the crusaders had insufficient troops , supplies , and time . Rather , they resolved to take the city by assault . They might have been left with little choice , as by the time the Crusader army reached Jerusalem , it has been estimated that only about 12 @,@ 000 men including 1 @,@ 500 cavalry remained . These contingents , composed of men with differing origins and varying allegiances , were also approaching another low ebb in their camaraderie ; e.g. , while Godfrey and Tancred made camp to the north of the city , Raymond made his to the south . In addition , the Provençal contingent did not take part in the initial assault on 13 June . This first assault was perhaps more speculative than determined , and after scaling the outer wall the Crusaders were repulsed from the inner one .
After the failure of the initial assault , a meeting between the various leaders was organized in which it was agreed upon that a more concerted attack would be required in the future . On 17 June , a party of Genoese mariners under Guglielmo Embriaco arrived at Jaffa , and provided the Crusaders with skilled engineers , and perhaps more critically , supplies of timber ( cannibalized from the ships ) to build siege engines . The Crusaders ' morale was raised when a priest , Peter Desiderius , claimed to have had a divine vision , of Bishop Adhemar , instructing them to fast and then march in a barefoot procession around the city walls , after which the city would fall , following the Biblical story of Joshua at the siege of Jericho . After a three days fast , on 8 July the crusaders performed the procession as they had been instructed by Desiderius , ending on the Mount of Olives where Peter the Hermit preached to them , and shortly afterward the various bickering factions arrived at a public rapprochement . News arrived shortly after that a Fatimid relief army had set off from Egypt , giving the Crusaders a very strong incentive to make another assault on the city .
The final assault on Jerusalem began on 13 July ; Raymond 's troops attacked the south gate while the other contingents attacked the northern wall . Initially the Provençals at the southern gate made little headway , but the contingents at the northern wall fared better , with a slow but steady attrition of the defence . On 15 July , a final push was launched at both ends of the city , and eventually the inner rampart of the northern wall was captured . In the ensuing panic , the defenders abandoned the walls of the city at both ends , allowing the Crusaders to finally enter .
= = = = Massacre = = = =
The massacre that followed the capture of Jerusalem has attained particular notoriety , as a " juxtaposition of extreme violence and anguished faith " . The eyewitness accounts from the crusaders themselves leave little doubt that there was great slaughter in the aftermath of the siege . Nevertheless , some historians propose that the scale of the massacre has been exaggerated in later medieval sources .
After the successful assault on the northern wall , the defenders fled to the Temple Mount , pursued by Tancred and his men . Arriving before the defenders could secure the area , Tancred 's men assaulted the precinct , butchering many of the defenders , with the remainder taking refuge in the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque . Tancred then called a halt to the slaughter , offering those in the mosque his protection . When the defenders on the southern wall heard of the fall of the northern wall , they fled to the citadel , allowing Raymond and the Provençals to enter the city . Iftikhar al @-@ Dawla , the commander of the garrison , struck a deal with Raymond , surrendering the citadel in return for being granted safe passage to Ascalon .
The slaughter continued for the rest of the day ; Muslims were indiscriminately killed , and Jews who had taken refuge in their synagogue died when it was burnt down by the Crusaders . The following day , Tancred 's prisoners in the mosque were slaughtered . Nevertheless , it is clear that some Muslims and Jews of the city survived the massacre , either escaping or being taken prisoner to be ransomed . The Eastern Christian population of the city had been expelled before the siege by the governor , and thus escaped the massacre .
= = = Establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem = = =
On 22 July , a council was held in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre to establish a king for the newly created Kingdom of Jerusalem . Raymond of Toulouse at first refused to become king , perhaps attempting to show his piety , but probably hoping that the other nobles would insist upon his election anyway . Godfrey , who had become the more popular of the two after Raymond 's actions at the siege of Antioch , did no damage to his own piety by accepting a position as secular leader . Raymond was incensed at this development and took his army out into the countryside .
The exact nature and meaning of Godfrey 's title is somewhat controversial . Although it is widely claimed that he took the title Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri ( " advocate " or " defender " of the Holy Sepulchre ) , this title is only used in a letter that was not written by Godfrey . Instead , Godfrey himself seems to have used the more ambiguous term princeps , or simply retained his title of dux from Lower Lorraine . According to William of Tyre , writing in the later 12th century when Godfrey was already a legendary hero in crusader Jerusalem , he refused to wear " a crown of gold " where Christ had worn " a crown of thorns " . Robert the Monk is the only contemporary chronicler of the crusade to report that Godfrey took the title " king " .
= = = Battle of Ascalon = = =
The crusaders had attempted to negotiate with the Fatimids during their march to Jerusalem , but to no avail . After the crusaders captured Jerusalem from the Fatimids , they learned of a Fatimid army about to attack them . On 10 August Godfrey of Bouillon led the remaining troops from Jerusalem to Ascalon , a day 's march away .
The Fatimids were estimated to have as many as 50 @,@ 000 troops ( other sources estimate about 20 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 ) entering the battle . Their troops consisted of Seljuq Turks , Arabs , Persians , Kurds , and Ethiopians , led by vizier al @-@ Afdal Shahanshah . Opposing them were the crusaders , whose numbers , estimated by Raymond of Aguilers , were around 1 @,@ 200 knights and 9 @,@ 000 infantry .
On 12 August , crusader scouts discovered the location of the Fatimid camp , which the crusaders immediately marched towards . According to most crusader and Muslim accounts , the Fatimids were caught unaware . Because of a somewhat ill @-@ prepared Fatimid army , the battle was fairly short , although it still took some time to resolve , according to Albert of Aix. al @-@ Afdal Shahanshah and his army retreated into the heavily guarded and fortified city of Ascalon . The next day the crusaders learned that al @-@ Afdal Shahanshah had retreated back to Egypt via boat , so they plundered what remained of the Fatimid camp . After returning to Jerusalem most of the crusaders returned to their homes in Europe .
= = Crusade of 1101 = =
Having captured Jerusalem and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre , the crusading vow had hence been fulfilled . However , there were many who had gone home before reaching Jerusalem , and many who had never left Europe at all . When the success of the crusade became known , these people were mocked and scorned by their families and threatened with excommunication by the Pope . Many crusaders who had remained with the crusade all the way to Jerusalem also went home ; according to Fulcher of Chartres , there were only a few hundred knights left in the newfound kingdom in 1100 . Godfrey himself only ruled for one year , dying in July 1100 . He was succeeded by his brother , Baldwin of Edessa , the first person to take the title King of Jerusalem .
Among the crusaders in the Crusade of 1101 were Stephen II , Count of Blois and Hugh of Vermandois , both of whom had returned home before reaching Jerusalem . This crusade was almost annihilated in Asia Minor by the Seljuqs , but the survivors helped to reinforce the kingdom upon their arrival in Jerusalem . In the following years , assistance was also provided by Italian merchants who established themselves in Syrian ports , and from the religious and military orders of the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller , which were created during Baldwin I 's reign .
= = Aftermath = =
The First Crusade succeeded in establishing the " crusader states " of Edessa , Antioch , Jerusalem , and Tripoli in Palestine and Syria ( as well as allies along the Crusaders ' route , such as the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia ) .
Back at home in Western Europe , those who had survived to reach Jerusalem were treated as heroes . Robert of Flanders was nicknamed " Hierosolymitanus " thanks to his exploits . The life of Godfrey of Bouillon became legendary even within a few years of his death . In some cases , the political situation at home was greatly affected by crusader absences . For instance , while Robert Curthose was away on crusade the throne of England had passed to his brother Henry I of England instead , and their resultant conflict led to the Battle of Tinchebray in 1106 .
Meanwhile , the establishment of the crusader states in the east helped ease Seljuq pressure on the Byzantine Empire , which had regained some of its Anatolian territory with crusader help , and experienced a period of relative peace and prosperity in the 12th century . The effect on the Muslim dynasties of the east was gradual but important . In the wake of the death of Malik Shah I in 1092 , political instability and the division of the Great Seljuq Empire prevented a coherent defence against the Latin states . Cooperation between them remained difficult for many decades , but from Egypt to Syria to Baghdad there were calls for the expulsion of the crusaders , culminating in the recapture of Jerusalem under Saladin later in the century when the Ayyubids had united the surrounding areas .
= = Inspiration to the future = =
The success of the crusade inspired the literary imagination of poets in France , who , in the 12th century , began to compose various chansons de geste celebrating the exploits of Godfrey of Bouillon and other crusaders . Some of these , such as the Chanson d 'Antioche , are semi @-@ historical , while others are completely fanciful , describing battles with a dragon or connecting Godfrey 's ancestors to the legend of the Knight of the Swan . Together , the chansons are known as the crusade cycle .
The First Crusade was also an inspiration to artists in later centuries . In 1580 , Torquato Tasso wrote Jerusalem Delivered , a largely fictionalized epic poem about the capture of Jerusalem . George Frideric Handel composed music based on Tasso 's poem in his opera Rinaldo . The 19th @-@ century poet Tommaso Grossi also wrote an epic poem , which was the basis of Giuseppe Verdi 's opera I Lombardi alla prima crociata .
= = = Bibliographies = = =
= McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet in Australian service =
The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) has operated McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet fighter aircraft since 1984 . The Australian Government purchased 75 " A " and " B " variants of the F / A @-@ 18 in 1981 to replace the RAAF 's Dassault Mirage III fighters . The Hornets entered service with the RAAF between 1984 and 1990 , and 71 remain in operation as of 2012 . The other four Hornets were destroyed in flying accidents during the late 1980s and early 1990s .
RAAF Hornets were first sent on a combat deployment as part of the Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq . During the invasion , 14 Hornets flew patrols over Iraq , as well as close air support sorties to assist coalition ground forces . RAAF F / A @-@ 18s also provided security for the American air base at Diego Garcia between late 2001 and early 2002 , and have protected a number of high @-@ profile events in Australia . From 2015 they have been striking ISIL targets as part of Operation Okra .
Since 1999 the RAAF has put its Hornets through a series of upgrades to improve their effectiveness . However , the aircraft are becoming increasingly difficult to operate and are at risk of being outclassed by the fighters and air @-@ defence systems operated by other countries . As a result , the RAAF will begin to retire its F / A @-@ 18s in the late 2010s , and the last aircraft will leave service in the early 2020s . Under current Australian Government planning they will be replaced by up to 72 Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II fighters .
= = Selection = =
The RAAF began the initial stages of scoping a replacement for its Dassault Mirage III fighters in 1968 . The service issued an Air Staff Requirement for new fighter aircraft in December 1971 , which received a larger than expected number of proposals from manufacturers . At this time the RAAF expected to start phasing out the Mirage IIIs in 1980 . In 1973 , a team of RAAF personnel inspected the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 15 Eagle , Northrop YF @-@ 17 , Saab 37 Viggen and Dassault Mirage F1 programs , but recommended that any decisions about a suitable replacement be delayed so that several new fighters that were expected to soon become available could also be considered . In August 1974 the Australian Government decided to defer the fighter replacement project and extend the Mirage IIIs ' operational life into the 1980s . One of the four Mirage III @-@ equipped squadrons was also disbanded at this time .
Work on the Mirage replacement program resumed in 1975 , and the Tactical Fighter Project Office was established in 1976 to manage the process of selecting the RAAF 's next fighter . A request for proposals was issued in November that year and attracted eleven responses . By March 1977 the office had chosen to focus on the F @-@ 15 Eagle , General Dynamics F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon , Dassault Mirage 2000 and Panavia Tornado , as well as the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 18A and F @-@ 18L ; the F @-@ 18A was a carrier @-@ based fighter developed from the YF @-@ 17 for the United States Navy , and the F @-@ 18L was a land @-@ based variant of this design . The Grumman F @-@ 14 Tomcat was also considered by the project office , but was regarded as unsuitable and never placed on the official shortlist . In November 1978 the F @-@ 15 and Tornado were removed from the list of aircraft being considered . The Tornado was excluded as it was principally a strike aircraft and had limited air @-@ to @-@ air capability . While the F @-@ 15 was an impressive aircraft that met or exceeded almost all of the RAAF 's requirements , it was believed that the air force did not need a fighter with such advanced capabilities and that introducing it into service could destabilise Australia 's region .
Further evaluation of the remaining aircraft took place during 1979 . Wing Commander ( and later Air Vice @-@ Marshal ) Bob Richardson test @-@ flew a Mirage 2000 in April 1979 , and reported that while the aircraft had excellent aerodynamic characteristics , its avionics , radar , fuel system , cockpit and weapons capability were inferior to those of US designs . Richardson also test @-@ flew a YF @-@ 17 that was being used as a demonstrator for the F @-@ 18L in mid @-@ 1979 , and was impressed by its capabilities . No F @-@ 18Ls had been ordered at this time , however , and the RAAF did not want to take on the risk of being the lead customer for the design . At about the same time , the RAAF rejected an offer of F @-@ 14 Tomcats that had been originally ordered by the Iranian Government but not delivered as a result of the revolution in that country . While the Tomcats were made available at a greatly reduced price , the air force judged that these aircraft were too large and complex for its requirements .
With the Mirage 2000 and F @-@ 18L rejected , the RAAF was faced with a choice between the F @-@ 16 and F @-@ 18A . Richardson and several other RAAF pilots tested United States Air Force ( USAF ) F @-@ 16Bs in 1979 and 1980 , and reported that the aircraft had excellent performance but could be difficult to control at times . The evaluation team was also concerned about the reliability of the F @-@ 16 's engine and regarded the aircraft as technologically immature . It was also noted that the aircraft 's radar was inferior to that of the F @-@ 18A , and that F @-@ 16s could not fire the beyond @-@ visual @-@ range ( BVR ) air @-@ to @-@ air missiles and long @-@ range anti @-@ shipping missiles that the F @-@ 18A was capable of operating . In contrast , the evaluation team was impressed by the F @-@ 18A , and regarded it as being a more robust and survivable aircraft as it had been designed to operate from aircraft carriers ; these features were important for operations from bare bases in northern Australia . Richardson and three other RAAF pilots test @-@ flew F @-@ 18As , and reported that the aircraft handled well , but had some deficiencies with its flight control system and engines ; these were not seen as major flaws by the evaluation team , however . The F @-@ 18A 's twin engines were considered to be its main advantage over the single @-@ engined F @-@ 16 , as research conducted by the evaluation team found that the attrition rate for single @-@ engined fighters was twice that for aircraft with two engines . Overall , however , the RAAF judged that both the F @-@ 16 and F @-@ 18A were too immature for a decision to be made in 1980 as had been originally planned , and recommended to the Government that this be deferred by a year .
The Government accepted the RAAF 's recommendation , and delayed its decision on a Mirage III replacement until late 1981 . This gave General Dynamics an opportunity to offer the improved F @-@ 16C to the RAAF . The capability of these aircraft was closer to that of the F @-@ 18 as they were equipped with BVR missiles . Richardson and another RAAF pilot test @-@ flew F @-@ 16Cs in May 1981 . The F @-@ 18 design was also improved during 1981 , and was redesignated the F / A @-@ 18 . When RAAF test pilots flew these aircraft during 1981 , they found that the deficiencies they had detected in 1980 were now addressed . Overall , the RAAF concluded that while both aircraft met its requirements and the F @-@ 16 was less expensive , the F / A @-@ 18 was the superior design as it was more technologically mature , easier to maintain during operational deployments , and likely to have a much lower attrition rate . The Government accepted this advice , and announced on 20 October 1981 that 75 F / A @-@ 18s would be ordered . As part of this announcement , Minister for Defence Jim Killen acknowledged that the F @-@ 16 would have been seven percent cheaper to purchase , but stated that the F / A @-@ 18 's lower running costs and expected attrition rate greatly reduced the difference between the lifetime cost of the two designs .
Instead of directly ordering the aircraft from McDonnell Douglas , the Australian Government purchased its F / A @-@ 18s through the US Government 's Foreign Military Sales ( FMS ) program . Ordering the aircraft via the US Government allowed the RAAF to take advantage of the superior purchasing power of the US military , and reduced the service 's project management requirements . This led to a complicated arrangement whereby the aircraft were ordered by the US Government , delivered to the US Navy , and then transferred to the RAAF once initial flight testing had taken place . The process functioned smoothly , however , and was cost effective .
= = Production = =
The RAAF 's order of 75 Hornets comprised 57 single @-@ seat " A " variant fighters and 18 two @-@ seat " B " variant operational training aircraft . It was planned that each of the three fighter squadrons and the single operational conversion unit that were to operate the F / A @-@ 18 would be allocated 16 aircraft , of which 12 were expected to be operational at any time while the other four were undergoing maintenance . The remaining eleven Hornets were labelled the " half @-@ life attrition buy " and would replace the aircraft that were expected to have been lost by 2000 ; as it happened , this greatly exceeded the RAAF 's actual losses . Deliveries were planned to start in late 1984 and be completed in 1990 . The total cost of the F / A @-@ 18 program , including the aircraft , spare parts , other equipment and modifications to the RAAF 's fighter bases , was calculated as A $ 2 @.@ 427 billion in August 1981 , but was rapidly revised upwards due to the depreciation of the Australian dollar at this time .
The Australian Hornets were very similar to the standard US Navy variants , but incorporated a number of minor modifications . These included the addition of an Instrument Landing System / Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range ( ILS / VOR ) system , a high @-@ frequency radio , a different ejection seat harness and the deletion of all equipment used only to launch the aircraft from catapults . In addition , two of the Australian aircraft were fitted with flight @-@ test instrumentation so that they could be used as part of trials .
The Government sought to use the Mirage III replacement program as a means to increase the capabilities of Australia 's manufacturing industry . Accordingly , it was decided to build the aircraft in Australia , though it was recognised that this would lead to higher costs than if the fighters were purchased directly from the United States . While the first two RAAF Hornets were built in the United States , the remainder were assembled at the Government Aircraft Factories plant at Avalon Airport in Victoria , and their engines were produced by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation at Fishermans Bend in Melbourne . Another twelve Australian companies were involved in other stages of the project . These firms were sub @-@ contracted to McDonnell Douglas and the other major US companies that produced components for the F / A @-@ 18 , and had to comply with the requirements of the FMS program . The Australian Government hoped that Singapore and New Zealand would purchase Australian @-@ built Hornets , but this did not eventuate . The Canadian Government expressed interest in purchasing 25 Australian @-@ built F / A @-@ 18As in 1988 in order to increase its force of these aircraft after they had ceased to be manufactured in the United States , but this did not lead to any sales .
The Australian Hornets began to roll off the production lines in 1984 . The first two aircraft ( serial numbers A21 @-@ 101 and A21 @-@ 102 ) were entirely built at McDonnell Douglas ' factory in St. Louis , and were handed over to the RAAF on 29 October 1984 . These aircraft remained in the United States until May 1985 for training and trials purposes . The next two Australian Hornets ( A21 @-@ 103 and A21 @-@ 104 ) were also built at St. Louis , but were then disassembled and flown to Avalon in June 1984 on board a USAF Lockheed C @-@ 5 Galaxy . The aircraft were then reassembled , and A21 @-@ 103 was rolled out at a ceremony attended by Prime Minister Bob Hawke and the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal David Evans , on 16 November . However , the aircraft 's initial test flight was delayed until 26 February 1985 by a demarcation dispute over which category of pilot was permitted to fly the aircraft .
In order to meet production targets , GAF was required to complete 1 @.@ 5 Hornets per month . Production fell behind schedule during the first half of 1987 , however , as a result of inefficiencies at the company 's factory and industrial relations problems . GAF was able to accelerate production later in the year , though some components that were planned to be manufactured in Australia were purchased from companies in the United States instead . The final cost of the Hornet project was A $ 4 @.@ 668 billion ; after adjusting for the depreciation of the Australian dollar this was $ 186 million less than the initial estimate .
The RAAF began to accept Hornets into service in 1985 . A21 @-@ 103 was formally delivered on 4 May of that year . Two weeks later , A21 @-@ 101 and 102 were flown from Naval Air Station Lemoore in California to RAAF Base Williamtown in New South Wales between 16 and 17 May 1985 . This ferry flight was conducted as a non @-@ stop journey , and USAF McDonnell Douglas KC @-@ 10 Extender tankers refuelled each of the Hornets 15 times as they crossed the Pacific . As of 2005 this remained the longest single flight to have been undertaken by F / A @-@ 18s . Despite the delays to production in 1987 , the final Australian Hornet ( A21 @-@ 57 ) was delivered on schedule at a ceremony held in Canberra on 16 May 1990 . The F / A @-@ 18As were allocated serial numbers A21 @-@ 1 through to A21 @-@ 57 and the F / A @-@ 18Bs were allocated A21 @-@ 101 to A21 @-@ 118 .
A major capital works program was also undertaken to prepare RAAF bases for the Hornets . Over $ 150 million was spent upgrading the runways , hangars and maintenance facilities at RAAF Base Williamtown , which has been the main F / A @-@ 18 base throughout the aircraft 's service . The pre @-@ existing airfield at RAAF Base Tindal in the Northern Territory was also developed into a major air base between 1985 and 1988 at a cost of $ 215 million so that it could accommodate No. 75 Squadron . Until this time the squadron had been stationed at RAAF Base Darwin which , due to its location on Australia 's north coast , was vulnerable to damage from cyclones and difficult to defend during wartime .
Owing to concerns over the airworthiness of the RAAF 's General Dynamics F @-@ 111 bombers and delays to the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II program , the Australian Government ordered 24 F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets in 2006 . This design is significantly different from the original ( or " classic " ) Hornet , however . The RAAF 's first Super Hornets entered service in 2010 and deliveries were completed the next year .
= = Maintenance and upgrades = =
Maintenance of the RAAF 's Hornets is carried out by both air force personnel and civilian contractors . Until the early 1990s , all routine servicing and a significant proportion of intensive " deeper maintenance " was undertaken by the air force . However , the share of intensive maintenance tasks outsourced to the private sector was increased during the 1990s under the RAAF @-@ wide Commercial Support Program . Under current arrangements , the four Hornet @-@ equipped units undertake all routine servicing and some of the more complex deeper maintenance tasks . The remainder of the deeper maintenance work , as well as all major refurbishments and upgrade projects , are carried out by commercial firms . BAE Systems has been the lead contractor for Hornet deeper maintenance since 2003 , and Boeing Australia has also provided maintenance services for the aircraft since it won a contract to do so in 2010 .
The RAAF 's Hornet fleet received few modifications until the late 1990s . During this period , the AN / AAS @-@ 38 " Nite Hawk " targeting pod was the only new system fitted to the aircraft . However , several Asian countries introduced Mikoyan MiG @-@ 29 fighters into service during the 1990s , raising concerns that the RAAF 's aircraft would be outclassed . The air force considered replacing the Hornet with the Eurofighter Typhoon or Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , but concluded that both aircraft were technologically immature . As a result , it was decided to upgrade the Hornets .
The Hornet Upgrade Program ( HUG ) began in 1999 , and has had three main phases . In Phase 1 , which ran from mid @-@ 2000 through 2002 , the Hornets ' computer systems , navigation system and radio were replaced . The aircraft were also fitted to operate the ASRAAM air @-@ to @-@ air missile ; these weapons replaced the AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder . HUG Phase 2 comprised four sub @-@ elements and sought to improve the Hornets ' combat performance . During Phase 2 @.@ 1 the APG @-@ 65 radar was replaced with the improved AN / APG @-@ 73 , and the aircraft were fitted with a secure voice encryption communications system as well as various updates to their computer systems . In HUG Phase 2 @.@ 2 , the most important element of the program , the Hornets were fitted with a Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System , equipment needed to share data through the Link 16 network , a new countermeasures dispensing system and several upgrades to their cockpit displays . All of the Hornets were upgraded to this standard between January 2005 and December 2006 . In Phase 2 @.@ 3 , an improved Electronic Counter Measures system was fitted to the Hornets ; the AN / ALR @-@ 2002 was originally selected , but proved unsuccessful . It was replaced by the ALR @-@ 67 Radar Warning Receiver in late 2006 . As of early 2012 , 14 Hornets had been fitted with the system and the remainder were scheduled to receive it by the end of the year . During HUG Phase 2 @.@ 4 the Hornets were modified to be able to
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opposed dispatching the aircraft on the grounds that doing so would greatly strain the fighter force in Australia , and this option was not adopted by the government . As a result , the Hornets ' only role in the war was to support the training of the Royal Australian Navy warships which were sent to the Gulf by conducting mock attacks on the vessels as they sailed from Sydney to Perth .
During late 1999 , No. 75 Squadron was placed on alert to provide close air support and air defence for the international forces deployed to East Timor as part of INTERFET . While Indonesian forces posed a potential threat to this force , no fighting eventuated and the Hornets were not required .
The first operational deployment of RAAF Hornets took place in 2001 . Following the 11 September terrorist attacks , the Australian Government agreed to deploy F / A @-@ 18s to protect the major USAF air base on the Indian Ocean island of Diego Garcia , which was being used to mount operations in Afghanistan . Four No. 77 Squadron Hornets and 70 personnel departed for the island on 9 November . No. 3 Squadron pilots and ground crew relieved the No. 77 Squadron personnel in early February 2002 . While the Hornets were occasionally scrambled in response to reports of aircraft near the base , no threat developed . The detachment returned to Australia on 21 May 2002 .
No. 75 Squadron formed part of the Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq . The squadron began initial planning for this deployment in December 2002 , and intensive training was undertaken from January 2003 . To improve the unit 's readiness , air and ground crew as well as aircraft were also posted to No. 75 Squadron from other units . The Australian Government announced on 1 February that it would begin deploying RAAF aircraft , including a squadron of F / A @-@ 18s , to the Middle East . No. 75 Squadron departed from Tindal on 13 February , and arrived at Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar on the 16th of the month . The 14 F / A @-@ 18A Hornets selected for this deployment had received the HUG 2 @.@ 1 package of upgrades and recently completed major servicing . In addition to No. 75 Squadron , several experienced Hornet pilots were also posted to the USAF Combined Air and Space Operations Center in the Middle East to provide advice on how to make the best use of the squadron .
The Australian Hornets saw combat in several roles during the Iraq War . Following the outbreak of war on 20 March , No. 75 Squadron was initially used to escort high @-@ value Coalition aircraft , such as tankers and airborne early warning and control aircraft . As it rapidly became clear that the Iraqi Air Force posed no threat , from 21 March No. 75 Squadron also began to also conduct air interdiction sorties against Iraqi forces . These sorties were initially flown in support of the United States Army 's V Corps , but the squadron was rarely assigned any targets to attack . As a result , the Australian commanders in the Middle East had No. 75 Squadron reassigned to support the United States Marine Corps ' I Marine Expeditionary Force . At this time the squadron also began flying close air support sorties . During the first two weeks of the war the squadron typically flew 12 sorties per day . To avoid pilot fatigue , additional aircrew were posted to the Middle East from Australia . The number of sorties dropped to between six and ten per day from 5 April onwards as the American forces closed on Baghdad and few targets remained in southern Iraq . On 12 April , No. 75 Squadron supported elements of the Special Air Service Regiment and 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , which occupied Al Asad Airbase . During the last weeks of the war the squadron continued to fly sorties across western , central and southern Iraq to support British and American forces . In several of the squadron 's operations in the final week of the war , the Hornets made low altitude and high speed passes over Iraqi positions to encourage their defenders to surrender . No. 75 Squadron conducted its final combat sorties on 27 April . During the war the squadron flew 350 combat missions ( including 670 individual sorties ) and dropped 122 laser @-@ guided bombs . No. 75 Squadron did not suffer any casualties , and all 14 Hornets returned to Tindal on 14 May 2003 .
RAAF Hornets have also provided air defence for several high @-@ profile events in Australia since the 11 September attacks . In 2002 , Hornets patrolled over the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting ( CHOGM ) at Coolum Beach , Queensland ; this was the first time RAAF aircraft had flown air defence sorties over Australia since World War II . On 22 and 23 October that year a detachment of Hornets patrolled over Canberra during US President George W. Bush 's visit to the city . A detachment of aircraft from No. 77 Squadron was deployed to RAAF Base East Sale in March 2006 to protect the Commonwealth Games , which were being held in Melbourne . In September 2007 , Hornets patrolled over Sydney during the APEC leaders meeting there . Eight Hornets were also deployed from Williamstown to RAAF Base Pearce in October 2011 to protect the CHOGM meeting in nearby Perth . On 16 and 17 November that year , Hornets operated over Canberra and Darwin while President Barack Obama was present .
In March 2015 six F / A @-@ 18As from No. 75 Squadron were deployed to the Middle East as part of Operation Okra , replacing a detachment of Super Hornets . By the end of November 2015 the Hornets had conducted 580 sorties over Iraq , during which they dropped 363 munitions . The aircraft also flew 18 sorties over Syria in September 2015 , dropping two munitions .
= = Planned replacement = =
While the Hornet Upgrade Program has been successful , the RAAF 's Hornets are approaching retirement . It is expected that the aircraft will be increasingly expensive to operate as they age , and improvements to the fighter aircraft and air defences operated by other countries will reduce the Hornets ' combat effectiveness . Under current planning , the F / A @-@ 18s will begin to be withdrawn from service in the late 2010s , with the final aircraft being retired in the early 2020s . In the meantime , the RAAF has implemented several measures to keep the Hornets in service . These include a structural refurbishment program , increased monitoring of fatigue @-@ related issues as well as repainting the aircraft and frequently washing them to reduce the risks posed by corrosion . In 2015 the Defence Science and Technology Group conducted new statistical analysis of the Hornets ' structural condition which found that the airframes were less fatigued than previously believed , and so able to remain in service for a longer period than planned if necessary . This finding was accepted by the Directorate General Technical Airworthiness – Australian Defence Force .
The Australian Government is currently planning to replace the RAAF 's F / A @-@ 18 Hornets with Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35A Lightning II fighters from 2017 onwards . The Defence Materiel Organisation 's Project AIR 6000 Phase 2A / B specifies that up to 72 F @-@ 35A fighters will be acquired to equip three squadrons and an operational training unit . However , only 14 aircraft had been funded as at June 2012 , and the first two will be delivered in 2014 . The next twelve are scheduled to be delivered between 2017 and 2019 . The government will make a decision on funding the remainder of the aircraft at an unspecified future date . Up to 28 additional F @-@ 35As may also be ordered to replace the Super Hornets .
As a result of delays to the F @-@ 35 program , the Australian Government is considering buying additional F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets or further extending the life of the " classic " F / A @-@ 18s . Writing in 2011 , Australian Strategic Policy Institute analyst Andrew Davies recommended that , owing to the increasing difficulty and expense of keeping the aircraft operational , a program to retain the F / A @-@ 18A and B Hornets in service should only be attempted if it is expected that the F @-@ 35 will be delayed for an additional one or two years .
= Electric vehicle warning sounds =
Electric vehicle warning sounds are a series of sounds designed to alert pedestrians to the presence of electric drive vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicles ( HEVs ) , plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicles ( PHEVs ) , and all @-@ electric vehicles ( EVs ) travelling at low speeds . Warning sound devices were deemed necessary because vehicles operating in all @-@ electric mode produce less noise than traditional combustion engine vehicles and can make it more difficult for pedestrians , the blind , cyclists , and others , to be aware of their presence . Warning sounds may be driver triggered ( as in a horn but less urgent ) or automatic at low speeds ; in type , they vary from clearly artificial ( beeps , chimes ) to those that mimic engine sounds and those of tires moving over gravel .
Japan issued guidelines for such warning devices in January 2010 and the U.S. approved legislation on December 2010 . The European Parliament approved legislation that requires the mandatory use of " Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems " for all new electric and hybrid electric vehicles within 5 years .
Several automakers have developed electric warning sound devices , and since December 2011 advanced technology cars available in the market with manually activated electric warning sounds include the Nissan Leaf , Chevrolet Volt , Honda FCX Clarity , Nissan Fuga Hybrid / Infiniti M35 , Hyundai Sonata Hybrid , and the Toyota Prius ( Japan only ) . Models equipped with automatically activated systems include the 2014 BMW i3 ( option not available in the US ) , 2012 model year Toyota Camry Hybrid , 2012 Lexus CT200h , all EV versions of the Honda Fit , and all Prius family cars recently introduced in the United States , including the standard 2012 model year Prius , the Toyota Prius v , Prius c and the Toyota Prius Plug @-@ in Hybrid . The 2013 Smart electric drive comes with automatically activated sounds in the U.S. and Japan and manually activated in Europe . Tesla Motors and Volkswagen do not currently include warning sounds in their electric drive vehicles , as all of them decided to add artificial sounds only when required by regulation .
= = Background = =
As a result of increased sales of hybrid electric vehicles in several countries , some members of the blind community have raised concerns about the noise reduction when those vehicles operate in all @-@ electric mode , as blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets and feel quiet hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard . Although a 2009 study found no statistically significant difference in pedestrian crashes involving quiet hybrid vehicles when compared to noisier vehicles when both types of vehicles were travelling in a straight line , it found a doubling of hybrid vehicle pedestrian crashes when reversing or parking etc. at slow speeds .
This problem is not exclusive to electric vehicles . In 2007 research at the Technical University Munich showed that ordinary vehicles in background noise are often detected too late for safe accident avoidance . The researchers measured the distances of 35 approaching vehicles to a pedestrian in the moment when they just got audible in a stationary background noise . These distances were then compared to the stopping distances of the respective cars and an algorithm was proposed to estimate them based on auditory masking .
Research conducted at the University of California , Riverside in 2008 found that hybrid cars are so quiet when operating in electric mode ( EV mode ) that they may pose a risk to the blind , small children , the elderly , runners , cyclists , and other pedestrians , as they may have only one or two seconds , depending on the context , to audibly detect the location of approaching hybrid cars when the vehicles operate at very slow speeds . This research project was funded by the National Federation of the Blind .
The experiment consisted of making audio recordings of a Toyota Prius and combustion engine Honda Accord approaching from two directions at 5 miles per hour ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) to assure that the hybrid car operated only with its electric motor . Then test subjects in a laboratory listened to the recordings and indicated when they could hear from which direction the cars approached . Subjects could locate the hum of the internal combustion engine car at 36 feet ( 11 m ) away , but could not identify the hybrid running in electric mode until it came within 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) , leaving just less than two seconds to react before the vehicle reached their position . In a second trial , the background sounds of two quietly idling combustion engine cars were added to the recordings to simulate the noise of a parking lot . Under this condition , the hybrid needed to be 74 percent closer than the conventional car before the subjects could hear from which direction the cars approached . Subjects could correctly judge the approach of the combustion car when it was about 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) feet away . This result means that under closer to normal environmental noise , a pedestrian would not be able to correctly determine the hybrid 's approach until it was one second away .
A separate 2008 study from Western Michigan University found that hybrids and conventional vehicles are equally safe when travelling more than about 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) , because tire and wind noise generate most of the audible cues at those speeds . Hybrid cars were also tested safe when leaving a stoplight and it was found that under this condition they do not pose a risk to pedestrians . All Prius models used in the study engaged their internal combustion engines when accelerating from a standstill and produced enough noise to be detected .
A 2009 study conducted by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration found that crashes involving pedestrians and bicyclists have higher incidence rates for hybrid electric vehicles than internal combustion engine ( ICE ) vehicles in low @-@ speed vehicle maneuvers such as reversing or leaving a parking zone . These accidents commonly occurred in zones with low speed limits , during daytime and in clear weather . The study found that a HEV was two times more likely to be involved in a pedestrian crash than was a conventional ICE vehicle when a vehicle is slowing or stopping , backing up , or entering or leaving a parking space . Vehicle maneuvers were grouped in one category considering those maneuvers that might have occurred at very low speeds where the difference between the sound levels produced by the hybrid versus ICE vehicle is the greatest . Also the study found that the incidence rate of pedestrian crashes in scenarios when vehicles make a turn was significantly higher for HEVs when compared to ICE vehicles . Similarly , The NHTSA study also concluded that the incidence rate of bicyclist crashes involving HEVs for the same kind of maneuvers was significantly higher when compared to conventional vehicles .
In September 2010 , Volvo Cars and Vattenfall , a Swedish energy company , issued a report regarding the results of the first phase of the Volvo V70 Plug @-@ in Hybrid demonstration program . Among other findings , before the trial drivers participating in the field testing were concerned about being a danger to pedestrians and cyclists due to the quietness of the electric @-@ drive vehicle . After the test several of them change their opinion and said that this issue was less of a problem than expected . Nevertheless , some test drivers said they experienced incidents of not being noticed while others said they had taken extra care in their driving with regard to this issue .
= = Regulations = =
Since 2009 the Japanese government , the U.S. Congress and the European Commission are exploring legislation to establish a minimum level of sound for plug @-@ in electric and hybrid electric vehicles when operating in electric mode , so that blind people and other pedestrians and cyclists can hear them coming and detect from which direction they are approaching . Tests have shown that vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 32 km / h ( 20 mph ) .
= = = European Union = = =
In 2011 the European Commission drafted a guideline for Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems ( AVAS ) . The goal is to present recommendations to manufacturers for a system to be installed in vehicles to provide an audible signal to pedestrians and vulnerable road users . This interim guideline is intended to provide guidance until the completion of on @-@ going research activities and the development of globally harmonized device performance specifications . The guidelines are intended for hybrid electric and pure electric highway @-@ capable vehicles . The guideline recommends that the AVAS shall automatically generate a continuous sound in the minimum range of vehicle speed from start up to approximately 20 km / h ( 12 mph ) and during reversing , if applicable for that vehicle category , and list the types of sounds that are not acceptable . It also states that the AVAS may have a pause switch to stop its operation temporarily .
On 6 February 2013 , the European Parliament approved a draft law to tighten noise limits for cars to protect public health , and also to add alerting sounds to ensure the audibility of hybrid and electric vehicles to improve the safety of vulnerable road users in urban areas , such as blind , visually and auditorily challenged pedestrians , cyclists and children . The draft legislation states a number of tests , standards and measures that must first be developed for an Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems ( AVAS ) to be compulsory in the future . Now an agreement has to be negotiated with European Union countries . The approved amendment establishes that " the sound to be generated by the AVAS should be a continuous sound that provides information to the pedestrians and vulnerable road users of a vehicle in operation . The sound should be easily indicative of vehicle behaviour and should sound similar to the sound of a vehicle of the same category equipped with an internal combustion engine . " In April 2014 the European Parliament approved the legislation that requires the Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems , which is mandatory for all new electric and hybrid electric vehicles . The new rule established a transitional period of 5 years to comply with the regulation .
= = = Japan = = =
Beginning in July 2009 the Japanese government began assessing possible countermeasures through the Committee for the Consideration of Countermeasures Regarding Quiet Hybrid and Other Vehicles , and in January 2010 the Ministry of Land , Infrastructure , Transport and Tourism issued guidelines for hybrid and other near @-@ silent vehicles .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
The Department for Transport ( DfT ) commissioned research to gather statistics on accidents involving electric vehicles with pedestrians who are blind or vision impaired to determine whether the perceived accident risk is real and whether electric and hybrid cars are more difficult to detect audibly than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles . The DfT goal was to use the findings to establish what sort of sound should be fitted to electric vehicles .
The research was conducted by the Transport Research Laboratory , and the findings were published in 2011 . The study found little correlation between pedestrian vehicle involvement density and noise level for the majority of vehicles . In addition , the analysis found no evidence of a pattern in pedestrian vehicle involvement densities when only considering those accidents occurring on 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) or slower roads , or where the pedestrian was disabled . A previous study did not find an increased pedestrian vehicle involvement density for electric and hybrid vehicles with respect to their conventional counterparts , which raised the question as to whether added sound is necessarily required . The study also noted that some modern conventional cars are as quiet as their electric counterparts , even at low speeds .
UK organisation The Guide Dogs for the Blind Association lobbied members of the European Parliament to vote in favour of legislation to make the installation of artificial sound generators mandatory on quiet electric and hybrid vehicles .
= = = United States = = =
The Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 was approved by the U.S. Senate by unanimous consent on December 9 , 2010 and passed by the House of Representatives by 379 to 30 on December 16 , 2010 . The act does not stipulate a specific speed for the simulated noise but requires the U.S. Department of Transportation to study and establish a motor vehicle safety standard that would set requirements for an alert sound that allows blind and other pedestrians to reasonably detect a nearby electric or hybrid vehicle , and the ruling must be finalized within eighteen months . The bill was signed into law by President Barack Obama on January 4 , 2011 .
A proposed rule was published for comment by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) in January , 2013 . It would require hybrids and electric vehicles traveling at less than 18 @.@ 6 miles per hour ( 30 km / h ) to emit warning sounds that pedestrians must be able to hear over background noises . The agency selected 30 km / h as the limit because according to NHTSA measurements , this is the speed at which the sound levels of the hybrid and electric vehicles approximated the sound levels produced by similar internal combustion vehicles . According to the NHTSA proposal , carmakers would be able to pick the sounds the vehicles make from a range of choices , and similar vehicles would have to make the same sounds . The rules were scheduled to go into effect in September 2014 . The NHTSA estimates that the new warning noises would prevent 2 @,@ 800 pedestrian and cyclist injuries during the life of each model year electric and hybrid vehicle .
In February 2013 , the Association of Global Automakers and the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers , which submitted a joint comment to the NHTSA , announced their support to the rule , but asked the NHTSA to find a noise level that effectively alerts pedestrians without being excessively loud to others inside and outside of the vehicle . They also commented that the rule is too complicated , unnecessarily prescriptive , and it will cost more than necessary . Some automakers also said there is no need for electric @-@ drive vehicles to play sounds while not in motion , " since it is not clear that it helps pedestrians to hear cars that are stopped in traffic or parked . " In addition , the carmakers requested the NHTSA to make the new sound system required by 2018 instead of 2014 .
In January 2015 , the NHTSA rescheduled the date for a final ruling to the end of 2015 . Since the regulation comes into force three years after being rendered as a final rule , compliance was delayed to 2018 . In November 2015 , the NHTSA rescheduled one more time because additional coordination is necessary . A final ruling was delayed at least until mid @-@ March 2016 .
= = Specific systems = =
= = = Enhanced Vehicle Acoustics = = =
Enhanced Vehicle Acoustics ( EVA ) , a company based in Silicon Valley , California and founded by two Stanford students with the help of seed money from the National Federation of the Blind , developed an after market technology called " Vehicular Operations Sound Emitting Systems " ( VOSES ) . The device makes hybrid electric vehicles sound more like conventional internal combustion engine cars when the vehicle goes into the silent electric mode ( EV mode ) , but at a fraction of the sound level of most vehicles . At speeds higher than between 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) to 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) the sound system shuts off . The system also shuts off when the hybrid combustion engine kicks in .
VOSES uses miniature , all @-@ weather audio speakers that are placed on the hybrid 's wheel wells and emit specific sounds based on the direction the car is moving in order to minimize noise pollution and to maximize acoustic information for pedestrians . If the car is moving forward , the sounds are only projected in the forward direction ; and if the car is turning left or right , the sound changes on the left or right appropriately . The company argues that chirps , beeps and alarms are more distracting than useful , and that the best sounds for alerting pedestrians are carlike , such as " the soft purr of an engine or the slow roll of tires across pavement . " One of the EVA 's external sound systems was designed specifically for the Toyota Prius .
= = = ECTunes = = =
ECTunes is developing a system that utilizes directional sound equipment to emit noise when and where it is needed . According to the company , its technology sends audible signals only in the direction of travel , thus allowing the vehicle to be heard by those who may be in the car 's path , without disturbing others with unwelcome noise . Insero , a Danish venture company , has provided a significant investment to help ECTunes fully develop its technology .
The ECTunes system , and most others so far disclosed , use a control box , with software , digital amplifiers and weather @-@ friendly external speakers . ECTunes ' system connects to the car , and reads speed and acceleration , shutting down when the car reaches Cross @-@ over speed as set by existing regulation as well as regulation under development such as Quiet Road Transport Vehicles ( QRTV ) , at which point the tires and wind are making noise of their own . The company is currently selling products to OEM 's , mainly small series production , and to the after market , and has also a new mass production unit in prototype stage
= = = SoundRacer EVS = = =
SoundRacer AB is a Swedish manufacturer of electronic engine sound devices established 2008 to develop sound technology for improved driving experience in internal combustion engine ( ICE ) cars . In 2012 the company released their first version of an Electric Vehicle Electronic Engine Sound System , based on the same technology .
SoundRacer EVS use only real engine sound recordings as the base for the sounds , following the legislation guidelines that the sound " should sound similar to the sound of a vehicle of the same category equipped with an internal combustion engine " . As a result , the sounds will also be less likely to be disturbing compared to adding new types of synthetic sounds into the traffic environment .
The sound modules are developed to give a realistic ICE sound impression indicating if the vehicle is idling , accelerating , decelerating or cruising . The different sound characters and sound volume is determined from information about the actual speed of the vehicle and rate of speed change .
The company targets two different applications with the products : 1 . EV warning sounds , to make electric vehicles meet the upcoming legislations , and 2 . Increased driving experience to make electric vehicles more popular among customer groups that appreciate real engine sounds .
Many manufacturers of electric vehicles like cars , motorcycles and scooters are now in the process of evaluating sound systems for their products . To assist them in the prototyping process the SoundRacer EVS modules have functions that will give EV manufacturers the tools to test different sounds and settings . Several files with sounds and parameter settings , such as the speed for muting the sound , sound levels and simulated gear changing , can be created with a computer program and stored on a MicroSD card . Changing sounds and settings during test drives is then performed with a touch of a button .
SoundRacer AB delivers complete systems with CAN bus , analog and digital speed / rpm input and a selection of weather protected speakers .
= = = Fisker Automotive = = =
Fisker Automotive developed a sound @-@ generator that was incorporated in its Fisker Karma luxury plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicle , released in 2011 . According to the carmaker , the sound is designed to both alert pedestrians and enhance the driver experience , and the warning noise will be emitted automatically . The Fisker Karma emits a sound through a pair of external speakers embedded in the bumper . According to a company spokesman the sound is a mix between a " Formula One car and a starship " .
The developing process took between nine months to a year , and three sound companies sent in synthesized WAV file samples that were evaluated by Fisker employees and executives . The prospective sounds were studied in an audio chamber to allow engineers to evaluate the sounds without other noise interfering . After testing the candidate sounds in different locations relative to the vehicle , Fisker fined @-@ tune the final sound with its own equipment . The warning sound is activated when the car is traveling at less than 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) .
= = = Ford = = =
The 2012 Ford Focus Electric was planned to include warning sounds for pedestrians . Ford Motor Company developed four alternative sounds , and in June 2011 involved the electric car fans by asking them to pick their favorite from the four potential warning sounds through the Focus Electric Facebook page . However , ultimately Ford decided to hold off including warning sounds unless federal legislation required it , and no such system was implemented on the production vehicle .
= = = General Motors = = =
General Motors ' first commercially available plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicle , the Chevrolet Volt , introduced in December 2010 , includes warning sounds for pedestrians . GM 's system is called Pedestrian @-@ Friendly Alert System and it is manually activated by the driver , but future generations probably will include an active system . The automaker conducted a test with a group of the visually challenged at Milford Proving Grounds in order to evaluate the audible warning systems on the Volt when a pedestrian is in the car 's proximity . The system uses the car 's horn to emit a series of warning chirps , like a low tone of a horn , enough to provide an alert but not to startle . According to GM engineers , the biggest challenge is " developing an active system that can distinguish a pedestrian from another vehicle " ; otherwise , the sound will go off frequently , producing noise pollution instead .
= = = Hyundai = = =
Hyundai developed a warning noise for called the Virtual Engine Sound System ( VESS ) . The system , which was introduced in September 2010 on its test fleet of BlueOn electric hatchbacks , provides synthetic audio feedback mimicking the sound of an idling internal combustion engine .
The 2011 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid is the first mass production car manufactured by Hyundai to include the warning sound system . In 2010 the carmaker decided to have a button on the Sonata Hybrid 's instrument panel to turn the VESS on and off , but after the enactment of the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 , signed into law by President Obama in early 2011 , and learning that the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration would not allow such switches to avoid the noise device to be turned off , Hyundai decided not to install the button , and the first Sonata Hybrids destined for the U.S. market had to be altered to remove the switch .
= = = Lotus Engineering = = =
Lotus Engineering , a consultancy group of British sports carmaker Lotus Cars , partnered in 2009 with Harman Becker , a producer of audio systems , to develop and commercialize a synthetic automotive audio systems . Lotus has worked on a number of hybrid and electric vehicles and its engineers thought they would be safer if these vehicles made a noise while moving around the factory . Originally developed to cancel out intrusive noises inside a car , the noise canceling system was adapted so that it could also simulate engine sounds that change with speed and use of the throttle , providing audible " feedback " to drivers of vehicles with a silent engine . At the same time , and through the addition of external speakers , the sound system allows pedestrians to hear the noise too , but optionally there can be a different sound within the car from the one that is emitted for the outside . Lotus used a Toyota Prius to demonstrate the device but did not reveal if it intended to bring this technology to market .
Lotus ' synthetic sound system was incorporated in the Lotus Evora 414E Hybrid , a concept plug @-@ in hybrid unveiled at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show . The system , called HALOsonic Internal and External Electronic Sound Synthesis , is a suite of noise solutions that uses patented technologies from Lotus and Harman International . The audio system generates engine sounds inside the vehicle through the audio system . The system also generates the external sound through speakers mounted at the front and rear to provide a warning to increase pedestrian safety . The system comes with four driver @-@ selectable engine sounds , two of which have been designed to have characteristics of a multi @-@ cylinder conventional V6 and V12 engine .
= = = Nissan = = =
Vehicle Sound for Pedestrians or VSP is a Nissan @-@ developed warning sound system in electric vehicles . The Nissan Leaf was the first car manufactured by Nissan to include VSP , and the electric car includes one sound for forward motion and another for reverse . The VSP was also used in the Nissan Fuga hybrid launched in 2011 . The system developed makes a noise easy to hear for those outside to be aware of the vehicle approaching , but the warning sounds do not distract the car occupants inside . Nissan explained that during the development of the sound they studied behavioral research of the visually impaired and worked with cognitive and acoustic psychologists , including the National Federation of the Blind , the Detroit Institute of Ophthalmology , experts from the Vanderbilt University Medical Center and a Hollywood sound design studio .
Nissan 's Vehicle Sound for Pedestrians is a sine @-@ wave sound system that sweeps from 2 @.@ 5 kHz at the high end to a low of 600 Hz , a range that is easily audible across age groups . Depending on the speed and whether the Leaf is accelerating or decelerating , the sound system will make sweeping , high @-@ low sounds . For example , when the Leaf is started the sound will be louder , and when the car is in reverse , the system will generate an intermittent sound . The sound system ceases operation when the Nissan Leaf reaches 30 km / h ( 18 @.@ 6 mph ) and engages again as the car slows to under 25 kilometres per hour ( 16 mph ) . For the 2011 Leaf , the driver could turn off sounds temporarily through a switch inside the vehicle , but the system automatically reset to " On " at the next ignition cycle . The system is controlled through a computer and synthesizer in the dash panel , and the sound is delivered through a speaker in the front driver 's side wheel well . Nissan said that there were six or seven finalist sounds , and that sound testing included driving cars emitting various sounds past testers standing on street corners , who indicated when they first heard the approaching car . Nissan removed the ability to disable the pedestrian alert between model year 2011 and 2012 in anticipation of the U.S. ruling to be issued by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration .
The Leaf 's electric warning sound had to be removed for cars delivered in the U.K. , as the country 's law mandates that any hazard warning sound must be capable of being disabled between 11 : 00 pm and 6 : 00 am , and the Leaf 's audible warning system does not allow for such temporary deactivation . For the 2014 UK model of the car , the VSP system is enabled by default , though a button on the dash permits drivers to disable the system until the next time the car is switched on .
= = = Toyota = = =
Toyota Motor Company teamed up with Fujitsu Ten to develop an automatic warning system for hybrids and electric vehicles to alert pedestrians when the car is propelled by its electric motor . The companies also studied the development of a system that would change the alarm 's tune and volume with the assistance of an obstacle @-@ detection radar .
On August 2010 Toyota began sales of an onboard device designed to automatically emit a synthesized sound of an electric motor when the Prius is operating as an electric vehicle at speeds up to approximately 25 kilometres per hour ( 16 mph ) . The device will be available in Japan through authorized Toyota dealers and Toyota genuine parts & accessories distributors for retrofitting on the third @-@ generation Prius at a price of ¥ 12 @,@ 600 ( ~ US $ 150 ) including the consumption tax . The alert sound rises and falls in pitch according to the vehicle 's speed , thus helping indicate the vehicle 's proximity and movement to nearby pedestrians . Toyota is planning to use other versions of the device for use in gasoline @-@ electric hybrids , plug @-@ in hybrids , electric vehicles as well as fuel @-@ cell hybrid vehicles planned for mass production . The device meets the 2010 government regulations issued for hybrid and other near @-@ silent vehicles .
Toyota 's Vehicle Proximity Notification System ( VPNS ) was introduced in the United States in all 2012 model year Prius family vehicles , including the Prius v , Prius Plug @-@ in Hybrid and the standard Prius . The system is being introduced to comply with the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 .
= = = Other carmakers = = =
Tesla Motors and Think Global , both manufactures of electric cars already in the market , are assessing this safety issue . Ford Motor Company is developing a system for emitting external sounds to future hybrids and electrics , including its Focus BEV , scheduled for 2011 , and a next @-@ generation hybrid and plug @-@ in hybrid vehicle planned for 2012 . Nancy Gioia , Ford 's Director for Global Electrification commented that " car companies should consider standardizing tones from future hybrids and electrics to avoid a cacophony of confusion on the streets . "
= = Criticism and controversy = =
After Nissan 's new sounds were publicized , the U.S. National Federation of the Blind issued a statement saying that " while it was pleased that the alert existed , it was unhappy that the driver was able to turn it off . " The NFB approves the Nissan Leaf 's forward motion sound , but it said the forward noise should also be used for reversing because the " intermittent sound is not as effective as a continuous sound " and that the car should emit warning sounds when it is idling , not only when it 's moving slowly . Nevertheless , their main complaint is that they don ’ t think the driver should be able to switch the sound off .
Several anti @-@ noise and electric car advocates have opposed the introduction of artificial sounds as warning for pedestrians , as they argue that the proposed system will only increase noise pollution . They also opposed U.S. pending legislation that would require generated warning sounds with no off switch for the driver .
Robert S. Wall Emerson of Western Michigan University has argued that several high @-@ end gasoline @-@ powered luxury cars are already quieter than hybrids , and according to his most recent studies , hybrid SUVs were noisier than many internal @-@ combustion vehicles . He concludes that pedestrian safety is not a hybrid issue but rather " a quiet car issue . "
= = Market availability = =
As of 1 January 2014 , most of the hybrids and plug @-@ in electric and hybrids sold make warning noises using a speaker system . Tesla Motors , Volkswagen and BMW do not currently include warning sounds in their electric @-@ drive vehicles , as all of them decided to add artificial sounds only when required by regulation .
= Suillus quiescens =
Suillus quiescens is a pored mushroom of the genus Suillus in the family Suillaceae . First collected in 2002 on Santa Cruz Island off the coast of California , in association with Bishop Pine ( Pinus muricata ) , the species was scientifically described and named in 2010 . In addition to its distribution in coastal California , it was also found forming ectomycorrhizae with the roots of pine seedlings in the eastern Sierra Nevada , coastal Oregon , and the southern Cascade Mountains . It resembles Suillus brevipes , but can be distinguished from that species by its paler @-@ colored immature cap and by the tiny colored glands on the stipe that darken with age .
= = Discovery = =
Fruit bodies of the fungus were first collected in 2002 on Santa Cruz Island , in Santa Barbara County . They were named provisionally as a new species , Suillus quiescens , in conference proceedings published in 2005 . The species was officially described and named in a 2010 Mycologia publication . The specific epithet quiescens refers to the organism 's ability to wait dormant ( quiescent ) in the soil until it encounters pine roots .
= = Phylogeny = =
Based on phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer region in the non @-@ functional RNA of a number of Suillus species , S. quiescens is distinct from other morphologically similar species such as S. brevipes , S. volcanalis , and S. occidentalis . The S. quiescens sequences , which were obtained from fruit bodies and from mycorrhizal root tips , formed a clade . The analysis showed that the S. quiescens sequences were matches to some unidentified Suillus sequences found from mycorrhizae of pine seedlings collected from Oregon and California .
= = Description = =
The cap ranges in shape from hemispheric to broadly convex , and has a diameter of 6 to 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The cap color is deep brown in mature specimens and lighter shades of brown in younger mushrooms . Young specimens have a sticky layer of gluten on the cap that dries out in maturity . The edge of the cap is rolled inwards in young specimens . The flesh of the cap is whitish and does not change color when bruised or cut . The tubes on the underside of the cap are light yellow to bright orange @-@ yellow ; the tube mouths are usually less than 1 mm wide . The stipe is usually between 2 and 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 and 1 @.@ 6 in ) long , less frequently reaching up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) . It is either the same width throughout or slightly larger ( bulbous ) at the base . The color of the upper portion of the stipe is pale to light yellow , while the lower portion may be light brown or covered with streaks of glutinous material like that on the cap . The stipe surface is covered with fine glands that are initially slightly darker than the color of the stipe surface , but deepen to brown or nearly black after drying . The color of the spore print was not determined from the initial collections , but is thought to be yellow @-@ brown to brown based on the accumulated spore deposit seen on the surface of the caps of neighboring fruit bodies .
The elongate spores are oblong in face view , with dimensions of 6 @.@ 1 – 14 @.@ 7 by 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 7 µm . Most spores have a single large drop of oil in them . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are club @-@ shaped , two- or four @-@ spored , and measure 20 @.@ 2 – 26 @.@ 2 by 5 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 7 µm .
= = = Similar species = = =
With its short stipe and sticky cap , S. quiescens is similar to S. brevipes . It may be distinguished from the latter species by the color of the young ( light @-@ brown ) cap , the glandular dots at the top of stipes in mature specimens , and the yellowish color at the top of the stipe .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Fruit bodies grow together in small groups on the ground in association with Bishop Pine ( Pinus muricata ) . It is the most common Suillus species on Santa Cruz Island , its type locality and it has also been collected at Santa Rosa Island , and Point Reyes National Seashore in California . Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa , two of the four islands that make up the northern Channel Islands , have a Mediterranean climate with cool and wet winters , and warm and dry summers . Most species of Suillus do not have spores that survive in the soil for extended periods of time , but the spores of S. quiescens can tolerate the dry conditions and heat typical of California . Another study showed that viable S. quiescens spores were present in steam @-@ pasteurized soil planted in Oregon fields . The authors suggest that S. quiescens is an early successional species that fruits in young forests , and whose spores remain dormant in the soil for extended periods of time until the roots of a suitable pine host are encountered .
= Rebecca Soni =
Rebecca Soni ( born March 18 , 1987 ) is an American former competition swimmer and breaststroke specialist who is a six @-@ time Olympic medalist . She is a former world record @-@ holder in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke ( short and long course ) and the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke ( short and long course ) , and is the first woman to swim the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke in under 2 minutes 20 seconds . As a member of the U.S. national team , she currently holds the world record in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay ( short and long course ) .
Soni has won a total of twenty @-@ two medals in major international competition , fourteen gold , seven silver , and one bronze spanning the Olympics , the World , the Universiade , and the Pan Pacific Championships . She burst onto the international scene at the 2008 Summer Olympics where she won two silver medals and one gold . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke at the Olympics , she set the world record en route to winning gold , shocking Australian favorite Leisel Jones . Four years later at the 2012 Summer Olympics
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= = = World War I = = =
As a result of the outbreak of World War I , Kaiser Barbarossa and her sisters were brought out of reserve and mobilized as the V Battle Squadron on 5 August 1914 . The ships were prepared for war very slowly , and they were not ready for service in the North Sea until the end of August . They were initially tasked with coastal defense , though they served in this capacity for a very short time . In mid @-@ September , the V Squadron was transferred to the Baltic , under the command of Prince Heinrich . He initially planned to launch a major amphibious assault on Windau , but a shortage of transports forced a revision of the plan . Instead , the V Squadron was to carry the landing force , but this too was cancelled after Heinrich received false reports of British warships having entered the Baltic on 25 September . Kaiser Barbarossa and her sisters returned to Kiel the following day , disembarked the landing force , and then proceeded to the North Sea , where they resumed guard ship duties . Before the end of the year , the V Squadron was once again transferred to the Baltic .
After returning to the Baltic , Prince Heinrich ordered a foray toward Gotland . On 26 December 1914 , the battleships rendezvoused with the Baltic cruiser division in the Bay of Pomerania and then departed on the sortie . Two days later , the fleet arrived off Gotland to show the German flag , and was back in Kiel by 30 December . The squadron returned to the North Sea for guard duties , but was withdrawn from frontline service in February 1915 . Shortages of trained crews in the High Seas Fleet , coupled with the risk of operating older ships in wartime , necessitated the deactivation of Kaiser Barbarossa and her sisters . Her crew was reduced on 5 March , only to be replaced on 11 April so the ship could be used as a torpedo target ship ; this service lasted until 9 November . Ten days later , she was decommissioned for the last time , and in 1916 she was disarmed . Kaiser Barbarossa was thereafter employed as a floating prison for prisoners of war in Wilhelmshaven . In November 1918 , Germany sought an end to the war and signed the First Armistice at Compiègne , which temporarily ended hostilities so a peace treaty could be negotiated . Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , which formally ended the war and was signed on 28 June 1919 , Germany was permitted to retain only six battleships of the " Deutschland or Lothringen types . " Accordingly , the ship was struck from the naval list on 6 December 1919 and sold to ship @-@ breakers . Kaiser Barbarossa was broken up for scrap metal in Rüstringen in 1919 and 1920 .
= Robert Howe ( Continental Army officer ) =
Robert Howe ( 1732 – December 14 , 1786 ) was a Continental Army general from North Carolina during the American Revolutionary War . The descendant of a prominent family in North Carolina , Howe was one of five generals , and the only major general , in the Continental Army from that state . He also played a role in the colonial and state governments of North Carolina , serving in the legislative bodies of both .
Howe served in the colonial militia during the French and Indian War and commanded Fort Johnston at the mouth of the Cape Fear River . He also served as a colonel of Royal Governor William Tryon 's artillery during the War of the Regulation . Howe suffered greatly when Tryon , a personal friend , became Governor of New York , and he staunchly opposed Tryon 's successor . He became active in organizing efforts within North Carolina and among the American colonies between 1773 and 1775 and was an active member of the North Carolina Provincial Congress . At the outset of the Revolutionary War , Howe was promoted to brigadier general and was heavily involved in actions in the Southern Department , commanding the Continental Army and Patriot militia forces in defeat in the First Battle of Savannah .
Howe 's career as a military commander was contentious and consumed primarily by conflict with political and military leaders in Georgia and South Carolina . In 1778 , he fought a duel with Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina which was spurred in part by Howe 's conflict with South Carolina 's state government . Political and personal confrontations , combined with Howe 's reputation as a womanizer among those who disfavored him , eventually led to the Continental Congress stripping him of his command over the Southern Department . He was then sent to New York , where he served under General George Washington in the Hudson Highlands , although Howe did not have a successful or significant career in that theater . He sat as a senior officer on the court @-@ martial board that sentenced to death John André , a British officer accused of assisting Benedict Arnold in the latter 's plot to change allegiance and deliver West Point to the British . Howe himself was accused of attempting to defect to the British , but the accusations were cast aside at the time as having been based in a British attempt to cause further discord in the Continental Army . Howe also played a role in putting down several late @-@ war mutinies by members of the Pennsylvania and New Jersey Lines in New Jersey and Philadelphia and returned home to North Carolina in 1783 . He again became active in state politics , but died in December 1786 while en route to a session of the North Carolina House of Commons .
= = Early life and family = =
Howe was born in 1732 to Job Howe ( also spelled " Howes " ) , the grandson of colonial Governor James Moore , who presided over the southern portion of the Province of Carolina . Job was also a descendant of Governor John Yeamans . Howe 's mother may have been Job 's first wife Martha , who was the daughter of colonial North Carolina jurist Frederick Jones . Job Howe 's ancestors had been planters and political figures in South Carolina during the late 17th and early 18th centuries . Prior to Howe 's birth , his family left Charleston to settle on the banks of the Cape Fear River in the Province of North Carolina . Howe 's father was a member of the extended Moore family , formerly of South Carolina , who settled the lower Cape Fear River and collectively owned more than 80 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 ha ; 120 sq mi ) of farmland on it by the 1730s . Job Howe died in 1748 , leaving his estate and the wealth of his parents to Robert . Robert had two brothers and two sisters , all of whom were mentioned in Job 's will .
As a young boy , Howe may have been sent to England to obtain an education , although several sources doubt that Howe made the journey . At some point between 1751 and 1754 , after completing his education , Howe married Sarah Grange , who was heiress to a large fortune . Howe had numerous affairs , fathering an unknown number of children in and out of wedlock , including a son , Robert ; two daughters , Mary and Ann ; and up to four additional daughters whose mothers ' names are not recorded . Howe was widely considered a womanizer by contemporaries ; by 1772 he became estranged from Grange , and the two separated . In the year of their formal separation , Howe recorded a deed for the support of his wife .
Loyalist sympathizer and diarist Janet Schaw described Howe prior to the revolution :
... very like a Gentleman , much more so indeed than any thing I have seen in the Country . He is deemed a horrid animal , a sort of a woman @-@ eater that devours every thing that comes in his way , and that no woman can withstand him . But be not in pain for your friend , I do assure you they overrate his merits , and as I am certain it would be in the power of mortal women to withstand him , so am I convinced he is not so voracious as he is represented .
Howe inherited a large amount of assets from his grandmother and , upon the death of his father , became the owner of " Howe 's Point " , a rice plantation near what was formerly known as Barren Inlet ( now called Mason Inlet ) . The site of the former plantation is located on the mainland directly across from Figure Eight Island . Howe also owned a plantation called " Mount Misery " in what was Bladen County . His grandmother had provided Howe with slaves and money with which Howe was intended to build his fortune .
= = Colonial political and military service = =
Around 1755 , Howe captained a militia company in Bladen County , and was appointed a justice of the peace for that county in 1756 . Howe was elected to the colonial Assembly from Bladen County in 1760 and served until 1762 . In 1764 , the Assembly created Brunswick County , and Howe was both appointed its justice of the peace and re @-@ elected to the Assembly from the new county . Howe would be re @-@ elected six more times from Brunswick County . In 1765 , Howe worked with other colonial leaders such as Hugh Waddell , Abner Nash , and Cornelius Harnett to found the Wilmington Sons of Liberty organization , which was active in protesting the Stamp Act 1765 that taxed most printed materials . At the time , the members of the Sons of Liberty did not consider their resistance to be rebellion , as it was based on the idea that government officials who performed acts in opposition to the will of the people were not acting with full authority . After the resolution of the Stamp Act Crisis , Howe was made an officer of the provincial exchequer . Despite the Cape Fear River area being the epicenter of Stamp Act protests in North Carolina , Howe took no substantial part in the active confrontations with Governor William Tryon , due in large part to their personal friendship and the patronage provided by the Governor for Howe 's political ambitions .
During the French and Indian War , Howe served alongside provincial soldiers from Virginia . In 1766 , he was commissioned as a captain of militia and was given command of Fort Johnston , located at the entrance of the Cape Fear River in present @-@ day Southport , North Carolina . Howe served in this capacity between 1766 and 1767 , and again between 1769 and 1773 . Although satisfied with this position , Howe ultimately desired to obtain a commission in the regular British Army , which was traditionally a prerequisite for the commander of Fort Johnston . Howe was never granted this commission , despite Tryon 's support . In the 1768 session of the colonial assembly , Howe played a prominent role by introducing a bill to remedy a currency shortage in the colony . His bill would have led to the acceptance of commodities as legal tender in the province , but it was not passed . The Regulator movement was in part based on the grievances farmers in the North Carolina backcountry had about back taxes and pressure from private creditors , both of which Howe 's 1768 bill had attempted to address .
Despite his efforts to reform the province 's policies , Howe was made a colonel of artillery by Governor Tryon and served under the Governor against armed protesters in the piedmont during the War of the Regulation . Howe was among the Governor 's entourage when he confronted the Regulators in Hillsborough in 1768 , and in 1771 , at the Battle of Alamance , Howe served in a dual role as a commander of artillery and quartermaster general . In early 1773 , when Josiah Quincy II visited North Carolina to foster cooperation between Southern activists and those in Boston , he investigated the causes of the War of the Regulation to which he had been sympathetic . Howe served as Quincy 's guide and with the assistance of Cornelius Harnett and William Hooper convinced Quincy that the Regulator movement had been unjustified and wrong to take up arms against Tryon . Quincy found Howe to be a " most happy compound of the man of sense , the sword , the Senate , and the buck ... a favorite of the man of sense and the female world " , continuing to say that " [ Howe ] has faults and vice – but alas who is without them . " More importantly , however , Quincy 's visit with Howe , Hooper , and Harnett engendered a desire among those present to open up inter @-@ colonial lines of communication in order to coordinate responses to future impositions by the British government .
Howe 's private fortunes were never stable , and between 1766 and 1775 , he was forced to mortgage land and sell slaves to generate funds . In 1770 , Howe was able to purchase Kendal Plantation on the Cape Fear River , a 400 @-@ acre ( 160 ha ; 0 @.@ 63 sq mi ) rice plantation , but in 1775 , he mortgaged it for around ₤ 214 . While the causes of Howe 's financial misfortunes are unknown , several contemporary critics held that the cause was Howe 's need to keep up appearances among the ruling elite , while Josiah Martin , Tryon 's successor as Royal Governor , believed Howe 's misfortunes were evidence of his potential for malfeasance with the public money . In particular , Martin believed that Howe was intentionally under @-@ staffing Fort Johnston in order to pocket excess funds the colonial assembly had appropriated for the garrison there , which was a common form of embezzlement among previous commanders and other royal officials . Howe , as a legislator and public official , had a poor working relationship with Martin , and Martin deprived him of his appointed offices – the captaincy of Fort Johnston and his position with the provincial exchequer – shortly after the new governor 's arrival . A legislative confrontation in 1770 over the Provincial Assembly 's attempts to pass a law authorizing attachment of real property in North Carolina owned by persons living in England placed Howe in direct confrontation with Martin , who preferred a requirement that colonial subjects seek relief from courts in England rather than in North Carolina . Martin believed that Howe 's virulent opposition to the new governor 's policies was driven by Howe 's anger at being deprived of his valuable appointed positions .
= = Revolutionary political and militia service = =
In December 1773 , the North Carolina colonial assembly created a committee of correspondence , to which Howe , as well as Richard Caswell , John Harvey , John Ashe , Joseph Hewes , and Samuel Johnston were appointed . That committee was tasked with corresponding with other colonies to coordinate plans of resistance to British attempts to tax or otherwise burden the colonists . Beginning in 1774 , Howe was a member of the Wilmington and Brunswick County Committees of Safety , and in August of that year , served as a member of a committee that organized the collection of corn , flour , and pork to be sent to Boston . At the time , the Port of Boston had been closed by one of the Intolerable Acts , specifically the Boston Port Act , which was in reaction to the Boston Tea Party and other protests against the Tea Act .
When the First Provincial Congress convened on August 25 , 1774 , Howe served as a member of that body representing Brunswick County . The First Provincial Congress quickly passed a bill banning the exportation of all pitch , tobacco , tar , and other trade goods to England and banned the importation of British tea into North Carolina . Also in 1774 , Howe penned several documents expressing what would become known as Patriot or " whig " sympathies , including an address demanding reforms from Royal Governor Josiah Martin . On April 7 , 1775 , Howe delivered an address to the colonial assembly formally rebuffing Governor Martin 's demands that the extra @-@ legal Second Provincial Congress be dissolved . Howe 's response as adopted by the assembly led to Martin proroguing the colonial legislative body . In 1775 , when Howe received news of the Battles of Lexington and Concord , the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War , he began to drill the local militia , using the unusual combination of drums and fiddles as opposed to the standard fifes and drums .
On July 15 , 1775 , Howe led 500 militiamen from Brunswick Town on a raid on the governor 's mansion with the intent of kidnapping Governor Martin . The plot failed when Martin made an early @-@ morning escape from Fort Johnston , fleeing to HMS Cruizer on July 19 . Howe ordered the militia to put the fort 's structures to the torch , starting with the home of its commanding officer and Howe 's successor , Captain John Collet , who had previously been accused of corruption by the Committee of Safety . After fleeing , Martin made a proclamation on August 8 , 1775 , that attributed the growing unrest in North Carolina to what he termed " ' the basest and most scandalous Seditious and inflammatory falsehoods ' " propagated by the Committee of Safety in Wilmington .
Howe once again represented Brunswick County in the Third Provincial Congress in Hillsborough beginning on August 20 , 1775 , and was appointed to the committee charged with developing a test oath for members of the legislative body . The oath declared allegiance to the King of England but denied the power of Parliament to tax to American colonies . During the Fourth North Carolina Provincial Congress in 1776 , Howe was noted to have proclaimed that " ' Independence seems to be the word . I know not one of the dissenting voice . ' "
= = Continental Army service = =
= = = Burning of Norfolk = = =
On September 1 , 1775 , the Third North Carolina Provincial Congress appointed Howe to lead the newly created Second North Carolina Regiment of the Continental Army as its colonel . Initially , Howe headquartered his command in New Bern during the fall of 1775 and was charged by the Provincial Congress with protecting the northern half of North Carolina up to the border with Virginia . At the time , British forces under the command of John Murray , 4th Earl of Dunmore , the last Royal Governor of the Colony of Virginia , were ravaging the tidewater region of Virginia . Howe , of his own initiative , brought his North Carolina troops into Virginia , arriving shortly after the Battle of Great Bridge . Howe then directed the occupation of Norfolk , Virginia , which had recently been abandoned by Loyalist forces , and assumed command of the various North Carolina and Virginia units there . The region around Norfolk was being occupied by Loyalist militia units under Dunmore 's command .
Howe , as senior officer chosen over the more junior William Woodford of Virginia , engaged in contentious negotiations over access to supplies with the captains of British ships anchored off Norfolk , which were by that time overcrowded with Loyalist refugees . The situation deteriorated , and Norfolk was burned on January 1 , 1776 , in an action started by British marines and a bombardment by Royal Navy vessels and completed by Patriot forces . The fire raged on for two more days , and Howe ordered most of the buildings that remained standing to be razed before he withdrew , to further render the location useless to the British . During Howe 's time in command at Norfolk , Woodford described the North Carolinian as a " brave , prudent & spirited commander " . On December 22 , 1775 , Howe was formally thanked by the Virginia Convention , and on April 27 , 1776 , he received the same honor from the Fourth North Carolina Provincial Congress .
= = = Charleston , 1776 – 1777 = = =
In March 1776 , Howe was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General by the Second Continental Congress along with fellow North Carolinian James Moore . Howe and Moore were two of five North Carolinians to be given a general 's commission in the Continental Army . Initially , Howe was given command of all Continental forces in Virginia , but soon both he and Moore were ordered to South Carolina . Howe arrived first as the presence of the British Army and Royal Navy under the command of General Henry Clinton at the mouth of the Cape Fear River delayed Moore 's descent . When Clinton arrived off the coast of North Carolina , he issued a proclamation offering a pardon to anyone who had taken up arms against the crown with the explicit exception of Howe and fellow revolutionary Cornelius Harnett , then serving as president of the North Carolina Provincial Council , the executive body in the revolutionary state . Howe 's plantation , Kendal , was sacked by the British during their maneuvers around Wilmington .
Upon arriving in Charleston , Howe acted as an adjutant to Major General Charles Lee , who had been appointed Commander of the Southern Department of the Continental Army . Howe directly commanded the South Carolina militia during the First Siege of Charleston in June 1776 and was assigned command over the defenses of the city proper . Lee was recalled to the North to assist General George Washington , and in his absence , James Moore was appointed Commander of the Southern Department . Howe was left in command of Charleston and Savannah , Georgia in Lee 's absence , and in September 1776 , he became embroiled in a controversy involving the provincial assembly of South Carolina allowing its officers to recruit soldiers from North Carolina 's continental line units . Howe pleaded with the Provincial Congress of North Carolina to allow South Carolina to recruit within the former state 's borders because of the greater number of white males in that state . Eventually , North Carolina acceded to that request but only after ordering Howe to reclaim the North Carolinians who had already been lured away by the South Carolinians . The South Carolina Council took offense and demanded that Howe pay the recruitment bonuses for the men if he wished to have them back . With James Moore 's death on April 15 , 1777 , Howe assumed command of the Southern Department .
= = = Florida and political conflict 1777 – 1778 = = =
Howe 's style of command was quick to cause discontent , and on August 20 , 1777 , the South Carolina Assembly protested against Howe 's right to command soldiers within the borders of South Carolina . He was nonetheless promoted to the rank of major general on October 20 , 1777 , the only North Carolinian to reach that rank in the Continental Army . Howe often deferred to the civil leadership of the various states that made up his command , often referring conflicts with state officials to the Continental Congress to resolve . Of particular note was an early conflict with Georgia 's state government , which insisted that the governor of that state retain command of the state 's militia during military engagements . When asked for an official opinion , Congress sided with Howe , who believed that command of the militia should be relinquished to him during such engagements . Complicating matters , however , was the fact that Congressional funding for military expenditures was given over to the states rather than the army officers , forcing Howe to rely on state governments for funding .
In 1778 , he was ordered to act on a plan developed by General Charles Lee to assault British West Florida – a plan that Howe disfavored . A previous expedition in 1777 , in which Howe did not directly participate , had ended quickly in failure . Congress overrode Howe 's concerns about the expedition and directed him to proceed in conjunction with Georgia 's militia into Florida . The combined Army 's progress into Florida was made slow by a lack of provisions and particularly by a lack of slaves who Howe requested be made available to build roads and perform pioneering functions for the march southward .
On June 29 , 1778 , Howe captured Fort Tonyn on the St. Marys River , which forms a portion of the border between Georgia and Florida . Georgia Governor John Houstoun refused to give up command of his militia to the Continental Army general and declined to participate in Howe 's council . To make matters worse , when South Carolina militia units arrived in Georgia under the command of Colonel Andrew Williamson , their commander also refused to allow Howe to command that state 's militia units . Shortly after this minor incursion , the British received reinforcements and pressed toward Savannah . By July 14 , 1778 , Howe was forced to pull his units back north and returned to Charleston . The general received much of the blame for the expedition 's failure , as Georgia officials were quick to cast aspersions on the Continental command , which was compounded by Congress ' failure to understand Howe 's inability to control the Georgia militia despite their prior determination of his command authority over militia units .
= = = Duel with Christopher Gadsden , 1778 = = =
Howe 's squabbles with local political and militia leaders were not his sole difficulties . On August 30 , 1778 , Howe engaged in a pistol duel with Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina over an offense Gadsden perceived stemming from his resignation in 1777 while under Howe 's command . This controversy , like many in which Howe was involved , centered on the conflict between the Continental Army and state governments ' desires to retain local control over their officers and soldiers . Gadsden responded to the perceived offense by drafting and circulating a letter attacking Howe 's intelligence and ability as a commander and questioning Howe 's legal authority to issue orders to South Carolina Continentals . Howe took offense and demanded satisfaction from Gadsden on August 17 , 1778 .
During the duel , Colonel Charles Pinckney , father of South Carolina Governor Charles Pinckney , served as Howe 's second , while Colonel Barnard Elliot served as second to Gadsden . Howe , shooting first , missed his shot at eight paces , although the ball grazed Gadsden 's ear . Gadsden then intentionally fired above his own left shoulder and demanded Howe fire again , a demand Howe refused . At the conclusion of the duel , the participants made amends and parted ways . The affair did not end privately , as the South Carolinian and American Gazette published a full story covering the duel on September 3 , 1778 , and in the same month , the ill @-@ fated Major John André , the British officer who would later serve as a facilitator for Benedict Arnold 's change of allegiance , published an 18 @-@ stanza satirical poem about the duel set to the tune of Yankee Doodle .
= = = Removal from command and the Battle of Savannah , 1778 = = =
After allegations circulated in South Carolina about Howe 's dalliances with a woman , the Continental Congress finally removed him from command of the Southern Department on September 25 , 1778 , replacing him with Major General Benjamin Lincoln . Howe remained with the Southern army and commanded it from Savannah . While awaiting Lincoln 's arrival in Savannah with reinforcements , Howe set up defenses around that city , preparing for an imminent attack . Governor Houstoun sparred again with Howe , refusing to grant him more than meager militia support .
During the First Battle of Savannah on December 29 , 1778 , the British landed near the city , and under the command of Archibald Campbell , managed to flank Howe 's army , which was drawn up in the open for battle , by taking a path through a marshy area Howe believed was impassable . Howe had previously ordered a scout to look for any paths through the swamp , but Campbell 's route , which was shown to the British commander by a slave , remained unknown to the Patriots . Howe 's position was otherwise strong and defensible , but the appearance of the British in the Patriot rear caused a panic . The militia under Howe 's command fled instantly , and more than 500 Patriots and Continental Army soldiers were killed or captured . The ensuing defeat gave Savannah to the British , for which Howe received much blame . On January 3 , 1779 , Howe formally relinquished his command to Lincoln .
Howe 's failure at Savannah led to criticism from Georgia state officials , who believed he had abandoned the state to the British , as well as from fellow Continental Army generals , such as William Moultrie , who criticized Howe for even attempting to resist the British while being so greatly outnumbered . During his testimony before a later court – martial , Howe claimed that he knew about the pathway through the swamp taken by the British , but stated that he did not defend it because he believed the chance of an attack along the path was " so remote " . This contradicted earlier testimony from Georgia militia officer George Walton , who stated that Howe did not know about the path prior to the battle and that Howe told Walton that he was mistaken in believing a path through the swamps existed .
= = = Hudson Valley and Connecticut , 1779 = = =
After Lincoln 's arrival , Howe was ordered to join the Continental Army in the North , which he rejoined on May 19 , 1779 . Suffering from injuries caused by a fall , Howe was unable to undertake any duties for a month after his arrival . Initially , Howe was charged with defending Connecticut from British raids , such as those conducted by his former mentor , William Tryon , and Tryon 's adjutant , Edmund Fanning . Howe 's headquarters were in Ridgefield , Connecticut .
On June 18 , 1779 , shortly after the Battle of Stony Point , Howe was ordered to assist General Israel Putnam in assaulting a British fortification at Verplanck 's Point , which sat across the Hudson River from Stony Point . Howe was charged with commanding the artillery barrage and infantry assault of that position , but was given too few field pieces , entrenching tools , provisions , and little ammunition to make a serious attempt at taking the fortification . He advised Washington that an assault would be unfeasible and called off the siege with Washington 's consent . Historians have noted that Howe 's inability to take the British fortifications damaged his career and that he was never again given a major command . Contemporaries such as General William Irvine criticized Howe as " having a talent ... of finding many supposed obstructions , and barely plausible pretences for his delay " in assaulting Verplanck 's Point .
After Stony Point , Howe was assigned first to the command of the left wing of Washington 's army composed of Massachusetts brigades under Generals John Nixon and John Glover , with his command again in Ridgefield , Connecticut . While military action was infrequent in Howe 's region of control , he was integral in the recruitment and cultivation of a substantial spy network which provided the Patriots with information about British positions on Manhattan and along the Long Island Sound .
= = = West Point and Benedict Arnold conspiracy , 1779 – 1780 = = =
As part of his command duties , Howe was chosen by Washington as president of the court – martial convened to determine the propriety of General Benedict Arnold 's conduct while serving as the commandant of Philadelphia in 1778 and 1779 . During that time , Arnold was alleged to have conducted business with British merchants and to have undertaken private business transactions that were inappropriate given his position , among other improprieties . The tribunal , which met at Howe 's headquarters in Middletown , Connecticut , adjourned for several months due to a threatened British attack but reconvened in December 1779 and closed in January 1780 . During the interlude in the fall of 1779 , Howe was ordered by Washington to move into position to attack the British in conjunction with an expected combined French naval and land @-@ based assault , although the French assault in New York never materialized . The court @-@ martial rendered its decision on January 26 , 1780 , finding Arnold guilty of breaching the articles of war by permitting a vessel from an enemy port into Philadelphia and recommended that he be reprimanded by Washington .
Howe was made commandant of the Continental Army fortifications at West Point on February 21 , 1780 . He held that command immediately prior to Benedict Arnold 's conspiracy to turn over control of that stronghold to the British . Arnold and several supporters in Congress had eventually convinced Washington to give him command of the fortifications on August 3 , 1780 . Howe remained active in the upper Hudson River valley during the remainder of the war , particularly in overseeing his network of spies in the area , including double agent Joshua Hett Smith , who would later play a key role in Arnold 's treason and prosecution . During this time , evidence arose implicating Howe in discussions with the British , though the evidence was dismissed by Washington as merely rumors stirred up by British General Henry Clinton . Howe served on the court @-@ martial board that convicted of espionage and sentenced to death Major John André , the British officer tasked with facilitating Arnold 's conspiracy .
= = = Pennsylvania mutinies and war 's end , 1781 – 1783 = = =
In 1781 , Howe assisted in putting down the Pompton Mutiny in New Jersey , which was inspired by the slightly earlier Pennsylvania Line Mutiny . Washington ordered Howe to surround the camp and arrange for the court @-@ martial and execution of two of its ringleaders . In the fall of 1781 , Howe requested permission to go with Washington to Virginia for what was anticipated to be the final campaign against the British , but Washington refused . Instead , Howe was required to appear before a court – martial in Philadelphia which was opened to inquire into Howe 's actions in the defense of Savannah in 1778 . The tribunal , led by Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben , opened on December 7 , 1781 , and closed on January 23 , 1782 , acquitting Howe of any wrongdoing at Savannah with " the Highest Honor " . Assistant Adjutant General John Carlisle ordered Howe to convene a court – martial to investigate the conduct of General Alexander McDougall in the spring of 1782 . McDougall was a personal friend of Howe 's , but the tribunal convicted him of the minor offense of releasing confidential details from a council of war meeting in 1776 to persons who were not permitted to have such information . Again in 1783 , Howe was called on to put down the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 , which had caused the Continental Congress to flee Philadelphia .
= = Post @-@ war career and death = =
After putting down the second Pennsylvania mutiny in 1783 , Howe participated in the establishment of the Society of the Cincinnati and was the second officer to sign the national charter , with his signature appearing directly below that of von Steuben . Howe thereafter returned to his North Carolina plantation , Kendal , which was upriver from the more famous Orton Plantation owned by Howe 's distant relatives . Also in 1783 , Howe became a founding member of the North Carolina Society of the Cincinnati and was a signatory to its " Institution " or charter . During much of 1783 and 1784 , Howe returned frequently to Philadelphia , New York , and other cities in the northeast in an attempt to settle accounts and obtain back payments he claimed he was owed by Congress . He was again forced to mortgage his plantation but eventually received a monetary settlement from Congress of $ 7 @,@ 000 in 1785 .
During 1785 , Howe was appointed by the Congress of the Confederation to establish treaties with several western Indian tribes but did not actually travel with commissioners George Rogers Clark , Richard Butler , and Samuel Holden Parsons , who finalized the Treaty of Fort Finney without Howe in 1786 . Howe assisted Benjamin Smith in planning for the construction of Bald Head Light and actively worked to assist former Loyalists who sought to return to their prior lives in North Carolina by defending them against the judiciary of the state .
In the summer of 1786 , he was elected a member of the North Carolina House of Commons . On his way to a meeting of the legislative body , Howe fell ill , and died on December 14 , 1786 , in Bladen County . Howe 's remains were buried on property he owned in what later became Columbus County , North Carolina , although the exact location of his burial has not been discovered . A cenotaph was placed in Southport 's Old Smithville Burying Ground honoring him and wife Sara .
= = Legacy = =
Howe has been remembered primarily in a negative light based on his lack of military successes and reputation , although North Carolina historian Hugh Rankin noted in a biographical sketch that " his opportunities came at times when he did not have proper field strength to gain favorable recognition . " During the 1903 session of the United States House of Representatives , Congressman John Dillard Bellamy introduced a bill to erect an equestrian statue of Howe in Wilmington in order to commemorate the general 's service ; this bill was not passed . In 1940 , the State of North Carolina cast and erected a highway historical marker to commemorate Howe 's service . The marker stands on North Carolina Highway 133 in Belville , North Carolina . The 1955 film The Scarlet Coat featured a performance by actor John McIntire as Howe during the height of the Benedict Arnold conspiracy .
= = = Evidence of attempted treason = = =
Several scholars have raised questions regarding Howe 's actions as the unofficial spymaster of the Hudson Valley , all of which center on evidence that suggests Howe attempted to bargain with the British in exchange for a commission as an officer in the regular British Army , similar to the bargain struck by Benedict Arnold in 1780 . As early as 1776 , after Howe was appointed a brigadier general , a Loyalist merchant named Henry Kelly advised Secretary of State for the Colonies George Germain , 1st Viscount Sackville that Howe could be easily tempted to join the British , and further claimed that Howe could offer a great deal to the British in their war effort .
In 1780 , after Benedict Arnold 's attempted treason had been exposed , Captain Beesly Edgar Joel , a British defector and former officer in the British Army , claimed that another officer besides Arnold had attempted to defect , and after interrogation Joel named Howe as that officer . Joel cited Edmund Fanning , William Tryon 's secretary , as the source for his information . Joel further described Howe 's method of communicating with the British , which was by means of a frequently imprisoned @-@ and @-@ exchanged prisoner who would convey messages between the parties . While neither Washington or the Congressional Board of War believed Joel 's story due to their suspicion of Joel as a British spy , Joel was later commissioned by Thomas Jefferson and the Virginia government to lead a Patriot militia unit against Loyalists in that state . Furthermore , William Smith , a New York Loyalist and the brother of Howe 's agent and Arnold 's co @-@ conspirator Joshua Hett Smith , noted in his diary on April 29 , 1780 , that his brother , Thomas Smith , had been informed that a commissary had come over to the British with " information " from the Patriots in much the same manner as Joel had described . On September 28 , 1780 , William Smith told Henry Clinton that he believed " Bob " Howe would be willing to turn on the Patriots .
Later historians , including Douglas Southall Freeman , have frequently dismissed allegations that Howe attempted to defect , believing them to have been fabrications used by Joel to ingratiate himself with the Patriot government . The only full @-@ length book treatment of Howe 's life discusses the allegations of attempted treason in a single page . On the other hand , Freeman 's judgment was based primarily on Washington 's assessment of the allegations , but Washington did not have access to the potentially corroborating evidence in William Smith 's diary . Another possibility is that Howe had merely attempted to spread word among the British of his possible treason in order to conceal his management of the vast spy network at his control ; this tactic was utilized by other spymasters in Continental employ such as Philip Schuyler . Philip Ranlet , an American historian who studied Howe 's career and motivations , has contrasted Schuyler 's otherwise shining reputation with Howe 's record of failures and draws the conclusion that Howe likely was attempting to defect . To date , no firm evidence exists which either absolves Howe or proves him guilty of attempted treason .
= Ali 's Smile : Naked Scientology =
Ali 's Smile : Naked Scientology is a collection of essays and a short story by American Beat writer William S. Burroughs ( 1914 – 97 ) . First published in 1971 as the short story " Ali 's Smile " , the book eventually contained a group of previously published newspaper articles as well , all of which address Scientology . Burroughs had been interested in Scientology throughout the 1960s , believing that its methods might help combat a controlling society . He joined the Church of Scientology later in the decade . However , he became disenchanted with the authoritarian nature of the organization . In 1970 Burroughs had published a " considered statement " on Scientology 's methods because he felt they were significant enough to warrant commentary . These pieces were later gathered together into Ali 's Smile : Naked Scientology , which religious studies scholar Hugh B. Urban describes as a " nonscholarly popular exposé of Scientology " . Burroughs 's texts argue that while some of Scientology 's therapies are worthwhile , the dogmatic nature of the group and its secrecy are harmful .
= = Background = =
Beat Generation writer William S. Burroughs was an avant @-@ garde author whom several important critics consider the most important American writer since World War II . Sometimes called the " Godfather of Punk literature " , he adopted a persona that Matt Theado , a scholar of the Beats , describes as " a tormented but supremely curious person who explored the dark side of the human consciousness . " Burroughs often probed contentious social and political problems with " a cold @-@ blooded , almost insectlike presence " that influenced popular culture as well as literature .
Burroughs believed that readers needed to take an active part in reshaping their own reality through reading . For example , works such as the controversial novel Naked Lunch ( 1959 ) dealt with his concerns regarding " the battle against control , " and Burroughs wrote that others " might see the control that governments , religions , greedy human beings , and their own cravings for drugs , sex , or power often hold over them " . Theado writes that Burroughs saw words as " instruments of control that allow evil forces to impose their will over people " , and he attempted to use words themselves to combat this problem . He wrote in a way that would allow both him and his readers to redefine words and to create new levels of meaning , thereby liberating them from social control .
His concerns about social control and language led Burroughs to write at length about Scientology . He had been interested in Scientology since the early 1960s , having been introduced to the concepts of its founder L. Ron Hubbard by artist Brion Gysin . Burroughs 's early novels emphasized the power of Scientology to combat a controlling society . For example , in both The Ticket That Exploded ( 1962 ) and Nova Express ( 1964 ) , Scientology , along with the cut @-@ up technique , silence , and apomorphine ( which he believed was an extremely effective treatment for heroin addiction ) , allows the characters to resist social control . These works reflected Burroughs 's initial belief that Scientology could be an instrument of liberation from social control , much as he used his own cut @-@ up style of writing . He sought to use cut @-@ ups " to expose the arbitrary nature and manipulative power of all linguistic systems , " and connected cut @-@ ups to the theories of the self expounded by Hubbard 's Dianetics . As religious studies scholar John Lardas explains , " the cut @-@ up method was the evangelical counterpart of Scientology in that it was intended to alter a reader 's consciousness " .
In 1967 Burroughs became a more serious devotee to Scientology , taking several courses and in 1968 becoming what the Church of Scientology calls a " clear " — a person who has eradicated the harmful influence of their reactive mind by removing engrams , traumatic mental images , from their subconscious through Scientology 's auditing process . In his works , Burroughs represented the process that Scientologists refer to as " clearing " memories as a step towards becoming an active rather than passive member of society . Scientology thus appealed to Burroughs because it " confirmed his belief that consciousness is akin to a tape recording that can be rewound , fast @-@ forwarded , or even erased " . Burroughs believed that Scientology 's practice of auditing had helped him resolve some traumatic life experiences , and " came to regard the E @-@ Meter as a useful device for deconditioning " . However , he had " growing doubts about some of the other Scientology technology , and grave reservations about their policy as an organisation " . He became frustrated by the authoritarian nature of the organization , and as biographer Ted Morgan writes , " ... had hoped to find a method of personal emancipation and had found instead another control system . " In a similar vein , Burroughs was both intrigued by Scientology 's study of language , but felt distaste for the way it was being utilized :
They [ the Church of Scientology ] have a great deal of very precise data on words and the effects produced by words – a real science of communication . But I feel that their presentation has been often deplorable and that as a science , a body of knowledge , it is definitely being vitiated by a dogmatic policy .
By 1970 , Burroughs had severed connections with the Church of Scientology . He was eventually expelled from the organization and declared to be in " Condition of Treason " . He became increasingly disenchanted with the group and wrote a series of critical articles published in Mayfair . Burroughs also forced one of their headquarters to relocate by publicizing photos of it .
= = Publication and contents = =
Ali 's Smile , Burroughs 's short story on Scientology , was originally published in a limited @-@ edition run of 99 copies by Unicorn in 1971 . A recording of Burroughs reading the story was simultaneously released . Two years later , Expanded Media Editions issued a revised and enlarged version titled Ali 's Smile : Naked Scientology , which contained a series of articles , most of which had been previously published in newspapers and magazines . In 1970 Burroughs had published a " considered statement " on Scientology 's methods because he felt that they were significant enough to warrant commentary . This statement articulates what he calls the group 's " precise and efficient " therapeutic methods , however he also criticizes the authoritarian nature of the institution , describing Hubbard 's statements as fascistic and comparing their internal surveillance methods to that of the FBI and CIA . He also condemns the " unquestioning acceptance " demanded of Scientologists as well as the institution 's secrecy . These pieces were later gathered together into Ali 's Smile : Naked Scientology , which religious studies scholar Hugh Urban describes as a " nonscholarly popular exposé of Scientology " . In 1985 , Expanded Media Editions published a bilingual German and English edition .
" Burroughs on Scientology " is an opinion piece originally published in the Los Angeles Free Press on 6 March 1970 . It begins " In view of the fact that my articles and statements on Scientology may have influenced young people to associate themselves with the so called Church of Scientology , I feel an obligation to make my present views on the subject quite clear . " Burroughs states that some Scientology practices have value : " Some of the techniques are highly valuable and warrant further study and experimentation . " He is critical of the Church of Scientology 's organizational policy and organizations in general , and Scientology 's attempts to keep many of its counseling methods secret , and writes " On the other hand I am in flat disagreement with the organizational policy . "
" William Burroughs : Open Letter to Mr. Garden Mustain " was originally published in the East Village Other on 7 July 1970 . The East Village Other introduction to Burroughs ' piece notes that the open letter " is Mr. Burroughs ' final answer to his critics and to Mister Gorden Mustain who attacked him for his position on Scientology in the pages of the L.A. FREE PRESS . In it he asks the inevitable question to be faced by us all , whether we be in a professional status or not : ' We would like to know where Scientology and Mr. Hubbard stand on the Vietnam war , on sexual freedom , militant students , Black Power , pot , Red China , the politics of the American Narcotics department and the CIA . If it comes to a revolution : which side would you fight on ? ' "
" William Burroughs on ' Inside Scientology ' by Robert Kaufman " was originally published in Rolling Stone on 26 October 1972 . It is a book review of Inside Scientology , which was embroiled in a legal controversy . In the review , Burroughs relates his personal experiences as a Scientologist and describes himself as an anthropologist . Burroughs begins by praising Kaufman 's decision to reveal confidential upper @-@ level Scientology teachings in the book : " Mr. Kaufman has shown real courage in publishing Hubbard 's so @-@ called confidential materials for the first time in Inside Scientology . "
" Letter to Rolling Stone " by R. Sorrell ( Church of Scientology ) was originally published in Rolling Stone on 5 December 1972 . Sorrell wrote on behalf of the Church of Scientology to Rolling Stone , asserting that statements made by Burroughs in his review of Inside Scientology were inaccurate . Sorrell noted that the book had been involved in legal controversy and commented : " I have included here an itemization of these inaccuracies with documentation to show that Mr. Burroughs may be a writer but cannot always be trusted to be an accurate one . "
" Answer to R. Sorrell 's Letter " by William Burroughs is a point @-@ by @-@ point response to Sorrell 's letter in Rolling Stone . In total , Burroughs addresses 28 issues , including " Scientology 's security checks " , Fair Gaming , excommunication , the financial dealings of Scientology , Scientology terminology such as " Wog " , and the efficacy of the E @-@ meter as a lie detector .
" Ali 's Smile " by William Burroughs is a short story originally published by Unicorn in 1971 and later republished in Burroughs 's collection of short stories , Exterminator ! ( 1973 ) . At the opening of the story , Clinch Smith , a former colonial official , is living in an English town overshadowed by a giant slag heap . He is upset when he receives a letter from a Scientologist friend saying that he will " disconnect " from Smith , describing him as a " suppressive person " . A kris hanging on the wall of his room reminds Smith of Ali , whom he had met 30 years ago in Malaya . Ali had been put under a latah spell by an old woman , forcing him to dance in the marketplace . Smith rescued Ali , making the young man his houseboy . Ali returned to the market , however , and ran amok , killing several of the women with the kris . Smith was forced to shoot Ali , and kept the kris as a souvenir . Back in the present , Smith feels compelled to take the kris from the wall and goes to town , where there is a fight going on between hippies and locals , with members of Scientology 's Sea Org in the crowd as well . Smith goes on a killing spree with the kris , which seems to have a life of its own . He stabs Lord Westfield , a Home Office official who has asked a private investigator to infiltrate a Scientology organization , a woman , and several Sea Org members , and then a bystander shoots him dead . Police and more combatants prepare to join the fight . As they do so , the slag heap collapses and buries everyone . At the end , the " ghost face " of Ali smiles over all .
= = Reception = =
In Michael B. Goodman and Lemuel B. Coley 's 1990 bibliography of the works of and criticism on Burroughs , described as " the most comprehensive and up @-@ to @-@ date guide to Burroughs ' primary and secondary materials " , there are no contemporary reviews listed for Ali 's Smile : Naked Scientology .
= U.S. Route 33 in Michigan =
US Highway 33 ( US 33 ) is a part of the United States Numbered Highway System that was once located in Berrien County , Michigan . At the time it was removed from the state , it was only about 2 @.@ 8 miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) long running north from the Indiana state line to an intersection with US 12 south of Niles . The highway was not originally part of the US Highway System in the state ; it was added in 1937 as a second designation for part of US 31 between the state line and St. Joseph . It was later extended further north to the community of Lake Michigan Beach . This extension became the only section of US 33 that was routed independent of another highway until it was truncated to Niles . In 1997 , US 33 was officially removed from the state .
= = Route description = =
At the time it last existed in Michigan , US 33 started at the Indiana state line at an intersection with State Line Road . From there it ran due north along 11th Street through a residential neighborhood parallel to the St. Joseph River . Just past an intersection with Fulkerson Road , the highway curved briefly to the northeast as it approached Bell Road . US 33 terminated at a five @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf interchange with US 12 ( Pulaski Highway ) south of the city of Niles in Bertrand Township . According to the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) , the agency that maintained the roadway , in 1998 , the last year it was US 33 , the highway carried between 17 @,@ 192 and 24 @,@ 669 vehicles on average , daily . Additionally , the roadway that carried the highway designation is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The State Trunkline Highway System was created on May 13 , 1913 , by an act of the Michigan Legislature ; at the time , one of the system 's divisions corresponded to US 33 . Division 5 followed a course from Niles northward to Mackinaw City . In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) signposted the highway system for the first time , and the future US 33 corridor was assigned the original M @-@ 58 designation from the state line northward through Niles to St. Joseph . When the United States Numbered Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , the corridor received the US 31 designation . The US 33 designation was later added to US 31 from the state line northward to St. Joseph in 1937 .
In November 1960 , the US 33 designation was extended northward along US 31 from St. Joseph through Benton Harbor to Lake Michigan Beach Two years later , a segment of freeway opened east of Benton Harbor , and US 31 was rerouted to follow it , leaving US 33 to its own alignment between Scottdale and Lake Michigan Beach . This was the first time that US 33 had a section of its routing in Michigan that was not concurrent with another highway . Also , the northernmost 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of US 33 overlapped part of US 31 between the freeway and its old routing , resulting in a wrong @-@ way concurrency . This concurrency was removed the next year when another freeway section for I @-@ 196 / US 31 opened north of the previous endpoint , removing US 31 from Hagar Shores Road . Additional freeway for US 31 was built in the late 1970s into the 1980s . Called the St. Joseph Valley Parkway , the first section of this freeway through Berrien County was completed in 1979 and ran from the Indiana state line north to US 12 ; after its completion , US 33 had a second independent routing from the state line north to US 12 where US 31 merged back in from its new freeway routing .
US 33 was all but eliminated in Michigan on June 9 , 1986 , when the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) approved a request by MDOT to truncate the designation to the intersection with US 12 south of Niles . A year later , construction of the Niles Bypass was finished , bringing the parkway north to Walton Road northwest of Niles . Signage was updated for US 33 at the same time , and the M @-@ 63 designation was assigned to US 33 from Scottdale to Lake Michigan Beach , while the US 31 designation ran solo on the highway between Scottdale and the Niles Bypass . Business US 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) was created along the former routing of US 31 / US 33 between the bypass and Niles while the remainder of US 33 through downtown became part of Bus . US 12 or M @-@ 51 . The last segment of US 33 between US 12 and the state line was removed on April 25 , 1997 , when AASHTO approved a joint request by MDOT and its counterpart in Indiana to truncate the highway designate to an intersection with US 20 in Elkhart , Indiana . This remaining segment in Michigan became part of an extended M @-@ 51 when the signage was changed a year later .
On March 5 , 2010 , a segment of Bus . US 12 previously used by US 33 in downtown Niles was transferred back to city control . Otherwise , all of US 33 at its greatest extent from 1961 through 1987 remains part of a state highway in Michigan . From the state line into Niles , it is M @-@ 51 . From the west side of downtown Niles , it is M @-@ 139 to Scottdale , and from there north , it is M @-@ 63
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Bertrand Township , Berrien County .
= Box Cutter ( Breaking Bad ) =
" Box Cutter " is the fourth season premiere of the American television drama series Breaking Bad , and its 34th episode overall . Written by series creator Vince Gilligan and directed by Adam Bernstein , " Box Cutter " originally aired on AMC in the United States on July 17 , 2011 . The narrative follows protagonist Walter White ( Bryan Cranston ) and his partner Jesse Pinkman ( Aaron Paul ) as they face repercussions from drug kingpin Gustavo Fring ( Giancarlo Esposito ) for killing Gale during the previous season . Meanwhile , Skyler White ( Anna Gunn ) breaks into her husband Walter 's condominium to investigate his sudden disappearance , and Marie Schrader ( Betsy Brandt ) struggles to help Hank Schrader ( Dean Norris ) recover from his injuries .
The episode marked the final regular performances of actors David Costabile and Jeremiah Bitsui as Gale and Victor . Gilligan considered changing the episode based on audience responses to the third @-@ season finale , " Full Measure " , on whether Gale would be killed or not , but ultimately decided against it . During a twist scene in " Box Cutter " , Gus slices his loyal henchman Victor 's throat with a utility knife right before Walt and Jesse 's eyes . Esposito said he was concerned about filming the scene " without really hurting my spirit and my soul " , and he concentrated so hard that he remained silent and focused during filming , rarely speaking to others on set . The scene was so bloody it made Cranston 's daughter faint during a screening .
A major theme of " Box Cutter " , and the entire fourth season , involved Walter 's gradual change into a darker character who becomes more proactively violent and dangerous . The episode also illustrates Jesse 's moral decline and feelings of guilt over his killing of Gale , and Skyler 's growing involvement in Walter 's illegal activities . The episode received positive reviews , and was watched by 2 @.@ 58 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . Until the fifth season premiere , " Box Cutter " was the most watched Breaking Bad episode in the series ' history and the third @-@ highest @-@ rated season premiere for any AMC show , after the first two seasons ' premieres of The Walking Dead . In 2012 , Gilligan received the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Episodic Drama for his work on this episode . This marked his second win for individual work on Breaking Bad , along with his award from the pilot episode in 2009 .
= = Plot = =
During a pre @-@ credits flashback sequence , methamphetamine manufacturer Gale Boetticher ( David Costabile ) excitedly sets up equipment in an underground meth superlab for drug kingpin Gus Fring ( Giancarlo Esposito ) . Gale asks Gus about the blue meth being produced by chemist Walter White ( Bryan Cranston ) , who at this point is not yet working for Gus . Gus explains he has reservations about hiring Walter , but Gale insists Gus hire him because of his superior product .
In the present day , Walt 's partner Jesse Pinkman ( Aaron Paul ) has just shot Gale to death on orders from Walt to foil Gus ' plot to kill and replace them . Gus ' henchman Victor ( Jeremiah Bitsui ) arrives at Gale 's apartment and finds him dead , surrounded by neighbors who have just called the police . Victor finds a stunned Jesse sitting in his car outside and forces him at gunpoint to return to the meth lab , where Gus ' employee Mike ( Jonathan Banks ) is holding Walt hostage . Mike , who is concerned that Victor was seen by bystanders at the murder scene , calls to inform Gus of the events . Victor , who has often watched Walt work , starts cooking meth himself to prove they do not need him or Jesse . Walt grows concerned when Victor proves better at the process than he expected .
Meanwhile , Walt 's wife Skyler ( Anna Gunn ) observes his car in her driveway and , not wishing her son Walter Jr . ( RJ Mitte ) to see it , drives it a few blocks away to conceal it . Concerned about Walt 's apparent disappearance , she calls their lawyer Saul Goodman ( Bob Odenkirk ) , but he has become paranoid from Walt 's falling out with Gus and is too busy checking his office for listening devices . Skyler hires a locksmith to break into Walt 's condo for her , claiming it belongs to her . When he hesitates to do so without identification , Skyler claims her purse was stolen and fakes a panic attack until he finally agrees . She finds little of interest inside the condo . Elsewhere , Skyler 's sister Marie ( Betsy Brandt ) struggles to maintain her composure while caring for her belligerent husband Hank ( Dean Norris ) , who is still bedridden after the attempt on his life .
Gus arrives at the superlab but says nothing . Walt launches into a nervous , rambling monologue of excuses and justifications , trying to convince Gus he needs him and Jesse alive . He claims it is Gus who is ultimately responsible for Gale 's death , not they , and insists Victor cannot produce the meth Gus needs . Gus maintains his silence , even while changing into hazmat gear and selecting a box cutter , while Victor grins in anticipation . Never changing his demeanor , Gus suddenly slices Victor 's throat , startling the others . Through the killing , Gus simultaneously punishes Victor while delivering a stern message to Walt and Jesse . Gus drops the body to the floor and coldly eyes the duo to ensure his message was received . Gus quietly returns to his street clothes , then walks out of the lab , pausing only to say , " Well , get back to work . "
Later , Walt and Jesse dispose of Victor 's body , the gun that killed Gale , and the box cutter in a barrel of hydrofluoric acid . During breakfast later , Walt insists to Jesse that Gale 's death was necessary , but expresses concern that Gus will kill them at his next opportunity . Jesse doubts this , believing it will be too much trouble for Gus to find another drug manufacturer , and that both they and Gus understand the situation : neither can kill the other , so Gus might as well make them wish they were dead . The episode ends with police investigating Gale 's apartment with the camera focusing on his lab notes which have yet to be discovered .
= = Production = =
" Box Cutter " , the fourth season premiere of Breaking Bad , was directed by Adam Bernstein and written by series creator Vince Gilligan . Filmed in January 2011 , the episode was edited by Skip MacDonald , one of a handful of editors who have regularly worked on the series . It was broadcast on July 17 , 2011 , and was the first original Breaking Bad episode in 13 months , since the third season finale episode " Full Measure " aired in June 2010 . AMC officials delayed the fourth season premiere until July because they felt the Nielsen ratings would be better during the summer . While Breaking Bad scripts are generally 50 pages long , the screenplay to " Box Cutter " was 43 pages long , and Gilligan was originally concerned because he did not want to stretch out the episode simply to pad the running time . " Full Measure " ended with Jesse 's pulling a gun on Gale and firing directly into the screen , with Gale 's death not visibly revealed on @-@ screen . This led to wide speculation among fans and reviewers that Jesse did not actually kill Gale , but rather aimed away from him and fired the gun . This speculation continued up until the original broadcast of " Box Cutter " , which confirmed Jesse indeed killed Gale . Gilligan said he never intended for that scene to be a cliffhanger and he thought it clearly conveyed that Gale had died .
" Box Cutter " featured the final regular appearances of recurring Breaking Bad characters David Costabile and Jeremiah Bitsui who , respectively , played Gale Boetticher and Victor . Stand @-@ up comedian Lavell Crawford also made his first of several guest appearances in " Box Cutter " as Huell , Saul 's new bodyguard . Gilligan stated that he named the episode " Box Cutter " mainly because " it just sounded like a cool title " , but also because he was concerned that the climax of the episode took so long to build to that , by calling it " Box Cutter " , " Perhaps I was thinking on some level , ' We 'd better let the audience know that there 's something at the end of this . ' " Although the Breaking Bad staff always intended for Gale to be killed , the audience reaction to " Full Measure " made Gilligan and the Breaking Bad writing staff reconsider whether their plans were the best ones . However , Gilligan said they instead decided to follow their original plan , saying " At the end of the day , the choice we made for how to press forward was the choice we felt was the most honest , and the one that would best continue the story . "
Giancarlo Esposito said that when he first read the script for " Box Cutter " , he was so shocked that he had to put it down and walk away from it . Esposito said he did not want to " take any of [ the scene ] home with me " and had " some deep concern about being able to do it and coming out of it unscathed , without really hurting my spirit and my soul " . He worked through these concerns by justifying Gus ' actions in that , by killing Victor , he was protecting everyone else who works for him . Nevertheless , he said it was " a difficult moment for me " to slit Victor 's throat , and that during one take he tried to hush the character to make him die more calmly . That scene took two days to film , and Esposito remained silent and focused during filming , rarely speaking to the others on set . The boots he was originally given were too large and he was concerned that he would slip , which would be out of character for Gus , who was otherwise completely calm and in control . A costume designer quickly procured the right @-@ sized boots for him .
In writing the script , the Breaking Bad staff decided early on that Gus would not speak much during the scene because they felt it was more dramatic that way and more appropriate for his character . Esposito felt the scene was a pivotal moment not only for his character , but for Gus ' relationship with Walter , and a warning that Walter should continue to operate Gus ' way or risk death . Regarding his character 's murder of Victor , Esposito said : " This had to be done . Someone did something , they got seen . ... It was about survival . This had to be done , but I could do it in a way that also sent a message to the people who weren 't listening . " Bryan Cranston said he was not expecting the episode to take the direction it did . He called the scene " painful , but beautifully crafted , and reasonably so " , and commented on the contrast between Gus ' calm demeanor and Walter 's " tap @-@ dancing to stay alive " . Cranston said of Esposito 's performance , " When he plays that bad character , his eyes go dead , and all it takes is to look into his eyes . " Gilligan said although Gus ' actions in the scene were scripted , " You 'd be surprised how little I talked to Giancarlo about how he played that part ... This is a man with amazing instincts . "
A major theme of " Box Cutter " involves Walter 's gradual change from an unwitting
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years later , breaking the 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) height record . Dragster was also built by Intamin , which did not build another " Giga Coaster " until 2010 , when it built Intimidator 305 at Kings Dominion . Intimidator 305 is similar to Millennium Force ; it has a cable lift and a similar layout , but has shoulder harnesses instead of the lap bars on Millennium Force . Leviathan opened at Canada 's Wonderland in May 2012 ; it is over 300 feet ( 91 m ) . Leviathan is a Hyper Coaster manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard , and uses a chain lift , not a cable lift .
= = Reception = =
Millennium Force has one of the longest lines in the park , with passengers waiting over four hours when the ride debuted . The ride received positive reactions from visitors , many of whom said it was smooth and very comfortable . Others said , " It 'll scare the daylights out of you " . In its first six years of operation , Millennium Force had over 10 million riders . By August 2012 , Millennium had given more than 21 million rides . Several television shows , including the Travel Channel 's Extreme Terror Rides , Bert the Conqueror , Off Limits , the Discovery Channel 's Extreme Rides , and the National Geographic Channel 's Super Coasters have featured Millennium Force . Out of over 500 roller coasters that Werner Stengel has engineered , he stated that Millennium Force is his favorite . Robb Alvey , a notable roller coaster enthusiast , called it a " milestone in roller coaster history " .
= = = Rankings = = =
Millennium Force has consistently ranked high in coaster polls and has won numerous awards . Millennium Force and Superman the Ride ( formerly Bizarro ) at Six Flags New England have held the top two places in the Golden Ticket Awards since 2001 . In the Travel Channel 's Insane Coaster Wars , Millennium Force was voted the " fan favorite " in the Extreme Heights and The Top 10 categories . In 2013 , Time ranked Millennium Force as the top roller coaster in the United States .
= Isaac Parker =
Isaac Charles Parker ( October 15 , 1838 – November 17 , 1896 ) was an American politician and jurist . He served as the United States Congressman for Missouri 's 7th congressional district for two terms and presided over the United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas for 21 years .
He became known as the " Hanging Judge " of the American Old West due to the large number of convicts that he sentenced to death . In 21 years on the federal bench , Judge Parker tried 13 @,@ 490 cases . In more than 8 @,@ 500 of these cases , the defendant either pleaded guilty or was convicted at trial . Parker sentenced 160 people to death ; 79 of them were executed .
Parker 's health deteriorated in the 1890s and the jurisdiction and power of his court were reduced by Congress . In September 1896 , Congress effectively closed the District Court for the Western District of Arkansas by removing its jurisdiction . Shortly after , on November 17 , 1896 , Parker died of complications due to Bright 's disease . He is buried in Fort Smith .
= = Early life = =
Parker was the youngest son of Joseph Parker and his wife Jane Shannon , and the great @-@ nephew of Ohio Governor Wilson Shannon . He was raised on the family farm near Barnesville , Ohio . He attended Breeze Hill Primary School , followed by the Barnesville Classical Institute , a private school . He taught in a county primary school to pay for his secondary education . At 17 , he began an apprenticeship in law , and passed the Ohio bar exam in 1859 .
Parker moved to St. Joseph , Missouri between 1859 and 1861 and worked at his maternal uncle 's law firm of Shannon and Branch . On December 12 , 1861 , Parker married Mary O 'Toole , with whom he had sons Charles and James . By 1862 , Parker had his own law firm and was working in the municipal and country courts .
= = Political career = =
In April 1861 , Parker ran as a Democrat for the St. Joseph part @-@ time city attorney . He served three one @-@ year terms from April 1861 to 1863 . The American Civil War broke out four days after Parker took office and he enlisted in a pro @-@ Union home guard unit , the 61st Missouri Emergency Regiment . He had reached the rank of corporal by the end of the war .
During the 1860s , Parker continued both his legal and political careers . In 1864 , he formally split from the Democratic Party over conflicting opinions on slavery . He ran as a Republican for county prosecutor of the Ninth Missouri Judicial District . By the fall of 1864 , he was serving as a member of the Electoral College and voted for Abraham Lincoln . In 1868 , Parker won a six @-@ year term as judge of the Twelfth Missouri Circuit .
Parker was nominated for Missouri 's 7th congressional district on September 13 , 1870 , backed by the Radical faction of the Republican party . He then resigned his judgeship and devoted his energy to his campaign . Parker won the election after his opponent withdrew two weeks prior to the vote .
The first session of the Forty @-@ second Congress convened on March 4 , 1871 . During his first term , Parker helped to secure pensions for veterans in his district and campaigned for a new federal building to be built in St. Joseph . He sponsored a failed bill designed to enfranchise women and allow them to hold public office in United States territories . He also sponsored legislation to organize the Indian Territory under a territorial government .
Parker was again elected to Missouri 's 7th district in the forty @-@ third Congress . A local paper wrote of him , " Missouri had no more trusted or influential representative in ... Congress during the past two years " . In his second term , Parker concentrated on Indian policy , including the fair treatment of the tribes residing in the Indian Territory . His speeches in support of the Bureau of Indian Affairs gained national attention .
In 1874 , Parker was the caucus nominee of the Republican Party for a Missouri Senate seat . However , the political tide had shifted in Missouri ; it seemed unlikely that he would be elected to the Senate , so he sought a presidential appointment as judge for the Western District of Arkansas .
= = District judge = =
On May 26 , 1874 , President Ulysses S. Grant nominated Parker as Chief Justice of the Utah Territory to replace James B. McKean . However , following a request from Parker , Grant instead nominated him for the United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas , replacing William Story who was facing impeachment proceedings due to allegations of corruption .
Parker arrived in Fort Smith on May 4 , 1875 , initially without his family . His appointment at age 36 made him the youngest federal judge in the West . Parker 's first session as the district judge was on May 10 , 1875 , with court prosecutor W. H. H. Clayton , who remained the United States Attorney for the Western District of Arkansas for fourteen of Parker 's twenty @-@ one years on the court .
In May 1875 , Parker tried 18 men during his first session of court , all of whom were charged with murder ; 15 were convicted in jury trials . Parker sentenced eight of them to a mandatory death penalty . He ordered six of the men to be executed at the same time on September 3 , 1875 . One of those sentenced to death was killed trying to escape , and another 's sentence was commuted to life in prison due to his youth . Parker gave an interview to the St. Louis Republic on September 1 , 1896 , in which he stated that he had no say whether a convict was to be hanged due to compulsory death sentences , and that he favoured " the abolition of capital punishment " .
Parker 's court had final jurisdiction over the Indian Territory from 1875 until 1889 , as there was no court available for appeals . The legal systems and governments of the Five Civilized Tribes and other Native American tribes in the Indian Territory covered their own citizens , and federal law applied to non @-@ Indian United States citizens in the territory .
According to Congress , the federal court for the Western District of Arkansas was to meet in four separate terms each year : in February , May , August , and November . The court had such a large caseload that the four terms ran together . Parker 's court sat six days a week in order to ensure that they tried as many cases as possible each term , and often up to ten hours each day . In 1883 , Congress reduced the jurisdiction of the court , reassigning parts of the Indian Territory to federal courts in Texas and Kansas ; however , the increasing number of settlers moving into the Indian Territories actually increased the court 's workload .
From May 1 , 1889 , changes made by Congress allowed appeals of capital convictions to the United States Supreme Court . Forty @-@ four cases in which Parker imposed the death penalty were appealed to the Supreme Court , which overturned and ordered a re @-@ trial for 30 of them .
While serving as a district judge in Fort Smith , Parker served on the Fort Smith School Board and was the first president of St. John 's Hospital ( known today as Sparks Health System ) .
In his time on the court , Parker presided over a number of high @-@ profile cases , including the trial of Cherokee Bill and the " Oklahoma Boomer " case involving David L. Payne , who illegally settled on lands in the Indian Territory . In 1895 , Parker heard two cases involving Crawford Goldsby ( Cherokee Bill ) . The first involved Goldsby killing a bystander during a general @-@ store robbery in 1894 . He was convicted in a case that lasted from February 26 to June 25 , 1895 , and Parker sentenced him to death . However , while awaiting execution , Goldsby attempted to escape prison and killed a prison guard . He was again brought before Parker , who gave him a second death sentence on December 2 , 1895 . Goldsby was eventually hanged on March 17 , 1896 .
= = = Later years = = =
Keeping up with continued settlement in the West , the Courts Act of 1889 established a federal court system in the Indian Territory ; this decreased the jurisdiction of the Western District Court at Fort Smith .
Parker clashed with the Supreme Court on a number of occasions , with around two @-@ thirds of cases appealed to the Supreme Court being upheld . In 1894 , Parker gained national attention in a dispute with the Supreme Court over the case of Lafayette Hudson . Hudson was convicted of assault with intent to kill and sentenced to four years imprisonment . He appealed to the Supreme Court and was granted bail . Parker refused to release Hudson on the grounds that statute law did not provide the Supreme Court the authority to demand Hudson 's release .
In 1895 , Congress passed a new Courts Act which removed the remaining Indian Territory jurisdiction of the Western District , effective September 1 , 1896 . This effectively closed the federal court for the Western District of Arkansas by removing its jurisdiction .
= = Death and legacy = =
Parker was at home when the August 1896 term began , too sick to preside over the court , as he suffered from Bright 's disease . The jurisdiction of the court came to an end on September 1 , 1896 , over lands in the Indian Territory ; reporters wanted to interview him about his career but had to talk to him at his bedside . Parker died on November 17 , 1896 , of a number of health conditions , including heart degeneration and Bright 's disease . His funeral in Fort Smith had the highest number of attenders up to that point . He is buried at the Fort Smith National Cemetery .
In 21 years on the federal bench , Parker tried 13 @,@ 490 cases ; more than 8 @,@ 500 defendants either pleaded guilty or were convicted at trial . He sentenced 160 people to death and 79 were executed ; the others either died while incarcerated or were acquitted , pardoned , or their sentences were commuted .
Parker has been represented in a number of fictionalised portrayals of his time at Fort Smith . Charles Portis features Parker in his novel True Grit , which has twice been adapted as films of the same name . Parker is a featured character in the sequel to the first film . He was portrayed by James Westerfield in the 1969 movie and by John McIntire in the sequel . He was played by Jake Walker in the 2010 remake of True Grit . Douglas C. Jones features Parker as a supporting character in several novels about the men who " rode for Parker " . Zeke Proctor , one of Parker 's deputy marshals , is featured in Larry McMurtry 's 1997 novel Zeke and Ned .
In 1887 , November 27th My Great great Uncle Leander Dixon ( who lived in the Ozark Mountains of Arkansas was in a logging camp in the Oklahoma Indian territory . He had brought his wife along in an attempt to get his sister away from the bandit Smith who was a horse thief and a peddler of illegal whiskey ( selling to indians was against the law in those days ) This is the first I have ever read this newspaper account but I was aware of the story for years . My cousin obtained all the hand written records from ( Hanging Judge Parkers court in Ft Smith Arkansas ( Parker is famous in Hollywood movies , Hang em High , True Grit etc ) I read the accounts and from surviving family and onlookers and they all contradicted the newspaper account ( which has no date or byline ) Also contradicted by my great Aunt Belle who was 4 years old at the time . She recalled her Aunt coming through the door of their Arkansas home with the news , she had bullet holes in her apron and had barely escaped being killed herself . The Federal Marshal Frank Dalton ( a brother of the infamous Dalton gang who were all killed in the famous Coffeyville Kansas bank robbery ) was the Marshal that Judge Parker sent to arrest Smith . The latest update to the story is that his brother Bob Dalton who was killed later as a bandit in Coffeyville was a Deputy at the time and was with him . Onlooker accounts said that the deputies rode up without warning and started firing into the tent killing my Great Great Aunt Mary Leander 's wife and that Leander came out with a pistol firing and killed the deputy . ( But the court depositions made no mention of Leanders firing . He was rounded and died of pneumonia in the jail which is still part of the museum in Ft Smith .. a dirt floor dungeon in those days no ventilation and filthy . I spent my childhood visiting my Grandfather in a nearby town and he was still bitter at Judge Parker and opposed honoring him with the monuments . I was never told why until many years after he died. around ten years ago I was made aware of this story and it gets more embroidered with histories on the net and I have tried to correct and give the families side but I have made little headway in getting corrections made.http : / / www.franksrealm.com / … / pa … / outlaw @-@ williamtoddpower.htm http : / / www.franksrealm.com / … / pa … / outlaw @-@ williamtoddpower.htm http : / / www.americancowboychronicles.com / … / frank @-@ dalton @-@ best … court records now are kept at
= = = Books = = =
= New Jersey Route 182 =
Route 182 is a 0 @.@ 96 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 54 km ) state highway in Hackettstown , New Jersey , United States . The highway serves as a connector of Route 57 to U.S. Route 46 . The southern end of Route 182 is at a three @-@ way intersection , where Route 57 heads westbound towards Phillipsburg . Also present at this intersection is Warren County Route 517 , which is signed as New Jersey Route 24 , but not maintained by the state . County Route 517 runs concurrent with Route 182 to its north end at U.S. Route 46 , and turns west with US 46 before splitting in downtown Hackettstown .
Route 182 was first an alignment of pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 , but was not maintained by the state . In 1927 , there was a renumbering , and it became part of New Jersey Route S @-@ 24 , which was a spur of Route 24 . Route 24 at the time went along the alignment of Route 57 , but when the second renumbering occurred in 1953 , there was yet another change . In 1953 , Route 24 was realigned onto most of Route S24 , except for a short part which was designated Route 57 . The highway went through a final change on October 9 , 1969 . On that day , there was a small renumbering of Hackettstown , with Route 24 being truncated to the three @-@ way intersection , and Route 57 reassigned onto the rest of Route 24 . The former alignment of Route 57 was reassigned as New Jersey Route 182 .
= = Route description = =
Route 182 begins at an intersection with Route 57 and County Route 517 ( CR 517 ) . Immediately at that intersection , CR 517 becomes concurrent with Route 182 , but is maintained by the NJDOT . The fourth road at that intersection is Riveredge – Mobile Home Court , which is a cul @-@ de @-@ sac . The highway progresses northward , passing some small commercial buildings and arriving at the largest free @-@ standing shopping center in Hackettstown , across from Shelley Drive . The next significant intersection is with East Avenue and an adjacent stripmall . East Avenue heads east briefly turning northeast , crosses over the Musconetcong River , passes behind the Union Cemetery , and intersects US 46 .
Route 182 continues northward , passing several small businesses and side streets , as well as the main entrance to the Union Cemetery . Route 182 ends at a three @-@ way intersection with US 46 and CR 604 . CR 604 is also signed as Willow Grove Street , and heads northwest out of the intersection . US Route 46 is also signed as Mill Street , with the eastbound side heading east @-@ southeast from the intersection and the westbound side heading northwest from the intersection . CR 517 which had been concurrent with Route 182 , continues along a concurrency with U.S. Route 46 westbound .
= = History = =
Route 182 was originally defined as a segment of pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 . However , it was not maintained by the state , and instead , maintained by the county . The highway remained the same until 1927 , which is when it became a part of Route S24 , which was assigned as a spur off of Route 24 . The parent highway , Route 24 , was assigned as a highway to run from Schooley 's Mountain west to Penwell . There , Route S24 would terminate , but the direct highway was not improved by the county . Instead of the original decision , Route 24 was assigned to end at Hackettstown , where the two highways would intersect at the southern end of Route 182 .
The next change to the highway , was in 1953 , when the New Jersey State Highway Department renumbered the highway system around the state . This time , Route 24 was defined to run along the alignment of the now @-@ decommissioned Route S24 . Now , Route 24 ran along a new alignment , including a part which was supposed to be temporary . The entirety of current Route 57 was also assigned as Route 24 . That year , the state took over the alignment that was maintained by the county . The final change in highway alignment around Hackettstown occurred on October 9 , 1969 . This time Route 24 was truncated off the alignment of current Route 57 , and now ended in Hackettstown , at the three @-@ way intersection . The older alignment of Route 57 did not retain its designation , as plans developed to make a bypass of Hackettstown , continuing the highway from Phillipsburg to U.S. Route 46 just east of Hackettstown . However , plans never finished , and instead , the designation of Route 182 was assigned to the original alignment of Route 57 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Hackettstown , Warren County .
= ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 Tarzon =
The ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 Tarzon , also known as VB @-@ 13 , was a guided bomb developed by the United States Army Air Forces during the late 1940s . Mating the guidance system of the earlier Razon radio @-@ controlled weapon with a British Tallboy 12 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) bomb , the ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 saw brief operational service in the Korean War before being withdrawn from service in 1951 .
= = Design and development = =
Development of the VB @-@ 13 Tarzon began in February 1945 , with Bell Aircraft being awarded a contract by the United States Army Air Forces for the development of a very large guided bomb . The VB @-@ 13 was a combination of a radio @-@ command guidance system as used on the smaller VB @-@ 3 Razon ( ' Range And azimuth only ' ) guided bomb with the British @-@ developed Tallboy 12 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) " earthquake " bomb , known to the USAAF as M112 . The ' Tarzon ' name was a portmanteau , combining Tallboy , range and azimuth only , describing the weapon and guidance system ; and was pronounced similarly to that of " Tarzan " , the popular " ape @-@ man " fictional character .
The VB @-@ 13 , redesignated ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 in 1948 , was developed under the project code MX @-@ 674 . It had an annular wing around the midsection of its body , mounted near the weapon 's center of gravity . At the rear of the bomb was an octagonal tail surface containing the Razon control surfaces . Intended to be carryed by the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress bomber , the Tarzon bomb used the combination of AN / ARW @-@ 38 [ Joint Army Navy , Piloted Aircraft , Radio , Automatic Flight or Remote Control ] command link transmitter on the B @-@ 29 and an AN / URW @-@ 2 [ Joint Army Navy , Utility , Radio , Automatic Flight or Remote Control ] receiver on the Tarzon to provide manual command guidance of range and azimuth . This was done with visual tracking of the bomb 's course , aided by a flare mounted in the tail of the weapon . Gyroscopes on board the ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 aided in stabilisation , while a pneumatic system drove the bomb 's control surfaces . The guidance system was considered effective ; Tarzon proved in testing to have an accuracy of 280 feet ( 85 m ) .
In addition to the 12 @,@ 000 pounds ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) nominal weight of the Tallboy it was based on , the annular wing and control surfaces boosted the weight of Tarzon by an additional 1 @,@ 100 pounds ( 500 kg ) . As a result , the size and weight of the ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 were such that the weapon would not fit inside the bomb bay of a Superfortress ; instead , the weapon was carried in a semi @-@ recessed mounting , half the weapon being exposed to the airstream . This increased drag on the carrying aircraft , in addition to causing turbulent airflow that could affect the handling of the B @-@ 29 .
= = Operational history = =
Although the VB @-@ 13 project had not reached the testing stage by the end of World War II , it avoided being cancelled , proceeding as a low @-@ priority project . Limited testing was conducted during 1948 and 1949 ; additional testing at Alamogordo , New Mexico in 1950 led to the Tarzon being approved for operational service in the Korean War .
Tarzon saw its first combat use in December 1950 , the ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 replacing the Razon in operational service ; the smaller weapon had been determined to be too small for effective use against bridges and other hardened targets . Used solely by the 19th Bomb Group , which had previously conducted the Razon 's combat missions , the first Tarzon drop in combat took place on December 14 , 1950 .
The largest bomb used in combat during the war , Tarzon was used in strikes against North Korean bridges and other hardened targets , the Tarzon 's improved accuracy over conventional ' dumb bombs ' led to the confirmed destruction of at least six high @-@ priority targets during approximately six months of combat use ; these included a hydroelectric plant , proving the effectiveness of guided weapons against conventional targets as well as bridges .
Thirty Tarzon missions were flown between December 1950 and March 1951 ; the weapon 's success led to a contract for the production of 1 @,@ 000 additional ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 missiles . On March 29 , 1951 , however , a Tarzon strike against Sinuiju went awry ; the group commander 's aircraft was destroyed as a result of the premature detonation of the bomb when , the aircraft suffering mechanical difficulties , the weapon was jettisoned in preparation for ditching . The thirtieth , and as it proved final , mission , three weeks following the Sinuiju mission , also suffered an unintentional detonation of a jettisoned , " safed " bomb , although this time without the loss of the aircraft .
An investigation proved that the fault lay in the construction of the bomb 's tail ; breaking up on impact , a ' safed ' bomb would have its arming wire removed , rendering it ' unsafe ' and detonating the weapon . Modifications were made to solve the problem , but the damage had been done ; the safety issues , increased maintenance costs compared to conventional bombs , the fact that the bomb 's guidance system required clear @-@ day use only , rendering the bombers vulnerable to enemy fighters , and required that the weapon be released at a prime altitude for the aircraft to be in danger from enemy flak . These combined with the weapon 's poor reliability – only six of twenty @-@ eight bombs dropped successfully destroyed their targets – to result in the production order being canceled by the USAF ; following this , the Tarzon program as a whole was terminated in August 1951 .
= Obvious Child =
Obvious Child is a 2014 American romantic comedy film written and directed by Gillian Robespierre in her directorial debut . The film stars Jenny Slate , Jake Lacy , Gaby Hoffmann and David Cross . The story follows Donna ( Slate ) , a stand @-@ up comedian , who has a drunken one @-@ night stand with a man named Max ( Lacy ) after breaking up with her boyfriend . She subsequently finds out she is pregnant and decides to have an abortion .
Obvious Child originated as a 2009 short film which was written by Robespierre , Anna Bean and Karen Maine , and also starred Slate in the main role . By making the film , Robespierre hoped to remove the stigma surrounding abortion and to correct what she perceived as a misrepresentation of unplanned pregnancy in earlier films . She finished the feature @-@ length script in 2012 . The film was financed through various production companies and filmmaking grants and it was shot in New York in 2013 .
The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 17 , 2014 , and was released in theaters on June 6 , 2014 . It grossed US $ 3 @.@ 3 million and was well received by critics . David Edelstein , Mick LaSalle and Dana Stevens praised the film 's portrayal of abortion , while A. O. Scott and Ty Burr highlighted its realism and humor . The film won numerous accolades , including two awards from the National Board of Review and two Independent Spirit Award nominations .
= = Plot = =
After performing a set at her regular comedy club , Donna Stern ( Jenny Slate ) is dumped in the bathroom by her boyfriend , Ryan ( Paul Briganti ) , who confesses he is leaving her for one of her friends . Donna tailspins into a wave of depression and later drunkenly delivers a terrible set in which she insults her ex @-@ boyfriend . Later that night , at the bar , she meets Max ( Jake Lacy ) , who is there with clients but who missed her set . Donna and Max have an instant connection and they end up having sex . In the morning Donna leaves Max 's apartment without saying goodbye .
Several weeks after their one @-@ night stand , Donna discovers that she is pregnant . Donna visits a Planned Parenthood clinic to schedule an abortion and discovers the only dates available are her mother 's birthday and Valentine 's Day ; she picks Valentine 's Day .
Max tracks Donna down at the bookstore where she works and they have the first of several awkward conversations . Donna then runs into Max when he stops by her mother 's apartment to return a book to her mother , Nancy ( Polly Draper ) , who is a former professor of his . They have lunch together where Donna is prepared to tell Max about her pregnancy and impending abortion until he makes a comment about how he wants to be a grandfather someday . He comes to Donna 's comedy show , but she leaves with another man , Sam ( David Cross ) . She has an awkward evening with Sam and quickly leaves . After her terrible night , Donna visits her mother to talk about her upcoming abortion . Her mother comforts her by telling her that she too had an abortion before Donna was conceived .
After pushing Max away , Donna finally invites him to the club to see her perform . When he arrives she performs a set , speaking about how she is pregnant and planning to have an abortion . Max leaves , but on the day of Donna 's abortion , he arrives at her home with flowers and asks if he can accompany her to her procedure . While at the clinic he tells her he supports her , and that when he said that he wanted to be a grandfather , he meant sometime far in the future . The two agree that this is one of the nicest Valentine 's Days they have ever had . After the abortion , Max takes Donna to his home where he makes her tea , and then they watch Gone with the Wind together .
= = Cast = =
Jenny Slate as Donna Stern , a comedian who works at a bookstore
Jake Lacy as Max , the object of Donna 's one @-@ night stand
Gaby Hoffmann as Nellie , Donna 's roommate and best friend
David Cross as Sam , a comedian and friend of Donna 's
Gabe Liedman as Joey , Donna and Nellie 's friend , who is also a comedian
Richard Kind as Jacob Stern , Donna 's father
Polly Draper as Nancy Stern , Donna 's mother
Paul Briganti as Ryan , Donna 's ex @-@ boyfriend
Cindy Cheung as Dr. Bernard , a physician at the Planned Parenthood clinic
Stephen Singer as Gene , owner of the bookstore at which Donna works
= = Production = =
Obvious Child originated as a short film of the same name about an unemployed woman who decides to terminate her pregnancy resulting from a one @-@ night stand , which was written by Gillian Robespierre , Anna Bean and Karen Maine . Robespierre said that the story was spawned from her frustration with what she perceived as a " misrepresentation of women on screen when it came to unplanned pregnancy " , in films such as Juno ( 2007 ) , Knocked Up ( 2007 ) and Waitress ( 2007 ) . Robespierre , Bean and Maine , feeling " disenchanted with the representation of young women 's experience with becoming pregnant " , wanted to make a film that destigmatized an abortion by featuring a woman who terminates a pregnancy without regretting her decision . Jenny Slate was cast as the lead after Robespierre and Bean saw Slate performing stand @-@ up comedy . The short was produced in 2009 and released on the video @-@ sharing website Vimeo , where it was watched by 40 @,@ 000 people .
Inspired by the responses to the short film , Robespierre decided to expand the story into a feature film , and wrote an extended screenplay with Karen Maine and Elisabeth Holm . Although the writers wanted to " stick as close ... as possible " to the original story and characters , they changed the lead character 's profession to stand @-@ up comedy . The film 's stand @-@ up scenes were written by Robespierre , who tried to emulate Jenny Slate 's style of comedy , and were revised by Slate and Gabe Liedman , another comedian , who also volunteered their own material . The script was written over an 18 @-@ month period before Robespierre and Holm began to seek financiers to fund the film 's production ; they started sending the script to potential financiers in November 2012 . It was financed through a variety of sources , including the production companies Animal Kingdom Films , Rooks Nest Entertainment , Sundial Pictures and Votiv Films , as well as grants from Rooftop Films , the Tribeca Film Institute and the San Francisco Film Society .
The film was shot by cinematographer Chris Teague over 18 days in New York during April 2013 . The filmmakers were given permission by Planned Parenthood to film for a day in the organization 's New Rochelle clinic . The film was edited by Casey Brooks in Greenpoint , Brooklyn , and the score was written by Robespierre 's boyfriend .
= = Release = =
Obvious Child premiered at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival on January 17 , 2014 . A Kickstarter campaign to help send the film to Sundance was created by the director on December 13 , 2013 , earning a total of $ 37 @,@ 214 by January 14 , 2014 . Independent film distributor A24 Films bought the film 's North American distribution rights , while international distribution rights were purchased by The Exchange . It was released in the United States on June 6 , 2014 , and earned $ 3 @,@ 123 @,@ 963 at the box office in 18 weeks . It also earned $ 197 @,@ 361 and $ 4 @,@ 093 in the United Kingdom and New Zealand respectively , making a total gross of $ 3 @,@ 325 @,@ 417 .
Posters for the film advertised it as an " abortion comedy " . Gillian Robespierre said that she found the descriptor reductive , but also said that she was pleased that the word " abortion " was being used on the film 's poster and in headlines about the film . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Emily Blake speculated that the film 's lack of recognition in mainstream award circles may have been due to its label as " the abortion comedy " . NBC drew criticism for requesting that the word " abortion " be removed from an online advertisement for the film ; it apologized after a petition circulated by Planned Parenthood accused the network of censorship . The film was marketed in conjunction with the abortion @-@ rights organization NARAL Pro @-@ Choice America .
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in North America on October 7 , 2014 . Extra features include an audio commentary with Robespierre , Elisabeth Holm and Jenny Slate , a featurette about the film 's production , a collection of extended scenes , and the original 2009 Obvious Child short film on which the feature was based .
= = Reception = =
Obvious Child was met with positive reviews from film critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 89 % , based on 145 reviews with an average rating of 7 @.@ 3 / 10 . The consensus from the website states , " Tackling a sensitive subject with maturity , honesty , and wit , Obvious Child serves as a deeply promising debut for writer @-@ director Gillian Robespierre . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 76 out of 100 , based on 35 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Peter Travers described Obvious Child as " uniquely special " in Rolling Stone , while The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday described it as " one of the most startlingly honest romantic comedies to appear onscreen in years " . Ty Burr of The Boston Globe found the characters sympathetic and realistic , and enjoyed the humor . The New York Times ' chief critic A. O. Scott praised the film for striking a balance between humor and sentimentality , writing , " It 's both funny and serious without trying too hard to be either , and by trying above all to be honest . " Peter Debruge described Jenny Slate as " wildly funny " in Variety , while Marc Mohan called her performance " endearing and real " in The Oregonian . The Hollywood Reporter 's Todd McCarthy was also impressed by Slate 's performance and opined that the supporting cast members were equally impressive .
Numerous critics praised Obvious Child for its portrayal of abortion , including Dana Stevens of Slate , who wrote that the way Donna 's abortion was portrayed was humane and politically neutral but also that the film , " for all its lightness of tone , is radical " . In a review for The Guardian , Xan Brooks described the film as " fresh and funny and really rather brave " for handling a controversial topic that other filmmakers routinely avoid . New York critic David Edelstein called Robespierre " brave enough to be ambivalent " in choosing not to include a blatant political message in the film . The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle similarly concluded that " If the movie has a political statement , it 's a subtle one " ; he also praised the film for treating the topic sincerely while still maintaining a humorous tone .
Conversely , Michelle Golberg suggested in a review for The Nation that the film 's popularity with critics was not due to its quality but rather its taboo subject matter : " If the ordinary drama of abortion were more regularly represented in the movies , Obvious Child wouldn 't be much more than an amusing hipster diversion . " Kate Taylor of The Globe and Mail expressed a similar sentiment and opined that many of the film 's jokes were crude and lacking in humor . USA Today 's Scott Bowles also found Obvious Child unfunny , describing the characters as " so morbid and whiny that the jokes don 't work , even as irony " . Kyle Smith , a critic for the New York Post , found the plot uninteresting and the cinematography " ugly " , and criticized Slate 's " desperate " performance .
The film was criticized by a variety of conservative and anti @-@ abortion groups and publications , including the Family Research Council , The Heritage Foundation , and the Media Research Center , through its NewsBusters blog and Cybercast News Service . In an article for The Human Life Review , Mary Rose Somarriba dismissed the film as " obvious propaganda " . Katelyn Beaty , meanwhile , who reviewed Obvious Child for Christianity Today , wrote : " While I ultimately disagree with Robespierre 's political aims , at the least she has provided a sometimes funny , often tender portrait of many ( though not all ) women who face an unplanned pregnancy . "
= = Accolades = =
= Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici =
Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici ( 11 August 1667 – 18 February 1743 ) was the last scion of the House of Medici . A patron of the arts , she bequeathed the Medici 's large art collection , including the contents of the Uffizi , Palazzo Pitti and the Medicean villas , which she inherited upon her brother Gian Gastone 's death in 1737 , and her Palatine treasures to the Tuscan state , on the condition that no part of it could be removed from " the Capital of the grand ducal State .... [ and from ] the succession of His Serene Grand Duke . "
Anna Maria Luisa was the only daughter of Cosimo III de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany , and Marguerite Louise d 'Orléans , a niece of Louis XIII of France . On her marriage to Elector Johann Wilhelm II , she became Electress Palatine , and , by patronising musicians , she earned for the contemporary Palatine court the reputation of an important music centre . As Johann Wilhelm had syphilis the union produced no offspring , which , combined with her siblings ' barrenness , meant that the Medici were on the verge of extinction .
In 1713 Cosimo III altered the Tuscan laws of succession to allow the accession of his daughter , and spent his final years canvassing the European powers to agree to recognise this statute . However , in 1735 , as part of a territorial arrangement , the European powers appointed Francis Stephen of Lorraine as heir , and he duly ascended the Tuscan throne in her stead . After the death of Johann Wilhelm , Anna Maria Luisa returned to Florence , where she enjoyed the rank of first lady until the accession of her brother Gian Gastone , who banished her to the Villa La Quiete . When Gian Gastone died in 1737 , Francis Stephen 's envoy offered Anna Maria Luisa the position of nominal regent of Tuscany , but she declined . Her death , in 1743 , brought the royal House of Medici to an end . Her remains were interred in the Medicean necropolis , the Basilica of San Lorenzo , Florence , which she helped complete .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Despite her mother 's efforts to induce a miscarriage by means of riding , Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici , the only daughter and second child of Cosimo III de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany , and his consort , Marguerite Louise d 'Orléans , was born in Florence on 11 August 1667 . She was named after her maternal aunt Anne Marie Louise d 'Orléans , Duchess of Montpensier .
Her parents ' relationship was quarrelsome ; Marguerite Louise took every chance to humiliate Cosimo . On one documented occasion , she branded him " a poor groom " in the presence of the Papal nuncio . The enmity between them continued until 26 December 1674 ; after all attempts at conciliation failed , a stressed Cosimo consented to his wife 's departure for the Convent of Montmartre , France . The contract created that day revoked her privileges as a petite fille de France ) , and declared that upon her death all her assets were to be inherited by her children . Cosimo granted her a pension of 80 @,@ 000 livres in compensation . She abandoned Tuscany in June 1675 ; Anna Maria Luisa never saw her again . Although Cosimo doted on his daughter , she was raised by her paternal grandmother , Vittoria della Rovere .
= = = Electress Palatine = = =
In 1669 , Anna Maria Luisa was considered as a potential bride to Louis , le Grand Dauphin , the heir @-@ apparent of Louis XIV of France . Cosimo III did not like the idea of a French marriage , and never devoted himself fully to the cause ( she was later rejected ) . Instead , Cosimo offered her to his first choice , Peter II of Portugal . Peter 's ministers , fearing that Princess Anna Maria Luisa would dominate Peter II and fearing she might have inherited Marguerite Louise ’ s manner , declined . In fact , contemporaries thought her traits to be a combination of those of her father and paternal grandmother , Vittoria della Rovere .
Following refusals from Spain , Portugal , France and Savoy , Leopold I , Holy Roman Emperor , suggested Johann Wilhelm , Elector Palatine . James II of England put forward his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Francesco II d 'Este , Duke of Modena , but the Princess deemed a duke too lowly in terms of protocol for the daughter of a grand duke . The Elector Palatine obtained the style Royal Highness from the Holy Roman Emperor for Cosimo III in February 1691 . ( Cosimo had hitherto been outranked by the Duke of Savoy — much to his anger — who derived royal status from his successful pretendership to the abolished Cypriot throne ) . Consequently , Johann Wilhelm was ultimately chosen . He and Anna Maria Luisa were married by proxy on 29 April 1691 . At the accompanying festivities , a contemporary describes the Electress 's physical attributes : " In her person , she is tall , her complexion was fair , her eyes large and expressive , both those and her hair were black ; her mouth was small , with a fullness of the lips ; her teeth were as white as ivory .... "
She departed for Düsseldorf , her husband ’ s capital , on 6 May 1691 , accompanied by her younger brother , Gian Gastone . Johann Wilhelm surprised her at Innsbruck , where they officially married . The Palatinate Anna Maria Luisa arrived in was ravaged by the ongoing Nine Years ' War , in which Louis XIV assaulted the Palatinate on behalf of his brother , Philippe of France , Duke of Orléans , occupying the city of Philippsburg in the process .
The Electress became pregnant in 1692 ; however , she miscarried . It is thought that soon after arrival she contracted syphilis from the Elector , which explains why Anna Maria Luisa and Johann Wilhelm failed to produce any children . Anna Maria Luisa and Johann Wilhelm , notwithstanding , shared a harmonious marriage . The Electress spent her time enjoying balls , musical performances and other festivities . He commissioned a theatre for her where the comedies of French playwright Molière were performed . Because Anna Maria Luisa patronised many musicians , the contemporary Palatine court enjoyed regard as an international centre of music . She invited Fortunato Chelleri to court and appointed him maestro di cappella ( " music teacher " ) . Agostino Steffani , a polymath , was sponsored by the Electress from his arrival in Düsseldorf , in 1703 , until her return to Tuscany ; the Conservatorio library in Florence houses two editions of his chamber duets .
Anna Maria Luisa arranged a marriage for her younger brother at the instigation of their father : On 2 July 1697 Gian Gastone de ' Medici married Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , heiress of the eponymous duchy , in Düsseldorf . Gian Gastone 's wife repulsed him , and for that reason , they separated in 1708 .
The same year as Gian Gastone 's marriage , the Peace of Ryswick ended the Nine Years ' War : French troops withdrew from the Electoral Palatinate and Johann Wilhelm received the County of Megen . Following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes , a document which had hitherto given rights to Calvinists , in 1685 , 2 @,@ 000 French Huguenots emigrated to the Electoral Palatinate . Johann Wilhelm , under criticism for his treatment of the Palatine Protestants from the Elector of Brandenburg introduced a Religionsdeklartion in 1705 , which sanctioned religious freedom .
= = = Tuscan succession = = =
Cosimo III wished to alter the male @-@ only Tuscan line of succession so as to allow the accession of his daughter , Anna Maria Luisa , in the event of a male @-@ line succession failure . But his plan was met with fierce opposition from the European powers . Charles VI , Holy Roman Emperor , Tuscany 's nominal feudal over @-@ lord , subscribed , but only if he should succeed her . Cosimo and herself were at odds with the proposal . Without a concord in sight , the " Tuscan question " became dormant .
Some years later , as the question of the succession became more urgent , Cardinal Francesco Maria de ' Medici , Cosimo III 's brother , was released from his vows and coerced into marrying the incumbent Duke of Guastalla 's elder daughter , Eleanor , in 1709 . The Electress urged him to care for his health and " give us the consolation of a little prince . " However , two years later , he died without issue , taking with him any hope of an heir .
Following the death of his heir apparent , Ferdinando , in 1713 , Cosimo deposited a bill in the Senate , Tuscany 's titular legislature , promulgating that if Cosimo and his new heir apparent , Gian Gastone , were to predecease the Electress , she would ascend the throne . Charles VI was furious ; he replied that the Grand Duchy was an imperial fief and therefore he alone possessed the prerogative to alter the laws of succession . To complicate things further , Elisabeth Farnese , heiress of the Duchy of Parma , the second wife of Philip V of Spain , as a great @-@ granddaughter of Margherita de ' Medici , exercised a claim to Tuscany . In May 1716 , Charles VI , who constantly changed his stance on the issue , told Florence that the Electress 's succession was unquestioned , but added that Austria and Tuscany must soon reach an agreement regarding which royal house was to follow the Medici .
In June 1717 , Cosimo declared his wish that the House of Este should succeed the Electress . Charles VI had previously offered the Grand Duke territorial compensation — in the form of the State of Presidi — if he chose quickly , but reneged . In 1718 , Charles VI repudiated Cosimo 's decision , declaring a union of Tuscany and Modena ( the Este lands ) unacceptable . Hereafter , a stalemate existed between them .
= = = Return to Florence = = =
The Elector Palatine died in June 1716 . His widow , Anna Maria Luisa , returned to Florence in October 1717 . Dowager Grand Princess Violante Beatrice , her brother Ferdinando 's widow , and Anna Maria Luisa did not enjoy an amiable relationship . Upon hearing of Anna Maria Luisa 's intention to return , Violante Beatrice prepared to depart for Munich , her brother 's capital , but Gian Gastone wished her to stay , so she did . To keep the two ladies from quarrelling over precedence , Cosimo III defined Violante Beatrice 's status just before the Electress 's arrival by appointing her Governess of Siena .
On 4 April 1718 England , France and the Dutch Republic ( and later Austria ) selected Don Carlos of Spain , the elder child of Elisabeth Farnese and Philip V of Spain , as the Tuscan heir ( with no mention of Anna Maria Luisa ) . By 1722 , the Electress was not even acknowledged as heiress , and Cosimo was reduced to a spectator at the conferences for Tuscany 's future . In the midst of this , Marguerite Louise , Anna Maria Luisa 's mother , died . Instead of willing her valuables to her children , as prescribed by the 1674 agreement , they went to the Princess of Epinoy , a distant relative .
On 25 October 1723 , six days before his death , Cosimo III distributed a final proclamation commanding that Tuscany shall stay independent ; Anna Maria Luisa shall succeed uninhibited after Gian Gastone ; the Grand Duke reserves the right to choose his successor . Unfortunately for Cosimo , Europe completely ignored it . Gian Gastone , now the Grand Duke , and Anna Maria Luisa were not on good terms . He despised the Electress for engineering his unhappy marriage with Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , while she detested his liberal policies : he repealed all of his father 's anti @-@ Semitic statutes and revelled in upsetting her . Consequently , the Electress was compelled to abandon her apartment in the left wing of the royal palace , the Pitti , for the Villa La Quiete . She refurbished La Quiete 's house and gardens with the assistance of Sebastiano Rapi , the gardener of the Boboli Gardens , and the architects Giovanni Battista Foggini and Paolo Giovanozzi . In the period 1722 – 1725 , the Electress embellished the villa further by commissioning twelve statues of various religious figures .
In spite of their mutual dislike , the Electress and Violante Beatrice attempted to improve Gian Gastone 's poor public image together . Rumours abounded that the Grand Duke had died ; it was a rarity for the public to see him . To dispel the said rumours , the Electress compelled him to make an appearance — his last one — in 1729 , on the feast day of the patron saint of Florence , John the Baptist . The Ruspanti , Gian Gastone 's morally corrupt entourage , hated the Electress ; and she , them . Violante Beatrice tried to withdraw the Grand Duke from their sphere of influence by organising banquets . His conduct at these literally sent those in attendance scrambling for their carriages : he vomited repeatedly into his napkin , belched and told rude jokes . These distractions ceased upon Violante Beatrice 's death in 1731 .
In 1736 , during the War of the Polish Succession , Don Carlos was banished from Tuscany as part of a territorial swap , and Francis III of Lorraine was made heir in his stead . In January 1737 , the Spanish troops , who had occupied Tuscany since 1731 , withdrew ; 6 @,@ 000 Austrian soldiers took their place .
Gian Gastone died from " an accumulation of diseases " on 9 July 1737 , surrounded by prelates and his sister . Anna Maria Luisa was offered a nominal regency by the Prince de Craon , the Grand Duke 's envoy , until Francis III could arrive in Florence , but declined . At Gian Gastone 's demise , all the House of Medici 's allodial possessions , including £ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 liquid cash , a vast art collection , robes of state and lands in the former Duchy of Urbino , were conferred on Anna Maria Luisa . In regards to this , her most notable act was the Patto di Famiglia ( " Family Pact " ) , signed on 31 October 1737 . In collaboration with the Holy Roman Emperor and Francis of Lorraine , she willed all the personal property of the Medici 's to the
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The Brazilian government provided three important initial motivators for the ethanol industry : guaranteed purchases by the state @-@ owned oil company Petrobras , low @-@ interest loans for agro @-@ industrial ethanol firms , and fixed gasoline and ethanol prices where hydrous ethanol sold for 59 % of the government @-@ set gasoline price at the pump . These incentives made ethanol production competitive .
After reaching more than 4 million cars and light trucks running on pure ethanol by the late 1980s , representing 33 % of the country 's motor vehicle fleet , ethanol production and sales of neat ethanol cars tumbled due to several factors . First , gasoline prices fell sharply as a result of the 1980s oil glut . The inflation adjusted real 2004 dollar value of oil fell from an average of US $ 78 @.@ 2 in 1981 to an average of US $ 26 @.@ 8 per barrel in 1986 . Also , by mid @-@ 1989 a shortage of ethanol fuel supply in the local market left thousands of vehicles in line at gas stations or out of fuel in their garages . At the time ethanol production was tightly regulated by the government , as well as pricing of both gasoline and ethanol fuel , the latter subject to fixed producer prices . As a complement , the government provided subsidies to guarantee a lower ethanol price at the pump as compared to gasoline , as consumers were promised that ethanol prices would never be higher than 65 % the price of gasoline . As sugar prices sharply increased in the international market by the end of 1988 and the government did not set the sugar export quotas , production shifted heavily towards sugar production causing an ethanol supply shortage , as the real cost of ethanol was around US $ 45 per barrel . As ethanol production stagnated at 12 billion liters and could not keep pace with the increasing demand required by the now significant ethanol @-@ only fleet , the Brazilian government began importing ethanol from Europe and Africa in 1991 . Simultaneously , the government began reducing ethanol subsidies , thus marking the beginning of the industry 's deregulation and the slow extinction of the Pró @-@ Álcool Program .
In 1990 , production of neat ethanol vehicles fell to 10 @.@ 9 % of the total car production as consumers lost confidence in the reliability of ethanol fuel supply , and began selling or converting their cars back to gasoline fuel . By the beginning of 1997 Fiat , Ford , and General Motors had all stopped producing ethanol powered cars , leaving only Volkswagen ( who offered the Gol , Santana , Kombi and their derivatives ) . The manufacturers requested a reinstatement of a stable gasohol program and promised to develop products by 1999 .
= = The Flex @-@ fuel era = =
Confidence in ethanol @-@ powered vehicles was restored with the introduction in the Brazilian market of flexible @-@ fuel vehicles starting in 2003 . A key innovation in the Brazilian flex technology was avoiding the need for an additional dedicated sensor to monitor the ethanol @-@ gasoline mix , which made the first American M85 flex fuel vehicles too expensive . This was accomplished through the lambda probe , used to measure the quality of combustion in conventional engines , is also required to tell the engine control unit ( ECU ) which blend of gasoline and alcohol is being burned . This task is accomplished automatically through software developed by Brazilian engineers , called " Software Fuel Sensor " ( SFS ) , fed with data from the standard sensors already built @-@ in the vehicle . The technology was developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of Bosch in 1994 , but was further improved and commercially implemented in 2003 by the Italian subsidiary of Magneti Marelli . A similar fuel injection technology was developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of Delphi Automotive Systems , and it is called " Multifuel . " This technology allows the controller to regulate the amount of fuel injected and spark time , as fuel flow needs to be decreased and also self @-@ combustion needs to be avoided when gasoline is used because ethanol engines have compression ratio around 12 : 1 , too high for gasoline .
In March 2003 , Volkswagen launched in the Brazilian market the Gol 1 @.@ 6 Total Flex , the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol . Chevrolet followed three months later with the Corsa 1 @.@ 8 Flexpower , using an engine developed by a joint @-@ venture with Fiat called PowerTrain . That year production of full flex @-@ fuel reached 39 @,@ 853 automobiles and 9 @,@ 411 light commercial vehicles . By 2008 , popular manufacturers that build flexible fuel vehicles are Chevrolet , Fiat , Ford , Peugeot , Renault , Volkswagen , Honda , Mitsubishi , Toyota and Citroën . Nissan launched its first flex fuel in the Brazilian market in 2009 and Kia Motors in 2010 . Flexible @-@ fuel vehicles were 22 % of the car sales in 2004 , 73 % in 2005 , 87 @.@ 6 % in July 2008 , and reached a record 94 % in August 2009 . The production of flex @-@ fuel cars and light commercial vehicles reached the milestone of 10 million vehicles in March 2010 , and 15 @.@ 3 million units by March 2012 . As of December 2011 , the fleet of flex automobiles and light commercial vehicles had reached 14 @.@ 8 million vehicles , representing 21 % of Brazil 's motor vehicle fleet and 31 @.@ 8 % of all registered light vehicles .
This rapid adoption of the flex technology was facilitated by the fuel distribution infrastructure already in place , as around 27 @,@ 000 filling stations countrywide were available by 1997 with at least one ethanol pump , a heritage of the Pró @-@ Álcool program , and by October 2008 have reached 35 @,@ 000 fueling stations .
The flexibility of Brazilian FFVs empowered the consumers to choose the fuel depending on current market prices . The rapid adoption and commercial success of " flex " vehicles , as they are popularly known , together with the mandatory blend of alcohol with gasoline as E25 fuel , have increased ethanol consumption up to the point that during the first two months of 2008 ethanol consumption increased by 56 % when compared to the same period in 2007 , and achieving a landmark in ethanol consumption in February 2008 , when ethanol retail sales surpassed the 50 % market share of the gasoline @-@ powered fleet . This level of ethanol fuel consumption had not been reached since the end of the 80s , at the peak of the Pró @-@ Álcool Program . According to two separate research studies conducted in 2009 , at the national level 65 % of the flex @-@ fuel registered vehicles regularly use ethanol fuel , and all @-@ year @-@ long by 93 % of flex car owners in São Paulo , the main ethanol producer state where local taxes are lower , and prices at the pump are more competitive than gasoline .
Between 1979 and 2011 , Brazil substituted around 22 million pure gasoline @-@ powered vehicles with 5 @.@ 7 million neat ethanol vehicles , 14 @.@ 8 million flex @-@ fuel vehicles and almost 1 @.@ 5 million flex motorcycles . The number of neat ethanol vehicles still in use by 2003 was estimated between 2 and 3 million vehicles , and 1 @.@ 22 million as of December 2011 . There were 80 flex car and light truck models available in the market manufactured by 12 major carmakers by December 2011 , and four flex @-@ fuel motorcycle models available .
The early technology in flex fuel engines had a fuel economy with hydrated ethanol ( E100 ) that was 25 to 35 % lower than gasoline , but flex engines are now being designed with higher compression ratios , taking advantage of the higher ethanol blends and maximizing the benefits of the higher oxygen content of ethanol , resulting in lower emissions and improving fuel efficiency , allowing flex engines in 2008 models to reduce the fuel economy gap to 20 to 25 % that of gasoline .
= = Latest developments = =
= = = Ethanol @-@ powered diesel engine = = =
Under the auspices of the BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport ( BEST ) project , the first ethanol @-@ powered ( E95 or ED95 ) bus began operations in São Paulo city on December 2007 as a one @-@ year trial project . The bus is a Scania model with a modified diesel engine capable of running with 95 % hydrous ethanol blended with a 5 % ignition improver , with a Marcopolo body . Scania adjusted the compression ratio from 18 : 1 to 28 : 1 , added larger fuel injection nozzles , and altered the injection timing .
During the trial period performance and emissions were monitored by the National Reference Center on Biomass ( CENBIO - Portuguese : Centro Nacional de Referência em Biomassa ) at the Universidade de São Paulo , and compared with similar diesel models , with special attention to carbon monoxide and particulate matter emissions . Performance is also important as previous tests have shown a reduction in fuel economy of around 60 % when E95 is compared to regular diesel .
In November 2009 , a second ED95 bus began operating in São Paulo city . The bus was a Swedish Scania with a Brazilian CAIO body . The second bus was scheduled to operate between Lapa and Vila Mariana , passing through Avenida Paulista , one of the main business centers of São Paulo city . The two test buses operated regularly for 3 years .
In November 2010 the municipal government of São Paulo city signed an agreement with UNICA , Cosan , Scania and Viação Metropolitana " , the local bus operator , to introduce a fleet of 50 ethanol @-@ powered ED95 buses by May 2011 . The city 's government objective is to reduce the carbon footprint of the city 's bus fleet of 15 @,@ 000 diesel @-@ powered buses , with a final goal that the entire bus fleet use only renewable fuels by 2018 . Scania will manufacture the buses in its plant located in São Bernardo do Campo , São Paulo . These buses use the same technology and fuel as the 700 buses manufactured by Scania and already operating in Stockholm .
The first ethanol @-@ powered buses were delivered in May 2011 , and the 50 buses will start regular service in June 2011 . The fleet of 50 ethanol @-@ powered ED95 buses had a cost of R $ 20 million ( US $ 12 @.@ 3 million ) and due to the higher cost of the ED95 fuel , one of the firms participating in the cooperation agreement , Raísen ( a joint venture between Royal Dutch Shell and Cosan ) , will supply the fuel to the municipality at 70 % the market price of regular diesel .
= = = Flex @-@ fuel motorcycles = = =
The latest innovation within the Brazilian flexible @-@ fuel technology is the development of flex @-@ fuel motorcycles . In 2007 Magneti Marelli presented the first motorcycle with flex technology . Delphi Automotive Systems also presented in 2007 its own injection technology for motorcycles . Besides the flexibility in the choice of fuels , a main objective of the fuel @-@ flex motorcycles is to reduce CO2 emissions by 20 percent , and savings in fuel consumption in the order of 5 % to 10 % are expected .
The first flex fuel motorcycle was launched to the Brazilian market by Honda in March 2009 . Produced by its local subsidiary Moto Honda da Amazônia , the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for around US $ 2 @,@ 700 . Because the motorcycle does not have a secondary gas tank for a cold start like the Brazilian flex cars do , the fuel tank must have at least 20 % of gasoline to avoid start up problems at temperatures below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . The motorcycle ’ s panel includes a gauge to warn the driver about the actual ethanol @-@ gasoline mix in the storage tank . During the first eight months after its market launch the CG 150 Titan Mix has sold 139 @,@ 059 motorcycles , capturing a 10 @.@ 6 % market share , and ranking second in sales of new motorcycles in the Brazilian market in 2009 .
In September 2009 , Honda launched a second flexible @-@ fuel motorcycle , the on @-@ off road NXR 150 Bros Mix . By December 2010 both Honda flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles had reached cumulative production of 515 @,@ 726 units , representing an 18 @.@ 1 % market share of the Brazilian new motorcycle sales in that year . As of January 2011 there were four flex @-@ fuel motorcycle models available in the market . During 2011 a total of 956 @,@ 117 flex @-@ fuel motorcycles were produced , raising its market share to 56 @.@ 7 % . Since their inception in 2009 almost 1 @.@ 5 million flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles had been produced in the country through December 2011 , and the two million mark was reached in August 2012 .
= = = New generation of flex engines = = =
The Brazilian subsidiaries of Magneti Marelli , Delphi and Bosch have developed and announced the introduction in 2009 of a new flex engine generation that eliminates the need for the secondary gasoline tank by warming the ethanol fuel during starting , and allowing flex vehicles to do a normal cold start at temperatures as low as − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) , the lowest temperature expected anywhere in the Brazilian territory . Another improvement is the reduction of fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions , between 10 % to 15 % as compared to flex motors sold in 2008 . In March 2009 Volkswagen do Brasil launched the Polo E @-@ Flex , the first flex fuel model without an auxiliary tank for cold start . The Flex Start system used by the Polo was developed by Bosch .
= = 2009 @-@ 2013 supply shortage = =
Since 2009 the Brazilian ethanol industry has experienced financial stress due to the credit crunch caused by the economic crisis of 2008 ; poor sugarcane harvests due to unfavorable weather ; high sugar prices in the world market that made more attractive to produce sugar rather than ethanol ; and other domestic factors that resulted in a decline of its annual production despite a growing demand in the local market . Brazilian ethanol fuel production in 2011 was 21 @.@ 1 billion liters ( 5 @.@ 6 billion U.S. liquid gallons ) , down from 26 @.@ 2 million liters ( 6 @.@ 9 billion gallons ) in 2010 . A supply shortage took place for several months during 2010 and 2011 , and prices climbed to the point that ethanol fuel was no longer attractive for owners of flex @-@ fuel vehicles ; the government reduced the minimum ethanol blend in gasoline to reduce demand and keep ethanol fuel prices from rising further ; and for the first time since the 1990s , ethanol fuel was imported from the United States .
As a result of higher ethanol prices caused by the Brazilian ethanol industry crisis , combined with government subsidies set to keep gasoline price lower than the international market value , by November 2013 only 23 % flex @-@ fuel car owners were using ethanol regularly , down from 66 % in 2009 .
= Gas tungsten arc welding =
Gas tungsten arc welding ( GTAW ) , also known as tungsten inert gas ( TIG ) welding , is an arc welding process that uses a non @-@ consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld . The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas ( argon or helium ) , and a filler metal is normally used , though some welds , known as autogenous welds , do not require it . A constant @-@ current welding power supply produces electrical energy , which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas and metal vapors known as a plasma .
GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non @-@ ferrous metals such as aluminum , magnesium , and copper alloys . The process grants the operator greater control over the weld than competing processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding , allowing for stronger , higher quality welds . However , GTAW is comparatively more complex and difficult to master , and furthermore , it is significantly slower than most other welding techniques . A related process , plasma arc welding , uses a slightly different welding torch to create a more focused welding arc and as a result is often automated .
= = Development = =
After the discovery of the short pulsed electric arc in 1800 by Humphry Davy and of the continuous electric arc in 1802 by Vasily Petrov , arc welding developed slowly . C. L. Coffin had the idea of welding in an inert gas atmosphere in 1890 , but even in the early 20th century , welding non @-@ ferrous materials such as aluminum and magnesium remained difficult because these metals react rapidly with the air and result in porous , dross @-@ filled welds . Processes using flux @-@ covered electrodes did not satisfactorily protect the weld area from contamination . To solve the problem , bottled inert gases were used in the beginning of the 1930s . A few years later , a direct current , gas @-@ shielded welding process emerged in the aircraft industry for welding magnesium .
Russell Meredith of Northrop Aircraft perfected the process in 1941 . Meredith named the process Heliarc because it used a tungsten electrode arc and helium as a shielding gas , but it is often referred to as tungsten inert gas welding ( TIG ) . The American Welding Society 's official term is gas tungsten arc welding ( GTAW ) . Linde Air Products developed a wide range of air @-@ cooled and water @-@ cooled torches , gas lenses to improve shielding , and other accessories that increased the use of the process . Initially , the electrode overheated quickly and , despite tungsten 's high melting temperature , particles of tungsten were transferred to the weld . To address this problem , the polarity of the electrode was changed from positive to negative , but the change made it unsuitable for welding many non @-@ ferrous materials . Finally , the development of alternating current units made it possible to stabilize the arc and produce high quality aluminum and magnesium welds .
Developments continued during the following decades . Linde developed water @-@ cooled torches that helped prevent overheating when welding with high currents . During the 1950s , as the process continued to gain popularity , some users turned to carbon dioxide as an alternative to the more expensive welding atmospheres consisting of argon and helium , but this proved unacceptable for welding aluminum and magnesium because it reduced weld quality , so it is rarely used with GTAW today . The use of any shielding gas containing an oxygen compound , such as carbon dioxide , quickly contaminates the tungsten electrode , making it unsuitable for the TIG process . In 1953 , a new process based on GTAW was developed , called plasma arc welding . It affords greater control and improves weld quality by using a nozzle to focus the electric arc , but is largely limited to automated systems , whereas GTAW remains primarily a manual , hand @-@ held method . Development within the GTAW process has continued as well , and today a number of variations exist . Among the most popular are the pulsed @-@ current , manual programmed , hot @-@ wire , dabber , and increased penetration GTAW methods .
= = Operation = =
Manual gas tungsten arc welding is a relatively difficult welding method , due to the coordination required by the welder . Similar to torch welding , GTAW normally requires two hands , since most applications require that the welder manually feed a filler metal into the weld area with one hand while manipulating the welding torch in the other . Maintaining a short arc length , while preventing contact between the electrode and the workpiece , is also important .
To strike the welding arc , a high frequency generator ( similar to a Tesla coil ) provides an electric spark . This spark is a conductive path for the welding current through the shielding gas and allows the arc to be initiated while the electrode and the workpiece are separated , typically about 1 @.@ 5 – 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 06 – 0 @.@ 12 in ) apart .
Once the arc is struck , the welder moves the torch in a small circle to create a welding pool , the size of which depends on the size of the electrode and the amount of current . While maintaining a constant separation between the electrode and the workpiece , the operator then moves the torch back slightly and tilts it backward about 10 – 15 degrees from vertical . Filler metal is added manually to the front end of the weld pool as it is needed .
Welders often develop a technique of rapidly alternating between moving the torch forward ( to advance the weld pool ) and adding filler metal . The filler rod is withdrawn from the weld pool each time the electrode advances , but it is always kept inside the gas shield to prevent oxidation of its surface and contamination of the weld . Filler rods composed of metals with a low melting temperature , such as aluminum , require that the operator maintain some distance from the arc while staying inside the gas shield . If held too close to the arc , the filler rod can melt before it makes contact with the weld puddle . As the weld nears completion , the arc current is often gradually reduced to allow the weld crater to solidify and prevent the formation of crater cracks at the end of the weld .
= = = Safety = = =
Welders wear protective clothing , including light and thin leather gloves and protective long sleeve shirts with high collars , to avoid exposure to strong ultraviolet light . Due to the absence of smoke in GTAW , the electric arc light is not covered by fumes and particulate matter as in stick welding or shielded metal arc welding , and thus is a great deal brighter , subjecting operators to strong ultraviolet light . The welding arc has a different range and strength of UV light wavelengths from sunlight , but the welder is very close to the source and the light intensity is very strong . Potential arc light damage includes accidental flashes to the eye or arc eye and skin damage similar to strong sunburn . Operators wear opaque helmets with dark eye lenses and full head and neck coverage to prevent this exposure to UV light . Modern helmets often feature a liquid crystal @-@ type face plate that self @-@ darkens upon exposure to the bright light of the struck arc . Transparent welding curtains , made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film , are often used to shield nearby workers and bystanders from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc .
Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter . While the process doesn 't produce smoke , the brightness of the arc in GTAW can break down surrounding air to form ozone and nitric oxides . The ozone and nitric oxides react with lung tissue and moisture to create nitric acid and ozone burn . Ozone and nitric oxide levels are moderate , but exposure duration , repeated exposure , and the quality and quantity of fume extraction , and air change in the room must be monitored . Welders who do not work safely can contract emphysema and oedema of the lungs , which can lead to early death . Similarly , the heat from the arc can cause poisonous fumes to form from cleaning and degreasing materials . Cleaning operations using these agents should not be performed near the site of welding , and proper ventilation is necessary to protect the welder .
= = = Applications = = =
While the aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas tungsten arc welding , the process is used in a number of other areas . Many industries use GTAW for welding thin workpieces , especially nonferrous metals . It is used extensively in the manufacture of space vehicles , and is also frequently employed to weld small @-@ diameter , thin @-@ wall tubing such as those used in the bicycle industry . In addition , GTAW is often used to make root or first @-@ pass welds for piping of various sizes . In maintenance and repair work , the process is commonly used to repair tools and dies , especially components made of aluminum and magnesium . Because the weld metal is not transferred directly across the electric arc like most open arc welding processes , a vast assortment of welding filler metal is available to the welding engineer . In fact , no other welding process permits the welding of so many alloys in so many product configurations . Filler metal alloys , such as elemental aluminum and chromium , can be lost through the electric arc from volatilization . This loss does not occur with the GTAW process . Because the resulting welds have the same chemical integrity as the original base metal or match the base metals more closely , GTAW welds are highly resistant to corrosion and cracking over long time periods , making GTAW the welding procedure of choice for critical operations like sealing spent nuclear fuel canisters before burial .
= = Quality = =
Gas tungsten arc welding , because it affords greater control over the weld area than other welding processes , can produce high @-@ quality welds when performed by skilled operators . Maximum weld quality is assured by maintaining cleanliness — all equipment and materials used must be free from oil , moisture , dirt and other impurities , as these cause weld porosity and consequently a decrease in weld strength and quality . To remove oil and grease , alcohol or similar commercial solvents may be used , while a stainless steel wire brush or chemical process can remove oxides from the surfaces of metals like aluminum . Rust on steels can be removed by first grit blasting the surface and then using a wire brush to remove any embedded grit . These steps are especially important when negative polarity direct current is used , because such a power supply provides no cleaning during the welding process , unlike positive polarity direct current or alternating current . To maintain a clean weld pool during welding , the shielding gas flow should be sufficient and consistent so that the gas covers the weld and blocks impurities in the atmosphere . GTAW in windy or drafty environments increases the amount of shielding gas necessary to protect the weld , increasing the cost and making the process unpopular outdoors .
The level of heat input also affects weld quality . Low heat input , caused by low welding current or high welding speed , can limit penetration and cause the weld bead to lift away from the surface being welded . If there is too much heat input , however , the weld bead grows in width while the likelihood of excessive penetration and spatter increase . Additionally , if the welding torch is too far from the workpiece the shielding gas becomes ineffective , causing porosity within the weld . This results in a weld with pinholes , which is weaker than a typical weld .
If the amount of current used exceeds the capability of the electrode , tungsten inclusions in the weld may result . Known as tungsten spitting , this can be identified with radiography and can be prevented by changing the type of electrode or increasing the electrode diameter . In addition , if the electrode is not well protected by the gas shield or the operator accidentally allows it to contact the molten metal , it can become dirty or contaminated . This often causes the welding arc to become unstable , requiring that the electrode be ground with a diamond abrasive to remove the impurity .
= = Equipment = =
The equipment required for the gas tungsten arc welding operation includes a welding torch utilizing a non @-@ consumable tungsten electrode , a constant @-@ current welding power supply , and a shielding gas source .
= = = Welding torch = = =
GTAW welding torches are designed for either automatic or manual operation and are equipped with cooling systems using air or water . The automatic and manual torches are similar in construction , but the manual torch has a handle while the automatic torch normally comes with a mounting rack . The angle between the centerline of the handle and the centerline of the tungsten electrode , known as the head angle , can be varied on some manual torches according to the preference of the operator . Air cooling systems are most often used for low @-@ current operations ( up to about 200 A ) , while water cooling is required for high @-@ current welding ( up to about 600 A ) . The torches are connected with cables to the power supply and with hoses to the shielding gas source and where used , the water supply .
The internal metal parts of a torch are made of hard alloys of copper or brass so it can transmit current and heat effectively . The tungsten electrode must be held firmly in the center of the torch with an appropriately sized collet , and ports around the electrode provide a constant flow of shielding gas . Collets are sized according to the diameter of the tungsten electrode they hold . The body of the torch is made of heat @-@ resistant , insulating plastics covering the metal components , providing insulation from heat and electricity to protect the welder .
The size of the welding torch nozzle depends on the amount of shielded area desired . The size of the gas nozzle depends upon the diameter of the electrode , the joint configuration , and the availability of access to the joint by the welder . The inside diameter of the nozzle is preferably at least three times the diameter of the electrode , but there are no hard rules . The welder judges the effectiveness of the shielding and increases the nozzle size to increase the area protected by the external gas shield as needed . The nozzle must be heat resistant and thus is normally made of alumina or a ceramic material , but fused quartz , a high purity glass , offers greater visibility . Devices can be inserted into the nozzle for special applications , such as gas lenses or valves to improve the control shielding gas flow to reduce turbulence and introduction of contaminated atmosphere into the shielded area . Hand switches to control welding current can be added to the manual GTAW torches .
= = = Power supply = = =
Gas tungsten arc welding uses a constant current power source , meaning that the current ( and thus the heat ) remains relatively constant , even if the arc distance and voltage change . This is important because most applications of GTAW are manual or semiautomatic , requiring that an operator hold the torch . Maintaining a suitably steady arc distance is difficult if a constant voltage power source is used instead , since it can cause dramatic heat variations and make welding more difficult .
The preferred polarity of the GTAW system depends largely on the type of metal being welded . Direct current with a negatively charged electrode ( DCEN ) is often employed when welding steels , nickel , titanium , and other metals . It can also be used in automatic GTAW of aluminum or magnesium when helium is used as a shielding gas . The negatively charged electrode generates heat by emitting electrons , which travel across the arc , causing thermal ionization of the shielding gas and increasing the temperature of the base material . The ionized shielding gas flows toward the electrode , not the base material , and this can allow oxides to build on the surface of the weld . Direct current with a positively charged electrode ( DCEP ) is less common , and is used primarily for shallow welds since less heat is generated in the base material . Instead of flowing from the electrode to the base material , as in DCEN , electrons go the other direction , causing the electrode to reach very high temperatures . To help it maintain its shape and prevent softening , a larger electrode is often used . As the electrons flow toward the electrode , ionized shielding gas flows back toward the base material , cleaning the weld by removing oxides and other impurities and thereby improving its quality and appearance .
Alternating current , commonly used when welding aluminum and magnesium manually or semi @-@ automatically , combines the two direct currents by making the electrode and base material alternate between positive and negative charge . This causes the electron flow to switch directions constantly , preventing the tungsten electrode from overheating while maintaining the heat in the base material . Surface oxides are still removed during the electrode @-@ positive portion of the cycle and the base metal is heated more deeply during the electrode @-@ negative portion of the cycle . Some power supplies enable operators to use an unbalanced alternating current wave by modifying the exact percentage of time that the current spends in each state of polarity , giving them more control over the amount of heat and cleaning action supplied by the power source . In addition , operators must be wary of rectification , in which the arc fails to reignite as it passes from straight polarity ( negative electrode ) to reverse polarity ( positive electrode ) . To remedy the problem , a square wave power supply can be used , as can high @-@ frequency voltage to encourage ignition .
= = = Electrode = = =
The electrode used in GTAW is made of tungsten or a tungsten alloy , because tungsten has the highest melting temperature among pure metals , at 3 @,@ 422 ° C ( 6 @,@ 192 ° F ) . As a result , the electrode is not consumed during welding , though some erosion ( called burn @-@ off ) can occur . Electrodes can have either a clean finish or a ground finish — clean finish electrodes have been chemically cleaned , while ground finish electrodes have been ground to a uniform size and have a polished surface , making them optimal for heat conduction . The diameter of the electrode can vary between 0 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 02 and 0 @.@ 25 in ) , and their length can range from 75 to 610 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 to 24 @.@ 0 in ) .
A number of tungsten alloys have been standardized by the International Organization for Standardization and the American Welding Society in ISO 6848 and AWS A5.12 , respectively , for use in GTAW electrodes , and are summarized in the adjacent table .
Pure tungsten electrodes ( classified as WP or EWP ) are general purpose and low cost electrodes . They have poor heat resistance and electron emission . They find limited use in AC welding of e.g. magnesium and aluminum .
Cerium oxide ( or ceria ) as an alloying element improves arc stability and ease of starting while decreasing burn @-@ off . Cerium addition is not as effective as thorium but works well , and cerium is not radioactive .
An alloy of lanthanum oxide ( or lanthana ) has a similar effect as cerium , and is also not radioactive .
Thorium oxide ( or thoria ) alloy electrodes offer excellent arc performance and starting , making them popular general purpose electrodes . However , it is somewhat radioactive , making inhalation of thorium vapors and dust a health risk , and disposal an environmental risk .
Electrodes containing zirconium oxide ( or zirconia ) increase the current capacity while improving arc stability and starting and increasing electrode life .
Filler metals are also used in nearly all applications of GTAW , the major exception being the welding of thin materials . Filler metals are available with different diameters and are made of a variety of materials . In most cases , the filler metal in the form of a rod is added to the weld pool manually , but some applications call for an automatically fed filler metal , which often is stored on spools or coils .
= = = Shielding gas = = =
As with other welding processes such as gas metal arc welding , shielding gases are necessary in GTAW to protect the welding area from atmospheric gases such as nitrogen and oxygen , which can cause fusion defects , porosity , and weld metal embrittlement if they come in contact with the electrode , the arc , or the welding metal . The gas also transfers heat from the tungsten electrode to the metal , and it helps start and maintain a stable arc .
The selection of a shielding gas depends on several factors , including the type of material being welded , joint design , and desired final weld appearance . Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas for GTAW , since it helps prevent defects due to a varying arc length . When used with alternating current , argon shielding results in high weld quality and good appearance . Another common shielding gas , helium , is most often used to increase the weld penetration in a joint , to increase the welding speed , and to weld metals with high heat conductivity , such as copper and aluminum . A significant disadvantage is the difficulty of striking an arc with helium gas , and the decreased weld quality associated with a varying arc length .
Argon @-@ helium mixtures are also frequently utilized in GTAW , since they can increase control of the heat input while maintaining the benefits of using argon . Normally , the mixtures are made with primarily helium ( often about 75 % or higher ) and a balance of argon . These mixtures increase the speed and quality of the AC welding of aluminum , and also make it easier to strike an arc . Another shielding gas mixture , argon @-@ hydrogen , is used in the mechanized welding of light gauge stainless steel , but because hydrogen can cause porosity , its uses are limited . Similarly , nitrogen can sometimes be added to argon to help stabilize the austenite in austenitic stainless steels and increase penetration when welding copper . Due to porosity problems in ferritic steels and limited benefits , however , it is not a popular shielding gas additive .
= = Materials = =
Gas tungsten arc welding is most commonly used to weld stainless steel and nonferrous materials , such as aluminum and magnesium , but it can be applied to nearly all metals , with a notable exception being zinc and its alloys . Its applications involving carbon steels are limited not because of process restrictions , but because of the existence of more economical steel welding techniques , such as gas metal arc welding and shielded metal arc welding . Furthermore , GTAW can be performed in a variety of other @-@ than @-@ flat positions , depending on the skill of the welder and the materials being welded .
= = = Aluminum and magnesium = = =
Aluminum and magnesium are most often welded using alternating current , but the use of direct current is also possible , depending on the properties desired . Before welding , the work area should be cleaned and may be preheated to 175 to 200 ° C ( 347 to 392 ° F ) for aluminum or to a maximum of 150 ° C ( 302 ° F ) for thick magnesium workpieces to improve penetration and increase travel speed . AC current can provide a self @-@ cleaning effect , removing the thin , refractory aluminum oxide ( sapphire ) layer that forms on aluminum metal within minutes of exposure to air . This oxide layer must be removed for welding to occur . When alternating current is used , pure tungsten electrodes or zirconiated tungsten electrodes are preferred over thoriated electrodes , as the latter are more likely to " spit " electrode particles across the welding arc into the weld . Blunt electrode tips are preferred , and pure argon shielding gas should be employed for thin workpieces . Introducing helium allows for greater penetration in thicker workpieces , but can make arc starting difficult .
Direct current of either polarity , positive or negative , can be used to weld aluminum and magnesium as well . Direct current with a negatively charged electrode ( DCEN ) allows for high penetration . Argon is commonly used as a shielding gas for DCEN welding of aluminum . Shielding gases with high helium contents are often used for higher penetration in thicker materials . Thoriated electrodes are suitable for use in DCEN welding of aluminum . Direct current with a positively charged electrode ( DCEP ) is used primarily for shallow welds , especially those with a joint thickness of less than 1 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 063 in ) . A thoriated tungsten electrode is commonly used , along with a pure argon shielding gas .
= = = Steels = = =
For GTAW of carbon and stainless steels , the selection of a filler material is important to prevent excessive porosity . Oxides on the filler material and workpieces must be removed before welding to prevent contamination , and immediately prior to welding , alcohol or acetone should be used to clean the surface . Preheating is generally not necessary for mild steels less than one inch thick , but low alloy steels may require preheating to slow the cooling process and prevent the formation of martensite in the heat @-@ affected zone . Tool steels should also be preheated to prevent cracking in the heat @-@ affected zone . Austenitic stainless steels do not require preheating , but martensitic and ferritic chromium stainless steels do . A DCEN power source is normally used , and thoriated electrodes , tapered to a sharp point , are recommended . Pure argon is used for thin workpieces , but helium can be introduced as thickness increases .
= = = Dissimilar metals = = =
Welding dissimilar metals often introduces new difficulties to GTAW welding , because most materials do not easily fuse to form a strong bond . However , welds of dissimilar materials have numerous applications in manufacturing , repair work , and the prevention of corrosion and oxidation . In some joints , a compatible filler metal is chosen to help form the bond , and this filler metal can be the same as one of the base materials ( for example , using a stainless steel filler metal with stainless steel and carbon steel as base materials ) , or a different metal ( such as the use of a nickel filler metal for joining steel and cast iron ) . Very different materials may be coated or " buttered " with a material compatible with a particular filler metal , and then welded . In addition , GTAW can be used in cladding or overlaying dissimilar materials .
When welding dissimilar metals , the joint must have an accurate fit , with proper gap dimensions and bevel angles . Care should be taken to avoid melting excessive base material . Pulsed current is particularly useful for these applications , as it helps limit the heat input . The filler metal should be added quickly , and a large weld pool should be avoided to prevent dilution of the base materials .
= = Process variations = =
= = = Pulsed @-@ current = = =
In the pulsed @-@ current mode , the welding current rapidly alternates between two levels . The higher current state is known as the pulse current , while the lower current level is called the background current . During the period of pulse current , the weld area is heated and fusion occurs . Upon dropping to the background current , the weld area is allowed to cool and solidify . Pulsed @-@ current GTAW has a number of advantages , including lower heat input and consequently a reduction in distortion and warpage in thin workpieces . In addition , it allows for greater control of the weld pool , and can increase weld penetration , welding speed , and quality . A similar method , manual programmed GTAW , allows the operator to program a specific rate and magnitude of current variations , making it useful for specialized applications .
= = = Dabber = = =
The dabber variation is used to precisely place weld metal on thin edges . The automatic process replicates the motions of manual welding by feeding a cold filler wire into the weld area and dabbing ( or oscillating ) it into the welding arc . It can be used in conjunction with pulsed current , and is used to weld a variety of alloys , including titanium , nickel , and tool steels . Common applications include rebuilding seals in jet engines and building up saw blades , milling cutters , drill bits , and mower blades .
= 8th Military Police Brigade ( United States ) =
The 8th Military Police Brigade is a military police brigade of the United States Army based at Schofield Barracks , Hawaii . It is responsible for military police units in the Pacific Ocean region .
Activated during the Vietnam War , the 8th Military Police Brigade was specifically organized to provide planning , direction and supervision for the criminal investigation work required by the U.S. Army in Vietnam . It took over from a provisional Military Police Group ( Criminal Investigation ) that had been formed on 3 November 1966 in charge of all criminal investigative work in Vietnam , except for the metropolitan Saigon area .
In July 1972 , it became the basis for the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Center , Vietnam Field Office . It served in the region for several years and earning ten campaign streamers before being deactivated during the American forces pullout from the region . The brigade was reactivated in Korea in the 1980s to provide command and control for all U.S. Pacific military police forces , and has since been moved to Hawaii , where much of U.S. Army Pacific is located .
= = Organization = =
The Brigade is a subordinate unit of U.S. Army Pacific and the Eighth Theater Sustainment Command It falls under the direct command of the 8th Theater Sustainment Command .
Currently , the 8th Military Police Brigade consists of one battalion : 728th Military Police Battalion , which contains the 57th , 58th , 552nd , 558th Military Police companies and the 39th and 13th Military Police detachments .
= = History = =
= = = Vietnam War = = =
The 8th Military Police Group was originally constituted on 8 April 1967 in the regular army and activated on 26 July at Fort Riley , Kansas . After seeing only five months of duty , the group was again deactivated on 18 December of that year .
On 24 August 1968 the group was again activated , this time in Vietnam . Its activation was part of a larger activation of several military police groups in the region to provide greater command and control for Military Police operating throughout the region . As such , the headquarters element took command of military police units already operating in the country . The Brigade provided policing duties , based in Long Binh along with the 89th Military Police Group . During that time it was a subordinate unit of the 18th Military Police Brigade . It received its distinctive unit insignia on 12 November 1969 . The group operated in Vietnam until the pullout of U.S. forces from the nation , receiving ten campaign streamers for its role in the conflict .
= = = Reactivation and South Korea = = =
The 8th Military Police Brigade ( Provisional ) was constituted in South Korea in September 1984 in response to the need for cohesive command and control element in the event of war , for the numerous non @-@ divisional Military Police units on the peninsula . At the time it consisted of the 94th Military Police Battalion in Yongsan ( Seoul ) and the 728th Military Police Battalion in Taegu ( Camp Walker ) . However , the brigade would remain provisional and would not be officially activated for another ten years while it operated in this capacity .
In 1995 , the concept plan was approved for the activation of a military police brigade headquarters in Korea . The 8th MP Brigade was officially activated on 16 April 1996 to provide command and control for the 728th Military Police Battalion and the 94th Military Police Battalion in armistice and to serve as the theater military police brigade during hostilities . The same day , it received its shoulder sleeve insignia .
In July 2006 , the 8th MP Brigade Headquarters and the 728th MP Battalion were reassigned to U.S. Army Pacific and moved from Korea to Schofield Barracks , Hawaii . It was placed under the command of the newly created 8th Theater Sustainment Command . The command is responsible for preparing the 25th Infantry Division and other 8th Army units for worldwide deployment .
= = = Global War on Terrorism = = =
= = = = Iraq War = = = =
Subordinate units of the brigade 's 728th MP Battalion deployed to Iraq in October 2004 to provide military police duties while the Army formed a clear rotational schedule for MP units coming and going from the country during Operation Iraqi Freedom . In October 2007 , the Brigade again deployed elements of the 728th MP Battalion to Iraq for 15 months in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . The units suffered several casualties , including soldiers killed in ambushes and vehicle accidents .
Brigade headquarters are scheduled to deploy to the Iraq War in fall 2008 to partake in Operation Iraqi Freedom . In July 2008 , the 8th MP Brigade began its move into Iraq with a pre @-@ deployment site survey to support the upcoming deployment into the country . The brigade headquarters was set to replace the 18th Military Police Brigade , which ended its deployment in fall of 2008 . The 8th MP brigade will continue the training and expansion of the national Iraqi Police force in the Baghdad area . On 2 December , the brigade officially took control from the 18th MP brigade and began its deployment .
= = Honors = =
= = = Campaign Participation Credit = = =
= = = Decorations = = =
= Deus Ex =
Deus Ex [ ˈde.ʊs ɛks ] is a cyberpunk @-@ themed action role @-@ playing video game — combining first @-@ person shooter , stealth and role @-@ playing elements — developed by Ion Storm and published by Eidos Interactive in 2000 . First published for personal computers running Microsoft Windows , Deus Ex was later ported to Mac OS systems and PlayStation 2 . Set in a dystopian world during the year 2052 , the central plot follows rookie United Nations Anti @-@ Terrorist Coalition agent JC Denton , as he sets out to combat terrorist forces , which have become increasingly prevalent in a world slipping ever further into chaos . As the plot unfolds , Denton becomes entangled in a deep and ancient conspiracy , encountering organizations such as Majestic 12 , the Illuminati and the Hong Kong Triads during his journey .
The game received universal critical acclaim , including repeatedly being named " Best PC Game of All Time " in PC Gamer 's " Top 100 PC Games " in 2011 and in a poll carried out by UK gaming magazine PC Zone . It was a frequent candidate for and winner of Game of the Year awards , drawing praise for its pioneering designs in player choice and multiple narrative paths . It has sold more than 1 million copies , as of April 23 , 2009 . The game has spawned both a sequel , Deus Ex : Invisible War , released in 2003 , and three prequels : Deus Ex : Human Revolution , released in 2011 , Deus Ex : The Fall , released in 2013 , and Deus Ex : Mankind Divided , to be released in August 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
Deus Ex incorporates elements from four video game genres : role @-@ playing , first @-@ person shooter , adventure , and " immersive simulation " , the last of which being a game where " nothing reminds you that you 're just playing a game " . For example , the game uses a first @-@ person camera during gameplay and includes exploration and character interaction as primary features .
The player assumes the role of JC Denton , a nanotech @-@ augmented operative of the United Nations Anti @-@ Terrorist Coalition ( UNATCO ) . This nanotechnology is a central gameplay mechanism , and allows players to perform superhuman feats .
= = = Role @-@ playing elements = = =
As the player accomplishes objectives , the player character is rewarded with " skill points " . Skill points are used to enhance a character 's abilities in eleven different areas , and were designed to provide players with a way to customize their characters ; a player might create a combat @-@ focused character by increasing proficiency with pistols or rifles , while a more furtive character can be created by focusing on lock picking and computer hacking abilities . There are four different levels of proficiency in each skill , with the skill point cost increasing for each successive level .
Weapons may be customized through " weapon modifications " , which can be found or purchased throughout the game . The player might add scopes , silencers , or laser sights ; increase the weapon 's range , accuracy , or magazine size ; or decrease its recoil and reload time . Not all modifications are available to all weapons ; for example , a rocket launcher cannot be silenced , and recoil cannot be reduced on a flamethrower .
Players are further encouraged to customize their characters through nano @-@ augmentations — cybernetic devices that grant characters superhuman powers . While the game contains eighteen different nano @-@ augmentations , the player can install a maximum of nine , as each must be used on a certain part of the body : one in the arms , legs , eyes , and head ; two underneath the skin ; and three in the torso . This forces the player to choose carefully between the benefits offered by each augmentation . For example , the arm augmentation requires the player to decide between boosting their character 's skill in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat or his ability to lift heavy objects .
Interaction with non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) was a large design focus . When the player interacts with a non @-@ player character , the game will enter a cutscene @-@ like conversation mode where the player advances the conversation by selecting from a list of dialogue options . The player 's choices often have a substantial effect on both gameplay and plot , as non @-@ player characters will react in different ways depending on the selected answer ( e.g. rudeness makes them less likely to provide assistance ) .
= = = Combat elements = = =
Deus Ex features combat similar to first @-@ person shooters , with real @-@ time action , a first @-@ person perspective , and reflex @-@ based gameplay . As the player will often encounter enemies in groups , combat often tends toward a tactical approach , including the use of cover , strafing , and " hit @-@ and @-@ run " . A USA Today reviewer found " At the easiest difficulty setting , your character is puréed again and again by an onslaught of human and robotic terrorists until you learn the value of stealth . " However , through the game 's role @-@ playing systems , it is possible to develop a character 's skills and augmentations to create a tank @-@ like combat specialist with the ability to deal and absorb large amounts of damage . Non @-@ player characters will praise or criticize the main character depending on his use of force , incorporating a moral element into the gameplay .
Deus Ex features a head @-@ up display crosshair , whose size dynamically shows where shots will fall based on movement , aim , and the weapon in use ; the reticle expands while the player is moving or shifting his or her aim , and slowly shrinks to its original size while no actions are taken . How quickly the reticle shrinks depends on the character 's proficiency with the equipped weapon , the number of accuracy modifications added to the weapon , and the level of the " targeting " nano @-@ augmentation .
Deus Ex features twenty @-@ four weapons , ranging from crowbars , electroshock weapons , and riot baton , to laser guided anti @-@ tank rockets and assault rifles ; both lethal and non @-@ lethal weapons are available . The player can also make use of several weapons of opportunity , such as fire extinguishers .
= = = Player choice = = =
Gameplay in Deus Ex emphasizes player choice . Objectives can be completed in numerous ways , including stealth , sniping , heavy frontal assault , dialogue , or engineering and computer hacking . This level of freedom requires that levels , characters , and puzzles be designed with significant redundancy , as a single play @-@ through of the game will miss large sections of dialogue , areas , and other content . In some missions the player is encouraged to avoid using deadly force , and certain aspects of the story may change depending on how violent or non @-@ violent the player chooses to be . The game is also unusual in that two of its boss villains can be killed off early in the game , or left alive to be defeated later , and this too affects how other characters interact with the player .
Because of its design focus on player choice , Deus Ex has been compared with System Shock , a game that inspired its design . Together , these factors give the game a great degree of replayability , as the player will have vastly different experiences , depending on which methods he or she uses to accomplish objectives .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Deus Ex was designed as a single player game , and the initial releases of the Windows and Macintosh versions of the game did not include multiplayer functionality . Support for multiplayer modes was later incorporated through patches . The component includes three game modes : deathmatch , basic team deathmatch , and advanced team deathmatch . Only five maps , based on levels from the single @-@ player portion of the game , were included with the original multiplayer patch , but many user @-@ created maps now exist . The PlayStation 2 release of Deus Ex does not offer a multiplayer mode . In April 2014 it was announced that Gamespy would cease their masterserver services , also affecting Deus Ex . A community @-@ made patch for the multiplayer mode has been created as a response to this .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Deus Ex takes place in the year 2052 in a world that draws heavily upon popular real world conspiracy theories for many of its plot elements . These include speculations regarding black helicopters , vaccinations , and FEMA , as well as Area 51 , the ECHELON network , Men in Black , chupacabras ( in the form of " greasels " ) , and grey aliens . Mysterious groups such as Majestic 12 , the Illuminati , the Knights Templar , the Bilderberg Group , and the Trilateral Commission also either play a central part in the plot , or are alluded to during the course of the game . This dark setting is enhanced by the fact that the entire game takes place at night , a backdrop that adds to the atmosphere of conspiracies and stealth .
The game contradicts itself in several instances regarding the exact year in which the events of the story take place , but information in the sequel Deus Ex : Invisible War reconciles this inconsistency via retroactive continuity , placing the events of Deus Ex in the year 2052 . Most of the game takes place in fictionalized versions of real @-@ world locations , including New York City , Hong Kong , Paris , Vandenberg Air Force Base , and Area 51 .
The plot of Deus Ex depicts a society on a slow spiral into chaos . There is a massive division between the rich and the poor , not only socially , but in some cities physically . A lethal pandemic known as the " Gray Death " ravages the world 's population , especially within the United States , and has no cure . A synthetic vaccine , " Ambrosia " , manufactured by the company VersaLife , nullifies the effects of the virus , but is in critically short supply . Because of its scarcity , Ambrosia is available only to those deemed " vital to the social order " , and finds its way primarily to government officials , military personnel , the rich and influential , scientists , and the intellectual elite . With no hope for the common people of the world , riots occur worldwide , and a number of terrorist organizations have formed with the professed intent of assisting the downtrodden , among them the National Secessionist Forces of the U.S. and a French group known as Silhouette .
In order to combat these threats to the world order , the United Nations has greatly expanded its governmental influence around the globe . The United Nations Anti @-@ Terrorist Coalition ( UNATCO ) is formed , with the intent of maintaining peace internationally and combating the world 's ever @-@ growing number of terrorist groups . It is headquartered near New York City in a bunker beneath Liberty Island , placed there after a terrorist strike on the Statue of Liberty . Alex Jacobson 's character model and name are based on Warren Spector 's own nephew , Alec Jacobson .
= = = Plot = = =
The player assumes the identity of JC Denton , a nanotechnologically @-@ augmented ( " nano @-@ aug " ) UNATCO agent . After completing his training , JC takes several missions given by Director Joseph Manderley to track down members of the National Secessionist Forces ( NSF ) and their stolen shipments of the " Ambrosia " vaccine , the treatment for the " Gray Death " virus . Through these missions , JC is reunited with his brother , Paul , who is also nano @-@ augmented . JC tracks the Ambrosia shipment to a private terminal at LaGuardia Airport . Paul meets JC outside the plane , and explains that he has defected from UNATCO and is now working with the NSF after learning that the Gray Death is a man @-@ made virus , with UNATCO using its power to make sure only the elite receive the vaccine .
JC returns to UNATCO headquarters and is told by Manderley that both he and Paul have been outfitted with a 24 @-@ hour kill switch , and that Paul 's has been activated due to his betrayal . Manderley orders JC to fly to Hong Kong to eliminate Tracer Tong , a hacker whom Paul has contact with , and who can disable the kill switches . Instead , JC returns to Paul 's apartment to find Paul hiding inside . Paul further explains his defection and encourages JC to also defect by sending out a distress call to alert the NSF 's allies . Upon doing so , JC becomes a wanted man by UNATCO , and his own kill switch is activated by Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) Director Walton Simons . JC is unable to escape UNATCO forces , and both he and Paul ( provided he survived the raid on the apartment ) are taken to a secret prison below UNATCO headquarters . An entity named " Daedalus " contacts JC and informs him that the prison is part of Majestic 12 , and arranges for him and Paul to escape . The two flee to Hong Kong to meet with Tong , who deactivates their kill switches . Tong requests JC infiltrate the VersaLife building . Doing so , JC discovers that the corporation is the source for the Gray Death , and he is able to steal the plans for the virus and destroy the " universal constructor " ( UC ) that produces it .
Analysis of the virus shows it was manufactured by the Illuminati , prompting Tong to send JC to Paris to try to make contact with the organization and obtain their help fighting Majestic 12 . JC eventually meets with Illuminati leader Morgan Everett , and learns that the Gray Death virus was intended to be used for augmentation technology , but Majestic 12 , led by trillionaire businessman and former Illuminatus Bob Page , was able to steal and repurpose it into its current viral form . Everett recognizes that without VersaLife 's universal constructor , Majestic 12 can no longer create the virus , and will likely target Vandenberg Air Force Base , where X @-@ 51 , a group of former Area 51 scientists , has built another one . After aiding the base personnel in repelling a Majestic 12 attack , JC meets X @-@ 51 leader Gary Savage , who reveals that Daedalus is an artificial intelligence ( AI ) borne out of the ECHELON program . Everett attempts to gain control over Majestic 12 's communications network by releasing Daedalus onto the U.S. military networks , but Page counters by releasing his own AI , Icarus , which merges with Daedalus to form a new AI , Helios , with the ability to control all global communications . After this , Savage enlists JC 's help in procuring schematics for reconstructing components for the UC that were damaged during Majestic 12 's raid of Vandenberg . JC finds the schematics and electronically transmits them to Savage . Page intercepts the transmission and launches a nuclear missile at Vandenberg to ensure that Area 51 ( now Majestic 12 's headquarters ) , will be the only location in the world with an operational UC . However , JC is able to reprogram the missile to strike Area 51 . JC then travels there himself to confront Page .
When JC locates him , Page reveals that he seeks to merge with Helios and gain full control over all nanotechnology , essentially becoming a god . JC is contacted by Tong , Everett , and the Helios AI simultaneously . All three factions ask for his help in defeating Page , while furthering their own objectives , and JC is forced to choose between them . Tong seeks to plunge the world into a second Dark Age by destroying the global communications hub and preventing anyone from taking control of the world . Everett offers Denton the chance to bring the Illuminati back to power by killing Bob Page and using the technology of Area 51 to rule the world with an invisible hand . Helios wishes to merge with Denton and rule the world as a benevolent dictator with infinite knowledge and reason . The player 's decision determines the course of the future , and brings the game to a close .
= = Development = =
After Looking Glass Technologies and Origin Systems released Ultima Underworld II : Labyrinth of Worlds in January 1993 , producer Warren Spector began to plan Troubleshooter , the game that would become Deus Ex . Spector found himself burnt out on fantasy and science fiction settings , and hoped to make a game set in the real world . In his 1994 proposal , he described the concept as " Underworld @-@ style first @-@ person action " in a real world setting with " big @-@ budget , nonstop action " . Spector later commented that Origin did not have the interest , nor Looking Glass the funding , to produce the game . He eventually left Origin for Looking Glass and continued to develop the game 's concept , but his project Junction Point , which was inspired by ideas from Troubleshooter , was cancelled . After Spector and his team were laid off from Looking Glass , John Romero of Ion Storm offered him the chance to make his " dream game " without any restrictions . Spector quickly joined the company .
Preproduction for Deus Ex began around August 1997 and lasted roughly six months . The six @-@ person team came from Looking Glass 's Austin studio . Spector , the team 's director and producer , saw their work as improving upon the game design ideas of Origin , Looking Glass , and Valve Corporation by doing what those companies did not . The game 's " ironic " working title was Shooter : Majestic Revelations , and it was scheduled for release on Christmas 1998 . The team developed the setting before the game mechanics . Noticing his wife 's fascination with The X @-@ Files , Spector connected the " real world , millennial weirdness , [ and ] conspiracy " topics on his mind and decided to make a game about them that would appeal to a wide audience . Shooter 's fiction was based in part on conspiracy theories related to Area 51 , CIA drug trafficking , the John F. Kennedy assassination , the Majestic 12 , and a Masonic bunker beneath Denver International Airport . The team designed over 200 characters without associated in @-@ game roles , which was both helpful when designing missions and unhelpful as they attempted to reduce their scope . Later in 1997 , Spector wrote a " manifesto " on his ideal game and the structure of role @-@ playing video games . His principles included " problems , not puzzles " , " no forced failure " , " players do ; NPCs watch " , and " areas with multiple entrance and exit points " . In retrospect , Spector believed that Deus Ex accomplished the intent of his manifesto .
The Shooter design document cast the player as an augmented agent working against an elite cabal in the " dangerous and chaotic " 2050s . It cited Half @-@ Life , Fallout , Thief : The Dark Project , and GoldenEye 007 as game design influences , and used the stories and settings of Colossus : The Forbin Project , The Manchurian Candidate , Robocop , The X @-@ Files and Men in Black as reference points . According to the document , the game would engage with " the millennial madness that 's gripping the world ... and a general fascination with conspiracy theories and the desire to play with high @-@ tech espionage toys " . The team designed a skill system that featured " special powers " derived from nanotechnological augmentation , and avoided the inclusion of die rolling and skills that required micromanagement . Augmentations were unique to the player character . By March 1998 , preproduction had generated 300 pages of documentation . The document grew to 500 pages , with " radically different " content , by the game 's April 1999 Alpha 1 deadline . Of Spector 's original design document , the marketing section was the only part left unedited .
In early 1998 , the Deus Ex team grew to 20 people and the game entered a 28 @-@ month production phase . Spector hired new staff for his Austin studio , and was assigned an art team from Ion Storm 's Dallas branch . The development team consisted of three programmers , six designers , seven artists , a writer , an associate producer , a " tech " , and Warren Spector , the producer and director . Two writers and four testers were hired as contractors . Chris Norden was the lead programmer and assistant director , Harvey Smith the lead designer , Jay Lee the lead artist , and Sheldon Pacotti the lead writer . However , Spector 's initial management structure , which involved two competing design teams and the matrix management of the Dallas art team , was a failure . According to Spector , the team was interested in multiple video game genres , and it contained both design maximalists who wanted to " do everything " and design minimalists who wanted to do a few things well . Close friends of the team who understood the intentions behind the game were invited to playtest and give feedback . The wide range of input led to debates in the office and changes to the game . Spector later concluded that the team was " blinded by promises of complete creative freedom " , and by their belief that the game would have no budget , marketing or time restraints . By mid @-@ 1998 , the game 's title had become Deus Ex , derived from the Latin literary device deus ex machina ( " god from the machine " ) in which a plot is resolved by an unpredictable intervention . Spector acknowledged its grammatical faults as a title , but he liked it because of its relevance to the in @-@ game struggle for power , to the medium 's storytelling difficulties , to the game being played on a computer , and to the " self @-@ referential " acceptance of trying one 's best to resolve affairs .
Spector felt that the best aspects of Deus Ex 's development were the " high @-@ level vision " and length of preproduction , flexibility within the project , testable " proto @-@ missions " , and Unreal Engine license . The team 's pitfalls included the management structure , unrealistic goals , underestimating risks with artificial intelligence , their handling of proto @-@ missions , and weakened morale from bad press . He referred to that period of Ion Storm as " Sturm und Drang " , because of the degree of hype and the vitriol following Daikatana 's trash talk marketing , alongside negative press in 1998 and 1999 . He said that his Austin team had " frequent " slumps in morale from taking the company 's coverage personally and seeing their private emails posted online . Eventually , the Deus Ex Austin team developed a " ' we 'll show them ' mentality " to distinguish their work and reputation from those of the Dallas branch . Deus Ex was published by Eidos Interactive and released on June 23 , 2000 for Microsoft Windows . The team planned third @-@ party ports for Mac OS 9 and Linux .
= = = Design = = =
The original 1997 design document for Deus Ex privileges character development over all other features , including experimental sequences and technology demos . The game was designed to be " genre @-@ busting " : in parts simulation , role @-@ playing game , first @-@ person shooter , and adventure . The team wanted players to consider " who they wanted to be " in the game , and for that to alter how they behaved in the game . In this way , the game world was " deeply simulated " , or realistic and believable enough that the player would solve problems in creative , emergent ways without noticing distinct puzzles . The developers also wanted to include " choice " and " consequence " , which Spector called the team 's " two most frequently uttered words " . However , the team 's simulation ultimately failed to maintain the desired level of openness , and they had to brute force " skill " , " action " , and " character interaction " paths through each level . Playtesting also revealed that their idea of a role @-@ playing game based in the real world was more interesting in theory than in reality . The team chose two real @-@ world bases for levels : " highly interconnected , multi @-@ level " spaces , and places that most cannot visit ( e.g. , the White House ) . In practice , the team found that certain aspects of the real world , such as hotels and office buildings , were not compelling in a game . Ion Storm saw Deus Ex as being about " player expression " rather than making the developers appear " clever " . They treated the player as a " collaborator " , who they sought to empower to " make choices and ... deal with the consequences " . Spector credited the 1995 role @-@ playing video game Suikoden as an inspiration , stating that the limited choices in Suikoden inspired him to expand on the idea with more meaningful choices in Deux Ex .
The game 's story changed greatly during production , but the idea of an augmented counterterrorist protagonist named JC Denton remained throughout . Though Spector originally pictured Deus Ex as akin to The X @-@ Files , lead writer Sheldon Pacotti felt that it ended up more like James Bond . Spector wrote that the team overextended itself by planning highly elaborate scenes , including a replica of downtown Austin , a reconstruction of Area 51 from satellite data , a sunken post @-@ earthquake Los Angeles , a raid to free thousands of prisoners of war from a Federal Emergency Management Agency @-@ controlled United Nations concentration camp , and over 25 missions throughout Siberia , western Europe , and the United States . Designer Harvey Smith pushed for the removal of a subplot in which Mexico invaded Texas , in order to make development easier and the narrative more personal . He also removed a largely complete White House level due to its complexity and production needs . Finished digital assets were repurposed or , in the cases of Texas and the Denver airport , abandoned by the team . Pete Davison of USgamer referred to the White House and presidential bunker as " the truly deleted scenes of Deus Ex 's lost levels " .
One of the things that Spector wanted to achieve in Deus Ex was to make JC Denton a cypher for the player , in order to create a better immersion and gameplay experience . He did not want the character to force any emotion so that whatever feelings the player may be experiencing comes from themselves rather than from JC Denton . To do this , Spector instructed voice actor Jay Anthony Franke to record his dialogue without any emotion but in a monotone voice , which is unusual for a voice acting role .
Once coded , the team 's game systems did not work as intended . Prototypes of the systems and of certain
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under Mount St. Helens had veered off to the north flank , creating a growing bulge on the surface .
= = = Final signs and primary blast = = =
Given the increasing seismic and volcanic activity , Johnston and the other volcanologists working for the USGS in its Vancouver branch prepared to observe any impending eruption . Geologist Don Swanson and others placed reflectors on and around the growing domes , and established the Coldwater I and II observation posts to use laser ranging to measure how the distances to these reflectors changed over time as the domes deformed . Coldwater II , where Johnston died , was located just 6 miles ( 10 km ) north of the mountain . To the astonishment of the USGS geologists , the bulge was growing at a rate of 5 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 4 meters ) per day .
Tiltmeters installed on the volcano 's north side displayed a northwest trending tilt for that side of the mountain , and a southwest trending tilt was observed on the south side . Worried that the amount of pressure on the magma underground was increasing , scientists analyzed gases by the crater , and found high traces of sulfur dioxide . After this discovery , they began to regularly check the fumarolic activity and monitor the volcano for dramatic changes , but none were observed . Disheartened , they instead opted to study the growing bulge and the threat an avalanche could have for humans relatively near the volcano . An evaluation of the threat was carried out , concluding that a landslide or avalanche in the Toutle River could spawn lahars , or mudflows , downstream .
At that point , the previously consistent phreatic activity had become intermittent . Between May 10 and May 17 , the only change occurred on the volcano 's north flank , as the bulge increased in size . On May 16 and 17 , the mountain stopped its phreatic eruptions completely .
The active Mount St. Helens was radically different from its dormant form , now featuring an enormous bulge and several craters . In the week preceding the eruption , cracks formed in the north sector of the volcano 's summit , indicating a movement of magma from the bulge and towards the caldera .
At 8 : 32 a.m. local time the next day ( 18 May ) , an earthquake measuring magnitude 5 @.@ 1 rocked the area , triggering the landslide that started the main eruption . In a matter of seconds , vibrations from the earthquake loosened 2 @.@ 7 cubic kilometers ( 0 @.@ 6 cu mi ) of rock on the mountain 's north face and summit , creating a massive landslide . With the loss of the confining pressure of the overlying rock , the caldera of Mount St. Helens began to rapidly emit steam and other volcanic gases . A few seconds later , it erupted laterally , sending swift pyroclastic flows down its flanks at near supersonic speeds . These flows were later joined by lahars . Before being struck by a series of flows that , at their fastest , would have taken less than a minute to reach his position , Johnston managed to radio his USGS co @-@ workers with the message : " Vancouver ! Vancouver ! This is it ! " Seconds later , the signal from the radio went silent . Initially , there was some debate as to whether Johnston had survived ; records soon showed a radio message from fellow eruption victim and amateur radio operator Gerry Martin , located near the Coldwater peak and farther north of Johnston 's position , reporting his sighting of the eruption enveloping the Coldwater II observation post . As the blast overwhelmed Johnston 's post , Martin declared solemnly , " Gentlemen , the uh ... camper and the car sitting over to the south of me is covered . It 's gonna get me , too . I can 't get out of here ... " before his radio went silent .
The extent , speed and direction of the avalanche and pyroclastic flows that overwhelmed Johnston , Martin , and others were later described in detail in a paper titled ' Chronology and Character of the 18 May 1980 Explosive Eruptions of Mount St. Helens ' , published in 1984 in a collection published by the National Research Council 's Geophysics Study Committee . In this paper , the authors examined photographs and satellite images of the eruption to construct a chronology and description of the first few minutes . Included in the paper is figure 10 @.@ 3 , a series of timed photographs taken from Mount Adams , 33 miles ( 53 km ) east of Mount St. Helens . These six photographs , taken sideways on to the lateral blast , vividly show the extent and size of the avalanche and flows as they reached northwards over and beyond Johnston 's position . Figure 10 @.@ 7 from the same paper is an overhead diagram showing the position of the pyroclastic surge front at half @-@ minute intervals , with the positions of Johnston ( Coldwater II ) and Martin included .
The eruption was heard hundreds of miles away , but some of those who survived the eruption declared that the landslide and pyroclastic flows were silent as they raced down the mountain . Krau Kilpatrick , an employee of the United States Forest Service , recalled , " There was no sound to it , not a sound . It was like a silent movie and we were all in it . " The reason for this discrepancy is a " quiet zone " , created as a result of the motion and temperature of air and , to a lesser extent , upon local topography .
Famous for telling reporters that being on the mountain was like " standing next to a dynamite keg and the fuse is lit " , Johnston had been among the first volcanologists at the volcano when eruptive signs appeared , and shortly after was named the head of volcanic gas monitoring . Though a careful analyst , Johnston strongly believed that scientists needed to take this risk for themselves in order to prevent civilian deaths , and therefore chose to take part in dangerous on @-@ site monitoring . He and several other volcanologists prevented people from being near the volcano during the few months of pre @-@ eruptive activity , and successfully fought pressure to re @-@ open the area . Their work kept the death toll at a few tens of individuals , instead of the thousands who possibly could have died had the region not been closed off . Johnston supported the lateral blast theory : he believed the explosive eruption would be ejected sideways out of the volcano , not upward . He also believed that the eruption would originate from the bulge . Because of this , he was more aware than most of the threat of a north @-@ directed eruption .
= = = USGS team and rescue efforts = = =
Many USGS scientists worked on the team monitoring the volcano , but it was graduate student Harry Glicken who had been manning the Coldwater II observation post for the two and a half weeks immediately preceding the eruption . The evening before the eruption he was scheduled to be relieved by USGS geologist Don Swanson in order to visit the graduate school at the University of California . Swanson , however , wanted to meet with a German graduate student who was returning to Germany on May 18 . Two days before the eruption , Swanson ran into Johnston in the hallway and asked him to take his place . Johnston hesitantly agreed to man the base for one day . That Saturday , the day before the eruption took place , Johnston ascended the mountain and went on a patrol of the volcano with geologist Carolyn Driedger . Tremors shook the mountain . Driedger was supposed to camp on one of the ridges overlooking the volcano that night , but Johnston told her to head home and said that he would stay on the volcano alone . While at Coldwater II , Johnston was to observe the volcano for any further signs of an eruption . Just prior to his departure , at 7 p.m. on the evening of May 17 , 13 ½ hours before the eruption , Glicken took the famous photograph of Johnston sitting by the observation post trailer with a notebook on his lap , smiling .
The following morning , May 18 , at 8 : 32 a.m. , the volcano erupted . Immediately , rescue workers were dispatched to the area . The official USGS pilot , Lon Stickney , who had been flying the scientists to the mountain , conducted the first rescue attempt . He flew his helicopter over the scarred remains of trees , valleys , and the Coldwater II observation post ridge , where he saw bare rock and uprooted trees . Because he saw no sign of Johnston 's trailer , Stickney began to panic , becoming " emotionally distraught " .
Frantic and guilt @-@ stricken , Harry Glicken convinced three separate helicopter pilots to take him up on flights over the devastated area in a rescue attempt , but the eruption had so changed the landscape that they were unable to locate any sign of the Coldwater II observation post , which had been swept away and buried in the blast . He and the helicopter crew did manage to find a car with people in it at a logging camp , but when they landed to attempt an evacuation , skin fell off the dead victims ' hands . Shortly after the eruption , Don Swanson found Johnston 's backpack and parka buried in the rubble , but he hid the discovery from all but a few people for fear that scavengers ( who were already removing and selling souvenirs of victims of the volcano ) would find and remove his friend 's body or belongings . In 1993 , while building a 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) extension of Washington State Route 504 ( also called " Spirit Lake Memorial Highway " ) to lead to the Johnston Ridge Observatory , construction workers discovered pieces of Johnston 's trailer . His body , however , has never been recovered .
= = = Consequences and response = = =
The public was shocked by the extent of the eruption , which had lowered the elevation of the summit by 1 @,@ 313 feet ( 400 m ) , destroyed 230 square miles ( 596 km2 ) of woodland , and spread ash into other states and Canada . The lateral blast that killed Johnston started at 220 miles per hour ( 354 km / h ) and accelerated to 670 miles per hour ( 1 @,@ 078 km / h ) . Even USGS scientists were awed . With a Volcanic Explosivity Index value of 5 , the eruption was catastrophic . More than 50 people were killed or missing , including Johnston , mountain resident Harry Randall Truman , and National Geographic photographer Reid Blackburn .
The disaster was the deadliest and most destructive volcanic eruption in the history of the United States of America . A total of 57 people are known to have died , and more were left homeless when the ash falls and pyroclastic flows destroyed or buried 200 houses . In addition to the human fatalities , thousands of animals perished . The official estimate from the USGS was 7 @,@ 000 game animals , 12 million salmon fingerlings , and 40 @,@ 000 salmon .
Two years after the eruption , the United States government set aside 110 @,@ 000 acres ( 450 km2 ) of land for the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument . This protected area , which includes the Johnston Ridge Observatory and several other research and visitor centers , serves as an area for scientific research , tourism , and education .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Scientific = = =
Johnston , known to his friends as Dave , was commemorated by both his fellow scientists and by the government . Known for his diligent and particular nature , he was called " an exemplary scientist " by a USGS dedication paper , which also described him as " unaffectedly genuine , with an infectious curiosity and enthusiasm " . He was quick to " dissipate cynicism " and believed that " careful evaluation and interpretation " was the best approach to his work . An obituary notice for Johnston stated that at the time of his death he had been " among the leading young volcanologists in the world " and that his " enthusiasm and warmth " would be " missed at least as much as his scientific strength " . Co @-@ worker Andrew Alden states that Johnston had great potential , declaring that he " had many friends and a bright future " . Following the eruption , Harry Glicken and other geologists at the USGS dedicated their work to Johnston .
Because Johnston was believed to be safe at the Coldwater II observation post , the fact that he died shocked his friends and co @-@ workers alike . However , most of his colleagues and family asserted that Johnston died " doing what he wanted to do . " His mother stated in an interview shortly after the eruption , " Not many people get to do what they really want to do in this world , but our son did . ... He would tell us he may never get rich but he was doing what he wanted . He wanted to be near if the eruption came . In a phone call on Mother 's Day , he told us it 's a sight very few geologists get to see . " Dr. Stephen Malone agreed that Johnston died doing what he loved , and stated that he " was very good at his work " .
Johnston 's role in the study of the volcano in the weeks leading up to the eruption was acknowledged in 1981 in a chronology of the eruption , published as part of the USGS report titled ' The 1980 Eruptions of Mount St. Helens , Washington ' :
Among the many contributors of data , none was more essential to the systematic reconstruction of the events of 1980 at Mount St. Helens than David Johnston , to whose memory this report is dedicated . Dave , who was present through all of the activity up to the climactic eruption and who lost his life in that eruption , provided far more than data . His insights and his thoroughly scientific attitude were crucial to the entire effort ; they still serve as a model for us all .
Since Johnston 's death , his field of volcanic eruption prediction has advanced significantly , and volcanologists are now able to predict eruptions based on a number of precursors that become apparent between days and months in advance . Geologists can now identify characteristic patterns in seismic waves that indicate particular magmatic activity . In particular , volcanologists have used deep , long @-@ period earthquakes that indicate that magma is rising through the crust . They can also use carbon dioxide emission as a proxy for magma supply rate . Measurements of surface deformation due to magmatic intrusions , like those that were conducted by Johnston and the other USGS scientists at the Coldwater I and II outposts , have advanced in scale and precision . Ground deformation monitoring networks around volcanoes now consist of InSAR ( interferometry ) , surveys of networks of GPS monuments , microgravity surveys in which scientists measure the change in gravitational potential or acceleration because of the intruding magma and resulting deformation , strain meters , and tiltmeters . Though there is still work to be done , this combination of approaches has greatly improved scientists ' abilities to forecast volcanic eruptions .
In addition to his work , Johnston himself has become part of the history of volcanic eruptions . With Harry Glicken , he is one of two volcanologists from the United States to die in a volcanic eruption . Glicken was being mentored by Johnston , who relieved Glicken of his watch at the Coldwater II observation post 13 hours before Mount St. Helens erupted . Glicken died in 1991 , eleven years later , when a pyroclastic flow overran him and several others at Mount Unzen in Japan . Despite the deaths of other volcanologists in later eruptions at Mount Unzen and Galeras , prediction methods similar to Johnston 's allowed scientists to convince residents of settlements near the Mount Pinatubo volcano to evacuate , preventing thousands of deaths .
= = = Commemoration = = =
Early acts of commemoration included two trees that were planted in Tel Aviv , Israel , and the renaming of a community center in Johnston 's hometown as the " Johnston Center " . These actions were reported in newspapers during the first anniversary of the eruption in May 1981 .
On the second anniversary of the eruption , the USGS office in Vancouver ( which had been permanently established following the 1980 eruption ) was renamed the David A. Johnston Cascades Volcano Observatory ( CVO ) in his memory . This volcano observatory is the one most responsible for monitoring Mount St. Helens , and helped to predict all of the volcano 's eruptions between 1980 and 1985 . In a 2005 open day , the lobby area of the CVO included a display and painting commemorating Johnston .
Johnston 's connections with the University of Washington ( where he had carried out his masters and doctoral research ) are remembered by a memorial fund that established an endowed graduate @-@ level fellowship within what is now the department of Earth and Space Sciences . By the time of the first anniversary of his death , the fund had exceeded $ 30 @,@ 000 . Known as the ' David A. Johnston Memorial Fellowship for Research Excellence ' , a number of awards of this fellowship have been made over the years since it was launched .
Following the eruption , the area where the Coldwater II observation post had been was sectioned off . Eventually , an observatory was built in the area in Johnston 's name , and opened in 1997 . Located just over 5 miles ( 8 km ) from the north flank of Mount St. Helens , the Johnston Ridge Observatory ( JRO ) allows the public to admire the open crater , new activity , and the creations of the 1980 eruption , including an extensive basalt field . Part of the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument , the JRO was constructed for $ 10 @.@ 5 million , equipped with monitoring equipment . Visited by thousands of tourists annually , it also includes tours , a theater , and an exhibit hall .
There are several public memorials where Johnston 's name is inscribed in a list of those known to have died in the eruption . These memorials include a large curved granite monument at an outside viewing area at the Johnston Ridge Observatory , which opened in 1997 , and a plaque at the Hoffstadt Bluffs Visitor Center , which was unveiled in a memorial grove in May 2000 .
= = = Depictions = = =
There have been several tellings of Johnston 's story in documentaries , films and docudramas about the eruption . Documentaries such as The Eruption of Mount St. Helens ! ( 1980 ) appeared the same year , while a movie was filmed in the year following the eruption and released to coincide with the first anniversary . The story of Mount St. Helens and Johnston continues to be told in documentaries and reconstructions several decades after the eruption took place .
In the 1981 film St. Helens , actor David Huffman starred as a renamed Johnston ( David Jackson ) . Controversially , Huffman 's character became involved in a love affair and was killed by the blast while on top of the mountain . Johnston 's parents criticized the production of the film , arguing that it possessed not " an ounce of David in it " and portrayed " him as a daredevil rather than a careful scientist " . They threatened to sue over the fact that they felt their son 's memory had been contaminated . Johnston 's mother stated that the film had changed many true aspects of the eruption , and depicted her son as " a rebel " with " a history of disciplinary trouble " .
Prior to the film 's release during the one @-@ year anniversary of the eruption , 36 scientists who knew Johnston signed a letter of protest . They wrote that , " Dave 's life was too meritorious to require fictional embellishments , " and that , " Dave was a superbly conscientious and creative scientist . " Don Swanson , a USGS geologist who was Johnston 's friend and who , due to other commitments , had convinced Johnston to take his place at the Coldwater II observation post on the day of the eruption , believed that a movie based on Johnston 's true life and exploits would have been a hit because of his friend 's character .
Several documentaries and docudramas have covered the history of the eruption , including archive footage and dramatisations of Johnston 's story . These include Up From the Ashes ( 1990 ) by KOMO @-@ TV , an episode of the 2005 second series of Seconds From Disaster broadcast by the National Geographic Channel , and an episode of the 2006 series Surviving Disaster , broadcast on the BBC and Discovery Channel .
= = Publications = =
Johnston , David A. ; Donnelly @-@ Nolan , Julie , eds . ( 1981 ) . Guides to Some Volcanic Terranes in Washington , Idaho , Oregon , and Northern California . U.S. Geological Survey Circular 838 . United States Geological Survey . Retrieved 2010 @-@ 04 @-@ 10 .
Johnston , David A. ( 1979 ) . " Volcanic gas studies at Alaskan volcanoes " . U. S. Geological Survey Circular ( Report ) ( Reston , Virginia , US : United States Geological Survey ) . C 0804 @-@ B : B83 – B84 . ISSN 0364 @-@ 6017 .
Johnston , David A. ( 1979 ) . " Revision of the recent eruption history of Augustine Volcano ; elimination of the " 1902 eruption " " . U. S. Geological Survey Circular ( Report ) ( Reston , Virginia , US : United States Geological Survey ) . C 0804 @-@ B : B80 – B84 . ISSN 0364 @-@ 6017 .
Johnston , David A. ( 1979 ) . " Onset of volcanism at Augustine Volcano , lower Cook Inlet " . U. S. Geological Survey Circular ( Report ) ( Reston , Virginia , US : United States Geological Survey ) . C 0804 @-@ B : B78 – B80 . ISSN 0364 @-@ 6017 .
Johnston , David A. ( 1978 ) . Volatiles , magma mixing , and the mechanism of eruption of Augustine Volcano , Alaska . Ph.D. Thesis . Seattle , Washington , US : University of Washington .
Johnston , David A. ( 1978 ) . Volcanistic facies and implications for the eruptive history of the Cimarron Volcano , San Juan Mountains , SW Colorado . Master 's Thesis . Seattle , Washington , US : University of Washington .
= Tupolev Tu @-@ 70 =
The Tupolev Tu @-@ 70 ( NATO reporting name : Cart ) was a Soviet passenger variant of the Tu @-@ 4 bomber ( which was a reverse @-@ engineered copy of the American @-@ made Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress ) designed immediately after the end of World War II . It used a number of components from Boeing B @-@ 29s that had made emergency landings in the Soviet Union after running out of fuel after bombing Japan . It had the first pressurized fuselage in the Soviet Union and first flew on 27 November 1946 . The aircraft was successfully tested , recommended for serial production , but ultimately not produced because of more pressing military orders and because Aeroflot had no requirement for such an aircraft .
= = Design and development = =
After basic design work was completed on the Tu @-@ 4 bomber Tupolev decided to design a passenger variant with a pressurized fuselage given the internal designation of Tu @-@ 70 . It was intended to use as many Tu @-@ 4 components as possible to reduce costs and save development time . It was a low @-@ wing cantilever monoplane with a tricycle landing gear powered by four Shvetsov ASh @-@ 73TK radial engines . Design work on a mock @-@ up began in February 1946 and the Council of Ministers confirmed an order for a single prototype the following month . A production decision for the Tu @-@ 12 , as it was to be known , would be made after testing .
To speed up construction of the prototype a number of components were utilized from two B @-@ 29s . These included the outer wing panels , the engine cowlings , the flaps , the undercarriage , the tail assembly and some of the internal equipment . The wing center section was redesigned and its span increased . The pressurized fuselage was entirely new and changed the wing 's position from mid @-@ wing to low @-@ wing . The aircraft 's windscreen was changed to a more conventional " stepped " configuration . Three different configurations were proposed for the cabin layout , a government VIP version , a mixed @-@ class 40 – 48 passenger model and an airliner configuration with 72 seats . The prototype appears to have been built in the mixed @-@ class configuration , but that cannot be confirmed .
The Tu @-@ 70 was completed in October 1946 , but did not make its first flight until 27 November . It began manufacturer 's trials in October , but an engine fire on the fourth flight caused it to make a crash @-@ landing . This was traced to a design defect in the American @-@ built supercharger control system , but identifying the problem and fixing it prolonged the manufacturer 's trials through October 1947 . It was redesignated as the Tu @-@ 70 when it went through the State acceptance trials which ended on 14 December . It met all the design goals , but was not accepted for production as all the factories were already committed to building aircraft with a higher priority and Aeroflot had no requirement for the type , being fully satisfied with its existing Lisunov Li @-@ 2 and Ilyushin Il @-@ 12 airliners .
It was sent to the NII VVS ( Russian : Научно @-@ Исследовательский Институт Военно @-@ Воздушних Сил – Scientific @-@ Research Institute of the Air Forces ) for evaluation as a military transport aircraft in December 1951 . Afterward it was used during a variety of tests before being scrapped in 1954 . Its design was modified into a military transport as the Tupolev Tu @-@ 75 , but this was not placed into production either .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Gunston , Tupolev Aircraft since 1922
General characteristics
Crew : 6
Capacity : up to 72 passengers
Length : 35 @.@ 4 m ( 116 ft 1 ¾ in )
Wingspan : 44 @.@ 25 m ( 145 ft 2 ⅛ in )
Height : ( )
Wing area : 166 @.@ 1 m ² ( 1 @,@ 788 ft ² )
Empty weight : 38 @,@ 290 kg ( 84 @,@ 414 lb )
Loaded weight : 51 @,@ 400 kg ( 113 @,@ 316 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 60 @,@ 000 kg ( 132 @,@ 275 lb )
Powerplant : 4 × Shvetsov ASh @-@ 73TK radial engines , 1 @,@ 800 kW ( 2 @,@ 400 hp ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 568 km / h ( 307 kn , 353 mph )
Range : 4 @,@ 900 km ( 2 @,@ 646 nmi , 3 @,@ 045 mi )
Service ceiling : 11 @,@ 000 m ( 36 @,@ 090 ft )
Wing loading : 361 kg / m ² ( 74 lb / ft ² )
Power / mass : 120 W / kg ( 0 @.@ 070 hp / lb )
= Russian monitor Veschun =
Veshchun ( Russian : Вещун ) was an Uragan @-@ class monitor built for the Imperial Russian Navy in Belgium in the mid @-@ 1860s . The design was based on the American Passaic @-@ class monitor , but was modified to suit Russian engines , guns and construction techniques . She was one of two ships of the class to be built in Belgium and assembled in Russia . Spending her entire career with the Baltic Fleet , the ship was only active when the Gulf of Finland was not frozen , but very little is known about her service . She was stricken in 1900 from the Navy List , converted into a coal barge in 1903 and renamed Barzha No. 44 then Barzha No. 327 . Abandoned by the Soviets in Finland in 1918 , the ship was later scrapped by the Finns .
= = Description = =
Veshchun was 201 feet ( 61 @.@ 3 m ) long overall , with a beam of 46 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 10 @.@ 16 – 10 @.@ 84 feet ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 t ) , and her crew numbered eight officers and 88 enlisted men in 1865 . They numbered 10 officers and 100 crewmen in 1877 .
The ship was fitted with a two @-@ cylinder , horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engine built by the Belgian Cockerill Company . It drove a single propeller using steam that was provided by two rectangular boilers . Specific information on the output of the ship 's engine has not survived , but it ranged between 340 – 500 indicated horsepower ( 254 – 373 kW ) for all the ships of this class . During Veshchun 's sea trials on 21 July 1864 , she reached a maximum speed of 6 @.@ 75 knots ( 12 @.@ 50 km / h ; 7 @.@ 77 mph ) . The ship carried a maximum of 190 long tons ( 190 t ) of coal , which gave her a theoretical endurance of 1 @,@ 440 nmi ( 2 @,@ 670 km ; 1 @,@ 660 mi ) at 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) .
Veshchun was designed to be armed with a pair of 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading guns purchased from Krupp of Germany and rifled in Russia , but the rifling project was seriously delayed and the ship was completed with nine @-@ inch smoothbores . These lacked the penetration power necessary to deal with ironclads and they were replaced by license @-@ built 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading Rodman guns in 1867 – 68 . The Rodman guns were replaced around 1876 with the originally intended nine @-@ inch rifled guns .
All of the wrought @-@ iron armor that was used in the Uragan @-@ class monitors was in 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates , just as in the Passaic @-@ class ships . The side of the ship was entirely covered with three to five layers of armor plates , of which the three innermost plates extended 42 inches ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) below the waterline . This armor was backed by a wooden beam that had a maximum thickness of 36 inches ( 914 mm ) . The gun turret and the pilothouse above it was protected by eleven layers of armor . Curved plates six layers thick protected the base of the funnel up to a height of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) above the deck . Unlike their predecessors , the Uragans were built without deck armor to save weight , but Veshchun 's deck was later prepared for the addition of 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) armor plates , although they were never installed .
= = Construction and career = =
Construction of Veshchun began on 9 November 1863 by the Belgian firm of Cockerill for assembly in Saint Petersburg . The ship was laid down on 9 December 1863 and she was launched on 8 May 1864 . She entered service on 1865 and cost a total of 1 @,@ 237 @,@ 000 rubles , almost double her contract cost of 600 @,@ 000 rubles . The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and she , and all of her sister ships except Latnik , made a port visit to Stockholm , Sweden in July – August 1865 while under the command of General Admiral Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich .
Sometime after Veshchun was completed , an armored ring , 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick and 15 inches ( 381 mm ) tall , was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent splinters from jamming it . Later , an armored , outward @-@ curving bulwark was fitted around the top of the turret to protect any crewmen there . Three sponsons were later added , probably during the 1870s , to the upper portion of the turret . Each sponson , one above the gun ports and one on each side of the turret , mounted a light gun , probably a 1 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 44 mm ) Engstrem gun , for defense against torpedo boats . A fourth gun was mounted on a platform aft of the funnel when a hurricane deck was built between the funnel and the turret , also probably during the 1870s .
Little is known about the ship 's career other than that she was laid up each winter when the Gulf of Finland froze . Veshchun was reclassified as a coast @-@ defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal on 6 July 1900 , although she was not stricken until 17 August . During 1903 , the ship was converted into a coal barge by the removal of her turret , her side armor , and its wooden backing , and by the division of her hull into three holds . She was redesignated as Barzha No. 44 and , in 1914 , Barzha No. 327 . The ship was abandoned by the Soviets when they were forced to withdraw from Finland in April 1918 according to the terms of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk and was later scrapped by the Finns .
= Storm surge =
A storm surge is a coastal flood or tsunami @-@ like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low pressure weather systems ( such as tropical cyclones and strong extratropical cyclones ) , the severity of which is affected by the shallowness and orientation of the water body relative to storm path , and the timing of tides . Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges .
The two main meteorological factors contributing to a storm surge are a long fetch of winds spiraling inward toward the storm , and a low @-@ pressure @-@ induced dome of water drawn up under and trailing the storm 's center .
= = Historic storm surges = =
The deadliest storm surge on record was the 1970 Bhola cyclone , which killed up to 500 @,@ 000 people in the area of the Bay of Bengal . The low @-@ lying coast of the Bay of Bengal is particularly vulnerable to surges caused by tropical cyclones . The deadliest storm surge in the twenty @-@ first century was caused by the Cyclone Nargis , which killed more than 138 @,@ 000 people in Myanmar in May 2008 . The next deadliest in this century was caused by the Typhoon Haiyan ( Yolanda ) , which killed more than 6 @,@ 000 people in the central Philippines in 2013 and resulted in economic losses estimated at $ 14 billion ( USD ) .
The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 , a Category 4 hurricane that struck Galveston , Texas , drove a devastating surge ashore ; between 6 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 lives were lost , making it the deadliest natural disaster ever to strike the United States .
The highest storm tide noted in historical accounts was produced by the 1899 Cyclone Mahina , estimated at almost 44 ft ( 13 metres ) at Bathurst Bay , Australia , but research published in 2000 saw the majority of this was likely wave run @-@ up , due to the steep coastal topography . In the United States , one of the greatest recorded storm surges was generated by 2005 's Hurricane Katrina , which produced a maximum storm surge of more than 25 ft ( 8 metres ) in the communities of Waveland ( 41 @.@ 5 ft ) , Bay St. Louis ( 38 ft ) , Diamondhead ( 30 ft ) and Pass Christian ( 35 ft ) in Mississippi . Another record storm surge occurred in this same area from Hurricane Camille in August 1969 , with the highest storm tide of record noted from a high water mark as 24 @.@ 6 ft ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) , also found in Pass Christian ( the back side of St. Louis Bay got up to 35 ft ) . A high storm surge occurred in New York City from Hurricane Sandy in October 2012 , with a high tide of 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 2 m ) .
= = Mechanics = =
At least five processes can be involved in altering tide levels during storms : the pressure effect , the direct wind effect , the effect of the Earth 's rotation , the effect of waves , and the rainfall effect . The pressure effects of a tropical cyclone will cause the water level in the open ocean to rise in regions of low atmospheric pressure and fall in regions of high atmospheric pressure . The rising water level will counteract the low atmospheric pressure such that the total pressure at some plane beneath the water surface remains constant . This effect is estimated at a 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) increase in sea level for every millibar ( hPa ) drop in atmospheric pressure .
Strong surface winds cause surface currents at a 45 degree angle to the wind direction , by an effect known as the Ekman Spiral . Wind stresses cause a phenomenon referred to as " wind set @-@ up " , which is the tendency for water levels to increase at the downwind shore , and to decrease at the upwind shore . Intuitively , this is caused by the storm simply blowing the water towards one side of the basin in the direction of its winds . Because the Ekman Spiral effects spread vertically through the water , the effect is inversely proportional to depth . The pressure effect and the wind set @-@ up on an open coast will be driven into bays in the same way as the astronomical tide .
The Earth 's rotation causes the Coriolis effect , which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere . When this bend brings the currents into more perpendicular contact with the shore it can amplify the surge , and when it bends the current away from the shore it has the effect of lessening the surge .
The effect of waves , while directly powered by the wind , is distinct from a storm 's wind @-@ powered currents . Powerful wind whips up large , strong waves in the direction of its movement . Although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water , they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore . When waves are breaking on a line more or less parallel to the beach , they carry considerable water shoreward . As they break , the water particles moving toward the shore have considerable momentum and may run up a sloping beach to an elevation above the mean water line which may exceed twice the wave height before breaking .
The rainfall effect is experienced predominantly in estuaries . Hurricanes may dump as much as 12 in ( 300 mm ) of rainfall in 24 hours over large areas , and higher rainfall densities in localized areas . As a result , watersheds can quickly surge water into the rivers that drain them . This can increase the water level near the head of tidal estuaries as storm @-@ driven waters surging in from the ocean meet rainfall flowing from the estuary .
Surge and wave heights on shore are affected by the configuration and bathymetry of the ocean bottom . A narrow shelf , or one that has a steep drop from the shoreline and subsequently produces deep water in proximity to the shoreline tends to produce a lower surge , but a higher and more powerful wave . This situation well exemplified by the southeast coast of Florida . The edge of the Floridian Plateau , where the water depths reach 91 metres ( 299 ft ) , lies just 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) offshore of Palm Beach , Florida ; just 7 @,@ 000 m ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) offshore , the depth increases to over 180 m ( 590 ft ) . The 180 m ( 590 ft ) depth contour followed southward from Palm Beach County lies more than 30 @,@ 000 m ( 98 @,@ 000 ft ) to the east of the upper Keys .
Conversely , coastlines along North America such as those along the Gulf of Mexico coast from Texas to Florida , and Asia such as the Bay of Bengal , have long , gently sloping shelves and shallow water depths . On the Gulf side of Florida , the edge of the Floridian Plateau lies more than 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) offshore of Marco Island in Collier County . Florida Bay , lying between the Florida Keys and the mainland , is also very shallow ; depths typically vary between 0 @.@ 3 m ( 0 @.@ 98 ft ) and 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . These areas are subject to higher storm surges , but smaller waves . This difference is because in deeper water , a surge can be dispersed down and away from the hurricane . However , upon entering a shallow , gently sloping shelf , the surge cannot be dispersed , but is driven ashore by the wind stresses of the hurricane . Topography of the land surface is another important element in storm surge extent . Areas where the land lies less than a few meters above sea level are at particular risk from storm surge inundation .
For a given topography and bathymetry the surge height is not solely affected by peak wind speed ; the size of the storm also affects the peak surge . With any storm the piled up water has an exit path to the sides and this escape mechanism is reduced in proportion to the surge force ( for the same peak wind speed ) as the storm covers more area .
In the Asian region , the Philippines are one of the most affected by storm surges of typhoons as it lies in the path of tradewinds @-@ entrained typhoons heading toward Japan , Taiwan , China , Vietnam , and Cambodia .
= = = Extratropical storms = = =
Similar to tropical cyclones , extra @-@ tropical storms cause an offshore rise of water . However , unlike most tropical cyclone storm surge , extra @-@ tropical storms can cause higher water levels across a large area for longer periods of time , depending on the system . This is due to many factors , such as storm size and different steering winds , which could keep a system in a storm @-@ surge prone area for longer periods of time .
Another component of extra @-@ tropical storm surge is the phenomenon of negative water levels . If strong winds are blowing offshore , situations can arise where mean water levels in a bay fall significantly , which poses a serious threat for ships tied up at piers . If negative water levels are severe enough , ships tied up at docks can actually sit on the seafloor , preventing them from leaving port .
In North America , extra @-@ tropical storm surges may occur on the Pacific and Alaska coasts , and north of 31 ° N on the Atlantic Coast . Extra @-@ tropical storm surges may be possible for the Gulf coast mostly during the wintertime , when extra @-@ tropical cyclones affect the coast , such as in the March 1993 Storm of the Century .
November 9 – 13 , 2009 marked a significant extratropical storm surge event on the US east coast when the remnants of Hurricane Ida developed into a Nor 'easter off the Southeast US coast . During the event , storm force winds from the east were present along the northern periphery of the low pressure center for a number of days , forcing water into locations such as Chesapeake Bay . Water levels rose significantly , and remained as high as 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal in numerous locations throughout the Chesapeake for a number of days as water was continually built @-@ up inside the estuary from the onshore winds and freshwater rains flowing into the bay . In many locations , water levels were shy of records by only 0 @.@ 1 feet ( 3 cm ) .
= = Measuring surge = =
Surge can be measured directly at coastal tidal stations as the difference between the forecast tide and the observed rise of water . Another method of measuring surge is by the deployment of pressure transducers along the coastline just ahead of an approaching tropical cyclone . This was first tested for Hurricane Rita in 2005 . These types of sensors can be placed in locations that will be submerged , and can accurately measure the height of water above them .
After surge from a cyclone has receded , teams of surveyors map high @-@ water marks ( HWM ) on land , in a rigorous and detailed process that includes photos and written descriptions of the marks . HWMs denote the location and elevation of flood waters from a storm event . When HWMs are analyzed , if the various components of the water height can be broken out so that the portion attributable to surge can be identified , then that mark can be classified as storm surge . Otherwise , it is classified as storm tide . HWMs on land are referenced to a vertical datum ( a reference coordinate system ) . During evaluation , HWMs are divided into four categories based on the confidence in the mark ; only HWMs evaluated as " excellent " are used by NHC in post storm analysis of the surge .
Two different measures are used for storm tide and storm surge measurements . Storm tide is measured using a geodetic vertical datum ( NGVD 29 or NAVD 88 ) . Since storm surge is defined as the rise of water beyond what would be expected by the normal movement due to tides , storm surge is measured using tidal predictions , with the assumption that the tide prediction is well @-@ known and only slowly varying in the region subject to the surge . Since tides are a localized phenomenon , storm surge can only be measured in relationship to a nearby tidal station . Tidal bench mark information at a station provides a translation from the geodetic vertical datum to mean sea level ( MSL ) at that location , then subtracting the tidal prediction yields a surge height above the normal water height .
= = SLOSH = =
The National Hurricane Center in the US , forecasts storm surge using the SLOSH model , which stands for Sea , Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes . The model is accurate to within 20 percent . SLOSH inputs include the central pressure of a tropical cyclone , storm size , the cyclone 's forward motion , its track , and maximum sustained winds . Local topography , bay and river orientation , depth of the sea bottom , astronomical tides , as well as other physical features are taken into account , in a predefined grid referred to as a SLOSH basin . Overlapping SLOSH basins are defined for the southern and eastern coastline of the continental U.S. Some storm simulations use more than one SLOSH basin ; for instance , Katrina SLOSH model runs used both the Lake Ponchartrain / New Orleans basin , and the Mississippi Sound basin , for the northern Gulf of Mexico landfall . The final output from the model run will display the maximum envelope of water , or MEOW , that occurred at each location . To allow for track or forecast uncertainties , usually several model runs with varying input parameters are generated to create a map of MOMs , or Maximum of Maximums . And for hurricane evacuation studies , a family of storms with representative tracks for the region , and varying intensity , eye diameter , and speed , are modeled to produce worst @-@ case water heights for any tropical cyclone occurrence . The results of these studies are typically generated from several thousand SLOSH runs . These studies have been completed by USACE , under contract to the Federal Emergency Management Agency , for several states and are available on their Hurricane Evacuation Studies ( HES ) website . They include coastal county maps , shaded to identify the minimum SSHS category of hurricane that will result in flooding , in each area of the county .
= = Mitigation = =
Although meteorological surveys alert about hurricanes or severe storms , in the areas where the risk of coastal flooding is particularly high , there are specific storm surge warnings . These have been implemented , for instance , in the Netherlands , Spain , the United States , and the United Kingdom .
A prophylactic method introduced after the North Sea Flood of 1953 is the construction of dams and floodgates ( storm surge barriers ) . They are open and allow free passage but close when the land is under threat of a storm surge . Major storm surge barriers are the Oosterscheldekering and Maeslantkering in the Netherlands which are part of the Delta Works project , the Thames Barrier protecting London and the Saint Petersburg Dam in Russia .
Another modern development ( in use in the Netherlands ) is the creation of housing communities at the edges of wetlands with floating structures , restrained in position by vertical pylons . Such wetlands can then be used to accommodate runoff and surges without causing damage to the structures while also protecting conventional structures at somewhat higher low @-@ lying elevations , provided that dikes prevent major surge intrusion .
For mainland areas , storm surge is more of a threat when the storm strikes land from seaward , rather than approaching from landwards .
= Marbled electric ray =
Not to be confused with Torpedo sinuspersici , also known as the marbled electric ray .
The marbled electric ray ( Torpedo marmorata ) is a species of electric ray in the family Torpedinidae found in the coastal waters of the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the North Sea to South Africa . This benthic fish inhabits rocky reefs , seagrass beds , and sandy and muddy flats in shallow to moderately deep waters . It can survive in environments with very little dissolved oxygen , such as tidal pools . The marbled electric ray has a nearly circular pectoral fin disc and a muscular tail that bears two dorsal fins of nearly equal size and a large caudal fin . It can be identified by the long , finger @-@ like projections on the rims of its spiracles , as well as by its dark brown mottled color pattern , though some individuals are plain @-@ colored . Males and females typically reach 36 – 38 cm ( 14 – 15 in ) and 55 – 61 cm ( 22 – 24 in ) long respectively .
Nocturnal and solitary , the marbled electric ray can often be found lying the sea floor buried except for its eyes and spiracles . This slow @-@ moving predator feeds almost exclusively on small bony fishes , which it ambushes from the bottom and subdues with strong electric bursts . It defends itself by turning towards the threat , swimming in a loop , or curling up with its underside facing outward , while emitting electric shocks to drive off the prospective predator . Its paired electric organs are capable of producing 70 – 80 volts of electricity . This species is aplacental viviparous , with the developing embryos sustained by yolk and histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Mating takes place from November to January , and females bear litters of 3 – 32 pups every other year after a gestation period of 9 – 12 months . The newborn ray is immediately capable of using electricity to hunt .
The electric shock delivered by a marbled electric ray can be severe but is not directly life @-@ threatening . Its electrogenic properties have been known since classical antiquity , when live rays were used to treat conditions such as chronic headaches . This and other electric ray species are used as model organisms in biomedical research . Various coastal demersal fisheries take the marbled electric ray as bycatch ; captured rays are usually discarded as they have little commercial value . The impact of fishing on its population is uncertain , and thus International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this ray under Data Deficient . In the Mediterranean Sea , it remains the most common electric ray and in some areas may be increasing in number .
= = Taxonomy = =
French naturalist Antoine Risso described the marbled electric ray as Torpedo marmorata in his 1810 Ichtyologie de Nice , ou histoire naturelle des poissons du département des Alpes maritimes ( Ichthyology of Nice , or natural history of fishes in the Alpes @-@ Maritimes ) . The specific epithet marmorata means " marbled " in Latin , and refers to the ray 's color pattern . Because no type specimens are known , in 1999 Ronald Fricke designated Risso 's original illustration as the species lectotype .
Within the genus Torpedo , the marbled electric ray belongs to the subgenus Torpedo , which differs from the other subgenus Tetronarce in having fringed margins on their spiracles and generally ornate dorsal coloration . Other common names for this species include common crampfish , marbled torpedo , numbfish , and spotted torpedo .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean , the marbled electric ray is found from Scotland and the southern North Sea southward to the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa , including all around the Mediterranean Sea . It prefers temperatures cooler than 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . This species is typically found at depths of 10 – 30 m ( 33 – 98 ft ) off Britain and Ireland , 20 – 100 m ( 66 – 328 ft ) off Italy , and down to 200 m ( 660 ft ) off Tunisia . It has been recorded from as deep as 370 m ( 1 @,@ 210 ft ) . The marbled electric ray tends to be found deeper than the common torpedo ( T. torpedo ) , which shares the southern portion of its range .
Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , the marbled electric ray inhabits rocky reefs and seagrass beds , as well as nearby areas with sandy or muddy bottoms . During warm summer months , pregnant females are known to migrate into Arcachon Bay in northwestern France , where they are commonly found in very shallow , muddy pools near oyster beds . This species may conduct a northward migration in summer and autumn , into the waters of the British Isles .
= = Description = =
The body of the marbled electric ray is soft and flabby , and entirely lacks dermal denticles . The thick pectoral fin disc is nearly circular and comprises about 59 – 67 % of the total length ; the paired kidney @-@ shaped electric organs are visible beneath the skin , outside of the small eyes . Immediately posterior to each eye is a large , oval spiracle , which bears 6 – 8 long , finger @-@ like projections on the rim that almost meet at the center . On the " nape " behind the spiracles , there are 5 – 7 prominent mucous pores . Between the nostrils , there is a quadrangular curtain of skin much broader than long , that almost reaches the small , arched mouth . The teeth are small with a single pointed cusp , and are arranged with a quincunx pattern into a pavement @-@ like band in either jaw . The five pairs of gill slits are small and located beneath the disc .
The two dorsal fins have rounded apexes and are placed close together ; the base of each fin measures about two @-@ thirds its height . The rear of the first dorsal fin base is located behind the rear of the pelvic fin bases . The second dorsal fin is only slightly smaller than the first . The short , robust tail has skin folds running along either side , and terminates in a large caudal fin shaped like a triangle with blunt corners . The upper surface has a dark mottled pattern on a light to dark brown background ; some individuals are uniformly brown . The underside is plain off @-@ white with darker fin margins . This species can grow up to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long , though few exceed 36 – 38 cm ( 14 – 15 in ) long for males and 55 – 61 cm ( 22 – 24 in ) long for females . The much larger sizes attained by females can be attributed to the resource investment needed for reproduction . There seems to be little geographic variation in maximum size . The maximum weight on record is 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Solitary and slow @-@ moving , the marbled electric ray may remain motionless for several days at a time . It is more active at night and spends much of the day buried in sediment with only the eyes and spiracles showing . Consistent with its sluggish nature , the marbled electric ray has a low blood oxygen carrying capacity and heart rate ( 10 – 15 beats / min ) , and consumes less oxygen than other sharks and rays of similar size . It is highly tolerant of being deprived of oxygen ( hypoxia ) , allowing it to cope with deoxygenated bottom waters or being stranded in small pools by the falling tide . The ray stops breathing entirely when the oxygen partial pressure in the water drops below 10 – 15 Torr , and can survive such a state for at least five hours . It deals with extreme hypoxia by coupling anaerobic glycolysis to additional energy @-@ producing pathways in its mitochondria , which serves to slow down the accumulation of potentially harmful lactate within its cells .
Like other members of its family , the marbled electric ray can produce a strong electric shock for attack and defense , produced by a pair of electric organs derived from muscle tissue . Each electric organ consists of 400 – 600 vertical columns , with each column composed of a stack of roughly 400 jelly @-@ filled " electroplates " that essentially act like a battery . This ray has been measured producing up to 70 – 80 volts , and the maximum potential of the electric discharge has been estimated to be as high as 200 volts . The strength of the electric shock declines progressively as the ray becomes fatigued . Experiments in vitro have found that the nerves innervating the electric organ essentially stop functioning at temperatures below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . As the water temperature in the wild regularly drops below this threshold in winter , it is possible that the ray does not use its electric organ for part of the year . Alternately , the ray may have a yet @-@ unknown physiological mechanism to adapt electric organ function to the cold .
Known parasites of the marbled electric ray include the tapeworms Anthocephalum gracile and Calyptrobothrium riggii , the leeches Pontobdella muricata and Trachelobdella lubrica , the monogeneans Amphibdella torpedinis , Amphibdelloides kechemiraen , A. maccallumi , A. vallei , Empruthotrema raiae , E. torpedinis , and Squalonchocotyle torpedinis , and the nematodes Ascaris torpedinis and Mawsonascaris pastinacae .
= = = Feeding = = =
The marbled electric ray is an ambush predator that employs electricity to capture prey . Vision is of little importance in hunting , as the ray 's eyes are often obscured as it lies buried on the bottom . Instead , it likely relies on the mechanoreceptors of its lateral line , as it only attacks moving prey . The electroreceptive ampullae of Lorenzini may also contribute to prey detection .
Small , benthic bony fishes constitute over 90 % of the marbled electric ray 's diet by weight ; these include gobies , hake , sea bass , mullets , jack mackerel , sea breams , goatfish , damselfish , wrasses , conger eels , and flatfish . Cephalopods such as European squid ( Loligo vulgaris ) and elegant cuttlefish ( Sepia elegans ) are a minor secondary food source . There is a single record of an individual that had swallowed a penaeid prawn , Penaeus kerathurus , and a study of captive rays found that they reject live Macropodia crabs . Off southern France , by far the most important prey species is the leaping mullet ( Liza saliens ) . Food items are swallowed whole ; there is a record of a ray 41 cm ( 16 in ) long that had consumed a three @-@ bearded rockling ( Gaidropsarus vulgaris ) 34 cm ( 13 in ) long .
Two distinct types of prey capture behavior have been observed in the marbled electric ray . The first is " jumping " , used by the ray to attack prey fish that swim close to its head , typically no farther than 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) . In the " jump " , the ray pulls back its head and then thrusts its disc upwards , reaching about two or three times as high as the prey fish is from the bottom . Simultaneously , it makes a single tail stroke and produces a high @-@ frequency ( 230 – 430 Hz , increasing with temperature ) burst of electricity . The initial electric burst is very short , containing only 10 – 64 pulses , but is still strong enough to cause tetanic contraction in the body of the prey fish , often breaking its vertebral column . As the ray glides forward , the motion of the jump sweeps the now @-@ paralyzed prey beneath it , whereupon it is enveloped by the disc and maneuvered to the mouth . Electric bursts continues to be produced during this process ; the total number of electric pulses over a single jump increases with size , ranging from 66 in a newborn 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long to 340 in an adult 45 cm ( 18 in ) long . The jump lasts no more than two seconds .
The second type of prey capture behavior is " creeping " , used by the ray for stationary or slow @-@ moving prey ; this includes stunned prey that may have drifted out of reach from a jumping attack . In creeping , the ray makes small up and down motions of its disc coupled with small beats of its tail . The raising of the disc draws water beneath it and pulls the prey towards the ray , while the lowering of the disc and the tail beats move the ray towards the prey in small increments . When it reaches the prey , the ray opens its mouth to suck it in . Short electric bursts are produced as necessary , depending on the movement of the prey , and continue through ingestion .
= = = Defense = = =
Because of its size and electrical defenses , the marbled electric ray does not often fall prey to other animals such as sharks . This species exhibits different defensive behaviors depending on whether a prospective predator grasps it by the disc or the tail . A ray touched on the disc will quickly turn toward the threat while producing electric shocks ; this is followed by it fleeing in a straight line , after which it may re @-@ bury itself . A ray touched on the tail will propel itself upward into a loop ; if it has not escaped after the maneuver , the ray will curl into a ring with the belly facing outward , so as to present the area of its body with the highest electric field gradient ( the underside of the electric organs ) towards the threat ; these behaviors are accompanied by short , strong electric shocks . The ray tends to produce more electric bursts when protecting its tail than when protecting its disc .
= = = Life history = = =
The marbled electric ray exhibits aplacental viviparity , in which the developing embryos are nourished initially by yolk , which is later supplemented by nutrient @-@ rich histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Adult females have two functional ovaries and uteruses ; the inner lining of the uterus bears a series of parallel lengthwise folds . The reproductive cycle for females is probably biennial , while males are
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of the album , since Simon and Stroud were busy with other commitments . To prepare for the recording of Alien , Townsend had stopped taking the medication prescribed to treat his bipolar disorder ; he explained the experimental noise track " Info Dump " is a reflection on the panicked state of mind that ensued after he stopped taking his medication . The making of Alien was documented and made viewable online on Century Media 's official site in February 2005 . It was also available as a bonus DVD of the limited first edition of the album .
" Love ? " was chosen as the sole single from the album . Its accompanying music video , inspired by the cult horror film , The Evil Dead , was directed by Joe Lynch . The video garnered the band wider attention , and helped " Love ? " become one of their most recognizable songs . Jed Simon admitted to having produced a video for this particular song because it had " the most commercial potential " . " Love ? " was originally one of two confirmed songs for an EP that was supposed to contain four new songs and four covers . Although planned for release in 2003 , the EP was eventually canceled . A music video was also filmed for Zen ; the video itself would also appear in the 2007 film Shoot ' Em Up .
The band embarked on a headlining tour in the United States in April and May 2005 , then went on to tour in Europe . Starting at the end of June , they toured North America as part of the Sounds of the Underground tour , then joined Fear Factory on the Transgression Tour in the U.S. Throughout the tour , Fear Factory bassist Stroud performed with both bands at every concert . Strapping Young Lad concluded the year with a tour in the UK . While on tour , the band started writing the next album , then continued the work in January 2006 , and finished the album by May . In the same month , Townsend announced his intention to " take a hiatus from making records for a while " after the end of touring due to exhaustion from continuous recording and producing for the past ten years .
= = = The New Black ( 2006 ) = = =
The New Black , Strapping Young Lad 's fifth and final studio album , was released on July 11 , 2006 . Century Media imposed a strict deadline on the release date of the album ; it was to be ready before the 2006 Ozzfest . Despite this , Townsend stated the recording was not rushed , and The New Black became a critical , as well as a commercial , success . It was more melodic than any of the band 's previous albums and brought back the debut album 's tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor . Having sold more than 4 @,@ 000 copies during its first week , The New Black reached No. 200 on the Billboard 200 chart , No. 15 on the Top Independent Albums , and No. 8 on the Top Heatseekers charts . Stylus Magazine 's Cosmo Lee described it as " heavy , catchy , and with no filler " , and About.com 's Chad Bowar was also positive , stating that " this is a CD that 's dense and heavy , but also has some memorable hooks " .
A music video was shot in late May to accompany the sole single from the album , " Wrong Side " . In June 2006 Strapping Young Lad embarked on a short festival tour of Europe , including performances at the Rock am Ring and Rock im Park festivals in Germany and the Download Festival in England , which was followed by a second stage appearance at Ozzfest in July and August , where they played to some of their largest audiences in their career .
= = = Dissolution ( 2006 ) = = =
Townsend recalls that after Alien , he already knew that he wouldn 't want to continue SYL as a project , and that he already wished to abandon SYL after the release of City already , considering the project 's purpose fulfilled . In an interview conducted by Terrorizer in August 2006 , Townsend explained why he decided to put the band on hold :
At the end of the day , man , I 'm just tired , and old , and bald , and fat , and grouchy , and bored . You know ? So I was just like , I 'm going to make this record , and do this stupid Ozzfest thing , and tell a bunch of stupid jokes in front of a lot of people at Download , then I 'm just going to fuck off for a while . The bigger this gets , the less I care , to the point where I just need to go spend some time with my family . I don 't wanna bastardise Strapping and all these other projects by doing it for the money . Strapping was about the big middle finger , and it still is , but I don 't think it needs to go any further than this .
Although Hoglan initially denied the definitive break @-@ up of the band , saying they would go on tour in March 2007 , he later stated Strapping Young Lad is on " extended hiatus " , and might never reunite again . In May 2007 , during a press conference held to promote his new solo album , Ziltoid the Omniscient , Townsend announced his plans to retreat from public view , including giving interviews and touring , to concentrate on his family , and producing solo albums , as well as other people 's music . As a result , Strapping Young Lad were effectively disbanded . Townsend discussed his future projects in a May 2007 Metal Hammer interview , where he stated " there may be some stuff I do in the future that is as brutal and heavy as Strapping , it 's just not going to be Strapping " .
The remastered 10th anniversary edition of City was released on June 7 , 2007 , in similar vein to the 2006 remaster of Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing , with bonus tracks and extended liner notes by Townsend . A career spanning best of album , entitled 1994 – 2006 Chaos Years , was released on March 31 , 2008 , with a bonus DVD of live performances and all of the band 's music videos .
During his career @-@ retrospective concert The Retinal Circus in October 2012 , Townsend introduced Jed Simon on stage and performed two SYL songs , " Love ? " and " Detox " . Townsend has since stated that this was a one off performance and that he is not interested getting SYL back together or playing songs at future shows . He posted to Twitter that he no longer feels the same connection to SYL 's music and that this performance was closure for him and Strapping . In an interview on the Metal Hammer podcast , Townsend said that while he still connects to the music , SYL required him to go to extremes that took a toll on him . On his own website , he reiterates that SYL was a project that he eventually perceived to be harmful to his mental and physical health . In 2013 , he played Love ? at concerts in Mexico and Chile as a " cover song " , but later expressed regretting the decision saying it " confuses people " .
Townsend also performed an acoustic version of Love ? during his " An Evening with Devin Townsend " shows through the UK in 2015 .
= = Musical style = =
Strapping Young Lad 's music was a diverse mix of extreme metal genres ; death metal , thrash metal , black metal , progressive , experimental and industrial metal . Many of the band 's songs showcased Townsend 's versatile vocal style , often changing from screaming , and growling to clean vocals , or even falsetto , within the course of a single song . According to Townsend , the band functioned as his " outlet to freak out " , and his two main projects , the more melodic The Devin Townsend Band and the aggressive Strapping Young Lad were " supposed to be the positive and the negative " . To achieve a chaotic and cacophonic sound the band utilized complex time signatures , polyrhythmic composition , blast beats , sampling , keyboard effects and intricately layered production . Townsend used the newest technology available , such as Pro Tools , Steinberg Cubase and Logic Pro , when recording , mixing and producing the band 's songs . As a self @-@ proclaimed " fan of multitracking " , he created an atmospheric , layered " wall of sound " , which became a hallmark of the band 's production style ( with the exception of their self @-@ titled album which featured no samples , or vocal layering ) . Townsend 's musical ideas and production style have drawn comparisons to Phil Spector and Frank Zappa . Strapping Young Lad mostly eschewed guitar solos until The New Black , which featured a more heightened emphasis on melody than their previous albums .
= = = Influences = = =
Strapping Young Lad drew influence from a wide range of music genres , most prominently , but not exclusively , heavy metal . Townsend cited , amongst others , Judas Priest , Jane 's Addiction , Zoviet France , Grotus , and Frank Zappa as his influences , and also expressed his admiration for Meshuggah on several occasions , calling them " the best metal band on the planet " . Simon and Stroud listed classic hard rock bands , like AC / DC , Led Zeppelin and Kiss , and old school thrash and death metal bands , like Exodus , Slayer and Morbid Angel among their influences , while Hoglan 's influences range wildly in style from Stevie Wonder to progressive rock drummers like Neil Peart , Terry Bozzio and Nick Mason . Townsend stated his main influences for Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing were Napalm Death and Fear Factory , City was influenced by bands such as Foetus and White Noise , and The New Black 's influences were Meshuggah , and " more traditional metal " like Metallica .
= = = Lyrical themes = = =
Townsend was the band 's primary songwriter . While the first two albums were solely his work , subsequent albums featured a minority of " riffs , lyrical ideas , and song titles " by his band mates .
Despite the brutality of Strapping Young Lad 's music , their songs contain hints of tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor and self @-@ parody . Frequently , Townsend 's lyrics approached serious personal or political issues with a morbid sense of humor . He has likened the band 's sense of silliness to that of " Weird Al " Yankovic . Townsend 's lyrical influences covered a wide range of themes , including warfare , mathematical theorems , and movies . He also used the technique of cross @-@ referencing , repeating lines from his own works , such as older Strapping Young Lad , or solo material .
= = Live performances = =
Strapping Young Lad was known for its energetic live performances , mostly owing to the eccentric appearance and persona of Devin Townsend . Adrian Begrand of PopMatters wrote " Nobody in metal today has the same kind of commanding stage presence as the self @-@ professed Bald Bastard , Devin Townsend " , and called Strapping Young Lad " one of the best live bands around " . Townsend was famous for his on @-@ stage antics ; he integrated his ironic and tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor into live shows and interacted heavily with the audience . He would deliver comical , and often insulting remarks to them , organize circle pits , and parody heavy metal clichés as well as the genre itself .
The band 's humorous approach was also evidenced by a song frequently performed live from 1997 , entitled " Far Beyond Metal " , a parody of classic heavy metal . It became a live staple and a fan favorite , with lyrics changing practically every performance . Although it was recorded live on No Sleep ' till Bedtime , and on the For Those Aboot to Rock DVD , a studio version was not recorded until 2006 during The New Black sessions . The band was also sarcastic about their own Canadian heritage , they used " Blame Canada " , a comedic anti @-@ Canada song from South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut as intro music at many concerts in 2003 and 2004 .
For a period of time , Strapping Young Lad also played Townsend 's solo material live . In 1998 , after the release of Infinity , they began performing both Strapping Young Lad and Townsend 's solo songs , as two separate sets . It was not until the 2003 release of Accelerated Evolution when Townsend formed a separate band , called The Devin Townsend Band , to act as his full @-@ fledged solo band .
= = Discography = =
Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing ( 1995 )
City ( 1997 )
Strapping Young Lad ( 2003 )
Alien ( 2005 )
The New Black ( 2006 )
= = Band members = =
= = = Final line @-@ up = = =
Devin Townsend – guitar , lead vocals , keyboards ( 1994 – 2007 )
Jed Simon – guitar , backing vocals ( 1994 – 2007 )
Byron Stroud – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 1996 – 2007 )
Gene Hoglan – drums ( 1996 – 2007 )
= = = Former members = = =
Adrian White – drums ( 1994 – 1995 )
Ashley Scribner – bass ( 1994 – 1995 )
Mike Sudar – guitar ( 1994 – 1995 )
= = = Session members = = =
Chris Bayes – drums ( 1994 )
Smokin ' Lord Toot – drums ( 1994 )
Chris Meyers – keyboards ( 1994 )
Note : The pre @-@ City touring line @-@ up consisted of Townsend , Simon , White , Scribner , Sudar and Meyers .
Dave Young - Keyboards ( 2005 ) ( played on Alien )
= = = Touring members = = =
John Morgan – keyboards ( 1997 )
Matteo Caratozzolo – keyboards ( 1997 – 1998 , 2003 )
Jamie Meyer – keyboards ( 1998 – 1999 )
Jason Filipchuk – keyboards ( 1999 )
Chris Valagao – keyboards ( 2002 )
Will Campagna – keyboards ( 2002 , 2005 – 2006 )
Munesh Sami – keyboards ( 2003 – 2004 )
Jon Miller – bass ( substituting Byron Stroud , July 14 – 31 , 2005 )
James MacDonough – bass ( substituting Byron Stroud , August 1 – 13 , 2006 )
= Evan Turner =
Evan Marcel Turner ( born October 27 , 1988 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Portland Trail Blazers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He was drafted second overall by the Philadelphia 76ers in the 2010 NBA draft and played for them until he was traded in February 2014 to the Indiana Pacers . Turner plays the point guard , shooting guard and small forward positions .
Turner was a first @-@ team 2010 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American and the 2010 National Player of the Year while playing at Ohio State University . Turner was also a two @-@ time Big Ten Conference scoring champion and the 2010 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year . He was twice the only player named as a unanimous first @-@ team selection by both the coaches and the media to the All @-@ Big Ten team ( 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10 ) . By finishing first in scoring and second in both rebounds and assists in the conference in the 2009 – 10 season , he was the first men 's basketball player to finish in the top two in each of these categories and the first to finish in the top five in each category in the same season . He is the conference record @-@ holder for most career and single @-@ season record for Conference Player of the Week awards .
Turner attended St. Joseph High School in Westchester , Illinois . By his senior season , he was one of the top high school basketball players at his position in the nation . As a true freshman , he helped lead the Buckeyes to the 2008 National Invitation Tournament championship . The following year , he was the Big Ten Conference scoring champion for the 2008 – 09 season and was a first @-@ team 2009 All @-@ Big Ten selection . That season , he was also an honorable mention All @-@ American and was selected as a member of the 2009 All @-@ Big Ten Conference Tournament team , and he became one of five Big Ten players to have been among the top ten in the conference in average points , rebounds , and assists in the same season . He is the conference record @-@ holder for most career Player of the Week awards and despite missing over a month of his junior season for the 2009 – 10 Ohio State Buckeyes men 's basketball team he also set the single @-@ season record for Player of the Week awards . As a pro , he has participated in the Rising Stars Challenge and helped the 76ers reach the NBA playoffs in his first two NBA seasons . During his third season he became an everyday starter . With an impending free agent status , he was traded to Indiana during his fourth season .
= = Early life = =
Turner was born weighing 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) . Within his first year , he endured chicken pox , pneumonia , asthma , and measles . The 1989 Chicago measles epidemic caused Turner to desperately need emergency room services . He encountered severe breathing problems that required the removal of his adenoids and tonsils . At the age of three , he was hit by a car , resulting in a concussion and stitches . Oversized baby teeth and an overbite caused a speech impediment that necessitated speech therapy .
= = High school career = =
Before high school , Turner and fellow NBA player Iman Shumpert were teammates on the 8th grade basketball team at Gwendolyn Brooks Middle School in Oak Park , Illinois . Turner was a star on the 2002 – 03 Brooks 's 8th grade boys basketball team that finished the 2002 – 03 season with a record of 23 – 2 . He played in the Summer 2004 AAU Boys 15 @-@ under Basketball National Championship Tournament for the Illinois Knights . As a high school sophomore , he helped lead St. Joseph to a run in the Illinois AA Boys High School basketball tournament , which helped him get the attention of NCAA Division I basketball coaches . At St. Joseph 's , which had once produced Isiah Thomas , he was part of a Chicago area sophomore class that was considered to be the best in the history of the state of Illinois . It included Derrick Rose , and his St. Joseph 's teammate Demetri McCamey , who overshadowed him as the second best Chicago area prospect in the class behind Rose . The class of 2007 was compared to the Chicago area class of 1979 that included Thomas , Terry Cummings , and Darrell Walker as well as the class of 1998 that included Quentin Richardson , Corey Maggette , Frank Williams , Bobby Simmons , Michael Wright .
Turner started getting major Division I offers early in his junior year , and he and McCamey attended 2005 Midnight Madness with the Wisconsin Badgers men 's basketball team . At the beginning of his junior season , Chicago Tribune named him to its annual top Chicago metropolitan area basketball players list , and it ranked St. Josephs number three in the area . The team went to the state sectional final before its season ended with a 75 – 72 sectional final loss to Proviso East High School . After his junior season , he was considered one of the top 25 prospects in the country in his class according to one scout , and he was given special mention by the Chicago Tribune and honorable mention by the Associated Press for all @-@ state honors . During the summer of 2006 , he committed to Ohio State , which is located in Columbus , Ohio . Turner 's decision was influenced by his relationship with his father , James Turner , who lived in Columbus , Ohio and whom Turner had visited every summer since he was ten years old .
During his senior season , his team was listed second to Rose 's Simeon Career Academy in the preseason Tribune Chicago area high school basketball team rankings . That season , he and Rose were both named to the first @-@ team Associated Press 2006 – 07 Class AA all @-@ state team , a day before Rose 's Simeon eliminated Turner 's St. Joseph in the Illinois Class AA supersectional . Turner and McCamey finished third and sixth to Rose in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting , and the Chicago Tribune chose both of them as first team All @-@ state selections along with Rose . Turner was ranked as the # 7 , # 13 and # 16 small forward in the nation as a high school senior by ESPN , rivals.com , and scout.com respectively . He received scholarship offers from five Big Ten Conference basketball programs , as well as Wake Forest , DePaul and Notre Dame .
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman year = = =
As a freshman , he averaged 27 @.@ 1 minutes per game , 8 @.@ 5 points per game , and 4 @.@ 4 rebounds per game over the course of the season and finished second on the team in assists and third in steals . Turner recorded his first career double double on January 19 , 2008 at Thompson @-@ Boling Arena against the Tennessee Vols with his first 20 @-@ point game and first 10 @-@ rebound game . That season , he helped Ohio State win the 2008 National Invitation Tournament by averaging 18 @.@ 5 points , 7 rebounds , 4 @.@ 5 assists and 3 steals in the tournament 's semifinal and final round at Madison Square Garden . He had also scored in double digits in the quarterfinal round . He was also in the starting lineup for the other two NIT games . He contributed at least 24 minutes as a starter in each of the five tournament games .
= = = Sophomore year = = =
As a sophomore , Turner was named player of the week three times during the 2008 – 09 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season ( December 8 , 2008 , February 2 , 2009 , and February 9 , 2009 ) . On February 26 , Turner became the only Big Ten player selected by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) as a Top 15 finalist for the Oscar Robertson Trophy . As a guard / forward for the Ohio State Buckeyes men 's basketball team of the Big Ten Conference , he led his team in the following per @-@ game statistical categories : points , rebounds , assists , and steals . Turner led the Big Ten in scoring as a sophomore . He and Manny Harris became the 4th and 5th players in conference history to finish in the top ten in the conference in points , rebounds and assists since assists became a statistic in 1983 – 84 , following Steve Smith , Jim Jackson , and Brian Evans .
Although he was not selected as a preseason All @-@ Big Ten conference player , he was the only person chosen as a unanimous first @-@ team All Big Ten selection by both the coaches and the media at the end of the regular season . On March 5 , the National Association of Basketball Coaches honored Turner as a District 7 ( Big Ten ) first @-@ team selection along with four other sophomores . He was also chosen on March 10 by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association for its 2008 – 09 Men 's Division I District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Team , based on voting from its national membership . He was selected as a 2009 All @-@ American honorable mention by the Associated Press . On March 15 , he was selected to the 2009 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament team , despite Ohio State 's loss in the final game to Purdue . Turner played for the 2009 Junior USA World University Championships team , along with conference foes Robbie Hummel of Purdue and Talor Battle of Penn State . He helped them to the bronze medal and a 6 – 1 record .
= = = Junior year = = =
His junior season began with numerous accolades . ESPN chose both Kalin Lucas and Turner to its 2009 – 10 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season preseason second @-@ team All @-@ American list . FOX Sports preseason All @-@ American list included him on its fifth team . Turner was named among the 50 preseason Wooden Award watch list nominees and the 50 preseason Naismith College Player of the Year watchlist nominees . The 24 @-@ member Big Ten media panel selected him as a first @-@ team preseason All @-@ Big Ten team member .
Turner , nicknamed " The Villain " , opened the season by recording the first triple double by a Big Ten player since January 13 , 2001 , and the second in school history ( Dennis Hopson was the first ) during the Coaches vs. Cancer classic against Alcorn State University . This earned him his fourth career Big Ten player of the week honor and first of the 2009 – 10 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season . The following week , he ran his streak of double doubles to four to earn back @-@ to @-@ back player of the week honors . Two weeks after his first triple @-@ double , he repeated the feat at home against Lipscomb University on November 24 . This earned him his third consecutive Big Ten player of the week award . On December 5 , 2009 , in the fourth week of the season , he suffered transverse process fractures of the second and third lumbar vertebrae in his back , which was expected to cause him to be inactive for two months . Turner returned early from his injury on January 6 , 2010 . This occurred two days after Ohio State fell out of the top 25 in the 2009 – 10 NCAA Division I men 's basketball rankings on January 4 in his absence . With Turner back in the lineup , Ohio State returned to the top 25 on January 18 , and Turner earned his fourth Big Ten Player of the Week award on the same day after leading his team to wins over two ranked conference foes . Then on February 8 , Turner established a new Big Ten Conference record with his eighth career Conference Player of the Week award , surpassing Glenn Robinson and Jackson . The fifth of the season also tied Robinson 's single @-@ season record . Two weeks after tying the single @-@ season record , he broke the record when he averaged 24 @.@ 5 points , 8 @.@ 5 rebounds and 5 @.@ 5 assists against two ranked conference opponents ( No. 4 Purdue and at No. 11 Michigan State ) . Then he won the award again on March 1 .
Turner helped lead the Buckeyes to the regular @-@ season co @-@ championship of the Big Ten Conference and helped them earn the number one seed in the 2010 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament . On March 12 , 2010 , in their first game in the tournament , Turner helped the Buckeyes get a win over their arch @-@ rival Michigan Wolverines with a last @-@ second 37 @-@ foot three @-@ pointer . In the second game , against Illinois , Turner scored 31 points , scoring the game @-@ tying points to send the game to overtime and then the final four points in overtime to send the game into double overtime . Turner scored a total of 12 points in overtime . He then led Ohio State to victory in the championship game against Minnesota with another 31 points . Turner was named Tournament Most Outstanding Player and part of the All @-@ Tournament team . Turner also repeated as the Big Ten scoring champion , and although he lost the rebounding championship to Mike Davis ( 9 @.@ 167 to 9 @.@ 161 ) , he led the conference in defensive rebounds . He also ranked second in assists and third in steals . He improved upon his sophomore showing by becoming the first player to finish in the top two in average points ( 1st , 20 @.@ 4 ) , rebounds ( 2nd , 9 @.@ 2 ) and assists ( 2nd , 6 @.@ 0 ) , becoming the first men 's basketball player to do so and the first to finish in the top five in all three categories .
= = = = Awards = = = =
Turner was selected as a Midseason Top @-@ 30 finalist for the 2010 John Wooden Award in January . He was included on the March 15 , 26 @-@ man final national ballot for the Wooden Award . From that ballot he was selected to the ten @-@ man Wooden All @-@ American team . Then the list was shortened to five finalists ( Turner , Sherron Collins , John Wall , Wesley Johnson and Da 'Sean Butler ) who were flown out to Los Angeles for the announcement . On April 9 , Turner was announced as the winner . In February , he was named a midseason Top 30 candidate for the Naismith College Player of the Year and was announced the recipient of the award in Indianapolis April 5 , 2010 . Turner won the USBWA 's Robertson Trophy as the consensus choice by voters in all nine geographical districts . Fox , Associated Press and Sporting News selected him as their National Player of the Year . He earned 54 of the 65 Associated Press panel members ' votes . He was recognized the National Association of Basketball Coaches ' Division I Player of the Year .
By winning the Wooden , Naismith , Robertson , Fox Sports , NABC , TSN , and AP Player of the Year awards , he nearly swept all of the major player of the year awards . Wall won the Adolph Rupp Trophy ( and Yahoo ! Sports player of the year ) . Turner was again the only person chosen as a unanimous first @-@ team All Big Ten selection by both the coaches and the media at the end of the regular season and was selected as the 2010 Big Ten Men 's Basketball Player of the Year . Turner was also selected as the Big Ten Conference male Athlete of the Year for all sports .
Turner was selected as a first @-@ team 2010 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American by Associated Press , Sporting News , Fox Sports , National Association of Basketball Coaches , United States Basketball Writers Association and Yahoo ! Sports . He was also selected in March as one of six finalists for the Bob Cousy Award .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Philadelphia 76ers ( 2010 – 2014 ) = = =
On April 7 , 2010 , Turner held a press conference and announced that he would forgo his final season of collegiate eligibility and enter the 2010 NBA draft , where he was expected to be selected as one of the top 3 draft picks . Turner signed with Michael Jordan 's agent , David Falk .
He was selected with the 2nd overall pick by the Philadelphia 76ers in the 2010 NBA draft , and signed a 2 @-@ year deal with a third @-@ year option worth an estimated $ 12 million .
On October 27 , 2010 , in his debut on the Philadelphia 76ers ( also his 22nd birthday ) , Turner recorded 16 points , 7 rebounds , and 4 assists , coming off the bench for 30 minutes to lead the team in scoring in a 97 – 87 loss to the Miami Heat . On November 7 , 2010 , Turner got his first NBA start and ended the game with a double @-@ double , recording 14 points and 10 rebounds to go with his 3 assists , in a 106 – 96 win over the New York Knicks in place of the injured Andre Iguodala . On December 29 , 2010 , Turner scored a career @-@ high 23 points in a 123 – 110 win against the Phoenix Suns , going 9 – 12 from the field and a perfect 4 – 4 from the free throw line . He ended the season with fourteen starts and two double @-@ doubles . The team had gone 27 @-@ 55 the previous season , but were able to improve to 41 @-@ 41 in Turner 's first season . They reached the 2011 NBA Playoffs as the seventh seed , and were matched up against the new @-@ look Miami Heat led by LeBron James and Dwyane Wade . Turner was praised for his aggressiveness in the series , handling Wade on the defensive side , and scoring 17 points and six rebounds on 50 % shooting in the Sixers win in Game 4 . That would be Philadelphia 's only win of the series however , as they fell to the eventual Eastern Conference Champions Miami in five games .
On February 8 , 2012 , Turner was selected to play in the 2012 Rising Stars competition . During the game , he unveiled a new model of Li @-@ Ning shoes . On March 7 , 2012 , in only his second start of the season , Turner recorded a career @-@ high , 26 points , against the Boston Celtics . On March 9 , 2012 , and March 11 , 2012 , against the Utah Jazz and the New York Knicks , he posted back @-@ to @-@ back double doubles in his third and fourth consecutive start . He again scored 26 points on April 3 , 2012 , against the Miami Heat . On April 25 , 2012 , he recorded another double @-@ double while setting a career @-@ high with 29 points and adding 13 rebounds . Over the course of the season , he made twenty starts and recorded five double @-@ doubles . He posted his first postseason double double on May 12 , 2012 , against the Boston Celtics in the first game of the Eastern Conference semifinals of the 2012 NBA Playoffs , with 16 points and 10 rebounds . He repeated the feat on May 21 in game five of the series , recording 10 rebounds and 11 points . He started 12 of Philadelphia 's 13 playoff games , but the team was eliminated in the second round of the playoffs .
Turner started all 82 games during the 2012 – 13 NBA season and tallied 14 double @-@ doubles , while averaging a career high 13 @.@ 3 points 6 @.@ 3 rebounds and 4 @.@ 3 assists . On December 7 , 2012 , he posted a 26 @-@ point , 10 @-@ rebound double @-@ double against the Boston Celtics and made the game @-@ winning shot in overtime with 3 @.@ 9 seconds remaining . On March 1 , 2013 , he fell one assist short of a triple @-@ double with 22 points , 10 rebounds and 9 assists against the Golden State Warriors .
The 76ers did not sign Turner to an extension prior to the October 31 , 2013 , deadline , meaning that the 76ers had the right to make him a restricted free agent at the end of the season . On November 9 , 2013 , Turner established a new career high with 31 points , including the game @-@ tying basket with 8 @.@ 7 seconds remaining in the first overtime against the Cleveland Cavaliers . Turner hit the game @-@ winning buzzer beater on December 20 against the Brooklyn Nets . Turner sat out on December 28 due to knee soreness , but he returned to the lineup the following night against the Los Angeles Lakers with 22 points , 7 rebounds and 6 assists . On January 22 , 2014 , Turner recorded a career @-@ high 34 points in a 110 @-@ 106 win over the New York Knicks , he also recorded 11 rebounds in the game . Turner hit the game @-@ winning buzzer beater on January 29 , 2014 against the Boston Celtics .
= = = Indiana Pacers ( 2014 ) = = =
On February 20 , 2014 , Turner and Lavoy Allen were traded to the Indiana Pacers in exchange for Danny Granger and a second @-@ round draft pick . Turner debuted for the Pacers on February 25 , 2014 . He scored 13 points and added 6 rebounds as part of the Pacers bench that scored a season @-@ high 50 points against the Los Angeles Lakers . When the Pacers benched their entire starting lineup on April 6 , he scored 23 to help the team to a win over the Milwaukee Bucks . Turner was reported to have an acrimonious relationship with Indiana teammate Lance Stephenson because both were " free agents to be ... looking for their first big contract " who played the same style and they were both trying to fill the role of " next big thing " . The conflict led to a fist fight between the two on April 21 , 2014 , in a team practice on the eve of the team 's second game of the first round of the 2014 NBA Playoffs . Stephenson has a reputation for irritating people however . Less than a month earlier , Turner had come to the rescue when Stephenson had derailed against Dwyane Wade . In game 6 of the first round series against Atlanta with Indiana trailing 3 – 2 , head coach Frank Vogel changed the rotation and Turner was left out , playing no minutes , while some of his playing time went to Rasual Butler . In Round 2 against the Washington Wizards , he returned to the lineup . In the first game of Round 3 against the two @-@ time defending champion Miami Heat , he sat out with strep throat .
= = = Boston Celtics ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = =
After Indiana elected not to make Turner an $ 8 @.@ 7 million qualifying offer , he became an unrestricted free agent . According to his agent , Turner agreed to sign with the Boston Celtics on July 21 , 2014 . He officially signed with the Celtics on September 29 , 2014 . He began the season as a reserve , but when Marcus Smart and Rajon Rondo endured concurrent injuries , Turner scored a team @-@ high 19 points in a starting role in a win against the Chicago Bulls . On December 8 , 2014 , against the Washington Wizards , Turner forced overtime by sinking a three @-@ point shot with 0 @.@ 9 seconds left in regulation , but missed a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) jump shot with 0 @.@ 9 seconds remaining in the second overtime which would have given the Celtics the lead . When he was inserted into the starting lineup at point guard on December 31 , 2014 , against the Sacramento Kings , he posted a double double with 11 assists and 10 points . Chicago native Turner posted a season @-@ high 29 points at the United Center against the Chicago Bulls on January 3 . Turner hit his fourth ( in eight attempts ) career last second game winning shot with a three @-@ pointer with 1 @.@ 9 seconds left as his team trailed 89 – 87 against the Portland Trail Blazers on January 22 , 2015 . Then on February 11 , 2015 , he hit a game winner with 0 @.@ 2 seconds left against Atlanta Hawks . Evan Turner posted his first career triple double on February 25 , 2015 , against the New York Knicks with 10 points , 10 assists and 12 rebounds . On March 13 , 2015 , Turner scored 24 of his season @-@ high 30 points in the second half , including 16 in the fourth quarter to help the Celtics rally past the Orlando Magic . He posted two more triple doubles on March 23 against the Brooklyn Nets ( 19 points , 10 rebounds , and 12 assists ) and on April 1 against the Indiana Pacers ( 13 points , 11 rebounds , and 12 assists ) . On April 10 , he recorded a career @-@ high 13 assists against the Cleveland Cavaliers . Turner played every game in the 2014 – 15 season and finished with averages of 9 @.@ 5 points , 5 @.@ 1 rebounds , and a career @-@ high 5 @.@ 5 assists per game . During the offseason , he was named as a participant in the first @-@ ever NBA Africa Game .
On January 4 , 2016 , Turner started in place of an injured Avery Bradley and posted a 12 @-@ point , 11 @-@ rebound double @-@ double against the Brooklyn Nets . He posted a 14 @-@ point , 10 @-@ rebound double @-@ double off the bench against Boston on February 2 . On February 16 , at halftime of the Ohio State – Michigan game at Value City Arena , Turner 's collegiate number , 21 , was retired by Ohio State . On March 26 , Turner posted a 17 @-@ point , 11 @-@ rebound double @-@ double and blocked Devin Booker 's potential game @-@ tying shot with 3 @.@ 9 seconds left against the Phoenix Suns .
= = = Portland Trail Blazers ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On July 6 , 2016 , Turner signed a four @-@ year , $ 70 million contract with the Portland Trail Blazers .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Personal life = =
Turner 's mother is Iris James , and he has two older brothers named Darius and Richard .
On August 23 , 2010 , CNBC reported that Turner had signed a multi @-@ year endorsement contract with Chinese apparel maker Li Ning Company Limited .
= Ted Frank =
Theodore H. " Ted " Frank ( born December 14 , 1968 ) , is an American lawyer , activist , legal writer , and blogger , based in Washington , D.C .. He is noted for writing the vetting report of vice @-@ presidential candidate Sarah Palin for the John McCain campaign in the 2008 presidential election . He is the founder and president of
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More " . The group played the entire album without any guest singers or announcements with the then regular Who line @-@ up ( including Starkey and bassist Pino Paladino , who replaced Entwistle following his death in 2002 ) along with five additional musicians . The tour included additional video performances , including Moon singing " Bell Boy " from 1974 and Entwistle 's bass solo in " 5 : 15 " from 2000 . The tour progressed to the UK in 2013 , ending in a performance at Wembley Arena in July .
= = Other productions = =
Quadrophenia was revived for a film version in 1979 , directed by Franc Roddam . The film attempted to portray an accurate visual interpretation of Townshend 's vision of Jimmy and his surroundings , and included Phil Daniels as Jimmy and Sting as the Ace Face . Unlike the Tommy film , the music was largely relegated to the background , and was not performed by the cast as in a rock opera . The film soundtrack included three additional songs written by Townshend , which were Kenney Jones ' first recordings as an official member of the Who . The film was a commercial and critical success , as it conveniently coincided with the mod revival movement of the late 1970s .
There have been several amateur productions of a Quadrophenia musical . In 2007 , the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama performed a musical based on the original album at the Sherman Theatre , Cardiff , featuring a cast of 12 backed by an 11 @-@ piece band .
In October 1995 , the rock group Phish , with an additional four @-@ man horn section , performed Quadrophenia in its entirety as their second Halloween musical costume at the Rosemont Horizon in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont , Illinois . The recording was later released as a part of Live Phish Volume 14 . The band also covered the tracks " Drowned " and " Sea and Sand " on their live album New Year 's Eve 1995 – Live at Madison Square Garden .
In June 2015 , Townshend released an orchestral version of the album entitled Classic Quadrophenia . The original album was orchestrated by his partner Rachel Fuller and conducted by Robert Ziegler , with music provided by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . Tenor Alfie Boe sang the lead role , supported by the London Oriana Choir , Billy Idol , Daniels and Townshend .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Original LP track listing = = =
All songs written and composed by Pete Townshend .
= = = Quadrophenia : The Director 's Cut track listing = = =
= = Personnel = =
The Who
John Entwistle – bass , horns , vocals
Roger Daltrey – lead vocals
Keith Moon – percussion , vocals
Pete Townshend – remainder
Additional musicians
Jon Curle – newsreader voice
Chris Stainton – piano on " The Dirty Jobs " , " 5 : 15 " , and " Drowned "
Production
The Who – production
Kit Lambert , Pete Townshend – pre @-@ production
Chris Stamp , Pete Kameron , Kit Lambert – executive producer
Ron Nevison – engineer
Ron Fawcus – mixing continuity , engineering assistance
Bob Pridden – studio earphone
Rod Houison , Ron Nevison , Pete Townshend – special effects
Graham Hughes – front cover design and photography
Ethan Russell – art direction , insert photography
Jon Astley – remixing ( 1996 reissue )
Bob Ludwig – remastering ( 1996 reissue )
Richard Evans – design and art direction ( 1996 reissue )
= = Sales chart performance = =
Album
Singles
= = Sales certifications = =
= Abbey Mills Mosque =
The Abbey Mills Mosque , also known as the London Markaz or Masjid @-@ e @-@ Ilyas , is a mosque located in Stratford , east London , accommodating up to 2 @,@ 500 people . It had been proposed to expand it to a larger Islamic centre on a 70000 m ² site . It was originally reported that the structure , had it been built , would have been the largest religious building in Britain – three times the size of St Paul 's Cathedral – and one of the largest mosques in western Europe . For this reason the proposed building is often informally referred to in the press as the " mega @-@ mosque " .
The mosque extension would have been built by Tablighi Jamaat , near the site of the London 2012 Olympic Park . Anjuman @-@ e @-@ Islahul Muslimeen is Tablighi Jamaat 's charitable trust and has been the owner of the site since 1996 . The Tablighi Jamaat website devoted to the mosque places the maximum capacity at 12 @,@ 000 worshipers .
The plan sparked controversy for various reasons , including its initially reported size , the possible chemical contamination risk associated with the site , the uncertainty as to the sources of funding that will be used by Tablighi Jamaat , and alleged links between Tablighi Jamaat and Islamic extremism and terrorism . Mosque officials are engaged in resolving the controversies , as well as countering the perception implied by the term " mega @-@ mosque " .
Public response to the mosque and associated controversies has included on @-@ line petitions , various public talks , debates , speeches and various demonstrations .
With the expiration of the permit to use the site , and neither a current plan permission nor application for a mosque , the building 's future appeared uncertain . In February 2010 , Newham Council tried to shut down the existing temporary facility by serving an enforcement notice on the owners . However , this was overturned on appeal and a two @-@ year extension granted for the use of the site .
= = Project = =
In 1996 Anjuman @-@ e @-@ Islahul Muslimeen purchased the Abbey Mills site ( the location of a former chemical works ) for £ 1 @.@ 6 million . In 2001 , the Tablighi Jamaat was issued a five @-@ year permit to use the site as a place of worship ; however , the permit expired before building commenced . In 2007 the site plan incorporated a mosque capable of accommodating 12 @,@ 000 people , a visitor and conference centre , substantial parking for cars and facilities for bicycles , a new entrance to the West Ham tube station , a residential school for 500 pupils , a reception centre for visiting VIPs — including about 20 guest suites , a plan for the retention of the natural habitat on the island location within the site , and extensive landscaping . The Tablighi Jamaat also stated that they plan to develop the mosque to make full use of natural resources , reducing the mosque 's energy consumption and increasing the mosque 's recycling .
In 2012 , Newham Council refused permission for the plans . Tablighi Jamaat appealed against this decision , but the appeal was dismissed by the UK Government in October 2015 .
= = Concerns = =
= = = Size = = =
Reports as to the size of the mosque have varied considerably . Ali Mangera of Mangera Yvars Architects , submitted a proposal for the design competition , stated that his design would accommodate up to 40 @,@ 000 visitors simultaneously , with the potential for expanding to contain 70 @,@ 000 people . These figures led to much consternation . London Borough of Newham Councillor Alan Craig , of the Christian Peoples Alliance , criticised the development plans on the grounds that they would change the character of the local area , making it predominantly Muslim , and has called for a public inquiry into the mosque 's development . The Daily Telegraph reported that the Newham planning department would refuse the mosque 's application , as a project of that size had the potential to cause damage to community relations in the area .
In response to the public concern about the mosque 's size , the mosque 's trustees did not choose Mangera 's design for the final plan , deciding instead on a scaled @-@ down structure . Abdul Sattar Shahid , speaking on behalf of the Tablighi Jamaat trustees , announced that the firm of Allies and Morrison was retained to design the mosque . In November 2011 , it was reported that Allies & Morrison had been replaced by NRAP Architects . An outline planning application was submitted in May 2012 . The scheme prepared by NRAP Architects included a prayer hall for over 9000 , a refectory for 2000 and an Islamic library set within a public garden . A needs analysis and viability assessment submitted with the planning application seek to demonstrate that the proposals represent a justifiable departure from planning policy .
= = = Environment = = =
In July 2007 , a report by Waterman Environmental was publicised by Councillor Craig , which revealed that the land upon which the Abbey Mills Mosque would be built is considered to have a medium @-@ to @-@ high contamination risk . The site was used as a chemical works for at least 100 years , and was decommissioned as such in the late 1980s . Craig was alleged to have obtained this information under the Freedom of Information Act 2000 , and he called for the Environment Agency to be brought in and for the site to be shut down until an independent report was undertaken . According to Craig , the Waterman Report revealed that the original pre @-@ remediation works had discovered soil and groundwater impact by mercury , lead , arsenic , oil , fuels , and asbestos fibres . There were methane and carbon dioxide land gas readings as well . Mosque officials have stated that allowing the development to proceed would benefit the community , as decontamination of the site is part of their building plan .
= = = Funding = = =
In September 2006 , The Guardian reported on concerns regarding funding for the Tablighi Jamaat 's construction project . Documentation filed with the Charity Commission indicated that Anjuman @-@ E @-@ Islahul Muslimeen 's annual donations were in the order of only £ 500 @,@ 000 , suggesting the need for significant extra financial support to fund the building project . It was suggested that the project would be funded by Saudi Salafi groups . This was based on Tablighi Jamaat 's being a Deobandi Muslim organisation that has close links with the form of the religion practised by the Saudi royal family .
The Tablighi Jamaat website lists that it intends to raise the money predominantly via small donations from Muslims in the London area , that they have no links , nor made contact with , the Saudi royal family , and clearly states that the Tablighi Jamaat are neither actively seeking overseas money nor public money .
= = = Terrorism = = =
The New York Times quoted Michael J. Heimbach , a deputy chief of the Federal Bureau of Investigation 's international terrorism section , saying that the FBI has found that the Tablighi Jamaat was used for recruiting by Al @-@ Qaeda . The group has also been referred to as " a key influence on terrorists targeting Britain " and " a common link to a string of attacks and conspiracies " .
The Tablighi Jamaat website states that it refrains from political or controversial activities and stands for democracy and freedom . The group describes itself as a non @-@ political group and categorically rejects any links to terrorism or terrorists . Its website makes clear that it cannot take responsibility for the actions of every individual who has ever attended their mosques or services .
Yoginder Sikand , who studied and wrote about the Tablighi Jamaat in South Asia , said that any fringe elements do not reflect the peacefulness of the movement . Although the group has a very loose organisational structure , Sikand says that it would be " simply wrong to describe Tablighi Jamaat as a terrorist recruiting organisation " .
= = Responses = =
= = = Petition = = =
An online petition was formed in response to the concerns raised about the planned mosque , calling on the Prime Minister to prevent the building of the mosque ; the petition closed with over 250 @,@ 000 signatures and was at the time the most signed petition on the site . Her Majesty 's Government responded that the local planning authorities are responsible for general control of development in their areas and are required to take into consideration the views of interested persons and particularly local communities . In regard to this specific proposal , the government was informed by the Newham London Borough Council that there is neither a current planning permission or application for a mosque , nor is one expected in the near future . In September 2012 , a planning application was submitted to Newham Council and is under consideration by them .
Ken Livingstone , the then Mayor of London , issued a statement protesting against what he called " the particularly vicious nature of the campaign against a possible Muslim place of worship in East London " , stating that it should be " condemned by all of those who support the long established right of freedom of religion in this country , and all the more so as it is based on information which has long been established to be factually untrue . "
= = = Public relations = = =
In 2007 the Tablighi Jamaat retained the public relations firm Indigo Public Affairs , which specialises in difficult major planning situations . The firm 's efforts to enhance the organisation 's image include setting up a website for the mosque and creating YouTube videos discussing the various concerns .
In September 2007 a public discussion between supporters and opponents of the mosque plan was held at Ithaca House in Stratford . Issues discussed included the legitimacy of the concerns about the mosque , the extent of the conservative view of Islam taught by Tablighi Jamaat , their unwillingness to engage in public discourse , the extent that racism plays a role in the mosque 's opposition , and the demand for larger facilities in the West Ham area to support the needs of the community .
= = = Threats = = =
In apparent response to the opposition to the mosque , Alan Craig has been the subject of a video showing his purported obituary , together with that of his wife and two children . The video was posted by a 23 @-@ year @-@ old man from Stevenage named Muhammad , better known by his online moniker of " Abdullah1425 " . Nick Kilby , speaking on behalf of Tablighi Jamaat , said : " We found out about the video last night and it has been removed . We don 't take responsibility for other people 's sites that we don 't control . " He added that if Abdullah1425 was found to be a member of the organisation , it would be dealt with very seriously .
= = = Other opposition = = =
In March 2008 Ghayasuddin Siddiqui , co @-@ founder of the Muslim Parliament of Great Britain , publicly opposed the construction of the mosque , stating that " We have too many mosques . I think it should not be built . What we need first is more integration between the existing mosques and the wider community . " Siddiqui 's opposition joins that of Craig , together with that of Irfan Al @-@ Alawi , the director of the Center for Islamic Pluralism Europe , who expressed extreme concern about the spread of Tablighi Jamaat . Both Siddiqui and Al @-@ Alawi have different and opposed Islamic viewpoints to that of the Tablighi .
= Aus der Tiefen rufe ich , Herr , zu dir , BWV 131 =
Aus der Tiefen rufe ich , Herr , zu dir ( Out of the depths I call , Lord , to You ) , BWV 131 , is a church cantata by the German composer Johann Sebastian Bach . It was composed in either 1707 or 1708 , which makes it one of Bach 's earliest cantatas . Some sources suggest that it could be his earliest surviving work in this form , but current thinking is that there are one or two earlier examples .
The cantata was commissioned by the minister of one of the churches in Mühlhausen , the city where Bach worked at the time . It was possibly written for a special occasion . The text is based on Luther 's German version of Psalm 130 and also incorporates the words of a chorale . Bach 's music integrates melodies from the chorale into larger structures . Bach also shows his interest in counterpoint , something which was characteristic of him throughout his career .
= = History and words = =
A note on the autograph score of the cantata indicates that the work was commissioned by Georg Christian Eilmar , minister of the Marienkirche ( St Mary 's church ) in Mühlhausen . This allows the work to be dated to 1707 – 08 , which is the period when Bach was living in Mühlhausen . Bach was employed as organist at the city 's other main church , Divi Blasii , . He was also involved to some extent with performances at the Marienkirche , where civic ceremonies were held . One service there which Bach would have attended was that for the city council 's inauguration in 1708 during which his cantata Gott ist mein Konig , BWV 71 had its premiere . He may have had a closer personal relationship with Eilmar than with the minister of his own church . Eilmar was godfather to his daughter Catharina Dorothea ( born 1708 ) .
Aus der Tiefen rufe ich , Herr , zu dir has been described as possibly Bach 's first surviving cantata . For it to be the first , it has to be assumed not only that it predates other cantatas written in Mulhnausen ( we know that he wrote at least one other there ) , but also that there is not a surviving cantata from his previous post at Arnstadt . It seems likely that Bach was composing choral music at Arnstadt . Although Bach was only 22 when he took up the appointment at Mühlhausen , the performance of a work of his own composition appears to have been part of the selection process . Recent scholarship suggests that another surviving cantata Nach dir , Herr , verlanget mich , BWV 150 could have been composed at Arnstadt .
The libretto is based on Psalm 130 , one of the penitential psalms . The incipit of the psalm , " Aus der Tiefen rufe ich , Herr , zu dir " , gives the cantata its name . Originally a Hebrew text , the incipit has variants in translation . While Psalms 130 : 1 – 6 is rendered " Out of the depths ... " in the English King James version , a closer translation of the German text used by Bach would be " deep " rather than " depths " . The anonymous librettist , possibly Eilmar , includes in two of the movements verses from Herr Jesu Christ , du höchstes Gut , a Lutheran chorale by Bartholomäus Ringwaldt .
In his Bach Cantata Pilgrimage , Sir John Eliot Gardiner performed and recorded the work with cantatas for the Fifth Sunday after Trinity , but is not known for sure when in the liturgical year Bach performed it , and there has been speculation that it was written for a special occasion .
= = = Publication = = =
Bach 's ability as a composer was recognised by the city council of Muhlhausen who paid for the printing of the cantata Gott ist mein Konig , BWV 71 . They may also have arranged the publication of a later cantata now lost . None of the other cantatas was published in the composer 's lifetime . Aus der Tiefen rufe ich , Herr , zu dir was first published in 1881 as part of the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft @-@ Ausgabe , the first complete edition of Bach 's works . The editor was Wilhelm Rust , who edited many volumes for the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft . At the time of publication of this volume , he held the position of Thomaskantor in Leipzig .
= = Scoring and structure = =
= = = Singers = = =
Bach scored the work for tenor and bass soloists and a four @-@ part choir . Bach gives his soloists an arioso and an aria . As in other early cantatas , there are no recitatives . ( Bach later came more under the influence of Italian music , combining recitatives and arias ) .
Bach did not give a direct indication of how many singers he envisaged in the choir . The cantata can be performed with only four singers , as in the recording by Joshua Rifkin , who is well known in the world of Bach performance for his " one voice to a part " approach . However , most recordings feature a choir with multiple voices to a part . Another choice to be made is whether to use women singers : Bach 's original singers were probably all male . Most recordings of the cantata , however , feature mixed choirs : an exception is the version conducted by Nikolaus Harnoncourt , which deploys boys ' voices as the top lines of the choir .
= = = Instruments = = =
The singers are accompanied by an instrumental group consisting of oboe , bassoon , violin , two violas and basso continuo . As in the case of the singers , the question arises as to whether Bach used one or more players per part . The oboe and the violin are given some important solos , suggesting that there may well have been only one of each . Ton Koopman , for example , uses one oboist and one violinist in his recording . The role of the violas is more to provide accompaniment , filling in harmonies and sometimes doubling vocal lines . The bassoon sometimes supports the continuo section , doubling its bass line , and sometimes plays an independent line .
= = = Musical forms = = =
Bach used some musical forms which reappear in later cantatas . For example , two of the choral movements have a fugue , a style of composition in which Bach excelled . Also , the two movements for soloists are developed as a type of chorale fantasia with the soloist singing the psalm text and an upper voice singing the chorale in long notes as a cantus firmus . Craig Smith called the chorale settings " a window on the future " . However , he criticised the structure of the cantata , saying that it offers evidence that at this stage in his career the composer had difficulty with large forms . On the other hand , the musicologist Julian Mincham regards the piece as being different from later cantatas rather than inferior to them .
= = = Structure and scoring = = =
Bach structured the cantata in five movements , three choral movements interspersed by an arioso and an aria . In both solo movements , a chorale stanza sung simultaneously by the soprano intensifies the Psalm text . He scored it for two soloist ( tenor and bass ) , a four @-@ part choir , and a small Baroque instrumental ensemble of oboe ( Ob ) , bassoon ( Fg ) , violin ( Vl ) , two violas ( Va ) , and basso continuo .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the New Bach Edition ( Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe ) . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Selected recordings = =
The following entries are taken from the listing by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs are roughly marked as large ( by red background ) or one voice per part ( OVPP ) ( by green background ) ; instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted green under the header Instr . , also vocal ensembles with one voice per part ( OVPP ) .
= A Change Is Gonna Come ( Grey 's Anatomy ) =
" A Change Is Gonna Come " is the fourth season premiere of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the 62nd episode of the overall series . The premiere focused on the aftermath of the main characters ' promotion to residency , following the conclusion of their internship . The episode was the first not to feature Isaiah Washington , portraying Preston Burke , due to his being fired from the series at the conclusion of the third season . The installment marked Chyler Leigh 's promotion to series regular status , following her guest appearances in the last two episodes of the previous season . Also featured were one @-@ time guest actors Mark Pellegrino , Stephania Childers , Sandra Thigpen , and Steven Porter .
The story arcs which provided a particular focus on individual characters include Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) dealing with the aftermath of Burke 's ( Washington ) departure , and the dissolution of their engagement , Izzie Stevens , ( Katherine Heigl ) struggling with her romantic feelings towards the married George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) , and Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) learning to deal with her new position of Chief Resident . Also dealt with was Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) coping with Rebecca Pope 's ( Elizabeth Reaser ) departure , and Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) facing the conclusion of her relationship with Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , while dealing with the arrival of her half @-@ sister , Lexie Grey ( Leigh ) , who enrolls in the surgical program at the hospital .
The script for the premiere was written by series creator Shonda Rhimes , while Rob Corn served as the director . The episode aired on September 27 , 2007 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , with an approximated 20 @.@ 93 million viewers tuning in . Ranking second in the time @-@ slot and third for the week , the episode garnered a 7 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , seeing a decrease from the previous episode , which received an 8 @.@ 0 rating . Critical response of the episode ranged from mixed to negative , with Yang 's storyline being a particular source of critical acclaim from television reviewers . Although the episode was fictionally set in Seattle , Washington , filming occurred in Los Angeles , California .
= = Plot = =
" A Change Is Gonna Come " opens to a voice @-@ over narrative from Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) about change , the episode 's main theme . Following the conclusion of their internship , Meredith , along with her colleagues , Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) , and Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) commence their residency in the department of surgery , and start dealing with new responsibilities , including the new generation of interns , to whom they have been assigned as mentors . After failing his post @-@ internship exam in the season three finale , George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) must repeat his internship , in order to avoid being forced to leave the medical field . It is revealed that among the new interns is Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , Meredith 's half @-@ sister , who previously had an encounter with Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , despite his unawareness of her identity . Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) , whom Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) chose for Miranda Bailey 's ( Chandra Wilson ) righteous position of Chief Resident , finds difficulty in exposing an authoritative behavior , getting no respect from her subordinates .
It is explained that , in the aftermath of her being left by Preston Burke ( Isaiah Washington ) at the altar , Yang spent her honeymoon travelling with Meredith . Having just returned , she is shocked to learn that Burke has resigned from Seattle Grace , and relocated to an unknown location . Stevens has to deal with her romantic feelings for O 'Malley , whose marriage to Torres is being threatened by his yet to be exposed affair . O 'Malley , who finds himself in the unpleasant situation of repeating his internship , quickly gains support in Lexie , who decides not to tell the fellow interns about his failed exam . Karev is revealed to have visited Rebecca Pope ( Elizabeth Reaser ) , following her departure . In the absence of Addison Montgomery ( Kate Walsh ) , who relocated to Los Angeles , California , Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) seeks reconciliation with Shepherd , formerly his closest friend and confidant . Initially unwilling to resume his friendship with Sloan , Shepherd ultimately gives him a second chance . Bailey manifests a cold attitude towards Webber , in order to express her disappointment in not being considered for the position of Chief Resident , in spite of her enviable reputation among the hospital staff . Lexie meets Meredith for the first time , but is demoralized when she becomes aware of her apparent discomfort . Meredith and Shepherd encounter difficulty in being broken up , realizing that their mutual romantic feelings are an impediment in their attempt at having separate lives .
The emergency room is filled with victims from a chain car accident , one of whom is admitted in the department of neurosurgery , under the care of Shepherd and Yang . As the physicians soon discover that he has been internally decapitated , they come to the conclusion that even a minor move would result in irreparable damage . A pregnant woman is admitted in plastic surgery , after having her arm severed . Meredith is assigned to work for Sloan during the day , and is immediately told to find the arm , much to the fascination of her interns . Despite trying to deal with her trainees in a strict manner , Stevens is looked upon as unprofessional by the interns she was assigned to . Her image is further deteriorated when she decides to abandon her hospital duties , in order to perform surgery on a deer , once again letting her emotional involvement interfere with her career . Meredith and Shepherd discuss the repercussions of their breakup , and realize that they cannot reconcile . However , the two engage in sexual intercourse , as a manner to express their mutual feelings for the last time . O 'Malley comes to the realization of his love for Stevens , and quickly discloses to her that he shares her romantic feelings .
= = Production = =
" A Change Is Gonna Come " was written by series creator and executive producer Shonda Rhimes , whereas filmmaker and series veteran Rob Corn served as the director . The soundtrack used in the episode included Mat Kearney 's " Breathe In , Breathe Out " , I 'm from Barcelona 's " Oversleeping " , Meiko 's " Reasons to Love You " and Cinematic Orchestra 's " To Build A Home " . Also featured in the episode was " Knock ' Em Out " , the second track from British pop singer @-@ songwriter Lily Allen 's debut album , Alright , Still . Several one @-@ time guest stars appeared in the episode , including Mark Pellegrino , who played Chris , Stephania Childers , portraying Nancy Walters , Sandra Thigpen in the role of Clara , and Steven Porter , who acted as Joey . Although fictionally set in Seattle , Washington , filming primarily occurred in Los Angeles , California . Scenes in the operating room were filmed at the Prospect Studios in Los Feliz , Los Angeles .
The fourth season premiere saw Leigh 's first appearance as a main cast member . Leigh first appeared on the show during the last two episodes of the third season as Meredith 's half @-@ sister , Lexie . Following Washington 's departure , it was reported that show 's executives were planning on adding new cast members , such as Lexie . She was officially upgraded to a series ' regular on July 11 , 2007 , for the fourth season . On casting Leigh as Lexie , Grey 's Anatomy creator Shonda Rhimes stated , " We met with a lot of young actresses , but Chyler stood out . She had a quality that felt right and real to me . It felt like she could be Meredith 's sister , but she had a depth that was very interesting . " Leigh offered her insight on her first days working with the main cast of the series , " It was like coming into somebody else 's group or circle . It was a little daunting in the beginning . But I have had such a great time . " " A Change Is Gonna Come " was the first episode in two years not to feature the character of Montgomery , due to her portrayer , Walsh , leaving the series in order to launch the Grey 's Anatomy spin @-@ off , medical drama Private Practice . However , the character continued to be prominent throughout the run of the series , appearing sporadically as a guest star in the following seasons . Also introduced in " A Change Is Gonna Come " is the new generation of interns , all of whom were portrayed in co @-@ star capacity , with the exception of Lexie .
" A Change Is Gonna Come " was the first episode not to feature Washington 's character , Burke . Washington was officially fired from the series , following an on @-@ set incident with Knight and Dempsey , which had been in the media attention since the commencement of the production for the third season . News reports surfaced that Washington had insulted co @-@ star Knight with a homophobic slur . Following the exposure of the argument , Knight publicly disclosed his homosexuality , which led to Washington 's issuing an apology statement , regarding his inappropriate use of words during the incident . The controversy later resurfaced when the cast appeared at the 65th Golden Globe Awards ceremony , which saw Washington ridiculing homosexuality during an interview , following the statement that denied the occurrence of an on @-@ set incident . After being rebuked by his studio , Touchstone Television , Washington publicly apologized at length for using the epithet in reference to Knight . An issue of People disclosed Washington 's presence at executive counseling , which led to an undetermined hiatus of his contract . After " Didn 't We Almost Have It All ? " , the last episode Washington appeared in , was filmed , the network decided not to give Washington the possibility of a renewal . In a statement released by his publicist , Washington assesed , " I 'm mad as hell and I 'm not going to take it anymore " . In another report , Washington stated he was planning to spend the summer pursuing charity work in Sierra Leone , while working on an independent film . In a subsequent interview , Washington highlighted the unfairness in his being let go from the series , considering filing a lawsuit as a result . He also accused Knight of using the controversy to bolster his own career and increase his salary on the series . Following his firing , Washington began asserting that racism within the broadcasting media was a primary factor in his dismissal from the series , which drew a critical perspective from Rhimes . During his appearance on Larry King Live , Washington once again denied using a homophobic epithet in reference to Knight .
While writing the episode , Rhimes put an emphasis on the character of O 'Malley , detailing his relationships with both Stevens and Torres . On the topic , Rhimes elabroated , " The interns are residents now , with interns of their own . Except for George , poor George , who is stuck repeating his intern year . It 's not easy being a repeater . He 's the only who hasn 't gone through any change when we begin the episode . But by the end , he has . He tells Izzie that he loves her too . Which takes guts . Because he knows what he is getting into . He 's a married man with a great wife , and he never intended to be a married man who loved another woman . " Regarding Meredith 's story arc , Rhimes felt that she cannot deal with all that is expected of her in her relationship with Shepherd , choosing their genuine love as the greatest obstacle in their decision to break up . Writing for Yang 's storyline , Rhimes focused on her unsuccessful attempts at moving on , exposing her devastation at the realization of Burke 's departure , which would be the main seasonal storyline for the character . The episode also deals with Sloan and Shepherd 's path to reconciliation . Rhimes disclosed that the concept for the plot point was to have the two characters go back to being friends , as a result of Montgomery 's departure . Rhimes offered her insight on Lexie 's arrival , " Lexie Grey is here now . And she 's here to stay . I love that she 's a bit of a dork . Being a dork myself , I am fond of the girls with verbal diarrhea . Because it 's not easy to keep all your words in , believe me . " Regarding Webber and Bailey 's storyline , Rhimes noted that the latter 's intentions are not to let the former " off the hook " for choosing Torres over her for the position of Chief Resident , which was righteously hers . Rhimes highlighted the unfairness in Webber 's choice , noting his unusual manner of comprehending the situation . " She 's Bailey . She 's worked hard , she 's been the best . And isn 't it just like the Chief to decide what is best for her ? It 's his flaw , the Chief . He 's an old school man and like an old school man , he 's taking care of his women . Whether they like it or not . This isn 't gonna be an easy pill for Bailey to swallow . "
= = Reception = =
" A Change Is Gonna Come " was originally broadcast in the United States on September 27 , 2007 , airing on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in its regular 9 : 00 Eastern time @-@ slot . Viewed by a total of 20 @.@ 93 million viewers , the episode is the series ' second most @-@ watched season premiere , just behind the third season opener , which had been watched live by 25 @.@ 41 million American viewers . In comparison to the previous episode , which was watched by 22 @.@ 57 million viewers , " A Change Is Gonna Come " made a 21 % decrease in terms of viewership . However , the viewership of the episode ranked second in both its time @-@ slot and the entire night , being beaten out by its airtime rival , CSI : Crime Scene Investigation on CBS , which was watched by 25 @.@ 22 million viewers . In the entire week , the episode ranked third , being beaten out by both CSI and fellow ABC show Dancing With the Stars . In addition to being a success in viewership , the episode also did well in ratings . " A Change Is Gonna Come " garnered a 7 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating in household viewership , ranking second in its time @-@ slot , and third for the week .
The premiere generally received mixed to negative feedback from television critics . Debbie Chang on BuddyTV deemed the episode " dsyfunctional and ridiculous " , being particularly critical of the story arc involving Stevens , whom she described as not being worthy of being promoted to the residency level . Chang expressed disagreement with the manner Bailey and Shepherd 's characters were dealt with by the writers , feeling that the former 's anger should have been targeted at herself , and criticizing the exaggerated exposure of the latter 's " first grader emotional maturity " . However , Yang 's character was praised , with Chang choosing her manner of repressing her feelings as a highlight . Chang expressed a general disappointment in the episode , disapproving the choice for the episode as a season opener , a topic in regard to which she elaborated , " I can see already that this season will continue to bring us medical cases that are so blatantly about the doctors ' pathetic lives . " In September 2009 , the inclusion of the deer ranked twelfth in Entertainment Weekly 's " Most Memorable Cases of Grey 's Anatomy " .
Eileen Lulevitch , entertainment reviewer for TV Guide , was generally favorable of the episode , writing , " Watching the season premiere tonight was like welcoming an old friend back into your home . It was so easy to slip back into Grey 's world and get caught up in all of the amazing moments that make this show so much fun to watch . And while I expected the night to start off on a somber note , by addressing Cristina and Burke 's fallout , I was pleasantly surprised by the way the attendees paid tribute to Bailey , by giving their new interns the same exact first @-@ day speech Bailey had given them . " Lulevtich praised Meredith 's story arc , noting the surprising turn her character evolution has taken , as she praised Lexie 's introduction . While expressing a negative perspective on the writers ' decision to have Torres be the Chief Resident , instead of Bailey , Lulevitch described Torres ' adjustment to her new position as one of the episode 's focal points . Despite praising Yang 's storyline in the personal background , the concept of her interaction with the patient she was assigned to was regarded as predictable and obvious , " When the man 's family came to see him , and Cristina told them it could be for the very last time . It was that moment that really got Cristina thinking about how much she did in fact miss Burke , as we later learned in the episode . " Writing for IGN , Laura Burrows was favorable of the episode . Regarding the storylines developed in " A Change Is Gonna Come " , Burrows elaborated , " The season opener was promising in that it had the interns in a new role and introduced a new side of George . As all of his friends progressed from interns to residents , George was forced to re @-@ sit his internship . This created new drama and also opened up the hospital to a whole new set of interns rife with their own set of emotional baggage and drama . There were a series of interesting and new plots . "
Heigl , who portrayed Stevens , was particularly critical of her character 's relationship with O 'Malley , deeming it " a ratings ploy " . Heigl further explained her outlook on the progression of her character , " They really hurt somebody , and they didn 't seem to be taking a lot of responsibility for it . I have a really hard time with that kind of thing . I 'm maybe a little too black and white about it . I don 't really know Izzie very well right now . " Former The Star @-@ Ledger columnist Alan Sepinwall expressed a negative perspective on the episode , deeming it childish and ridiculous . He disliked Rhimes ' conception of the story arc involving Stevens , elaborating , " If there 's a doctor on this show who should be forced to repeat their intern year , if only to prevent them from being allowed to influence younger doctors , it 's Izzie , not George . She proves her unfitness for this role with her first patient of the day , the deer . Not cute , not character @-@ illuminating , just dumb . " Also criticized was Torres , whose regression from a " cool , rocking , outgoing , cofident and full of life " role was highlighted , receiving negative feedback from Sepinwall , who wrote " Now the character exists entirely so the writers can dump on her , in a devolution far worse than anything . I just don 't get it , and it pains me to watch any scene with Callie in it . Despite expressing a negative outlook on Meredith 's story arc which dealt with Shepherd , noting that the " constant break @-@ ups and reunions are as silly as if Shonda Rhimes had just kept them apart for three seasons before letting them kiss " , Sepinwall was favorable of Lexie 's arrival at Seattle Grace , feeling that " she 's still being written as Meredith circa season one in an attempt to make us like her , but I didn 't mind the manipulation , if only because there are so few characters left on this show to like . " The Buzzsugar television reviewer was mainly critical of the episode , describing it as a departure from " the old show " . However , Lexie 's introduction was praised in the Buzzsugar review .
= Tiny Thompson =
Cecil Ralph " Tiny " Thompson ( May 31 , 1903 – February 9 , 1981 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender . He played 12 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , first for the Boston Bruins , and later for the Detroit Red Wings . A four @-@ time Vezina Trophy winner , Thompson was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1959 . He was a member of one Stanley Cup @-@ winning team , as a rookie in the 1928 – 29 season with the Boston Bruins . At the start of the 1938 – 39 season , after ten full seasons with Boston , he was traded to the Detroit Red Wings , where he completed the season , and played another full one before retiring . During his NHL career , he recorded 81 shutouts , the sixth highest of any goaltender . After retiring from playing , he coached lower @-@ league teams before becoming a noted professional scout . Thompson helped popularize the technique of catching the puck as a method of making a save . A competent puckhandler , he was the first goaltender in the NHL to record an assist by passing the puck with his stick to a fellow player .
= = Early life = =
Thompson was born in the mining community of Sandon , BC . He grew up in Calgary , Alberta , where his brother , Paul — who also became a professional ice hockey player — was born in 1906 . As a child , he enjoyed playing baseball and ice hockey . Initially , Thompson was not a goaltender , though he agreed to play the position to get into games . As a teenager playing competitive ice hockey , he acquired the nickname " Tiny " as a joke , as he was the tallest player on the team , standing 5 ft 10 in ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) ; the nickname stuck with him for the rest of his career .
Thompson began his junior career playing for the Calgary Monarchs in 1919 at the age of 16 . He competed for the Memorial Cup , awarded to the Canadian junior hockey champions that year , playing in two games and surrendering 11 goals , a respectable amount in that era . After spending the 1920 – 21 season playing for Calgary Alberta Grain , Thompson played three seasons in Bellevue , Alberta . In the 1924 – 25 season , he joined the Duluth Hornets , playing 40 games , recording a shutout in 11 of them . The following season , Thompson joined the Minneapolis Millers of the American Hockey Association ( AHA ) . In his three seasons with the Millers , he appeared in 118 games , recording 33 shutouts with a 1 @.@ 37 goals against average ( average of goals surrendered in a span of sixty minutes ) .
= = NHL career = =
= = = Boston Bruins = = =
Thompson began his National Hockey League ( NHL ) career with the Boston Bruins in the 1928 – 29 season after his contract was purchased by Boston manager Art Ross . Despite having never seen Thompson play , Ross had heard about Thompson 's good reputation in Minnesota . In his first game he posted a shutout , becoming the only Hockey Hall of Fame goaltender to accomplish this feat . In his first season , he appeared in all 44 of the Bruins ' games , posting 12 shutouts and a 1 @.@ 15 goals @-@ against average , the second lowest goals @-@ against average in NHL history to date , second to George Hainsworth 's 0 @.@ 98 GAA . Hainsworth had set his record that same season . Placing first in the American Division , the Bruins had a perfect record in the playoffs en route to their first Stanley Cup victory , defeating the Montreal Canadiens and the New York Rangers . Thompson recorded three shutouts in the five playoff games , and allowed only three goals .
The following season , Thompson again appeared in all of the Bruins ' 44 games , posting three shutouts and a 2 @.@ 19 goals @-@ against average . The league changed its rules on forward passing , which resulted in a sharp increase in goalscoring . Boston won all but six games , finishing with a 38 – 5 – 1 record , the best winning percentage for any team in a season . Surrendering only 98 goals , Thompson bested Chicago goaltender Charlie Gardiner to win the first of his four Vezina Trophies . The Vezina Trophy is awarded to the league 's top goaltender , which was determined prior to the 1981 – 82 season by number of goals surrendered by goaltenders who had played a minimum number of games . In the playoffs , however , they suffered their first two @-@ game losing streak , as they were swept 2 – 0 by the Canadiens in the Stanley Cup finals . Earlier in the playoffs , Thompson 's winning streak of seven playoff games was snapped ; it remains , as of 2014 , the longest playoff winning streak to start a career .
In the 1930 – 31 season , he played all 44 games again , and was named to the Second All @-@ Star team . In the playoffs , Boston lost the semifinals to the Montreal Canadiens ; during game two of the series Thompson became the first goaltender to be pulled for a sixth attacker at the end of a game to give his team a higher chance to score a goal . Even though Boston still lost , coach Art Ross ' maneuver was described as " amazing " the following day , and this technique , known as " open net " , caught on with the rest of the league .
The Bruins missed the playoffs for the first time in Thompson 's career in the 1931 – 32 season . He won only 13 games while appearing in 43 out of Boston 's 48 games , which was the only time he missed games as a member of the Bruins . The next season , Boston made the playoffs once more , losing to the Toronto Maple Leafs . The final game of the playoff series was described as Thompson 's most memorable . During that game , Toronto and Boston were tied after regulation time and over 100 minutes of overtime proceeded , with Thompson dueling Toronto 's goaltender Lorne Chabot . After the end of the fifth overtime period , managers Conn Smythe of the Maple Leafs and Art Ross of the Bruins asked league president Frank Calder to suspend the game , but Calder refused . Early in the sixth overtime period , a pass from Boston defenseman Eddie Shore was intercepted , and Ken Doraty skated in on a breakaway , cleanly beating Thompson at 4 : 46 of the period . The losing goaltender in the second @-@ longest NHL game , Thompson received a standing ovation from fans at the Maple Leaf Gardens . Thompson finished the playoff series with 1 @.@ 23 goals @-@ against average , despite a losing record .
Thompson became the second goaltender to win his second Vezina Trophy in 1932 – 33 since its inception in the 1926 – 27 season , as he recorded 11 shutouts and a 1 @.@ 76 goals @-@ against average . After missing the playoffs in the 1933 – 34 season , they rebounded to first place in the American Division the following season , as Thompson was named to the Second All @-@ Star team for the second time . In the playoffs , the Bruins won only one of their four games ; their only win was on the strength of Thompson 's shutout , who finished the playoffs with a 1 @.@ 53 goals @-@ against average .
In the 1935 – 36 NHL season , Thompson recorded 10 shutouts , but Boston managed to win only 22 out of their 48 games . During the season , he recorded an assist , a rarity for goaltenders . At the end of the season , he was named to the First All @-@ Star team for the first time , and won the Vezina Trophy for the third time , tying George Hainsworth 's all @-@ time mark with three victories . The ensuing two @-@ game , total @-@ goal playoff series against the Toronto Maple Leafs was a series of contrasts , as the Bruins lost 8 – 6 . In one game , the Bruins shut out Toronto 6 – 0 , while they lost the other game 8 – 0 . In 1937 – 38 , his final full season with the Bruins , he won 30 out of the 48 games , but Boston lost to the Maple Leafs once again in the playoffs . Thompson set a new record by winning his fourth and final Vezina Trophy . He was also named to the First All @-@ Star team for the second time .
= = = Detroit Red Wings = = =
Thompson appeared in only five games for the Bruins in the 1938 – 39 season , as Boston decided to replace the aging goaltender with the substantially younger Frank Brimsek . Brimsek would go on to lead the Bruins to a Stanley Cup victory that season , earning the nickname " Mister Zero " while picking up 10 regular season shutouts , the Vezina Trophy , First All @-@ Star Team honours , and the Calder Memorial Trophy , which is given " to the player selected as the most proficient in his first year of competition " . To make space for Brimsek , Thompson was traded to the Detroit Red Wings for Normie Smith and $ 15 @,@ 000 ; Thompson also received a $ 1 @,@ 000 bonus from Boston .
Boston manager Art Ross predicted that Thompson , now 35 , would play for the Red Wings for at least another five seasons ; however , Thompson remained with the team for only two seasons before retiring from playing . The Red Wings posted a losing record in both of these seasons , although they made the playoffs both times . Overall , Thompson appeared in 85 regular season games for Detroit , recording a 32 – 41 – 12 record , seven shutouts , and a 2 @.@ 54 goals @-@ against average , and in 11 playoff games , posting a 5 – 6 , with one shutout and a 2 @.@ 41 goal @-@ against average .
= = Post @-@ NHL career = =
After retiring from professional play , Thompson became the head coach of the Buffalo Bisons of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) in the 1940 – 41 season . He coached 56 games in two seasons . The Bisons missed the playoffs both times . He appeared in one game as goaltender in the 1940 – 41 season . During World War II , Thompson served in the Royal Canadian Air Force and doubled as the coach of the Calgary RCAF Mustangs of the Alberta Senior Hockey League . He led the Mustangs to the league championship series in 1942 – 43 against the Calgary Currie Army team where injuries to the Mustangs ' goaltenders brought him back onto the ice in March 1943 . With Thompson in goal , the Mustangs defeated Currie Army 8 – 4 to tie the best @-@ of @-@ five series at two wins apiece . He played the deciding game , but his team fell short of winning the Alberta title with a 3 – 1 loss to Currie Army . After the war , Thompson became chief Western Canada scout for the Chicago Black Hawks . He was one of the few scouts at the time who sought to discover a player 's personality along with their playing ability . Thompson often conversed with players as part of an effort to learn about the players he was watching .
= = Playing style = =
Thompson was a stand @-@ up goaltender , rarely falling on both knees to stop a puck . He was one of the first NHL goaltenders to catch the puck with his hand to make a save , and helped popularize the technique . Using gloves that were smaller than those of other players , he was among the best puck @-@ catchers of his era . He stood in the way of the puck with minimal padding , risking being struck when moving to catch it instead of simply deflecting it away from the net . His signature technique , very often featured in photographs of him , involved dropping to one knee with the paddle of his goalstick covering the five @-@ hole , and extending his glove to cover the left side of the net . Although he caught the puck with his glove , he did so without gloves resembling the modern blocker and trapper glove combination . Thompson was described by Johnny Bower , a former goaltender who was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame , as a good puckhandler , and one of the best of his time at forward passing . In the 1935 – 36 season , Thompson became the first goaltender to get an assist by intentionally passing the puck with his stick to a fellow player .
= = Legacy = =
Thompson 's points percentage in a season of .875 , recorded in the 1929 – 30 season , still remains a record . His 38 wins during that season was a Boston record that was eclipsed only in the 1982 – 83 season , by Pete Peeters ( who won 40 of 62 games played ) ; since then , no Bruins goaltender has had more than 37 wins in a season . Thompson is the all @-@ time Bruins leader for games , wins , shutouts and goals @-@ against average . Throughout his entire NHL career , Thompson accrued 81 shutouts , which is sixth all @-@ time in NHL history , and was second to only George Hainsworth ( who had 94 ) when Thompson retired . He also posted seven shutouts in the playoffs . He is fifth all @-@ time in goals @-@ against average , allowing on average only 2 @.@ 08 per a 60 @-@ minute span . He led all goaltenders in regular season games played 10 times , and in regular season wins five times .
In 1959 , Thompson was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . He died in Calgary on February 9 , 1981 . He was survived by his wife , Edith , and his daughter , Sandra .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = NHL = = =
= 2005 FA Cup Final =
The 2005 FA Cup Final was a football match played between Arsenal and Manchester United on 21 May 2005 at the Millennium Stadium , Cardiff . It was the final match of the 2004 – 05 FA Cup , the 124th season of English football ’ s primary cup competition , the FA Cup . Arsenal became the first team to win the FA Cup via a penalty shoot @-@ out , despite being outplayed throughout the game , after neither side managed to score in the initial 90 minutes or in 30 minutes of extra time . The shoot @-@ out finished 5 – 4 to Arsenal , with Patrick Vieira scoring the winning penalty after Paul Scholes ' shot was saved by Arsenal goalkeeper Jens Lehmann .
As both teams were in the highest tier of English football , the Premier League , Arsenal and Manchester United entered the competition in the third round . Matches up to the semi @-@ final were contested on a one @-@ off basis , with a replay taking place if the match ended in a draw . Both clubs only needed one replay along the way to the final ; Arsenal 's tie against Sheffield United in the fifth round was decided by a penalty shootout , whereas Manchester United overcame non @-@ league Exeter City in the third round , after the original tie ended goalless .
Protests over the impending takeover of Manchester United by American businessman Malcolm Glazer had threatened to overshadow the final , though demonstrations in Cardiff required little intervention from the police . Both managers for the final made surprising changes to their team ; Arsène Wenger unconventionally deployed a defensive formation , while Sir Alex Ferguson left midfielder Ryan Giggs on the bench . Manchester United dominated the match , creating four times as many shots as their opponents , but struggled to find the breakthrough . In extra time , Arsenal 's José Antonio Reyes was sent off for a second bookable offence , becoming only the second player to be sent off in an FA Cup final .
The British press unanimously agreed that Arsenal were fortunate to win ; Wenger himself admitted so in his press conference afterwards . A television audience of over 480 million worldwide watched the final ; in the United Kingdom , coverage of the match peaked at 12 @.@ 8 million , making it the highest @-@ rated game in Cup history since the 1996 final . The departures of captains Patrick Vieira and Roy Keane before the year end , coupled with the changing objectives of both clubs , meant the 2005 final is considered as the natural end point in the rivalry between Arsenal and Manchester United under Ferguson and Wenger .
= = Route to the final = =
The FA Cup is English football 's primary cup competition . Clubs in the Premier League enter the FA Cup in the third round and are drawn randomly with the remaining clubs . If a match is drawn , the tie is replayed at the ground of the away team from the original match . As with league fixtures , FA Cup matches are subject to change in the event of games being selected for television coverage and this often can be influenced by clashes with other competitions . In September 2004 , it was announced that the Millennium Stadium was chosen as the venue for the semi @-@ finals , in addition to the final .
= = = Arsenal = = =
Arsenal 's cup run started with a home tie against Stoke City . The visitors took the lead just before the break , but goals from José Antonio Reyes and Robin van Persie in the second half meant Arsenal won 2 – 1 . They then faced Wolverhampton Wanderers at home in the next round ; a goal apiece from Patrick Vieira and Fredrik Ljungberg secured a comfortable 2 – 0 victory .
Arsenal 's opponent in the fifth round was Sheffield United . After 35 minutes Dennis Bergkamp was sent off for his apparent push on Danny Cullip . With eleven minutes of normal time remaining , Robert Pirès scored for Arsenal , but the team conceded a late penalty which Andy Gray converted . The equaliser for Sheffield United meant the match was replayed at Bramall Lane on 1 March 2005 . Both teams played out a goalless draw after full @-@ time and throughout extra @-@ time , so the tie was decided by a penalty shootout . Arsenal goalkeeper Manuel Almunia saved two penalties , which ensured progress into the quarter @-@ finals .
Bolton Wanderers hosted Arsenal at the Reebok Stadium in the sixth round of the competition . Ljungberg scored the only goal of the tie after just three minutes ; he had an opportunity to extend Arsenal 's lead in stoppage time , but hit the ball over from six yards . It was described by BBC Sport as the " most glaring miss of the match , if not the entire season . "
Arsenal faced Blackburn Rovers in the semi @-@ final which was played on 16 April 2005 . Two goals from Van Persie and one from Pirès gave Arsenal a 3 – 0 win , in a match marred by Blackburn 's aggressive tactics .
= = = Manchester United = = =
Manchester United , the holders of the FA Cup , began their defence of the trophy with a home tie against non @-@ league Exeter City . United had made several first team changes and struggled to find a breakthrough in the tie . Even with the second half introductions of Paul Scholes and Cristiano Ronaldo , the visitors held on for a goalless draw . The match was replayed at Exeter 's home ground , St James Park on 19 January 2005 . Ronaldo scored the opening goal of the match in the ninth minute and Wayne Rooney added a second , three minutes from normal time .
Manchester United 's opponents in the fourth round was Middlesbrough . Rooney scored twice in the team 's 3 – 0 victory – he lobbed the ball over goalkeeper Mark Schwarzer for his first goal and volleyed it for his second . Middlesbrough manager Steve McClaren credited Rooney 's performance afterwards and said he made the difference in the tie . Everton hosted Manchester United in the next round at Goodison Park . A goal apiece from Quinton Fortune and Ronaldo in either half ensured a 2 – 0 win .
Southampton was Manchester United 's opponent in the sixth round . After two minutes at St Mary 's United took the lead ; a shot by Roy Keane near the penalty area hit Southampton 's Peter Crouch and deflected into the goal . Ronaldo scored United 's second and additional goals from Scholes meant they progressed into the last four of the competition ; the final score was 4 – 0 .
In the semi @-@ final Manchester United faced Newcastle United at the Millennium Stadium . They took the lead in the 19th minute when Ruud van Nistelrooy scored , and Scholes extended the team 's advantage just before half time . Van Nistelrooy made it 3 – 0 in the 58th minute , before Shola Ameobi scored what proved a mere consolation a minute later , as Ronaldo added United 's fourth late on .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
The final marked the fifth meeting between the two clubs in the 2004 – 05 season . Despite finishing six points ahead of Manchester United in the league , Arsenal had lost both league fixtures between the clubs , as well as a League Cup fifth @-@ round tie , which was played out by the clubs ' fringe and reserve team players . Arsenal had won the season 's first encounter in the FA Community Shield , also at the Millennium Stadium , by a 3 – 1 scoreline .
The clubs had met in an FA Cup final before – in 1979 , when Arsenal won 3 – 2 . Manchester United were appearing in their 17th FA Cup Final , their second in as many years , and had won the FA Cup on 11 of their previous 16 appearances ( including beating Milwall in the 2004 final ) . Two of these victories had yielded a domestic double ( in 1994 and 1996 ) and in 1999 they had won the FA Cup as part of a unique Treble , consisting of the cup , the Premier League and the UEFA Champions League . Arsenal were also appearing in their 17th Cup final – their fourth in five years . They had won the cup nine times previously , most recently in 2003 , when they beat Southampton in the final .
Meetings between Arsenal and Manchester United were keenly contested during the 2000s and highly publicised by the media ; the cup final this season had added significance as neither club won the league after a decade of dominance , and it was their only chance of silverware . The emergence of Chelsea , who were crowned league champions in April , had presented a long @-@ term threat to Arsenal and Manchester United 's duopoly on English football , as they were financed by Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich . Chelsea were accused of " tapping @-@ up " Arsenal defender Ashley Cole in January , and were linked to Manchester United 's Rio Ferdinand .
Wenger welcomed Chelsea 's emergence , describing them as the " third force " in English football , but he raised concerns over their conduct and what he perceived as artificial growth . Asked whether Chelsea could dominate for the foreseeable , Wenger said : " I feel yes , because they are a financially doped club . They have enhancement of performances through financial resources which are unlimited . For me , it 's a kind of doping because it 's not in any way linked to their resources . " Despite the absence of Thierry Henry , ruled out through injury , and Arsenal 's poor recent record against Manchester United , Wenger believed his team were more than capable of winning the match : " What is good in football is that it is not predictable . [ … ] You act now like it is a decade that we haven ’ t beaten Manchester United – it 's not true . It 's two games . " It was reported on the eve of the final that Philippe Senderos would start ahead of first @-@ teamer Sol Campbell .
Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson dismissed suggestions that his team had been over physical in previous meetings against Arsenal . Referring back to the league fixture in October 2004 , he told reporters : " We committed three fouls on Reyes , for instance , but that hardly constitutes The Texas Chain Saw Massacre , does it ? There were six by them on Cristiano Ronaldo . " He questioned the character of Arsenal 's players after they lost their unbeaten record , and likened their protest to propaganda , as a way to disguise their crisis – " ... it was convenient for them to say they were kicked off the park . " United had struggled to score goals in the lead up to the final , and Ferguson stressed the importance of his team taking their chances . " Big games are usually decided that way . They are so close so that whoever gets in front has an advantage , " he said .
= = = Planned protests = = =
The build @-@ up to the final had focused upon many Manchester United fans ' discontent at their takeover by American businessman and sports tycoon Malcolm Glazer , and large demonstrations were planned inside and outside the Millennium Stadium . Despite this , the final was played in the rain and only a small group of around 100 supporters held protests and sang anti @-@ Glazer songs . The police were out in force but did not have any trouble to deal with .
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
Wenger opted for a 4 – 5 – 1 formation , with Bergkamp playing as a lone striker . The absence of Henry also opened a place in midfield for Gilberto Silva , while José Antonio Reyes and Pirès were selected on the wings ahead of Ljungberg and Robin van Persie , who were both named as substitutes . As anticipated , Senderos 's form saw him selected at centre @-@ back ahead of Campbell , despite the England international 's return from injury .
Ferguson had a defensive selection dilemma ahead of the final , with both of his starting full @-@ backs , Gabriel Heinze ( ankle ) and Gary Neville ( groin ) , having suffered injuries . Neville eventually recovered enough to make the substitutes ' bench , despite only playing in one of the team 's last five games , but Heinze missed the game entirely , Mikaël Silvestre taking his place at left @-@ back . Neville 's absence meant that John O 'Shea started at right @-@ back . Neville was joined on the bench by winger Ryan Giggs and goalkeeper Tim Howard ; Giggs ' omission was a surprise , and it meant that Darren Fletcher started on the right wing , while Ronaldo played on the left . Howard , on the other hand , had been competing for the number 1 jersey with Roy Carroll all season , and it was ultimately the Northern Irishman who was picked .
Roy Keane was appearing in his seventh FA Cup Final having previously played in the 1991 , 1994 , 1995 , 1996 , 1999 and 2004 finals . This was the most number of finals for a player in the post @-@ war period ; by 2010 however , Ashley Cole had reached his eighth final .
= = = Summary = = =
= = = = First half = = = =
Manchester United kicked the game off , and also fashioned the first chance of the game ; Ronaldo beat Lauren on the left wing to put over a cross , only for Scholes to head the ball over the crossbar after losing his marker . Two minutes later , a break from José Antonio Reyes had Carroll scampering across from his goal to meet the Spaniard , forcing Reyes wide enough to allow the United defence time to get back .
Manchester United had the ball in the back of the net on 27 minutes , when Ferdinand turned in the rebound after Jens Lehmann saved from Rooney , but the assistant referee ruled that Ferdinand was offside . After a brief Arsenal attack , Silvestre played a long , diagonal ball to Van Nistelrooy on the right wing . The Dutch forward controlled the ball and then outpaced Cole to the goal line ; he then cut the ball back to Rooney , whose first @-@ time shot was turned over the bar by Lehmann . The consequent corner broke to Rooney on the edge of the penalty area , but his shot was deflected behind for another corner , which Scholes took . The England midfielder floated the ball over to the edge of the penalty area , where Rooney was waiting , only to volley it just over the bar .
In the closing stages of the first half , Van Nistelrooy got his first shot on goal , turning Senderos only to send the ball trickling along the floor for Lehmann to save comfortably . The first half finished with a foul on Rooney , who had done well to break free of challenges from Cole , Vieira and Senderos , who eventually brought Rooney down . The English forward took the free kick himself , but it went over the bar to cheers from the Arsenal fans and the sound of the referee 's half @-@ time whistle .
= = = = Second half = = = =
Manchester United fashioned the first chance of the second half after just three minutes , when Rooney cut inside from the right along the face of the penalty area , but his left @-@ footed shot was blocked away for a corner kick . Soon after , Van Nistelrooy received the ball on the edge of the penalty area and held it up before playing a through @-@ ball to Keane , but the Irishman 's low cross was diverted behind by Kolo Touré before it reached Rooney . United then had their third chance in the space of five minutes when Ronaldo shot just wide from 25 yards , from the left corner of the penalty area .
Throughout the match , Lauren committed several fouls on Ronaldo , and confronted the Portuguese winger early in the second half , before finally being booked for persistent fouling in the 62nd minute . Ronaldo took the free kick himself but put it just over the bar from 30 yards . In the 64th minute , Arsenal were awarded a free kick for an O 'Shea foul on Reyes ; Bergkamp took the kick , which was headed away by Ferdinand , but only as far as Pirès , whose side @-@ footed volley went over the bar . The free kick was to be Bergkamp 's last contribution to the final ,
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called the emergency line 158 and mentioned he had five unharmed hostages and was demanding the presence of TV Prima . The officer in charge ordered the policemen to stand down just as they were about to enter the building in order to start negotiating . At that time , he could not have been aware of the status of victims inside . Fifteen minutes later , the Zlín region police chief arrived . In total , the command over the operation was passed between five people within the initial 40 minutes . The fact that the police rules allow passing of command during engagement had been condemned a week earlier by Member of Parliament Stanislav Huml , who pointed out to the Czech firemen 's rules , according to which the first person in charge at the place of engagement remains in charge even if a general happens to come to join an operation afterwards . He noted that the passing of command requires briefing which not only leads to loss of time , but often also to subsequent mistakes .
As of May 2015 , the only direct outcome of the inquiry into the police response to the shooting was lowering of wage of a dispatch officer , who advised the policemen on spot over the radio not to engage " so that nothing worse happens " .
In June 2015 , two members of the Security Committee of the Czech Parliament visited Uherský Brod and talked to multiple witnesses . The MPs issued a report condemning handling of the situation by the police . Among other issues , the MPs criticized that policemen parked their cars and put bullet proof vests on within the shooting range of the attacker , initially failed to get information from the witnesses and only later during the intervention attempted to contact them , didn 't cover the back exit and thus potentially allowed the perpetrator to get out of the object and jeopardize other people . The police even let a helicopter land within the shooting range of the attacker . According to MPs , the police left much to be desired in regards of communication and most importantly , they wrongly decided to believe the perpetrator 's claim of having hostage even though the witnesses could have readily confirmed that everyone inside was most likely dead . The policemen didn 't seal the vicinity of the attack until 1 pm and used civilian phones in communication with superior officers instead of using either their own phones or radio transmitters . Minister of Interior Chovanec commented that the MPs failed to interview the policemen and thus didn 't get all the relevant information .
= = = Gun politics = = =
In one of the first reactions on the day of the murders , before knowing whether Kovář possessed the guns he used legally , Minister of Interior Milan Chovanec stated that it was up to debate whether " [ the society ] wants to have so many gun license holders " .
Support for Chovanec 's comments was largely among members of parliament elected for the Communist Party . Others accused Chovanec of abusing the tragedy for his own political benefit . Some members of parliament , such as Miroslav Antl , Chairman of the Senate Constitutional Committee , commented that the licensing process is thorough enough , and pointed out that he considers carrying of concealed firearm as a necessity due to variety of reasons , especially in recent time also due to the rising threat of Islamist terrorist attacks . Roman Váňa , Chairman of the Parliamentary Security Committee and member of Chovanec 's own Social Democratic party , refused Chovanec 's argument , while some other members of parliament went in the opposite direction , claiming that there are too few armed people among the Czech population , since a single armed civilian might have stopped Kovář 's assault . The sentiment was shared also by , for example , Martin Koller , a former ambassador to Kuvait and Iraq , who said that an armed attacker may be stopped only by armed force , and who pointed out to a past well @-@ known Czech case of a machete attack and to the Charlie Hebdo shooting , stating that both might have ended quite differently had the victims been armed .
MF Dnes pointed out that despite the steady rise of firearm ownership in the country since abolition of restrictive Communist legislation after the Velvet Revolution , the number of intentional homicide victims has been steadily falling since its peak in 1994 .
During a press conference on 26 February 2015 , Chovanec introduced five areas that were to be scrutinized in connection with the Uherský Brod attack : the communication of national police with municipal authorities , possible changes in crisis plans , operational range of tactical teams , and enhanced training of policemen . Chovanec didn 't repeat his sentiment regarding the number of gun license holders , and instead specified that one of the issues to be analyzed will be the issuing and revocation of licenses under the existing legislation .
= = Reactions = =
Czech Minister of Interior Milan Chovanec said on Twitter that the shooting was not a terrorist incident but actions of a " crazed individual " .
Czech Prime Minister Bohuslav Sobotka , who was on a trip to South Korea at the time , said in a statement , " I am shocked by the tragic attack that happened today in Uherský Brod . I would like to express my deepest sorrow and condolences to the families and relatives of the victims . " Uherský Brod mayor Patrik Kunčar also said , " I 'm shaken to the core by this incident . I could not have dreamed something like this could happen here , in a restaurant that I 'm so familiar with . "
The day after the murders , hundreds of people gathered in front of the Družba restaurant and lit candles to honor the victims .
= Amar la Trama =
Amar la Trama ( Loving the Plot ) is the ninth studio album by Uruguayan recording artist Jorge Drexler . It was released by Warner Music on March 16 , 2010 , after a four @-@ year gap since the release of his last album of original music . Drexler worked as co @-@ producer , along with Matías Cella and Carles Campi Campón . The themes of the songs are his personal feelings inspired by journeys to Uruguay and Spain , his global wanderings , and the universal wonder of everyday moments .
The album received mostly positive reviews ; critics commended Drexler 's lyrics and his ability to perform live in front of a small audience during the recording sessions . The album entered the top five in Spain . The first single , " Una Canción Me Trajo Hasta Aquí " , also received praise . La Trama Circular , a DVD documentary about the recording sessions , is included on the standard edition of the album . On September 8 , 2010 , Amar la Trama received four nominations for the 11th Latin Grammy Awards .
= = Background = =
In 2005 , Jorge Drexler became the first Uruguayan to win an Academy Award for Best Original Song , for his composition " Al Otro lado del Río " from the film The Motorcycle Diaries . The following year , Drexler recorded and released 12 Segundos de Oscuridad ( Twelve Seconds of Darkness ) , an album that received a Grammy Award nomination . In 2008 , Cara B , a live album that includes his greatest hits along with cover versions of songs written by Leonard Cohen , Caetano Veloso , and Kiko Veneno , was released . Cara B also received a Grammy nomination . The same year , Drexler wrote the score for the film The City of Your Final Destination . During 2009 , Drexler worked with Colombian performer Shakira on the Spanish @-@ language versions of her singles " She Wolf " and " Did it Again " , and recorded Amar la Trama in Madrid , Spain . Drexler described the album as playful , without " the melancholy and anguish " of 12 Segundos .
= = Recording = =
Amar la Trama was recorded from November 1 – 4 , 2009 , at Cata Studios in Madrid , in a television studio in front of a small audience who were selected in an online contest . He chose this format to avoid the " coldness " of the recording studio . Drexler was the lead vocalist and played guitar , and was joined by a band composed of additional guitarists , a rhythm section , a horn section , backup vocalists , and auxiliary musicians . All the tracks recorded were written by the singer , with the exception of " I Don 't Worry About a Thing " , a song by Mose Allison , which featured American pianist Ben Sidran . Leonor Watling performed vocals on the track " Toque de Queda " ; Josemi Carmona is featured playing Spanish guitar on the song " Los Transeúntes " . Drexler said , " In recent years I 've realized that I sing better if I have an audience in front of me ; I have learned to communicate better that way . " The audience consisted of about 20 fans per session . This kept the musicians tense and alert ; " the concentration was so great that it was perceived in the air , a silence so intense that you can hear it on the album . " All the songs were available on the singer 's official website prior to the album 's release . The recording sessions were presented in the documentary La Trama Circular , directed by Ariel Hassan and Juan Aragonés . Drexler recorded the album with the working title of Mundo Abisal ( Nether World ) , which refers to the deep sea and the inner world of people . He eventually settled on Amar la Trama ( Loving the Plot ) because he has a passion for the plot , " the space between the beginning and end , to be completed , in which things happen . " The album cover is an original work by Manuel Rodríguez Arnabal .
= = Music and lyrics = =
On the album , Drexler was lyrically inspired by Madrid , where most of the songs were written . Drexler feels is a very optimistic album , since the title begins with the letter " a " , the same as in " affection " . The songs feature a completely different sound treatment , a departure from the " light electronica " of previous albums . Amar la Trama is the result of an artistic evolution originated with the recording of Cara B ; " with nine musicians playing and recording live on the album , I became interested in making music as in the past . " This new concept was explored with a trio of wind instruments and three percussionists , which brings great vitality and achieves bright and expansive sounds . The lyrics are very personal , and choose meaning over sonority . The first track , " Tres Mil Millones de Latidos " , is a song about existence that plays with the theme of identity , which is often present in Drexler 's lyrics . " Noctiluca " is a gift to his son , since " having a child is the best experience to lose the fear of feelings . " The inspiration for this song was a phosphorescent sea , lit by Noctiluca scintillans , that he observed at Cabo Polonio , Uruguay .
= = Reception = =
The album received mostly positive reviews . Jason Birchmeier of AllMusic said it was " nothing short of tremendous " and " excellent " . He praised Drexler 's writing abilities and his courage in recording an album in front of a live audience ; Birchmeier said that " Una Canción Me Trajo Hasta Aquí " , " Mundo Abisal " , and " La Trama y el Desenlace " were standouts worthy of special mention . Darío Vico of Rolling Stone gave the album a perfect score of five stars , naming the album a resounding success and a " big- bang curious emotional process . " Argentinian magazine , The Magazine , recognized Drexler as a " master " at designing memorable melodies , and maintaining a high literary level while writing lyrics . In her review for Billboard magazine , Judy Cantor @-@ Navas noted that the lyrics were " poetic " , and addressed familiar themes for the singer : fated encounters , global wanderings , the South American experience , and the universal wonder of everyday moments . She praised " Toque de Queda " , since " Drexler returns to his Southern roots musically and thematically . " Cantor commented that the first track , " Tres Mil Millones de Latidos " , seems " fuzzy " since the arrangement diverts attention from Drexler 's voice . Drexler received four nominations at the 11th Latin Grammy Awards , including Best Singer @-@ Songwriter Album for Amar la Trama , Best Long Form Video for La Trama Circular ( shared with Ariel Hassan ) , and Record of the Year and Song of the Year for the single " Una Canción Me Trajo Hasta Aquí " . The included DVD , La Trama Circular , was nominated for a Premio de la Música by the Sociedad General de Autores y Editores in Spain , for Best Musical Audiovisual Production .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Jorge Drexler ( except where noted ) .
= = Chart performance = =
The album debuted and peaked at number 5 on the Spanish Album Charts on March 21 , 2010 , the highest debut of the week . Amar la Trama spent an additional week in the top ten and 26 weeks in the top 100 .
= = Personnel = =
Jorge Drexler – main performer , co @-@ producer , vocals , lyricist , guitar
Matías Cella – producer , vocals
Carles Campi Campón – co @-@ producer , autoharp , glockenspiel , omnichord , guitar , vocals
Roc Albero – flugelhorn
Borja Barrueta – lap steel guitar , drums , vocals
Josemi Carmona – spanish guitar
Ben Sidran – organ , vocals
Josema Martín – marimba , vocals
Sebastián Merlín – marimba , vocals
Leo Sidran – marimba
Ángela Cervantes – vocals
Leonor Watling – vocals
Xavi Lozano – vocals
= Russian monitor Perun =
Perun ( Russian : Перун ) was an Uragan @-@ class monitor built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the mid @-@ 1860s . The design was based on the American Passaic @-@ class monitor , but was modified to suit Russian engines , guns and construction techniques . Spending her entire career with the Baltic Fleet , the ship was only active when the Gulf of Finland was not frozen , but very little is known about her service . Perun was struck from the Navy List in 1900 and became a pilot ship . Renamed Lotsiia ( Pilot ) in 1915 , the ship was damaged during the Kronstadt rebellion of 1921 and laid up afterwards . She was run aground by a flood three years later and then her wreck was scrapped .
= = Description = =
Perun was 201 feet ( 61 @.@ 3 m ) long overall , with a beam of 46 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 10 @.@ 16 – 10 @.@ 84 feet ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 524 – 1 @,@ 626 t ) , and her crew numbered 8 officers and 88 enlisted men in 1865 . They numbered 10 officers and 100 crewmen 12 years later .
The ship was fitted with a two @-@ cylinder , horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engine built by Carr and MacPherson of Saint Petersburg . It drove a single propeller using steam that was provided by two rectangular boilers . Specific information on the output of the ship 's engine has not survived , but it ranged between 340 – 500 indicated horsepower ( 254 – 373 kW ) for all the ships of this class . During Perun 's sea trials on 16 August 1865 , she reached a maximum speed of 6 @.@ 75 knots ( 12 @.@ 50 km / h ; 7 @.@ 77 mph ) . She carried a maximum of 190 long tons ( 193 t ) of coal , which gave her a theoretical endurance of 1 @,@ 440 nmi ( 2 @,@ 670 km ; 1 @,@ 660 mi ) at 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) .
Perun was designed to be armed with a pair of nine @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading guns purchased from Krupp of Germany and rifled in Russia , but the rifling project was seriously delayed and the ship was completed with nine @-@ inch smoothbores . These lacked the penetration power necessary to deal with ironclads and they were replaced by license @-@ built fifteen @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading Rodman guns in 1867 – 68 . The Rodman guns were replaced around 1876 with the originally intended nine @-@ inch rifled guns .
All of the wrought @-@ iron armor that was used in the Uragan @-@ class monitors was in 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates , just as in the Passaic @-@ class ships . The side of the ship was entirely covered with three to five layers of armor plates , of which the three innermost plates extended 42 inches ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) below the waterline . This armor was backed by a wooden beam that had a maximum thickness of 36 inches ( 914 mm ) . The gun turret was protected by eleven layers of armor and the pilothouse above it had eight layers of armor . Curved plates six layers thick protected the base of the funnel up to a height of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) above the deck . Unlike their predecessors , the Uragans were built without deck armor to save weight .
= = Career = =
Construction of the ship began on 7 September 1863 at the Semiannikov & Poletika Shipyard in Saint Petersburg . Perun was laid down on 15 December 1863 and she was launched on 30 June 1864 . She entered service on 1 September 1865 and cost a total of 1 @,@ 142 @,@ 700 rubles , almost double her contract cost of 600 @,@ 000 rubles . The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and she , and all of her sister ships except Latnik , made a port visit to Stockholm , Sweden in July – August 1865 while under the command of General Admiral Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich . She was present when the American warships Miantonomoh and Augusta visited Kronstadt in July – August 1866 .
Sometime after Perun was completed , an armored ring , 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick and 15 inches ( 381 mm ) tall , was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent splinters from jamming it . Later , an armored , outward @-@ curving bulwark was fitted around the top of the turret to protect any crewmen there . Three sponsons were later added , probably during the 1870s , to the upper portion of the turret . Each sponson , one above the gun ports and one on each side of the turret , mounted a light gun , probably a 1 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 44 mm ) Engstrem gun , for defense against torpedo boats . A fourth gun was mounted on a platform aft of the funnel when a hurricane deck was built between the funnel and the turret , also probably during the 1870s .
Little is known about the ship 's career other than that she was laid up each winter when the Gulf of Finland froze . On 18 July 1875 , she was accidentally rammed by the ironclad Admiral Chichagov , but only suffered minor damage . Perun was reclassified as a coast defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal on 6 July 1900 , although she was not stricken until 17 August . After she was stricken she was used as a pilot ship before being renamed Lotsiia ( Pilot ) in 1915 . During the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion , the ship was struck by artillery fire . She was laid up after the resulting fire badly damaged her . During a flood on 23 September 1924 , Lotsiia ran aground and was subsequently broken up for scrap .
= HMS Kempenfelt ( I18 ) =
HMS Kempenfelt was a C @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . A flotilla leader , she saw service in the Home Fleet before World War II and the ship made several deployments to Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . Kempenfelt was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy ( RCN ) in 1939 and renamed HMCS Assiniboine . During World War II , she served as a convoy escort in the battle of the Atlantic , sinking one German submarine by ramming , on anti @-@ submarine patrols during the invasion of Normandy , and was employed as a troop transport after VE Day for returning Canadian servicemen , before being decommissioned in mid @-@ 1945 . Assiniboine was sold for scrap in 1945 , but she ran aground while being towed to the breakers and was not broken up until 1952 .
= = Design and construction = =
Kempenfelt displaced 1 @,@ 390 long tons ( 1 @,@ 410 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 901 long tons ( 1 @,@ 932 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers . Kempenfelt carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 175 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Kempenfelt had a single QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt AA gun between her funnels , and two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on the aft end of her forecastle deck . The 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) AA gun was removed in 1936 and the 2 @-@ pounders were relocated to between the funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . Three depth @-@ charge chutes were fitted , each with a capacity of two depth charges . After World War II began this was increased to 33 depth charges , delivered by one or two rails and two throwers .
The changes made to Assiniboine 's armament during the war ( dates can only be roughly assigned ) were first the replacement of the ship 's rear torpedo tube mount by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun and the 2 @-@ pounders were exchanged for quadruple Mark I mounts for the QF 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mk III machine gun . Later , ' Y ' gun was also removed to allow her depth charge stowage to be increased to at least 60 depth charges . ' X ' gun was later removed and the 12 @-@ pounder was resited in its place to further increased her depth charge capacity . Later changes included fitting a split Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar on each side of ' A ' gun , exchanging her two quadruple .50 @-@ calibre Vickers machine guns mounted between her funnels for two Oerlikon 20 mm AA guns , and the addition of two Oerlikon guns to her searchlight platform . The ship 's director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge were removed in exchange for a Type 271 target indication radar . A Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was also added as was an HF / DF radio direction finder on a short mainmast .
The ship was ordered on 15 July 1930 from J. Samuel White at Cowes under the 1929 Programme . Kempenfelt was laid down on 18 October 1930 , launched on 30 September 1931 , as the 2nd ship to carry the name , and completed on 30 May 1932 . Built as a flotilla leader , she displaced 15 long tons more than the rest of her class and carried an extra 30 personnel . These personnel formed the staff of the Captain ( D ) of the flotilla .
= = Service = =
Kempenfelt was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla , of the Home Fleet , after her commissioning . The ship briefly mounted an experimental 5 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) gun on ' B ' mount for evaluation purposes during this time ; it was replaced by the standard 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch gun . She was based at Rosyth for most of the rest of 1932 , but visited the Mediterranean between January and March 1933 before returning home . The ship was given a refit at Devonport that ended in January 1934 . Shortly afterwards , Kempenfelt participated in the Home Fleet 's tour of the West Indies that ended in March . The ship visited various Scandinavian ports during the remainder of the year . She participated in King George V 's Silver Jubilee Fleet Review at Spithead on 16 July 1935 . Following the Italian invasion of Abyssinia , Kempenfelt was sent in August to the Red Sea with the other ships of the 2nd Flotilla to monitor Italian warship movements until April 1936 . She was given a brief refit at Devonport that lasted until June upon her return to the UK . During the first stages of the Spanish Civil War in late 1936 , the ship evacuated British nationals from several different Spanish ports .
In December , Kempenfelt began a more thorough refit at Devonport that lasted until 10 April 1937 and returned to Spanish waters afterwards to intercept shipping carrying contraband goods to Spain and to protect British @-@ flagged ships . On 6 March , the ship and the destroyer Boreas , rescued survivors from the Nationalist heavy cruiser Baleares after she had been sunk by Republican destroyers during the Battle of Cape Palos . She was refitted at Chatham in May – June 1938 and made a number of port visits in Scandinavia the following month . Kempenfelt was transferred to the Portsmouth Local Flotilla and remained there until the war began in September 1939 .
= = = Wartime service and transfer = = =
The ship was transferred to the 18th Destroyer Flotilla , based at the Isle of Portland , where she escorted shipping and conducted anti @-@ submarine patrols . Kempenfelt had been purchased before the war began by the Canadian government , but it agreed to allow the British to retain her until the Royal Navy could compensate for her loss by requisitioning enough auxiliary anti @-@ submarine vessels . By the time that the British were ready to turn her over to the RCN , the ship was under repair after a collision and the hand over was delayed until 19 October . She was renamed Assiniboine and arrived at Halifax , Nova Scotia on 17 November . The ship had not yet been fitting with the steam heating necessary to operate in a Canadian winter and she was transferred to the Caribbean in exchange for the destroyer HMCS Saguenay . Assiniboine arrived at Kingston , Jamaica on 8 December .
Assigned to the North America and West Indies Station , the highlight of the ship 's service in the Caribbean was the capture of the German blockade runner MV Hannover in the Mona Passage between the islands of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico on the night of 8 / 9 March 1940 . Initially intercepted by the light cruiser Dunedin , the crew of Hannover disabled their steering gear and set the ship on fire . Assiniboine took the burning ship under tow to prevent her from entering the waters of the neutral Dominican Republic while the cruiser sprayed water on the fire . The two ships swapped roles in the morning and the destroyer put some of her crew aboard Hannover to help Dunedin 's boarding party fight the fire while the cruiser towed the freighter to Kingston . Assiniboine arrived in Halifax on 31 March for a refit .
After the completion of her refit , the ship escorted local convoys in and around Halifax until 15 January 1941 when she was transferred to Greenock and assigned to the 10th Escort Group of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force that was based there . Assiniboine rescued survivors from SS Anchises on 28 February and was damaged in a collision with MV Lairdswood on 5 April . Her repairs were not completed until 22 May and she was transferred to St. John 's , Newfoundland in June to reinforce escort forces in the Western Atlantic . In early August , Assiniboine , her sister Restigouche and the ex @-@ American destroyer HMS Ripley , escorted the battleship Prince of Wales to Placentia Bay where Prime Minister Winston Churchill met President Franklin Roosevelt for the first time .
Whilst escorting Convoy SC 94 in early August 1942 as part of Escort Group C1 , Assiniboine 's Type 286 radar spotted U @-@ 210 in a heavy fog on 6 August . The destroyer closed on the contact and briefly spotted the submarine twice before losing her in the fog . The submarine reappeared crossing the destroyer 's bow at a range of 50 yards ( 46 m ) , and both ships opened fire . The range was too close for Assiniboine 's 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns to engage , but her .50 @-@ calibre machine guns shot up the submarine 's deck and conning tower . This kept the Germans from manning their 88 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) deck gun , but the 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) flak gun was already manned and firing . The gun punched holes through the destroyer 's plating that set some petrol tanks on the deck afire and disabled ' A ' gun . It also claimed the only Canadian casualty during the engagement : Ordinary Seaman Kenneth " Wiley " Watson from Revelestoke , BC . The destroyer was unable to ram U @-@ 210 until the rear 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch gun hit the conning tower , killing the entire bridge crew and the .50 @-@ caliber machine guns were able to silence the flak gun . This caused Lieutenant Sorber , the senior surviving officer , to order the submarine to dive , but this meant that she had to hold a straight course while doing so . Assiniboine was able to take advantage of this and rammed U @-@ 210 abaft the conning tower whilst she was diving . This caused the electric motors to fail , damaged her propellers and led to water entering the submarine , as a result of which Sorber ordered the ballast tanks to be blown and the submarine abandoned . The destroyer rammed her again when U @-@ 210 resurfaced , dropped a pattern of depth charges set to detonate at shallow depth and hit her one more time with a 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch shell before the submarine finally sank . A number of survivors were rescued by Assiniboine and the British corvette Dianthus , before the former ship had to head home for repairs as she was taking on water below the waterline . She required nearly two months of repairs at Halifax and was assigned to Escort Group C3 when they were completed on 20 December .
Whilst en route to Londonderry , Assiniboine dropped a shallow pattern of depth charges on a submarine contact and badly damaged her stern on 2 March 1943 . The ship was repaired at Liverpool between 7 March and 13 July and then assigned to Escort Group C1 . She continued her escort work until April 1944 when she began a refit at Shelburne , Nova Scotia . Upon its completion in July , Assiniboine was assigned to the Western Approaches Command . The following month , the 12th Support Group , including Assiniboine , engaged three German minesweepers on 12 August , without sinking any . She remained in British waters for the rest of the war ; the ship was damaged in a collision with SS Empire Bond on 14 February 1945 and was under repair until early March .
Assiniboine returned to Canada in June and was briefly used as a troop transport before a boiler room fire on 4 July effectively ended her career . She was paid off on 8 August and placed on the disposal list . Whilst on tow to the breakers in Baltimore , she ran aground near East Point , Prince Edward Island . Attempts to get her off failed , and she was left to rust until eventually being broken up in place in 1952 .
= = = Trans @-@ Atlantic convoys escorted = = =
= Yellow Star ( novel ) =
Yellow Star is a 2006 biographical children 's novel by Jennifer Roy . Written in free verse , it depicts life through the eyes of a young Jewish girl whose family was forced into the Łódź Ghetto in 1939 during World War II . Roy tells the story of her aunt Syvia , who shared her childhood memories with Roy more than 50 years after the ghetto 's liberation . Roy added fictionalized dialogue , but did not otherwise alter the story . The book covers Syvia 's life as she grows from four and a half to ten years old in the ghetto . Syvia , her older sister Dora , and her younger cousin Isaac were three of only twelve children who survived . After the war , Syvia moved to the United States , married , and only much later told her story to Roy . Since its publication in 2006 , the book has received multiple awards , starred reviews , and other accolades , and has been made into a likewise well @-@ received audiobook .
= = Background = =
Yellow Star is the outgrowth of Sylvia Perlmutter Rozines ' recollections of life in the Łódź ghetto . Perlmutter Rozines , then Syvia Perlmutter , was a four and a half year old child when she and her relatives were confined to the ghetto in late 1939 . The ghetto was liberated the day before she turned 10 : more than half her life had been lived in the ghetto . The book relates the events of those five and a half years , as an adult Sylvia recalled them years later . The title derives from the yellow badge that Syvia was forced to wear. but nobody knows it .
More than 50 years after the events described in the book , Perlmutter Rozines began telling her story to family members , starting with her son , Roy 's cousin Greg , who told Roy 's sister Julia , who told Roy . Roy tape recorded the conversations between herself and Perlmutter Rozines , and used those conversations as the basis for the book .
Yellow Star is written in free verse , after Roy struggled with how to authentically express Perlmutter Rozines ' experiences to children in a way that did not seem stiff or detached . Roy cites Karen Hesse 's Newbery Medal -winning Out of the Dust as an inspiration for the book 's voice . Roy edited Perlmutter Rozines ' various recollections together into chronological order , and penned narrative introductions to each chapter describing the war 's events outside the ghetto . While the book is substantially based on Perlmutter Rozines ' recollections , it is classified as historical fiction since Roy included fictionalized dialogue .
= = Plot = =
In 1939 , the Nazis invaded Poland and forced that nation 's second @-@ largest community of Jews , 270 @,@ 000 strong , into one section of the city of Łódź , which they later walled off to form a ghetto . Before the invasion , Syvia and her family lived in Łódź . When her father heard rumors of the impending German invasion , the family traveled by buggy to Warsaw . The family was unable to find work or housing in Warsaw , so they returned to Lodz . When the Germans did invade , they forced Syvia 's family to relocate , along with other Łódź @-@ area Jews , into a segregated section of the city : a ghetto . The book relates Syvia 's explanations of what life in the ghetto is like : her friends , people around the ghetto , jobs , and her schedule . It relates how Syvia 's family is forced to sell her doll , leaving her with rags and buttons as her playthings .
When the other Jewish children were sent to Chelmno , Syvia 's family smuggled the children from cellar to cellar . The book also relates tragic events : one of Syvia 's friends disappears , and another is killed and burned in an extermination camp . The ghetto is liberated one day shy of Syvia 's tenth birthday , on January 19 , 1945 . Syvia , her older sister Dora , and a younger cousin , Isaac , were three of only twelve children who survived .
= = Aftermath = =
An extensive " Author 's Note " details the fate of the people Syvia interacted with in the Ghetto , including how the survivors in her immediate family settled initially in Paris . Afterwards , she emigrated to the United States , Americanized her name , married David Rozines ( another Holocaust survivor ) , and settled in upstate New York as Sylvia Perlmutter Rozines . As of 2006 , Sylvia , now widowed , had moved to Maryland , and volunteers at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington , D.C. She gave a videotaped interview to the Shoah Foundation , which records the personal recollections of Holocaust survivors .
= = Reception = =
Yellow Star received starred reviews in Publishers Weekly and Booklist . The Publishers Weekly review commended the book for " the lyricism of the narrative , and Syvia 's credible childlike voice , maturing with each chapter , as she gains further understanding of the events around her " . Another reviewer praised the format , saying the " free @-@ verse format suits the young narrator and subject matter well " and concluding that " Readers searching for an accessible Holocaust novel will be absorbed by this haunting story based on true events " . Library Media Connection 's review praises Roy for her age @-@ appropriate language : " When Syvia witnesses the shooting of people in the street , author Jennifer Roy captures the fear of the moment without graphic descriptions " . Yellow Star was selected as a " fiction and poetry honor book " in the 2006 Boston Globe @-@ Horn Book Awards , an American Library Association Notable Children 's Book for Older Readers in April 2007 , and won the 2009 William Allen White Children 's Book Award , selected by vote of sixth- through eighth @-@ graders in Kansas .
Yellow Star was made into an audiobook read by Christina Moore in 2007 . A Booklist review noted that " Moore 's ' vroom sput @-@ sput pop ' to mirror Nazi motorcycles , booming bomb sounds , and transition to a scratchy voice to reflect the youngster 's oncoming sickness more than make up for a few technical glitches , including evidence of page turning and distracting breathing sounds . "
Roy , whose other works include children 's educational materials , hosts a variety of Yellow Star " Guides for Teachers and Book Groups " on her website .
= Corona Australis =
Corona Australis or Corona Austrina is a constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere . Its Latin name means " southern crown " , and it is the southern counterpart of Corona Borealis , the northern crown . One of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd @-@ century astronomer Ptolemy , it remains one of the 88 modern constellations . The Ancient Greeks saw Corona Australis as a wreath rather than a crown and associated it with Sagittarius or Centaurus . Other cultures have likened the pattern to a turtle , ostrich nest , a tent , or even a hut belonging to a rock hyrax .
Although fainter than its namesake , the oval- or horseshoe @-@ shaped pattern of its brighter stars renders it distinctive . Alpha and Beta Coronae Australis are the two brightest stars with an apparent magnitude of around 4 @.@ 1 . Epsilon Coronae Australis is the brightest example of a W Ursae Majoris variable in the southern sky . Lying alongside the Milky Way , Corona Australis contains one of the closest star @-@ forming regions to the Solar System — a dusty dark nebula known as the Corona Australis Molecular Cloud , lying about 430 light years away . Within it are stars at the earliest stages of their lifespan . The variable stars R and TY Coronae Australis light up parts of the nebula , which varies in brightness accordingly .
= = Characteristics = =
Corona Australis is a small constellation bordered by Sagittarius to the north , Scorpius to the west , Telescopium to the south , and Ara to the southwest . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' CrA ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of four segments ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 17h 58.3m and 19h 19.0m , while the declination coordinates are between − 36 @.@ 77 ° and − 45 @.@ 52 ° . Covering 128 square degrees , Corona Australis culminates at midnight around the 30th of June and ranks 80th in area . Only visible at latitudes south of 53 ° north , Corona Australis cannot be seen from the British Isles as it lies too far south , but it can be seen from southern Europe and readily from the southern United States .
= = Notable features = =
While not a bright constellation , Corona Australis is nonetheless distinctive due to its easily identifiable pattern of stars , which has been described as horseshoe- or oval @-@ shaped . Though it has no stars brighter than 4th magnitude , it still has 21 stars visible to the unaided eye ( brighter than magnitude 5 @.@ 5 ) . Nicolas Louis de Lacaille used the Greek letters Alpha through to Lambda to label the most prominent eleven stars in the constellation , designating two stars as Eta and omitting Iota altogether . Mu Coronae Australis , a yellow star of spectral type G5.5III and apparent magnitude 5 @.@ 21 , was labelled by Johann Elert Bode and retained by Benjamin Gould , who deemed it bright enough to warrant naming .
= = = Stars = = =
The only star in the constellation to have received a name is Alfecca Meridiana or Alpha CrA . The name combines the Arabic name of the constellation with the Latin for " southern " . In Arabic , Alfecca means " break " , and refers to the shape of both Corona Australis and Corona Borealis . Also called simply " Meridiana " , it is a white main sequence star located 130 light years away from Earth , with an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 10 and spectral type A2Va . A rapidly rotating star , it spins at almost 200 km per second at its equator , making a complete revolution in around 14 hours . Like the star Vega , it has excess infrared radiation , which indicates it may be ringed by a disk of dust . It is currently a main @-@ sequence star , but will eventually evolve into a white dwarf ; currently , it has a luminosity 31 times greater , and a radius and mass of 2 @.@ 3 times that of the Sun . Beta Coronae Australis is an orange giant 510 light years from Earth . Its spectral type is K0II , and it is of apparent magnitude 4 @.@ 11 . Since its formation , it has evolved from a B @-@ type star to a K @-@ type star . Its luminosity class places it as a bright giant ; its luminosity is 730 times that of the Sun , designating it one of the highest @-@ luminosity K0 @-@ type stars visible to the naked eye . 100 million years old , it has a radius of 43 solar radii ( R ☉ ) and a mass of between 4 @.@ 5 and 5 solar masses ( M ☉ ) . Alpha and Beta are so similar as to be indistinguishable in brightness to the naked eye .
Some of the more prominent double stars include Gamma Coronae Australis — a pair of yellowish white stars 58 light years away from Earth , which orbit each other every 122 years . Widening since 1990 , the two stars can be seen as separate with a 100 mm aperture telescope ; they are separated by 1 @.@ 3 arcseconds at an angle of 61 degrees . They have a combined visual magnitude of 4 @.@ 2 ; each component is an F8V dwarf star with a magnitude of 5 @.@ 01 . Epsilon Coronae Australis is an eclipsing binary belonging to a class of stars known as W Ursae Majoris variables . These star systems are known as contact binaries as the component stars are so close together they touch . Varying by a quarter of a magnitude around an average apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 83 every seven hours , the star system lies 98 light years away . Its spectral type is F4VFe @-@ 0 @.@ 8 + . At the southern end of the crown asterism are the stars Eta ¹ and Eta ² Coronae Australis , which form an optical double . Of magnitude 5 @.@ 1 and 5 @.@ 5 , they are separable with the naked eye and are both white . Kappa Coronae Australis is an easily resolved optical double — the components are of apparent magnitudes 6 @.@ 3 and 5 @.@ 7 and are 1700 and 490 light years away respectively . They appear at an angle of 359 degrees , separated by 21 @.@ 6 arcseconds . Kappa ² is actually the brighter of the pair and is more bluish white , with a spectral type of B9V , while Kappa ¹ is of spectral type A0III . Lying 202 light years away , Lambda Coronae Australis is a double splittable in small telescopes . The primary is a white star of spectral type A2Vn and magnitude of 5 @.@ 1 , while the companion star has a magnitude of 9 @.@ 7 . The two components are separated by 29 @.@ 2 arcseconds at an angle of 214 degrees .
Zeta Coronae Australis is a rapidly rotating main sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 8 , 221 @.@ 7 light years from Earth . The star has blurred lines in its hydrogen spectrum due to its rotation . Its spectral type is B9V . Theta Coronae Australis lies further to the west , a yellow giant of spectral type G8III and apparent magnitude 4 @.@ 62 . Corona Australis harbours RX J1856.5 @-@ 3754 , an isolated neutron star that is thought to lie 140 ( ± 40 ) parsecs , or 460 ( ± 130 ) light years , away , with a diameter of 14 km . It was once suspected to be a strange star , but this has been discounted .
= = = Deep sky objects = = =
In the north of the constellation is the Corona Australis Molecular Cloud , a dark molecular cloud with many embedded reflection nebulae , including NGC 6729 , NGC 6726 – 7 , and IC 4812 . A star @-@ forming region of around 7000 M ☉ , it contains Herbig – Haro objects ( protostars ) and some very young stars . About 430 light years ( 130 parsecs ) away , it is one of the closest star @-@ forming regions to the Solar System . The related NGC 6726 and 6727 , along with unrelated NGC 6729 , were first recorded by Johann Friedrich Julius Schmidt in 1865 . The Coronet cluster , about 554 light years ( 170 parsecs ) away at the edge of the Gould Belt , is also used in studying star and protoplanetary disk formation .
R Coronae Australis is an irregular variable star ranging from magnitudes 9 @.@ 7 to 13 @.@ 9 . Blue @-@ white , it is of spectral type B5IIIpe . A very young star , it is still accumulating interstellar material . It is obscured by , and illuminates , the surrounding nebula , NGC 6729 , which brightens and darkens with it . The nebula is often compared to a comet for its appearance in a telescope , as its length is five times its width . S Coronae Australis is a G @-@ class dwarf in the same field as R and is a T Tauri star . Nearby , another young variable star , TY Coronae Australis , illuminates another nebula : reflection nebula NGC 6726 – 7 . TY Coronae Australis ranges irregularly between magnitudes 8 @.@ 7 and 12 @.@ 4 , and the brightness of the nebula varies with it . Blue @-@ white , it is of spectral type B8e . The largest young stars in the region , R , S , T , TY and VV Coronae Australis , are all ejecting jets of material which cause surrounding dust and gas to coalesce and form Herbig – Haro objects , many of which have been identified nearby . Lying adjacent to the nebulosity is the globular cluster known as NGC 6723 , which is actually in the neighbouring constellation of Sagittarius and is much much further away .
Near Epsilon and Gamma Coronae Australis is Bernes 157 , a dark nebula and star forming region . It is a large nebula , 55 by 18 arcminutes , that possesses several stars around magnitude 13 . These stars have been dimmed by up to 8 magnitudes by its dust clouds .
IC 1297 is a planetary nebula of apparent magnitude 10 @.@ 7 , which appears as a green @-@ hued roundish object in higher @-@ powered amateur instruments . The nebula surrounds the variable star RU Coronae Australis , which has an average apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 9 and is a WC class Wolf – Rayet star . IC 1297 is small , at only 7 arcseconds in diameter ; it has been described as " a square with rounded edges " in the eyepiece , elongated in the north @-@ south direction . Descriptions of its color encompass blue , blue @-@ tinged green , and green @-@ tinged blue .
Corona Australis ' location near the Milky Way means that galaxies are uncommonly seen . NGC 6768 is a magnitude 11 @.@ 2 object 35 ′ south of IC 1297 . It is made up of two galaxies merging , one of which is an elongated elliptical galaxy of classification E4 and the other a lenticular galaxy of classification S0 . IC 4808 is a galaxy of apparent magnitude 12 @.@ 9 located on the border of Corona Australis with the neighbouring constellation of Telescopium and 3 @.@ 9 degrees west @-@ southwest of Beta Sagittarii . However , amateur telescopes will only show a suggestion of its spiral structure . It is 1 @.@ 9 arcminutes by 0 @.@ 8 arcminutes . The central area of the galaxy does appear brighter in an amateur instrument , which shows it to be tilted northeast @-@ southwest .
Southeast of Theta and southwest of Eta lies the open cluster ESO 281 @-@ SC24 , which is composed of the yellow 9th magnitude star GSC 7914 178 1 and five 10th to 11th magnitude stars . Halfway between Theta Coronae Australis and Theta Scorpii is the dense globular cluster NGC 6541 . Described as between magnitude 6 @.@ 3 and magnitude 6 @.@ 6 , it is visible in binoculars and small telescopes . Around 22000 light years away , it is around 100 light years in diameter . It is estimated to be around 14 billion years old . NGC 6541 appears 13 @.@ 1 arcminutes in diameter and is somewhat resolvable in large amateur instruments ; a 12 @-@ inch telescope reveals approximately 100 stars but the core remains unresolved .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
The Corona Australids are a meteor shower that takes place between 14 and 18 March each year , peaking around 16 March . This meteor shower does not have a high peak hourly rate . In 1953 and 1956 , observers noted a maximum of 6 meteors per hour and 4 meteors per hour respectively ; in 1955 the shower was " barely resolved " . However , in 1992 , astronomers detected a peak rate of 45 meteors per hour . The Corona Australids ' rate varies from year to year . At only six days , the shower 's duration is particularly short , and its meteoroids are small ; the stream is devoid of large meteoroids . The Corona Australids were first seen with the unaided eye in 1935 and first observed with radar in 1955 . Corona Australid meteors have an entry velocity of 45 kilometers per second . In 2006 , a shower originating near Beta Coronae Australis was designated as the Beta Coronae Australids . They appear in May , the same month as a nearby shower known as the May Microscopids , but the two showers have different trajectories and are unlikely to be related .
= = History = =
Corona Australis may have been recorded by ancient Mesopotamians in the MUL.APIN , as a constellation called MA.GUR ( " The Bark " ) . However , this constellation , adjacent to SUHUR.MASH ( " The Goat @-@ Fish " , modern Capricornus ) , may instead have been modern Epsilon Sagittarii . As a part of the southern sky , MA.GUR was one of the fifteen " stars of Ea " .
In the 3rd century BC , the Greek didactic poet Aratus wrote of , but did not name the constellation , instead calling the two crowns Στεφάνοι ( Stephanoi ) . The Greek astronomer Ptolemy described the constellation in the 2nd century AD , though with the inclusion of Alpha Telescopii , since transferred to Telescopium . Ascribing 13 stars to the constellation , he named it Στεφάνος νοτιος ( Stephanos notios ) , " Southern Wreath " , while other authors associated it with either Sagittarius ( having fallen off his head ) or Centaurus ; with the former , it was called Corona Sagittarii . Similarly , the Romans called Corona Australis the " Golden Crown of Sagittarius " . It was known as Parvum Coelum ( " Canopy " , " Little Sky " ) in the 5th century . The 18th @-@ century French astronomer Jérôme Lalande gave it the names Sertum Australe ( " Southern Garland " ) and Orbiculus Capitis , while German poet and author Philippus Caesius called it Corolla ( " Little Crown " ) or Spira Australis ( " Southern Coil " ) , and linked it with the Crown of Eternal Life from the New Testament . Seventeenth @-@ century celestial cartographer Julius Schiller linked it to the Diadem of Solomon . Sometimes , Corona Australis was not the wreath of Sagittarius but arrows held in his hand .
Corona Australis has been associated with the myth of Bacchus and Stimula . Jupiter had impregnated Stimula , causing Juno to become jealous . Juno convinced Stimula to ask Jupiter to appear in his full splendor , which the mortal woman could not handle , causing her to burn . After Bacchus , Stimula 's unborn child , became an adult and the god of wine , he honored his deceased mother by placing a wreath in the sky .
In Chinese astronomy , the stars of Corona Australis are located within the Black Tortoise of the North ( 北方玄武 , Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ ) . The constellation itself was known as ti 'en pieh ( " Heavenly Turtle " ) and during the Western Zhou period , marked the beginning of winter . However , precession over time has meant that the " Heavenly River " ( Milky Way ) became the more accurate marker to the ancient Chinese and hence supplanted the turtle in this role . Arabic names for Corona Australis include Al Ķubbah " the Tortoise " , Al Ĥibā " the Tent " or Al Udḥā al Na 'ām " the Ostrich Nest " . It was later given the name Al Iklīl al Janūbiyyah , which the European authors Chilmead , Riccioli and Caesius transliterated as Alachil Elgenubi , Elkleil Elgenubi and Aladil Algenubi respectively .
The ǀXam speaking San people of South Africa knew the constellation as ≠ nabbe ta ! nu " house of branches " — owned originally by the Dassie ( rock hyrax ) , and the star pattern depicting people sitting in a semicircle around a fire .
The indigenous Boorong people of northwestern Victoria saw it as Won , a boomerang thrown by Totyarguil ( Altair ) . The Aranda people of Central Australia saw Corona Australis as a coolamon carrying a baby , which was accidentally dropped to earth by a group of sky @-@ women dancing in the Milky Way . The impact of the coolamon created Gosses Bluff crater , 175 km west of Alice Springs . The Torres Strait Islanders saw Corona Australis as part of a larger constellation encompassing part of Sagittarius and the tip of Scorpius 's tail ; the Pleiades and Orion were also associated . This constellation was Tagai 's canoe , crewed by the Pleiades , called the Usiam , and Orion , called the Seg . The myth of Tagai says that he was in charge of this canoe , but his crewmen consumed all of the supplies onboard without asking permission . Enraged , Tagai bound the Usiam with a rope and tied them to the side of the boat , then threw them overboard . Scorpius 's tail represents a suckerfish , while Eta Sagittarii and Theta Coronae Australis mark the bottom of the canoe . On the island of Futuna , the figure of Corona Australis was called Tanuma and in the Tuamotus , it was called Na Kaua @-@ ki @-@ Tonga .
= Robert Peverell Hichens =
Lieutenant Commander Robert Peverell Hichens DSO * DSC * * RNVR ( 2 March 1909 – 13 April 1943 ) was the most highly decorated officer of the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve ( RNVR ) , being awarded two Distinguished Service Orders , three Distinguished Service Crosses and three Mentions in Despatches . He was also recommended for a Victoria Cross after being killed in action in April 1943 .
Before the Second World War , Hichens was a keen sportsman who rowed for Magdalen College , Oxford , and competed in the Double sculls at the Henley Regatta . He also competed in International Fourteen sailing events and three times participated in the Fastnet race . On land he raced in hill climbing events in Somerset and also entered the 24 Hours of Le Mans race three times . During the Second World War , he rose in rank to become a lieutenant commander and commanded the 6th Motor Gun Boat Flotilla and later the 8th Motor Gun Boat Flotilla .
= = Early life = =
Robert Peverell Hichens was born 2 March 1909 , the son of Doctor Peverell Smythe Hichens and Constance Sawbridge Hichens . He spent his early life in Northampton , until the start of the Great War when his father — an officer in a Territorial Army unit of the Royal Army Medical Corps — was sent to France , and the rest of the family moved to St Mawes in Cornwall . It was when living in Cornwall that Hichens and his sister Loveday were taught how to sail , eventually sailing their dinghy Arethusa on Carrick Roads .
= = = Education = = =
In 1919 , following the Great War , the family returned to the Northampton area , and Hichens was sent to a prep school nearby until 1921 , when he was enrolled in Marlborough College . In 1922 , Hichens ' father , by now a consulting physician at Northampton General hospital , retired and the family moved to Guernsey in the Channel Islands , purchasing Havelet House just outside Saint Peter Port . Hichens entered Magdalen College , Oxford , to read law in 1927 . A keen sportsman , he started rowing and within six months was in the Magdalan second eight ; by the following year he made the first eight as stroke oarsman . In the Eights Week races ( the annual summer Head of the River Race at Oxford ) , when Hichens was at Magdalen , they came third in 1928 , sixth in 1929 and eighth in 1930 , which was the college 's lowest position in the race since 1876 . While at university he also joined the Officers Training Corps , receiving a commission as second lieutenant in the infantry on 2 June 1929 . In 1929 , the Hichens family had purchased Bodrennick House at Flushing , Cornwall , which they moved into in 1930 , after the death of Hichens ' father .
= = = Married life = = =
Robert Hichens met his future wife , Catherine Gilbert Enys of Flushing , Cornwall , in 1928 ; they were married at St Gluvias church , Penryn , Cornwall , in April 1931 . The following year he joined a firm of solicitors , Reginald Rodgers and son of Falmouth , Cornwall , as an articled clerk to be instructed as a solicitor . Hichens also trained in London with Mackrell 's of Bedford Square ; it was when working in London that he competed at the Henley Regatta in the Double sculls . In June 1933 , after his mother 's death , Hichens inherited half of his father 's estate and Bodrennick House , and at the same time completed his articles . He became a junior partner with Reginald Rodgers on 1 January 1934 . Robert and Catherine had two sons : Robert , born in 1932 , and Anthony , born in 1936 .
= = = Competitive sailing = = =
During this time Hichens had continued to sail ; he joined the Royal Cornish Yacht Club and started to race in International Fourteen events in his own dinghies called Venture and Venture II . He competed in the Fowey Regatta and the Prince of Wales Cup , coming fifth on the River Clyde in 1936 . He also entered the competition at Lowestoft in 1937 and at Falmouth in 1938 . Hichens had also taken up offshore yacht racing and was a member of the Royal Ocean Racing Club , competed three times in the Fastnet race , and crewed in the Channel race in June 1939 .
= = = Motor racing = = =
In 1935 , he purchased a 1 @.@ 4 litre Aston Martin touring car and a Riley which he used to compete in hill climbs at Beggers Roost in Somerset . Then in 1936 , he purchased a 2 @-@ litre Aston Martin Speed Model — one of six built for the Ulster TT and 24 Hours of Le Mans race that year . With assistance from Aston Martin he entered the car for the 1937 24 Hours of Le Mans , with Mort
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missions stood until surpassed in 1999 by cosmonaut Sergei Avdeyev with a total of 747 days in space during three different missions .
= = Honours and awards = =
Hero of the Russian Federation
Hero of the Soviet Union
Pilot @-@ Cosmonaut of the USSR
Order of Lenin
Medal " For Merit in Space Exploration "
Order of Parasat ( Kazakhstan )
Officer of the Legion of Honour ( France )
Hero of the Republic of Afghanistan
Order " The Sun of Liberty " ( Afghanistan )
= The Man from the Other Side =
" The Man from the Other Side " is the 19th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode follows the attempts of Thomas Jerome Newton , with the help of shapeshifters , to create a pathway between the two parallel universes , while the Fringe team 's Olivia Dunham , Peter Bishop , and Walter Bishop try to stop him .
The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Josh Singer and series story editor Ethan Gross , and directed by Jeffrey Hunt . It first aired on April 22 , 2010 in the United States to an estimated 5 @.@ 84 million viewers , helping Fox place second for the night . Television critics praised the episode for good pacing and a " heartbreaking " conclusion ; one writer noted it was " full of just about everything I look for from the show " .
= = Plot = =
Walter ( John Noble ) has prepared himself to reveal to Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) the truth — that he is from the parallel universe — when they are called to a case . Two teenagers were found dead , evidently killed by shapeshifter agents from the parallel universe . Exploring the nearby area , they find a third unformed shapeshifter which Walter takes to the lab to study . At the same time of the teenagers ' death , they find a carrier signal in the local television . With biotechnology corporation Massive Dynamic 's help , they determine that the signal emanated from the parallel universe during a brief moment that the two universes were in sync , and that the next point of synchronization would occur the next afternoon . Recalling Thomas Jerome Newton 's ( Sebastian Roché ) previous attempt to bring a building from the parallel universe into the prime , the Fringe team believes they must stop this next attempt .
From the unformed shapeshifter , they learn of a name of its potential target , a doctor at a local hospital . They take the man into custody but find that he has yet to be harmed . Based on the need for three shapeshifters , Walter surmises that Newton is trying to use the same technology that he and William Bell had pioneered for crossing the universes , by placing three vibrational sources triangulated around the target . Walter begins to collect equipment to create interference with the vibrations to prevent the crossing . Another corpse is found , that of a bank manager that appears to have been killed by a shapeshifter . Realizing both men would have access to secured areas in their workplaces , they use these locations as two points on Netwon 's triangle . From this , they are able to identify two locations where the transfer will occur . Olivia ( Anna Torv ) , using the information Walter has told her in private about his own crossing , identifies a collapsed derelict bridge over the Charles River , where the water would absorb the energy of crossing over .
The Fringe team converges on the bridge , where Newton has already started the process as the time of synchronization nears . As Olivia and the other FBI agent engage the two other shapeshifters in combat , Walter and Peter set up the interference device . Peter warns everyone , including Walter , back as he completes the interference device and the bridge , which still exists in the parallel universe , starts to appear with a man crossing it . The shockwave of its appearance disintegrates an FBI agent on the bridge with Peter but sends Peter flying back and knocks him out .
Peter wakes in the hospital , learning from Olivia that they saw a man safely cross the bridge and taken by Newton . When Walter arrives to see Peter , Peter tells him he has realized the truth : because he , like the man on the bridge , was not affected by the same shockwave that killed the FBI agent , he must be from the parallel universe . Walter is unable to deny Peter 's accusations . The next day , Walter is devastated to learn that Peter has discharged himself and has disappeared .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by story editor Ethan Gross and co @-@ executive producer Josh Singer . It was Gross ' first full episode writing credit for the series . Singer had last co @-@ written the season 's sixteenth episode , " Peter " . Jeffrey Hunt served as the episode director , his first such credit for the series . Actors Ryan McDonald , Peter Bryant , Shawn MacDonald , and James Pizzinato guest starred in the episode .
The episode 's opening scene featured the song " Tom Sawyer " by the Canadian rock band Rush . As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan for grade school children focusing on the science seen in " The Man from the Other Side " , with the intention of having " students learn about bioelectricity , the study of how electromagnetic fields interact with tissues , with a focus on how the muscular system requires the use of electric potentials . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its initial American broadcast on April 22 , 2010 , the episode was watched by an estimated 5 @.@ 84 million viewers . It earned a 3 @.@ 6 / 6 ratings share among all households and a 2 @.@ 1 / 6 ratings share among adults aged 18 – 49 . While " The Man from the Other Side " had a 15 percent decrease from the previous week 's episode , Fringe and its lead @-@ in , Bones , helped Fox place second for the night despite competition from the other networks ' original programming .
= = = Reviews = = =
MTV 's Josh Wigler praised Jackson and Noble 's performances , and appreciated the show 's ability to " gross you out in progressively unique ways " . Noel Murray from The A.V. Club graded the episode with an A- , explaining it was " full of just about everything I look for from the show , " as it had a sequence focused on weird science , a great performance by Noble , and a " heartbreaking " ending . Ramsey Isler from IGN rated the episode 8 @.@ 6 / 10 , as he thought it " delivered action , suspense , mystery , and the final climax " to Peter discovering his origins , and it was " a great achievement that marks a big turning point for the series " . Like other critics , Isler also praised Jackson and Noble 's acting . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly lauded Noble and Jackson 's performances , calling Peter 's change back to " the secretive , bitter , scurrilous character he was before the series started " a " wrenching daring move on the part of the show " . Tim Grierson of the magazine New York was worried that the hype surrounding Peter 's secret would not pay off , but believed " Happily , last night 's episode perfectly handled that anticipated plot point ... [ it ] turned out to be much better than could have been hoped " .
Hitfix 's Ryan McGee found the possibility of Walternate being the aforementioned Secretary a " compelling idea , " and loved the shapeshifting embryos . McGee concluded his review with a focus on the main cast 's performances , " Joshua Jackson 's understated nature during his final scene with John Noble really paid off . Had he blown into straight histrionics , the scene wouldn 't have worked nearly as well . But playing it with controlled , eloquent , understated fury , he conveyed betrayal more than anger , which cut Walter even deeper than rage ever could . " UGO Networks critic Alex Zalben was unhappy the promotions for the episode revealed Peter discovering his secret , " By showing Peter 's revelation in the ' Next Week on Fringe ' and subsequent commercials advertising this week 's episode , [ the network ] totally , one hundred percent blew it . " Otherwise , Zalben believed it to be an " awesome episode " , and praised the shapeshifter visual effects . Jane Boursaw of AOL TV wrote , " This episode of Fringe had everything - a slimy embryo , a thrilling gunfight , nefarious shapeshifters , some alternate universe action , and yes , that heartbreaking drama we 've been waiting for all season . " Boursaw was slightly critical of Peter 's discovery , explaining the relationship was built up so much that she wished Peter 's subsequent estrangement had " turned [ ed ] out better " and had him stay with Walter .
= Fundamental Rights , Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India =
The Fundamental Rights , Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Duties are sections of the Constitution of India that prescribe the fundamental obligations of the State to its citizens and the duties of the citizens to the State . These sections comprise a constitutional bill of rights for government policy @-@ making and the behavior and conduct of citizens . These sections are considered vital elements of the constitution , which was developed between 1947 and 1949 by the Constituent Assembly of India .
The Fundamental Rights is defined as the basic human rights of all citizens . These rights , defined in Part III of the Constitution , apply irrespective of race , place of birth , religion , caste , creed or gender . They are enforceable by the courts , subject to specific restrictions . The Directive Principles of State Policy are guidelines for the framing of laws by the government . These provisions , set out in Part IV of the Constitution , are not enforceable by the courts , but the principles on which they are based are fundamental guidelines for governance that the State is expected to apply in framing and passing laws .
The Fundamental Duties are defined as the moral obligations of all citizens to help promote a spirit of patriotism and to uphold the unity of India . These duties , set out in Part IV – A of the Constitution , concern individuals and the nation . Unlike the Directive Principles , they are enforceable by law .
= = History = =
The Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles had their origins in the Indian independence movement , which strove to achieve the values of liberty and social welfare as the goals of an independent Indian state . The development of constitutional rights in India was inspired by historical documents such as England 's Bill of Rights , the United States Bill of Rights and France 's Declaration of the Rights of Man . The demand for civil liberties formed an important part of the Indian independence movement , with one of the objectives of the Indian National Congress ( INC ) being to end discrimination between the British rulers and their Indian subjects . This demand was explicitly mentioned in resolutions adopted by the INC between 1917 and 1919 . The demands articulated in these resolutions included granting to Indians the rights to equality before law , free speech , trial by juries composed at least half of Indian members , political power , and equal terms for bearing arms as British citizens .
The experiences of the First World War , the unsatisfactory Montague @-@ Chelmsford reforms of 1919 , and the rise to prominence of M. K. Gandhi in the Indian independence movement marked a change in the attitude of its leaders towards articulating demands for civil rights . The focus shifted from demanding equality of status between Indians and the British to assuring liberty for all Indians . The Commonwealth of India Bill , drafted by Annie Beasant in 1925 , specifically included demands for seven fundamental rights – individual liberty , freedom of conscience , free expression of opinion , freedom of assembly , non @-@ discrimination on the ground of sex , free elementary education and free use of public spaces . In 1927 , the INC resolved to set up a committee to draft a " Swaraj Constitution " for India based on a declaration of rights that would provide safeguards against oppression . The 11 @-@ member committee , led by Motilal Nehru , was constituted in 1928 . Its report made a number of recommendations , including proposing guaranteed fundamental rights to all Indians . These rights resembled those of the American Constitution and those adopted by post @-@ war European countries , and several of them were adopted from the 1925 Bill . Several of these provisions were later replicated in various parts of the Indian Constitution , including the Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles .
In 1931 , the Indian National Congress , at its Karachi session , adopted a resolution committing itself to the defence of civil rights and economic freedom , with the stated objectives of putting an end to exploitation , providing social security and implementing land reforms . Other new rights proposed by the resolution were the prohibition of State titles , universal adult franchise , abolition of capital punishment and freedom of movement . Drafted by Jawaharlal Nehru , the resolution , which later formed the basis for some of the Directive Principles , placed the primary responsibility of carrying out social reform on the State , and marked the increasing influence of socialism and Gandhian philosophy on the independence movement . The final phase of the Independence movement saw a reiteration of the socialist principles of the 1930s , along with an increased focus on minority rights – which had become an issue of major political concern by then – which were published in the Sapru Report in 1945 . The report , apart from stressing on protecting the rights of minorities , also sought to prescribe a " standard of conduct for the legislatures , government and the courts " .
During the final stages of the British raj , the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India proposed a Constituent Assembly to draft a Constitution for India as part of the process of transfer of power . The Constituent Assembly of India , composed of indirectly elected representatives from the British provinces and Princely states , commenced its proceedings in December 1946 , and completed drafting the Constitution of India by November 1949 . According to the Cabinet Mission plan , the Assembly was to have an Advisory Committee to advise it on the nature and extent of fundamental rights , protection of minorities and administration of tribal areas . Accordingly , the Advisory Committee was constituted in January 1947 with 64 members , and from among these a twelve @-@ member sub @-@ committee on Fundamental Rights was appointed under the chairmanship of J.B. Kripalani in February 1947 . The sub @-@ committee drafted the Fundamental Rights and submitted its report to the Committee by April 1947 , and later that month the Committee placed it before the Assembly , which debated and discussed the rights over the course of the following year , adopting the drafts of most of them by December 1948 . The drafting of the Fundamental Rights was influenced by the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the U.N. General Assembly and the activities of the United Nations Human Rights Commission , as well as decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court in interpreting the Bill of Rights in the American Constitution . The Directive Principles , which were also drafted by the sub @-@ committee on Fundamental Rights , expounded the socialist precepts of the Indian independence movement , and were inspired by similar principles contained in the Irish Constitution . The Fundamental Duties were later added to the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment in 1976 .
= = Fundamental Rights = =
The Fundamental Rights , embodied in Part III of the Constitution , guarantee civil rights to all Indians , and prevent the State from encroaching on individual liberty while simultaneously placing upon it an obligation to protect the citizens ' rights from encroachment by society . Seven fundamental rights were originally provided by the Constitution – right to equality , right to freedom , right against exploitation , right to freedom of religion , cultural and educational rights , right to property and right to constitutional remedies . However , the right to property was removed from Part III of the Constitution by the 44th Amendment in 1978 .
The purpose of the Fundamental Rights is to preserve individual liberty and democratic principles based on equality of all members of society . Dr Ambedkar said that the responsibility of the legislature is not just to provide fundamental rights but also and rather more importantly , to safeguard them .
They act as limitations on the powers of the legislature and executive , under Article 13 , and in case of any violation of these rights the Supreme Court of India and the High Courts of the states have the power to declare such legislative or executive action as unconstitutional and void . These rights are largely enforceable against the State , which as per the wide definition provided in Article 12 , includes not only the legislative and executive wings of the federal and state governments , but also local administrative authorities and other agencies and institutions which discharge public functions or are of a governmental character . However , there are certain rights – such as those in Articles 15 , 17 , 18 , 23 , 24 – that are also available against private individuals . Further , certain Fundamental Rights – including those under Articles 14 , 20 , 21 , 25 – apply to persons of any nationality upon Indian soil , while others – such as those under Articles 15 , 16 , 19 , 30 – are applicable only to citizens of India .
The Fundamental Rights are not absolute and are subject to reasonable restrictions as necessary for the protection of public interest . In the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case in 1973 , the Supreme Court , overruling a previous decision of 1967 , held that the Fundamental Rights could be amended , subject to judicial review in case such an amendment violated the basic structure of the Constitution . The Fundamental Rights can be enhanced , removed or otherwise altered through a constitutional amendment , passed by a two @-@ thirds majority of each House of Parliament . The imposition of a state of emergency may lead to a temporary suspension any of the Fundamental Rights , excluding Articles 20 and 21 , by order of the President . The President may , by order , suspend the right to constitutional remedies as well , thereby barring citizens from approaching the Supreme Court for the enforcement of any of the Fundamental Rights , except Articles 20 and 21 , during the period of the emergency . Parliament may also restrict the application of the Fundamental Rights to members of the Indian Armed Forces and the police , in order to ensure proper discharge of their duties and the maintenance of discipline , by a law made under Article 33 .
= = = Right to Equality = = =
The Right to Equality is one of the chief guarantees of the Constitution . It is embodied in Articles 14 – 16 , which collectively encompass the general principles of equality before law and non @-@ discrimination , and Articles 17 – 18 which collectively further the philosophy of social equality . Article 14 guarantees equality before law as well as equal protection of the law to all persons within the territory of India . This includes the equal subjection of all persons to the authority of law , as well as equal treatment of persons in similar circumstances . The latter permits the State to classify persons for legitimate purposes , provided there is a reasonable basis for the same , meaning that the classification is required to be non @-@ arbitrary , based on a method of intelligible differentiation among those sought to be classified , as well as have a rational relation to the object sought to be achieved by the classification .
Article 15 prohibits discrimination on the grounds only of religion , race , caste , sex , place of birth , or any of them . This right can be enforced against the State as well as private individuals , with regard to free access to places of public entertainment or places of public resort maintained partly or wholly out of State funds . However , the State is not precluded from making special provisions for women and children or any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens , including the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes . This exception has been provided since the classes of people mentioned therein are considered deprived and in need of special protection . Article 16 guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of public employment and prevents the State from discriminating against anyone in matters of employment on the grounds only of religion , race , caste , sex , descent , place of birth , place of residence or any of them . It creates exceptions for the implementation of measures of affirmative action for the benefit of any backward class of citizens in order to ensure adequate representation in public service , as well as reservation of an office of any religious institution for a person professing that particular religion .
The practice of untouchability has been declared an offence punishable by law under Article 17 , and the Protection of Civil Rights Act , 1955 has been enacted by the Parliament to further this objective . Article 18 prohibits the State from conferring any titles other than military or academic distinctions , and the citizens of India cannot accept titles from a foreign state . Thus , Indian aristocratic titles and titles of nobility conferred by the British have been abolished . However , awards such as the Bharat Ratna have been held to be valid by the Supreme Court on the ground that they are merely decorations and cannot be used by the recipient as a title .
= = = Right to Freedom = = =
The Right to Freedom is covered in Articles 19 – 22 , with the view of guaranteeing individual rights that were considered vital by the framers of the Constitution , and these Articles also include certain restrictions that may be imposed by the State on individual liberty under specified conditions . Article 19 guarantees six freedoms in the nature of civil rights , which are available only to citizens of India . These include the freedom of speech and expression , freedom of assembly without arms , freedom of association , freedom of movement throughout the territory of India , freedom to reside and settle in any part of the country of India and the freedom to practise any profession . All these freedoms are subject to reasonable restrictions that may imposed on them by the State , listed under Article 19 itself . The grounds for imposing these restrictions vary according to the freedom sought to be restricted , and include national security , public order , decency and morality , contempt of court , incitement to offences , and defamation . The State is also empowered , in the interests of the general public to nationalise any trade , industry or service to the exclusion of the citizens .
The freedoms guaranteed by Article 19 are further sought to be protected by Articles 20 – 22 . The scope of these articles , particularly with respect to the doctrine of due process , was heavily debated by the Constituent Assembly . It was argued , especially by Benegal Narsing Rau , that the incorporation of such a clause would hamper social legislation and cause procedural difficulties in maintaining order , and therefore it ought to be excluded from the Constitution altogether . The Constituent Assembly in 1948 eventually omitted the phrase " due process " in favour of " procedure established by law " . As a result , Article 21 , which prevents the encroachment of life or personal liberty by the State except in accordance with the procedure established by law , was , until 1978 , construed narrowly as being restricted to executive action . However , in 1978 , the Supreme Court in the case of Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India extended the protection of Article 21 to legislative action , holding that any law laying down a procedure must be just , fair and reasonable , and effectively reading due process into Article 21 . In the same case , the Supreme Court also ruled that " life " under Article 21 meant more than a mere " animal existence " ; it would include the right to live with human dignity and all other aspects which made life " meaningful , complete and worth living " . Subsequent judicial interpretation has broadened the scope of Article 21 to include within it a number of rights including those to livelihood , good health , clean environment , water , speedy trial and humanitarian treatment while imprisoned . The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the Fundamental Rights under Article 21A by the 86th Constitutional amendment of 2002 .
Article 20 provides protection from conviction for offences in certain respects , including the rights against ex post facto laws , double jeopardy and freedom from self @-@ incrimination . Article 22 provides specific rights to arrested and detained persons , in particular the rights to be informed of the grounds of arrest , consult a lawyer of one 's own choice , be produced before a magistrate within 24 hours of the arrest , and the freedom not to be detained beyond that period without an order of the magistrate . The Constitution also authorizes the State to make laws providing for preventive detention , subject to certain other safeguards present in Article 22 . The provisions pertaining to preventive detention were discussed with skepticism and misgivings by the Constituent Assembly , and were reluctantly approved after a few amendments in 1949 . Article 22 provides that when a person is detained under any law of preventive detention , the State can detain such person without trial for only three months , and any detention for a longer period must be authorised by an Advisory Board . The person being detained also has the right to be informed about the grounds of detention , and be permitted to make a representation against it , at the earliest opportunity .
= = = Right against Exploitation = = =
The Right against Exploitation , contained in Articles 23 – 24 , lays down certain provisions to prevent exploitation of the weaker sections of the society by individuals or the State . Article 23 prohibits human trafficking , making it an offence punishable by law , and also prohibits forced labour or any act of compelling a person to work without wages where he was legally entitled not to work or to receive remuneration for it . However , it permits the State to impose compulsory service for public purposes , including conscription and community service . The Bonded Labour system ( Abolition ) Act , 1976 , has been enacted by Parliament to give effect to this Article . Article 24 prohibits the employment of children below the age of 14 years in factories , mines and other hazardous jobs . Parliament has enacted the Child Labour ( Prohibition and Regulation ) Act , 1986 , providing regulations for the abolition of , and penalties for employing , child labour , as well as provisions for rehabilitation of former child labourers .
= = = Right to Freedom of Religion = = =
The Right to Freedom of Religion , covered in Articles 25 – 28 , provides religious freedom to all citizens and ensures a secular state in India . According to the Constitution , there is no official State religion , and the State is required to treat all religions impartially and neutrally . Article 25 guarantees all persons the freedom of conscience and the right to preach , practice and propagate any religion of their choice . This right is , however , subject to public order , morality and health , and the power of the State to take measures for social welfare and reform . The right to propagate , however , does not include the right to convert another individual , since it would amount to an infringement of the other 's right to freedom of conscience . Article 26 guarantees all religious denominations and sects , subject to public order , morality and health , to manage their own affairs in matters of religion , set up institutions of their own for charitable or religious purposes , and own , acquire and manage property in accordance with law . These provisions do not derogate from the State 's power to acquire property belonging to a religious denomination . The State is also empowered to regulate any economic , political or other secular activity associated with religious practice . Article 27 guarantees that no person can be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of any particular religion or religious institution . Article 28 prohibits religious instruction in a wholly State @-@ funded educational institution , and educational institutions receiving aid from the State cannot compel any of their members to receive religious instruction or attend religious worship without their ( or their guardian 's ) consent .
= = = Cultural and Educational Rights = = =
The Cultural and Educational rights , given in Articles 29 and 30 , are measures to protect the rights of cultural , linguistic and religious minorities , by enabling them to conserve their heritage and protecting them against discrimination . Article 29 grants any section of citizens having a distinct language , script culture of its own , the right to conserve and develop the same , and thus safeguards the rights of minorities by preventing the State from imposing any external culture on them . It also prohibits discrimination against any citizen for admission into any educational institutions maintained or aided by the State , on the grounds only of religion , race , caste , language or any of them . However , this is subject to reservation of a reasonable number of seats by the State for socially and educationally backward classes , as well as reservation of up to 50 percent of seats in any educational institution run by a minority community for citizens belonging to that community .
Article 30 confers upon all religious and linguistic minorities the right to set up and administer educational institutions of their choice in order to preserve and develop their own culture , and prohibits the State , while granting aid , from discriminating against any institution on the basis of the fact that it is administered by a religious or cultural minority . The term " minority " , while not defined in the Constitution , has been interpreted by the Supreme Court to mean any community which numerically forms less than 50 % of the population of the state in which it seeks to avail the right under Article 30 . In order to claim the right , it is essential that the educational institution must have been established as well as administered by a religious or linguistic minority . Further , the right under Article 30 can be availed of even if the educational institution established does not confine itself to the teaching of the religion or language of the minority concerned , or a majority of students in that institution do not belong to such minority . This right is subject to the power of the State to impose reasonable regulations regarding educational standards , conditions of service of employees , fee structure , and the utilisation of any aid granted by it .
= = = Right to Constitutional Remedies = = =
The Right to Constitutional Remedies empowers citizens to approach the Supreme Court of India to seek enforcement , or protection against infringement , of their Fundamental Rights . Article 32 provides a guaranteed remedy , in the form of a Fundamental Right itself , for enforcement of all the other Fundamental Rights , and the Supreme Court is designated as the protector of these rights by the Constitution . The Supreme Court has been empowered to issue writs , namely habeas corpus , mandamus , prohibition , certiorari and quo warranto , for the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights , while the High Courts have been empowered under Article 226 – which is not a Fundamental Right in itself – to issue these prerogative writs even in cases not involving the violation of Fundamental Rights . The Supreme Court has the jurisdiction to enforce the Fundamental Rights even against private bodies , and in case of any violation , award compensation as well to the affected individual . Exercise of jurisdiction by the Supreme Court can also be suo motu or on the basis of a public interest litigation . This right cannot be suspended , except under the provisions of Article 359 when a state of emergency is declared .
= = Directive Principles of State Policy = =
The Directive Principles of State Policy , embodied in Part IV of the Constitution , are directions given to the State to guide the establishment of an economic and social democracy , as proposed by the Preamble . They set forth the humanitarian and socialist instructions that were the aim of social revolution envisaged in India by the Constituent Assembly . The State is expected to keep these principles in mind while framing laws and policies , even though they are non @-@ justiciable in nature . The Directive Principles may be classified under the following categories : ideals that the State ought to strive towards achieving ; directions for the exercise of legislative and executive power ; and rights of the citizens which the State must aim towards securing .
Despite being non @-@ justiciable , the Directive Principles act as a check on the State ; theorised as a yardstick in the hands of the electorate and the opposition to measure the performance of a government at the time of an election . Article 37 , while stating that the Directive Principles are not enforceable in any court of law , declares them to be " fundamental to the governance of the country " and imposes an obligation on the State to apply them in matters of legislation . Thus , they serve to emphasis the welfare state model of the Constitution and emphasise the positive duty of the State to promote the welfare of the people by affirming social , economic and political justice , as well as to fight income inequality and ensure individual dignity , as mandated by Article 38 .
Article 39 lays down certain principles of policy to be followed by the State , including providing an adequate means of livelihood for all citizens , equal pay for equal work for men and women , proper working conditions , reduction of the concentration of wealth and means of production from the hands of a few , and distribution of community resources to " subserve the common good " . These clauses highlight the Constitutional objectives of building an egalitarian social order and establishing a welfare state , by bringing about a social revolution assisted by the State , and have been used to support the nationalisation of mineral resources as well as public utilities . Further , several legislation pertaining to agrarian reform and land tenure have been enacted by the federal and state governments , in order to ensure equitable distribution of land resources .
Articles 41 – 43 mandate the State to endeavour to secure to all citizens the right to work , a living wage , social security , maternity relief , and a decent standard of living . These provisions aim at establishing a socialist state as envisaged in the Preamble . Article 43 also places upon the State the responsibility of promoting cottage industries , and the federal government has , in furtherance of this , established several Boards for the promotion of khadi , handlooms etc . , in coordination with the state governments . Article 39A requires the State to provide free legal aid to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are available to all citizens irrespective of economic or other disabilities . Article 43A mandates the State to work towards securing the participation of workers in the management of industries . The State , under Article 46 , is also mandated to promote the interests of and work for the economic uplift of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and protect them from discrimination and exploitation . Several enactments , including two Constitutional amendments , have been passed to give effect to this provision .
Article 44 encourages the State to secure a uniform civil code for all citizens , by eliminating discrepancies between various personal laws currently in force in the country . However , this has remained a " dead letter " despite numerous reminders from the Supreme Court to implement the provision . Article 45 originally mandated the State to provide free and compulsory education to children between the ages of six and fourteen years , but after the 86th Amendment in 2002 , this has been converted into a Fundamental Right and replaced by an obligation upon the State to secure childhood care to all children below the age of six . Article 47 commits the State to raise the standard of living and improve public health , and prohibit the consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs injurious to health . As a consequence , partial or total prohibition has been introduced in several states , but financial constraints have prevented its full @-@ fledged application . The State is also mandated by Article 48 to organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines by improving breeds and prohibiting slaughter of cattle . Article 48A mandates the State to protect the environment and safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country , while Article 49 places an obligation upon the State to ensure the preservation of monuments and objects of national importance . Article 50 requires the State to ensure the separation of judiciary from executive in public services , in order to ensure judicial independence , and federal legislation has been enacted to achieve this objective . The State , according to Article 51 , must also strive for the promotion of international peace and security , and Parliament has been empowered under Article 253 to make laws giving effect to international treaties .
= = Fundamental Duties = =
The Fundamental Duties of citizens were added to the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment in 1976 , upon the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee that was constituted by the government earlier that year . Originally ten in number , the Fundamental Duties were increased to eleven by the 86th Amendment in 2002 , which added a duty on every parent or guardian to ensure that their child or ward was provided opportunities for education between the ages of six and fourteen years . The other Fundamental Duties obligate all citizens to respect the national symbols of India , including the Constitution , to cherish its heritage , preserve its composite culture and assist in its defense . They also obligate all Indians to promote the spirit of common brotherhood , protect the environment and public property , develop scientific temper , abjure violence , and strive towards excellence in all spheres of life . Citizens are morally obligated by the Constitution to perform these duties . However , like the Directive Principles , these are non @-@ justifiable , without any legal sanction in case of their violation or non @-@ compliance . There is reference to such duties in international instruments such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , and Article 51A brings the Indian Constitution into conformity with these treaties .
The Fundamental Duties noted in the constitution are as follows :
— It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions , the National Flag and the National Anthem ;
to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom ;
to uphold and protect the sovereignty , unity and integrity of India ;
to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so ;
to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious , linguistic and regional or sectional diversities ; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women ;
to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture ;
to protect and improve the natural environment including forests , lakes , rivers and wild life , and to have compassion for living creatures ;
to develop the scientific temper , humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform ;
to safeguard public property and to abjure violence ;
to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement ;
who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or ward , as the case may be , between the age of six and fourteen years
= = Criticism and analysis = =
Fewer children are now employed in hazardous environments , but their employment in non @-@ hazardous jobs , prevalently as domestic help , violates the spirit of the constitution in the eyes of many critics and human rights advocates . More than 16 @.@ 5 million children are in employment . India was ranked 88 out of 159 countries in 2005 , according to the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians . The year 1990 – 1991 was declared as the " Year of Social Justice " in the memory of B.R. Ambedkar . The government provides free textbooks to students belonging to scheduled castes and tribes pursuing medicine and engineering courses . During 2002 – 2003 , a sum of Rs . 4 @.@ 77 crore ( 47 @.@ 7 million ) was released for this purpose . In order to protect scheduled castes and tribes from discrimination , the government enacted the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe ( Prevention of Atrocities ) Act , 1989 , prescribing severe punishments for such actions .
The Minimum Wages Act of 1948 empowers government to fix minimum wages for people working across the economic spectrum . The Consumer Protection Act of 1986 provides for the better protection of consumers . The Equal Remuneration Act of 1976 provides for equal pay for equal work for both men and women . The Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana ( Universal Rural Employment Program ) was launched in 2001 to attain the objective of providing gainful employment for the rural poor . The program was implemented through the Panchayati Raj institutions .
A system of elected village councils , known as Panchayati Raj covers almost all states and territories of India . One @-@ third of the total number of seats have been reserved for women in Panchayats at every level ; and in the case of Bihar , half the seats have been reserved for women . The judiciary has been separated from the executive " in all the states and territories except Jammu and Kashmir and Nagaland . " India 's foreign policy has been influenced by the Directive Principles . India supported the United Nations in peace @-@ keeping activities , with the Indian Army having participated in 37 UN peace @-@ keeping operations .
The implementation of a uniform civil code for all citizens has not been achieved owing to widespread opposition from various religious groups and political parties . The Shah Bano case ( 1985 – 86 ) provoked a political firestorm in India when the Supreme Court ruled that Shah Bano , a Muslim woman who had been divorced by her husband in 1978 was entitled to receive alimony from her former husband under Indian law applicable for all Indian women . This decision evoked outrage in the Muslim community , which sought the application of the Muslim personal law and in response the Parliament passed the Muslim Women ( Protection of Rights on Divorce ) Act , 1986 overturning the Supreme Court 's verdict . This act provoked further outrage , as jurists , critics and politicians alleged that the fundamental right of equality for all citizens irrespective of religion or gender was being jettisoned to preserve the interests of distinct religious communities . The verdict and the legislation remain a source of heated debate , with many citing the issue as a prime example of the poor implementation of Fundamental Rights .
= = Relationship between the Fundamental Rights , Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties = =
The Directive Principles have been used to uphold the Constitutional validity of legislations in case of a conflict with the Fundamental Rights . Article 31C , added by the 25th Amendment in 1971 , provided that any law made to give effect to the Directive Principles in Article 39 ( b ) – ( c ) would not be invalid on the grounds that they derogated from the Fundamental Rights conferred by Articles 14 , 19 and 21 . The application of this article was sought to be extended to all the Directive Principles by the 42nd Amendment in 1976 , but the Supreme Court struck down the extension as void on the ground that it violated the basic structure of the Constitution . The Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles have also been used together in forming the basis of legislation for social welfare . The Supreme Court , after the judgement in the Kesavananda Bharati case , has adopted the view of the Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles being complementary to each other , each supplementing the other 's role in aiming at the same goal of establishing a welfare state by means of social revolution . Similarly , the Supreme Court has used the Fundamental Duties to uphold the Constitutional validity of statutes which seeks to promote the objects laid out in the Fundamental Duties . These Duties have also been held to be obligatory for all citizens , subject to the State enforcing the same by means of a valid law . The Supreme Court has also issued directions to the State in this regard , with a view towards making the provisions effective and enabling a citizens to properly perform their duties .
= Earwig =
Earwigs make up the insect order Dermaptera and are found throughout the Americas , Africa , Eurasia , Australia and New Zealand . With about 2 @,@ 000 species in 12 families , they are one of the smaller insect orders . Earwigs have characteristic cerci , a pair of forceps @-@ like pincers on their abdomen , and membranous wings folded underneath short forewings , hence the scientific order name , " skin wings . " Some groups are tiny parasites on mammals and lack the typical pincers . Earwigs rarely use their flying ability .
Earwigs are mostly nocturnal and often hide in small , moist crevices during the day , and are active at night , feeding on a wide variety of insects and plants . Damage to foliage , flowers , and various crops is commonly blamed on earwigs , especially the common earwig Forficula auricularia .
Earwigs have five molts in the year before they become adults . Many earwig species display maternal care , which is uncommon among insects . Female earwigs may care for their eggs , and even after they have hatched as nymphs will continue to watch over offspring until their second molt . As the nymphs molt , sexual dimorphism such as differences in pincer shapes begins to show .
Some earwig specimen fossils are in the extinct suborders Archidermaptera or Eodermaptera , the former dating to the Late Triassic and the latter to the Middle Jurassic . Many orders of insect have been theorized to be closely related to earwigs , though the icebugs of Grylloblattaria are most likely .
= = Etymology = =
The scientific name for the order , " Dermaptera " , is Greek in origin , stemming from the words derma , meaning skin , and pteron ( plural ptera ) , wing . It was coined by Charles De Geer in 1773 . The common term , earwig , is derived from the Old English ēare , which means " ear " , and wicga , which means " insect " , or literally , " beetle " . Entomologists suggest that the origin of the name is a reference to the appearance of the hindwings , which are unique and distinctive among insects , and resemble a human ear when unfolded . The name is more popularly thought to be related to the old wives ' tale that earwigs burrowed into the brains of humans through the ear and laid their eggs there . Earwigs are not known to purposefully climb into external ear canals , but there have been anecdotal reports of earwigs being found in the ear .
" To earwig " is a slang verb meaning either " to attempt to influence by persistent confidential argument or talk " or " to eavesdrop " .
= = Distribution = =
Earwigs are abundant and can be found throughout the Americas and Eurasia . The common earwig was introduced into North America in 1907 from Europe , but tends to be more common in the southern and southwestern parts of the United States . The only native species of earwig found in the north of the United States is the spine @-@ tailed earwig ( Doru aculeatum ) , found as far north as Canada , where it hides in the leaf axils of emerging plants in southern Ontario wetlands . However , other families can be found in North America , including Forficulidae ( Doru and Forficula being found there ) , Labiidae , Anisolabididae , and Labiduridae .
Few earwigs survive winter outdoors in cold climates . They can be found in tight crevices in woodland , fields and gardens . Out of about 1 @,@ 800 species , about 25 occur in North America , 45 in Europe ( including 7 in Great Britain ) , and 60 in Australia .
= = Morphology = =
Most earwigs are flattened ( which allows them to fit inside tight crevices , such as under bark ) with an elongated body generally 7 – 50 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 28 – 1 @.@ 97 in ) long . The largest certainly extant species is the Australian giant earwig ( Titanolabis colossea ) which is approximately 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) long , while the possibly extinct Saint Helena earwig ( Labidura herculeana ) reached 78 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) . Earwigs are characterized by the cerci , or the pair of forceps @-@ like pincers on their abdomen ; male earwigs generally have more curved pincers than females . These pincers are used to capture prey , defend themselves and fold their wings under the short tegmina . The antennae are thread @-@ like with at least 10 segments or more .
The forewings are short oblong leathery plates used to cover the hindwings like the elytra of a beetle , rather than to fly . Most species have short and leather @-@ like forewings with very thin hindwings , though species in the former suborders Arixeniina and Hemimerina ( epizoic species , sometimes considered as ectoparasites ) are wingless and blind with filiform segmented cerci ( today these are both included merely as families in the suborder Neodermaptera ) . The hindwing is a very thin membrane that expands like a fan , radiating from one point folded under the forewing . Even though most earwigs have wings and are capable of flight , they are rarely seen in flight . These wings are unique in venation and in the pattern of folding that requires the use of the cerci .
= = = Internal = = =
The neuroendocrine system is typical of insects . There is a brain , a subesophageal ganglion , three thoracic ganglia , and six abdominal ganglia . Strong neuron connections connect the neurohemal corpora cardiaca to the brain and frontal ganglion , where the closely related median corpus allatum produces juvenile hormone III in close proximity to the neurohemal dorsal arota . The digestive system of earwigs is like all other insects , consisting of a fore- , mid- , and hindgut , but earwigs lack gastric caecae which are specialized for digestion in many species of insect . Long , slender ( extratory ) malpighian tubules can be found between the junction of the mid- and hind gut .
The reproductive system of females consist of paired ovaries , lateral oviducts , spermatheca , and a genital chamber . The lateral ducts are where the eggs leave the body , while the spermatheca is where sperm is stored . Unlike other insects , the gonopore , or genital opening is behind the seventh abdominal segment . The ovaries are primitive in that they are polytrophic ( the nurse cells and oocytes alternate along the length of the ovariole ) . In some species these long ovarioles branch off the lateral duct , while in others , short ovarioles appear around the duct .
= = Life cycle and reproduction = =
Earwigs are hemimetabolous , meaning they undergo incomplete metamorphosis , developing through a series of 4 to 6 molts . The developmental stages between molts are called instars . Earwigs live for about a year from hatching . They start mating in the autumn , and can be found together in the autumn and winter . The male and female will live in a chamber in debris , crevices , or soil 2 @.@ 5 mm deep . After mating , the sperm may remain in the female for months before the eggs are fertilized . From midwinter to early spring , the male will leave , or be driven out by the female . Afterward the female will begin to lay 20 to 80 pearly white eggs in 2 days . Some earwigs , those parasitic in the suborders Arixeniina and Hemimerina , are viviparous ( give birth to live young ) ; they would be fed by a sort of placenta . When first laid , the eggs are white or cream @-@ colored and oval @-@ shaped , but right before hatching they become kidney @-@ shaped and brown . Each egg is approximately 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 in ) tall and 0 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 03 in ) wide .
Earwigs are among the few non @-@ social insect species that show maternal care . The mother will pay close attention to the needs of her eggs , such as warmth and protection , though studies have shown that the mother does not pay attention to the eggs as she collects them . The mother has been shown to pick up wax balls by accident , but they would eventually be rejected as they do not have the proper scent . The mother will also vigorously defend the eggs from predators , not eating unless an egg goes bad . Another distinct maternal care unique to earwigs is that the mother continuously cleans the eggs to protect them from fungi . Studies have found that the urge to clean the eggs persists for days after they are removed ; when the eggs were replaced after hatching , the mother continued to clean them for up to 3 months .
The eggs hatch in about 7 days . The mother may assist the nymphs in hatching . When the nymphs hatch , they eat the egg casing and continue to live with the mother . The nymphs look similar to their parents , only smaller , and will nest under their mother and she will continue to protect them until their second molt . The nymphs feed on food regurgitated by the mother , and on their own molts . If the mother dies before the nymphs are ready to leave , the nymphs may eat her .
After five to six instars , the nymphs will molt into adults . The male 's forceps will become curved , while the females ' forceps remain straight . They will also develop their natural color , which can be anything from a light brown ( as in the Tawny earwig ) to a dark black ( as in the Ringlegged earwig ) . In species of winged earwigs , the wings will start to develop at this time . The forewings of an earwig are sclerotized to serve as protection for the membranous hindwings .
= = Behavior = =
Most earwigs are nocturnal and inhabit small crevices , living in small amounts of debris , in various forms such as bark and fallen logs . Species have been found to be blind and living in caves , or cavernicolous ; reported to be found on the island of Hawaii and in South Africa . Food typically consist of a wide array of living and dead plant and animal matter . For protection from predators , the species Doru taeniatum of earwigs can squirt foul @-@ smelling yellow liquid in the form of jets from scent glands on the dorsal side of the third and fourth abdominal segment . It aims the discharges by revolving the abdomen , a maneuver that enables it simultaneously to use its pincers in defense .
= = Ecology = =
Earwigs are mostly scavengers , but some are omnivorous or predatory . The abdomen of the earwig is flexible and muscular . It is capable of maneuvering as well as opening and closing the forceps . The forceps are used for a variety of purposes . In some species , the forceps have been observed in use for holding prey , and in copulation . The forceps tend to be more curved in males than in females .
The common earwig is an omnivore , eating plants and ripe fruit as well as actively hunting arthropods . To a large extent , this species is also a scavenger , feeding on decaying plant and animal matter if given the chance . Observed prey include largely plant lice , but also large insects such as bluebottle flies and woolly aphids . Plants that they feed on typically include clover , dahlias , zinnias , butterfly bush , hollyhock , lettuce , cauliflower , strawberry , blackberry , sunflowers , celery , peaches , plums , grapes , potatoes , roses , seedling beans and beets , and tender grass shoots and roots ; they have also been known to eat corn silk , damaging the corn .
Species of the suborders Arixeniina and Hemimerina are generally considered epizoic , or living on the outside of other animals , mainly mammals . In the Arixeniina , family Arixeniidae , species of the genus Arixenia are normally found deep in the skin folds and gular pouch of Malaysian hairless bulldog bats ( Cheiromeles torquatus ) , apparently feeding on bats ' body or glandular secretions . On the other hand , species in the genus Xeniaria ( still of the suborder Arixeniina ) are believed to feed on the guano and possibly the guanophilous arthropods in the bat 's nest , where it has been found . Hemimerina includes Araeomerus found in the nest of Long @-@ tailed pouch rats ( Beamys ) , and Hemimerus which are found on Giant Cricetomys rats .
Earwigs are generally nocturnal , and typically hide in small , dark , and often moist areas in the daytime . They can usually be seen on household walls and ceilings . Interaction with earwigs at this time results in a defensive free @-@ fall to the ground followed by a scramble to a nearby cleft or crevice . During the summer they can be found around damp areas such as near sinks and in bathrooms . Earwigs tend to gather in shady cracks or openings or anywhere that they can remain concealed during daylight . Some people erroneously believe that earwigs burrow into people 's ears ; that is mostly a myth , although earwigs may crawl into ears and some can bite , as other insects do . Picnic tables , compost and waste bins , patios , lawn furniture , window frames , or anything with minute spaces ( even artichoke blossoms ) can potentially
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the first game of the franchise developed for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . A massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game called Dragon Ball Online was available in Korea , Hong Kong and Taiwan until the servers were shut down in 2013 .
= = = Soundtracks = = =
Myriad soundtracks were released in the anime , movies and the games . The music for the first two anime Dragon Ball and Z and its films was composed by Shunsuke Kikuchi , while the music from GT was composed by Akihito Tokunaga and the music from Kai was composed by Kenji Yamamoto and Norihito Sumitomo . For the first anime , the soundtracks released were Dragon Ball : Music Collection in 1985 and Dragon Ball : Complete Song Collection in 1991 , although they were reissued in 2007 and 2003 , respectively . For the second anime , the soundtrack series released were Dragon Ball Z Hit Song Collection Series . It was produced and released by Columbia Records of Japan from July 21 , 1989 to March 20 , 1996 the show 's entire lifespan . On September 20 , 2006 Columbia re @-@ released the Hit Song Collection on their Animex 1300 series . Other CDs released are compilations , video games and films soundtracks as well as music from the English versions .
= = = Companion books = = =
There have been numerous companion books to the Dragon Ball franchise . Chief among these are the Daizenshuu ( 大全集 ) series , comprising seven hardback main volumes and three supplemental softcover volumes , covering the manga and the first two anime series and their theatrical films . The first of these , Dragon Ball : The Complete Illustrations ( Daizenshuu volume 1 ) , first published in Japan in 1995 , is the only one that was released in English , being printed in 2008 by Viz Media . It contains all 264 colored illustrations Akira Toriyama drew for the Weekly Shōnen Jump magazines ' covers , bonus giveaways and specials , and all the covers for the 42 tankōbon . It also includes an interview with Toriyama on his work process . The remainder have never been released in English , and all are now out of print in Japan . From February 4 to May 9 , 2013 , condensed versions of the Daizenshuu with some updated information were released as the four @-@ volume Chōzenshū ( 超全集 ) series . For Dragon Ball GT , the Dragon Ball GT Perfect Files were released in May and December 1997 by Shueisha 's Jump Comics Selection imprint . They include series information , illustration galleries , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes information , and more . They were out of print for many years , but were re @-@ released in April 2006 ( accompanying the Japanese DVD release of Dragon Ball GT ) and this edition is still in print .
Coinciding with the 34 @-@ volume kanzenban re @-@ release of the manga , and the release of the entire series on DVD for the first time in Japan , four new guidebooks were released in 2003 and 2004 . Dragon Ball Landmark and Dragon Ball Forever cover the manga , using volume numbers for story points that reference the kanzenban release , while Dragon Ball : Tenkaichi Densetsu ( ドラゴンボール 天下一伝説 ) and Dragon Ball Z : Son Goku Densetsu ( ドラゴンボールZ 孫悟空伝説 ) cover the Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z anime , respectively . Much of the material in these books is reused from the earlier Daizenshuu volumes , but they include new textual material including substantial interviews with the creator , cast and production staff of the series . Son Goku Densetsu in particular showcases previously @-@ unpublished design sketches of Goku 's father Bardock , drawn by character designer Katsuyoshi Nakatsuru prior to creator Akira Toriyama 's revisions that resulted in the final version .
Following the release of Dragon Ball Kai in Japan , four new guidebooks were released : the two @-@ volume Dragon Ball : Super Exciting Guide ( ドラゴンボール 超エキサイティングガイド ) in 2009 , covering the manga , and two @-@ volume Dragon Ball : Extreme Battle Collection ( ドラゴンボール 極限バトルコレクション ) in 2010 , covering the anime series . Despite the TV series airing during this time being Kai , the Extreme Battle Collection books reference the earlier Z series in content and episode numbers . These books also include new question @-@ and @-@ answer sessions with Akira Toriyama , revealing a few new details about the world and characters of the series . 2010 also saw the release of a new artbook , Dragon Ball : Anime Illustrations Guide - The Golden Warrior ( ドラゴンボール アニメイラスト集 「 黄金の戦士 」 ) ; a sort of anime @-@ counterpart to the manga @-@ oriented Complete Illustrations , it showcases anime @-@ original illustrations and includes interviews with the three principal character designers for the anime . Each of the Japanese " Dragon Box " DVD releases of the series and movies , which were released from 2003 to 2006 , as well as the Blu @-@ ray boxed sets of Dragon Ball Kai , released 2009 to 2011 , come with a Dragon Book guide that contains details about the content therein . Each also contains a new interview with a member of the cast or staff of the series . These books have been reproduced textually for Funimation 's release of the Dragon Ball Z Dragon Box sets from 2009 to 2011 .
= = = Collectible cards = = =
Collectible cards based on the Dragon Ball , Dragon Ball Z , and Dragon Ball GT series have been released by Bandai . These cards feature various scenes from the manga and anime stills , plus exclusive artwork from all three series . Bandai released the first set in the United States in July 2008 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Manga = = =
Dragon Ball is one of the most popular manga series of all time , and it continues to enjoy high readership today . By 2000 , more than 126 million copies of its tankōbon volumes had been sold in Japan alone . By 2012 , this number had grown to pass 156 million in Japan and 230 million worldwide , making it the second best @-@ selling Weekly Shōnen Jump manga of all time . Dragon Ball is credited as one of the main reasons for the period when manga circulation was at its highest in the mid @-@ 1980s and mid @-@ 1990s . For the 10th anniversary of the Japan Media Arts Festival in 2006 , Japanese fans voted Dragon Ball the third greatest manga of all time .
In a survey conducted by Oricon in 2007 among 1 @,@ 000 people , Son Goku , the main character of the franchise , ranked first place as the " Strongest Manga Character of All Time . " Goku 's journey and his ever growing strength resulted in the character winning " the admiration of young boys everywhere " . Manga artists , such as One Piece creator Eiichiro Oda and Naruto creator Masashi Kishimoto , have stated that Goku inspired their series ' main protagonists as well as series structure .
Manga critic Jason Thompson stated in 2011 that " Dragon Ball is by far the most influential shonen manga of the last 30 years , and today , almost every Shonen Jump artist lists it as one of their favorites and lifts from it in various ways . " He says the series " turns from a gag / adventure manga to an nearly @-@ pure fighting manga " , and its basic formula of " lots of martial arts , lots of training sequences , a few jokes " became the model for other shōnen series , such as Naruto . Thompson also called Toriyama 's art influential and cited it as a reason for the series ' popularity . James S. Yadao , author of The Rough Guide to Manga , claims that the first several chapters of Dragon Ball " play out much like Saiyuki with Dr. Slump @-@ like humour built in " and that Dr. Slump , Toriyama 's previous manga , has a clear early influence on the series . He feels the series " established its unique identity " after the first occasion when Goku 's group disbands and he trains under Kame @-@ sen 'nin , when the story develops " a far more action @-@ packed , sinister tone " with " wilder " battles with aerial and spiritual elements and an increased death count , while humor still makes an occasional appearance . Yadao claims that an art shift occurs when the characters " lose the rounded , innocent look that he established in Dr. Slump and gain sharper angles that leap off the page with their energy and intensity . "
Animerica felt the series had " worldwide appeal " , using dramatic pacing and over @-@ the @-@ top martial arts action to " maintain tension levels and keep a crippler crossface hold on the audience 's attention spans " . In Little Boy : The Art of Japan 's Exploding Subculture , Takashi Murakami commented that Dragon Ball 's " never @-@ ending cyclical narrative moves forward plausibly , seamlessly , and with great finesse . " Ridwan Khan from Animefringe.com commented that the manga had a " chubby " art style , but as the series continued the characters got more refined , leaner , and more muscular . Khan prefers the manga over the slow pacing of the anime counterparts . Allen Divers of Anime News Network praised the story and humor of the manga as being very good at conveying all of the characters ' personalities . Divers also called Viz 's translation one of the best of all the English editions of the series due to its faithfulness to the original Japanese . D. Aviva Rothschild of Rationalmagic.com remarked the first manga volume as " a superior humor title " . They praised Goku 's innocence and Bulma 's insistence as one of the funniest parts of the series .
The content of the manga has been controversial in United States . In November 1999 , Toys " R " Us removed Viz 's Dragon Ball from their stores nationwide when a Dallas parent complained the series had " borderline soft porn " after he bought them for his four @-@ year @-@ old son . Commenting on the issue , Susan J. Napier explained it as a difference in culture . After the ban , Viz reluctantly began to censor the series to keep wide distribution . However , in 2001 , after releasing three volumes censored , Viz announced Dragon Ball would be uncensored and reprinted due to fan reactions . In October 2009 , Wicomico County Public Schools in Maryland banned the Dragon Ball manga from their school district because it " depicts nudity , sexual contact between children and sexual innuendo among adults and children . "
= = = Anime = = =
The anime adaptations have also been very well @-@ received and are better known in the Western world than the manga , with Anime News Network saying " Few anime series have mainstreamed it the way Dragon Ball Z has . To a certain generation of television consumers its characters are as well known as any in the animated realm , and for many it was the first step into the wilderness of anime fandom . " In 2000 , satellite TV channel Animax together with Brutus , a men 's lifestyle magazine , and Tsutaya , Japan 's largest video rental chain , conducted a poll among 200 @,@ 000 fans on the top anime series , with Dragon Ball coming in fourth . TV Asahi conducted two polls in 2005 on the Top 100 Anime , Dragon Ball came in second in the nationwide survey conducted with multiple age @-@ groups and in third in the online poll . On several occasions the Dragon Ball anime has topped Japan 's DVD sales .
Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network summed up Dragon Ball as " an action @-@ packed tale told with rare humor and something even rarer — a genuine sense of adventure . " Both Kimlinger and colleague Theron Martin noted Funimation 's reputation for drastic alterations of the script , but praised the dub . However , some critics and most fans of the Japanese version have been more critical with Funimation 's English dub and script of Dragon Ball Z over the years . Jeffrey Harris IGN criticized the voices including how Freeza 's appearance combined with the feminine English voice left fans confused about Freeza 's gender . Carlos Ross of T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews considered the series ' characters to be different from stereotypical stock characters and noted that they undergo much more development . Despite praising Dragon Ball Z for its cast of characters , they criticized it for having long and repetitive fights .
Dragon Ball Z is well @-@ known , and often criticized , for its long , repetitive , dragged @-@ out fights that span several episodes , with Martin commenting " DBZ practically turned drawing out fights into an art form . " However , Jason Thompson of io9 explained that this comes from the fact that the anime was being created alongside the manga . Dragon Ball Z was listed as the 78th best animated show in IGN 's Top 100 Animated Series , and was also listed as the 50th greatest cartoon in Wizard magazine 's Top 100 Greatest Cartoons list .
Harris commented that Dragon Ball GT " is downright repellent " , mentioning that the material and characters had lost their novelty and fun . He also criticized the GT character designs of Trunks and Vegeta as being goofy . Zac Bertschy of Anime News Network also gave negative comments about GT , mentioning that the fights from the series were " a very simple childish exercise " and that many other anime were superior . The plot of Dragon Ball GT has also been criticized for giving a formula that was already used in its predecessors .
The first episode of Dragon Ball Z Kai earned a viewer ratings percentage of 11 @.@ 3 , ahead of One Piece and behind Crayon Shin @-@ chan . Although following episodes had lower ratings , Kai was among the top 10 anime in viewer ratings every week in Japan for most of its run .
= The Boat Race 1893 =
The 50th Boat Race took place on 22 March 1893 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford went into the event as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race . In a race umpired by former rower Frank Willan , Oxford won by a length and a quarter in a time of 18 minutes 45 seconds which was , at the time , the fastest in the history of the event . It was their fourth consecutive victory and took the overall record to 27 – 22 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the boat clubs of University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; as of 2014 it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in the previous year 's race , and held the overall lead , with 26 victories to Cambridge 's 22 .
Oxford 's coaches were G. C. Bourne ( who rowed for Oxford in the 1882 and 1883 races ) , Tom Cottingham Edwards @-@ Moss ( who rowed for the Dark Blues from 1875 to 1878 ) and Douglas McLean ( an Oxford Blue five times between 1883 and 1887 ) . Cambridge were coached by R. C. Lehmann ( former president of the Cambridge Union Society and captain of the 1st Trinity Boat Club ; although he had rowed in the trials eights for Cambridge , he was never selected for the Blue boat ) . The umpire for the race for the fifth year in a row was Frank Willan who won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races .
According to author Wadham Peacock , Barnes Bridge was undergoing repair which had jeopardised the running of the race . It was also one of only a few occasions where the race was not held on a Saturday .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 3 @.@ 125 lb ( 77 @.@ 4 kg ) , 3 @.@ 125 pounds ( 1 @.@ 4 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge saw two rowers with Boat Race experience return , including Graham Campbell Kerr and Charles Thurstan Fogg @-@ Elliot . Six of the Light Blues had matriculated at Trinity College . The Oxford boat contained five former Blues including William Fletcher who was participating in his fourth Boat Race . Four of the Dark Blues were studying at Magdalen College . All of the competitors in the race were registered as British .
Although Oxford had four members of the previous year 's race available , Fletcher was injured in practice and Vivian Nickalls was unwell . Cambridge 's crew was considered to be powerful but technically deficient .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . With a good spring tide and a light breeze from the east , umpire Willan started the race at 4 : 35 p.m. , with the Light Blues outrating their opponents at 40 strokes per minute , and taking an early lead . Oxford drew level and moved ahead , holding a length 's lead by the Mile Post . With the advantage of the river 's course to Cambridge , by Hammersmith Bridge the lead had been cut to half a length and at The Doves pub ( almost 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) along the course ) , the crews were once again level .
Along Chiswick , despite a higher stroke rate , Cambridge failed to move ahead and showed signs of tiredness , and Oxford began to move away again . By Barnes Bridge they were a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half clear , but encountered difficult water there as a temporary dam that had been constructed created an eddy . Cambridge took advantage to reduce the deficit and pushed all the way to the finishing post , but Oxford won by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths . It was their fourth consecutive victory and in a time of 18 minutes 45 seconds , the fastest in the history of the event .
= Ventidius Cumanus =
Ventidius Cumanus ( fl . 1st century AD ) was the Roman procurator of Iudaea Province from AD 48 to c . AD 52 . A disagreement between the surviving sources , the Jewish historian Josephus and the Roman Tacitus , makes it unclear whether his authority was over some or all of the province . Cumanus ' time in office was marked by disputes between his troops and the Jewish population . Ventidius Cumanus failed to respond to an anti @-@ Jewish murder in Samaritan territory which led to the violent conflict between Jews and Samaritans . Following an investigation by the governor of Syria , Gaius Ummidius Durmius Quadratus , Cumanus was sent to Rome for a hearing before the Emperor Claudius , who held him responsible for the violence and sentenced him to exile .
= = Procuratorship of Iudaea = =
Nothing is known about Cumanus before he was appointed procurator of Iudaea in 48 , in succession to Tiberius Julius Alexander .
= = = Scope of Authority = = =
Josephus , the main source for Cumanus ' career , presents him as governing the whole of Iudaea until 52 , when he was succeeded by Marcus Antonius Felix . However , Tacitus states that Felix was already governing Samaria before 52 , while Cumanus had authority over Galilee to the north ( see map ) . Tacitus does not mention who controlled other areas of the province .
This conflict has led historians to take a number of positions on political arrangements in the province . Some have argued that Josephus ' greater knowledge of Jewish affairs justifies favouring his account . M. Aberbach believes that there was a division of power , but that Tacitus reversed the governors ' areas of authority and that Cumanus actually governed the south and Felix the north ; this fits better with Josephus , who describes Cumanus as active in Jerusalem and nearby . Another suggestion is that part of the province was transferred to Felix after disturbances under Cumanus ' rule .
= = = Roman @-@ Jewish conflict = = =
Under Alexander , the province of Iudaea had enjoyed a period of relative peace , but that proved to be transient , as Cumanus ' governorship was marked by a series of serious public disturbances . Trouble started while Jewish pilgrims were gathered in Jerusalem for the Passover feast . Cumanus , following the precedent set by earlier governors , assembled a detachment of Roman soldiers on the roof of the Temple portico to maintain order among the crowds , but one caused chaos by exposing himself to the Jews in the courtyard while calling out insults . Some of the Jews brought their complaints to Cumanus , but others began to retaliate by hurling stones at the soldiers . Some openly accused Cumanus of being responsible for the provocation – a sign that relations between governor and provincials may already have been poor . Finding himself unable to calm the angry crowd , Cumanus called for fully armed reinforcements , who assembled either in the Temple courtyard or on the roof of the Antonia Fortress , overlooking the Temple . In the ensuing stampede , according to Josephus ' estimates , between twenty and thirty thousand people were crushed to death . These numbers may be exaggerated , but the loss of life was substantial ; the feast , says Josephus , " became the cause of mourning to the whole nation " .
Further unrest was triggered when an Imperial slave named Stephanus was robbed while travelling near Beth @-@ horon . Troops sent by Cumanus to arrest the leading men of the nearby villages began plundering the area . One of them , finding a copy of the Torah , destroyed it in view of the villagers while shouting blasphemies . Angered by this insult to God and to the Jewish religion , a crowd of Jews confronted Cumanus at Caesarea Maritima , demanding that the guilty party should be punished . This time the governor acted decisively and ordered that the soldier responsible should be beheaded in front of his accusers , temporarily restoring the calm .
= = = Jewish @-@ Samaritan conflict = = =
The events that would cost Cumanus his office began with the murder of one or more Galilean pilgrims who had been travelling through Samaria on their way to Jerusalem . A Galilean embassy asked Cumanus to investigate but received little attention ; Josephus alleges that he had been bribed by the Samaritans to turn a blind eye . The result was that a crowd of Jews decided to take the law into their own hands . Under the leadership of two Zealots , Eleazar and Alexander , they invaded Samaria and began a massacre . Cumanus led most of his troops against the militants , killing many and taking others prisoner , and the Jewish leaders from Jerusalem were subsequently able to calm most of the others , but a state of guerrilla warfare persisted .
Meanwhile , two separate embassies had been dispatched to Tyre to appeal to Ummidius Caius Quadratus , who as legate of Syria had some authority over the lower @-@ ranking procurator of Iudaea . One , from the Samaritans , protested the Jewish attacks on Samaritan villages . The Jewish counter @-@ embassy held the Samaritans responsible for the violence and accused Cumanus of siding with them . Agreeing to investigate , Quadratus proceeded in 52 to Iudaea , where he had all of Cumanus ' Jewish prisoners crucified and ordered the beheading of several other Jews and Samaritans who had been involved in the fighting .
Perhaps after hearing a case against Cumanus in Iudaea , Quadratus sent him , along with several Jewish and Samaritan leaders including the High Priest Ananias , to plead their cases in Rome before the Emperor Claudius . At the hearing , several of Claudius ' influential freedmen officials took the side of Cumanus . However , the Jews were supported by Agrippa II , a friend of Claudius whose father , Agrippa I , had been the last king of Iudaea before the province was placed under Roman procurators . Whether influenced by court politics or not , Claudius decided in favour of the Jewish side . The Samaritan leaders were executed and Cumanus was sent into exile . Felix succeeded him as procurator of Iudaea . Cumanus ' life and career after his banishment are unknown .
= = = Ancient = = =
Josephus , War 2 @.@ 223 @-@ 247
Josephus , Antiquities 20 @.@ 103 @-@ 137
Tacitus , Annals 12 @.@ 54
= = = Modern = = =
Aberbach , M. ( July 1949 ) . " The Conflicting Accounts of Josephus and Tacitus concerning Cumanus ' and Felix ' Terms of Office " . Jewish Quarterly Review ( University of Pennsylvania Press ) 40 ( 1 ) : 1 – 14 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1453002 . JSTOR 1453002 .
Schürer , Emil ( 1973 ) . The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ : Volume I. revised and edited by Geza Vermes , Fergus Millar and Matthew Black ( revised English ed . ) . Edinburgh : T & T Clark. pp. 458 – 460 . ISBN 0 @-@ 567 @-@ 02242 @-@ 0 .
Smallwood , E. Mary ( 1981 ) . The Jews Under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian : A Study in Political Relations ( 2nd ed . ) . Leiden : E. J. Brill. pp. 263 – 269 . ISBN 90 @-@ 04 @-@ 06403 @-@ 6 .
= Ince Blundell Hall =
For the building with a similar name in Cheshire see Ince Hall
Ince Blundell Hall is a former country house near the village of Ince Blundell , in the Metropolitan Borough of Sefton , Merseyside , England . It was built between 1720 and 1750 for Robert Blundell , the lord of the manor , and was designed by Henry Sephton , a local mason @-@ architect . Robert 's son , Henry , was a collector of paintings and antiquities , and he built impressive structures in the grounds of the hall in which to house them . In the 19th century the estate passed to the Weld family . Thomas Weld Blundell modernised and expanded the house , and built an adjoining chapel . In the 1960s the house and estate were sold again , and have since been run as a nursing home by the Canonesses of St. Augustine of the Mercy of Jesus .
The hall is Georgian in style , and consists of a main block with a service block linked at a right @-@ angle to its rear . The hall is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II * listed building . Some of the buildings associated with the hall are also designated at this grade ; these are the Pantheon and the Garden Temple , both of which were built by Henry Blundell for his collection of statues , the chapel , and a building known as the Old Hall . In the garden and grounds of the hall are nine structures listed at Grade II ; these include the stables , a monument , a sundial , gateways and a lodge , and the base of a medieval wayside cross .
= = History = =
The manor of Ince Blundell was held by the Blundell family from the 12th century . The first documentation of the name of Blundell at the site is that of Richard Blundell in 1212 . Following the Reformation the Blundells retained their Catholic faith and suffered from the consequent disadvantages and dangers . Nevertheless , by legal transactions and advantageous marriages the Blundell family acquired more possessions ; by the end of the 18th century they held 15 manors together with other property , some of it as far away as Liverpool and Preston .
The present house was built by Robert Blundell ( 1700 – 73 ) who inherited the estate in 1711 . Building began in about 1720 , and it was finished by 1750 . The house was designed by Henry Sephton , who was the " leading mason @-@ architect in the area " at that time . In 1761 Robert Blundell moved from the house to Liverpool , and the estate passed to his eldest son , Henry ( 1724 – 1810 ) . Henry then started to extend the house by adding what he described as " a large body of offices " at right @-@ angles to the main block , and he did this " without the help of a Wyat ( sic ) or any architect " . In the grounds he designed and built a stable block and greenhouses , created a kitchen garden , and landscaped the park , which included a lake and a ha @-@ ha . He built a wall around the perimeter of the estate , and designed one , and possibly two , of the gateways .
Henry Blundell was a collector , first of paintings and later of statues and antiquities , the collection amounting to over 500 items . In order to house them at Ince Blundell , he constructed a series of buildings in the grounds of the hall . Initially he kept his collection in a series of greenhouses , but in about 1790 – 92 he built the Garden Temple , a building in Classical style . This was followed in about 1802 – 05 by a more impressive building , the Pantheon , its design based on the Pantheon in Rome . When Henry died in 1810 , the hall passed to his son , Charles . He died childless in 1837 , and the estate passed to Thomas Weld , a cousin . He took the name of Thomas Weld Blundell , and restored , refurnished and redecorated the hall . In the mid @-@ 19th century a large bay window was added to the west side of the Drawing Room , and a new Dining Room was built at the east end . Ceilings were raised , and interior decoration was carried out by the firm of Crace . Weld Blundell added a new vestibule to connect the Gallery , the Dining Room , and the Pantheon . The portico of the Pantheon became the new main entrance to the hall , and the Pantheon itself the reception hall . What had been the original chapel became the organ loft of a new large two @-@ storey chapel designed by J. J. Scoles .
During the Second World War the hall , its buildings and park were used by the War Office and the Admiralty , and additional buildings were erected . Five parachute bombs fell near the hall , one of them blowing out all the windows in the garden front . By 1960 the estate was " seriously dilapidated " , and it was decided to sell the hall and the surrounding land . The farms went to the sitting tenants , and the chapel , which had been used as a parish church since 1947 , was given to the Archdiocese of Liverpool . The hall was bought by the Canonesses of St. Augustine of the Mercy of Jesus , who adapted it for use as a nursing home . It was officially opened as such on 27 May 1961 by the Rt Revd John Heenan , who was at that time the Archbishop of Liverpool . Much work had to be done to make the building fit for its new purpose , including making it weather @-@ proof , installing central heating , a lift , and a washbasin in each bedroom . A new entrance was created at the back of the hall , with access for wheelchairs . The former Gallery was converted into a chapel for the use of staff and residents . Henry Blundell 's wing is used partly to provide services for the hall , and partly by the sisters as a convent . The sisters and staff of the hall continue to provide nursing and other care for the elderly .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
Ince Blundell Hall is in Georgian style . It is constructed in brick with sandstone dressings , and has an L @-@ shaped plan . The main block faces southeast ; it is in two storeys with an attic , and has a front of nine bays . Richard Pollard and Nikolaus Pevsner describe the front as being in late English Baroque style , and consider that it was " evidently inspired " by the front of Buckingham Palace , London . Between the upper storey and the attic is an entablature with a cornice and a panelled parapet . The central three bays project forward , the lower storeys are flanked by pairs of giant pilasters , and at the sides of the central doorway are giant columns . There are more pilasters at the ends of the building , and in the central three bays of the attic . All the pilasters and columns are Corinthian in style . The windows are sashes and are surrounded by architraves . The ground floor windows in the central bays have segmental heads with keystones , and those in the outer bays have friezes and pediments carried on consoles . Below the upper floor windows are panelled aprons and consoles . The central doorway has a segmental head and a keystone carved with the Blundell arms . At the corners of the front are quoins .
To the right of the main block is a 19th @-@ century single @-@ storey wing with five bays , the central three of which are canted . Behind is a single @-@ storey block , linking the main block to the service block , which is at right angles to the rear . The service block is Henry Blundell 's " offices " , and is in Palladian style . It faces southwest , is in two storeys , and has a seven @-@ bay front , plus a three @-@ storey three @-@ bay pavilion to the right . The central three bays of the service block project forward under a pediment . Above the central porch is a Diocletian window . There is a clock in the gable , and over the pediment is a cupola carried on Tuscan columns . The windows are sashes with wedge lintels . The central bay of the pavilion is round @-@ headed and recessed , and its windows are a mixture of Diocletian , tripartite , and oculi .
= = = Interior = = =
When the house was first built , the main entrance was through the centre of the southeast face , which led into an entrance hall . Following the alterations carried out by Weld Blundell in the 19th century , the portico of the Pantheon became the new main entrance . When the house was converted into a nursing home , a new entrance was created at the rear . At the time the Weld Blundell family moved from the house , the entrance hall was used as a Library , the Drawing Room was to the left , and a Billiard Room to the right . To the right of this was the Dining Room , and behind it was the Gallery . The Billiard Room has become the Music Room , the former Library is a lounge for the residents , and the former Gallery is the chapel for the staff and residents .
The interior of the house has retained much of the decoration carried out by Crace . The ceiling contains Rococo plasterwork dating from about 1750 depicting symbols relating to music and hunting , together with representations of learning and cultivation . On the walls are paintings by Crace . Pollard and Pevsner refer to these as being " delicately pretty Raphaelesque decoration " . The former Entrance Hall is " small , simple and sober " , and the Staircase Hall behind it is " not a grand space at all " . The Dining Room , also decorated by Crace , contains oak panelling on the walls , and painted panels in the ceiling . The oak fireplace replaces the original marble fireplace that was removed when the Weld Blundell family left the house . There is also a scheme of Crace decoration in the former Gallery .
= = Associated structures = =
= = = Pantheon = = =
The Pantheon is at the angle between the main block and the service block . It is built in stone with a lead dome and has a circular plan . On the southeast side is an Ionic portico with four columns , a frieze , and a cornice . On the exterior are niches and panels with reliefs . Inside is an Ionic pilastrade , a frieze decorated with triglyphs and roundels , and niches for statues , four of which are in the shape of Venetian windows . The interior of the dome is coffered , and it has a central glazed oculus , which is the only source of lighting for the building .
= = = Garden Temple = = =
The Garden Temple , which is in the form of a temple , stands in the grounds to the south of the hall . It was probably designed by William Everard , and it was restored in about 2000 . The building is mainly in stuccoed brick with stone dressings , and has a hipped roof . On the front is a Tuscan portico with four columns , reliefs , and busts , and in the pediment is a mask . The frieze contains a Latin inscription , which translates as " In this place it is summer and winter all year round " , referring to the fact that the building was heated by air from external fireplaces . Behind the portico is a three @-@ bay palistrade , and a central entrance flanked by niches and with a relief above . Inside there are recesses for statues , two in the shape of Venetian windows . Some Roman masks and relief panels have been set into the walls .
= = = Old Hall = = =
Despite its name , this was not the previous hall , as the present hall was built on the site of the older hall . Its original purpose is unknown , and in the 19th century it was used for drying hops . The building stands in the grounds to the southwest of the hall . It is in brick with stone dressings , and has a roof partly of stone @-@ slate and partly of slate . The building has three storeys and a front of five irregular bays . The windows are mullioned , and the entrances have quoins and large lintels with slight Tudor arches .
= = = Church of the Holy Family = = =
The church is at right angles to the north end of the service block . It was originally the family chapel , and has since been used as a Roman Catholic parish church . It was built in 1858 – 60 and designed by J. J. Scoles . The church is in brick with stone dressings and has a slate roof . The exterior is relatively plain , but the interior is elaborately decorated , some of which may have been executed by Crace ; there are also paintings by Gebhard Flatz .
= = = Stables = = =
The stables are in the grounds to the southwest of the hall . They were built in about 1800 – 14 , and are in brick with stone dressings and a hipped slate roof . The stables are in two storeys and have a nine @-@ bay front , the central three bays projecting forward under a pedimented gable . In the centre is a recessed round @-@ headed entrance with angle pilasters , an archivolt , and a keystone . Above this is a Diocletian window . Elsewhere the windows in the ground floor are sashes with wedge lintels , and those in the upper storey are oculi . There are more round @-@ headed recesses in the end bays , and a 20th @-@ century garage to the north .
= = = Garden structures = = =
In the garden to the south of the main block is a monument in the form of a marble Tuscan column on a stone plinth . It carries an eagle , and dates from the early 19th century . To the southwest of the hall is a sundial dated 1741 . This consists of a stone baluster , and its metal plate is missing . Further to the southwest is an octagonal structure built into the wall of the kitchen garden . It is in stuccoed brick with a slate roof , and has a round @-@ headed entrance and a keystone decorated with an acanthus . This flanked by recesses , and there are more recesses inside . Also within the grounds of the hall is the base of a medieval wayside cross , which is a scheduled monument .
= = = Gates and lodge = = =
The most impressive entrance to the grounds is the Lion Gate on the A565 road to the south of the hall . It was designed by Henry Blundell in the 1770s , its Baroque style design copied from a gateway in the background of one of his paintings , the Marriage of Bacchus and Ariadne by Sebastiano Ricci . The gate is constructed in sandstone and consists of a central round @-@ arched entrance and two flat @-@ headed pedestrian entrances . The central entrance is in Doric style with columns , and an entablature with a triglyph frieze including bucrania and rosettes . On the top is a broken pediment containing a cartouche and an urn decorated with ram 's heads and festoons . The pedestrian entrances have rusticated surrounds . Above one is a statue of a lion , and above the other is a lioness . The entrances contain cast iron gates . The East Gate dates from the 1770s , and was probably also designed by Henry Blundell . It has a round @-@ headed central entrance and flat @-@ headed pedestrian entrances , and is simpler than the Lion Gate . The central entrance is flanked by Ionic pilasters , there is a fluted frieze with a decorated central panel , and a pediment . Above the pedestrian entrances are tented caps decorated with festoons and rosettes .
The West Lodge , also on the A565 road , is to the north of the Lion Gate . Dating from the middle of the 19th century it is in French Renaissance style , built in brick with stone dressings and a slate roof . The lodge has three bays , the central lodge with two storeys , and the outer lodges with one storey and attics . The central bay is flanked by pilasters , and has a round @-@ headed entrance with archivolts , a keystone , and decorated spandrels . The windows are round @-@ headed sashes ; there is a pair above the entrance , and one in each of the outer bays . In the attics are dormers with ball finials . The outer bays have hipped roofs , the central bay has a pyramidal roof , and all have spike finials . The simplest entrance is the Northeast Gate , dating from the 1770s , consisting of a pair of gate piers with later gates . The rusticated piers are in stone and have moulded caps and flattened ball finials .
= = Appraisal = =
Ince Blundell Hall is described by Pollard and Pevsner as a " splendid Georgian house " , although they consider Blundell 's service block is " a rather plodding Palladian affair " . The hall was designated a Grade II * listed building on 11 October 1968 . Grade II * is the middle of the three grades of listing and is applied to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . Also listed at this grade are the Pantheon , the Garden Temple , the Old Hall , and the Church of the Holy Family , along with the park and garden surrounding the hall . Other structures are listed at Grade II , the lowest grade , which is applied to " buildings of national importance and special interest " . These are the stables , the column carrying an eagle , the sundial , the octagonal structure , the Lion Gate , the East Gate , the West Lodge , the Northeast Gate , and the base of the wayside cross .
= National Front ( France ) =
The National Front ( French : Front national , French pronunciation : [ fʁɔ ̃ na.sjɔ.nal ] , FN ) is a socially conservative , nationalist political party in France . Its major policies include economic protectionism , a zero tolerance approach to law and order issues , and opposition to immigration . A eurosceptic party , the FN has opposed the European Union since its creation in 1993 . Most political commentators place the FN on the right to far right but party representatives reject this and suggest other ways of looking at the left – right axis . The party was founded in 1972 to unify a variety of French nationalist movements of the time . Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen was the party 's first leader and the undisputed centre of the party from its start until his resignation in 2011 . Marine Le Pen , his daughter , was elected as the current leader . While the party struggled as a marginal force for its first ten years , since 1984 it has been the major force of French nationalism .
The 2002 presidential election was the first in France to include a National Front candidate in the run @-@ off , after Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen beat the Socialist candidate in the first round . In the run @-@ off , he finished a distant second to Jacques Chirac . Due to the French electoral system , the party 's representation in public office has been limited , despite its significant share of the vote .
While her father was nicknamed the " Devil of the Republic " by mainstream media , Marine Le Pen pursued a policy of " de @-@ demonization " of the party by softening its image . She endeavoured to extract it from its far @-@ right cultural roots , and to normalize it by giving it a culture of government , expelling controversial members like her father , who was suspended , and then expelled by his own party in 2015 after he referred , once again , to the Nazi gas chambers as " a point of detail of the history of the Second World War " ; he later set up the Blue , White and Red Rally . Since her election as the leader of the party in 2011 , the popularity of the FN continued to grow apace : the party won several municipalities at the 2014 municipal elections ; it became the first French party at the 2014 European elections with 25 % of the votes ; and again in the last departmental elections in France . They , once again , came out in 1st place in the last regional elections with a historic result of nearly 28 % of the votes . Marine Le Pen would lead the first round of the 2017 presidential elections , according to various polls . As of 2015 , the FN has established itself as one of the largest political forces in France .
= = Background = =
The FN springs from a right @-@ wing tradition in France that dates back to the French Revolution of 1789 , and the party rejects both the revolution and its legacy . One of the primary progenitors of the party was the Action Française , founded at the end of the 19th century , and its descendants in the Restauration Nationale , a pro @-@ monarchy group that supports the claim of the Count of Paris to the French throne . More recently , the party drew from the Poujadism of the 1950s , which started out as an anti @-@ tax movement without relations to the right @-@ wing , but included among its parliamentary deputies " proto @-@ nationalists " such as Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen .
Another conflict that is part of the party 's background was the Algerian War ( many frontistes , including Le Pen , were directly involved in the war ) , and the right @-@ wing dismay over the decision by French President Charles de Gaulle to abandon his promise of holding on to French Algeria . In the 1965 presidential election , Le Pen unsuccessfully attempted to consolidate the right @-@ wing vote around the right @-@ wing presidential candidate Jean @-@ Louis Tixier @-@ Vignancour . During the late 1960s and early 1970s , the French far @-@ right consisted mainly of small extreme movements such as Occident , Groupe Union Défense ( GUD ) , and the Ordre Nouveau ( ON ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1972 – 1981 ) = = =
While the ON had competed in some local elections since 1970 , at its second congress in June 1972 it decided to establish a new political party to contest the 1973 legislative elections . The party was launched on 5 October 1972 under the name National Front for French Unity ( Front national pour l 'unité française ) , or Front National . In order to create a broad movement , the ON sought to model the new party ( as it earlier had sought to model itself ) on the more established Italian Social Movement ( MSI ) , which at the time appeared to establish a broad coalition for the Italian right . The FN adopted a French version of the MSI tricolour flame as its logo . It wanted to unite the various French far @-@ right currents , and brought together Le Pen 's nationalist group , Roger Holeindre 's Party of French Unity , Georges Bidault 's Justice and Liberty movement , former Poujadists , Algerian War veterans , and some monarchists , among others . Le Pen was chosen to be the first president of the party , as he was untainted with the militant public image of the ON and was a relatively moderate figure on the far @-@ right .
The National Front fared poorly in the 1973 legislative elections , receiving 0 @.@ 5 % of the national vote ( although Le Pen won 5 % in his Paris constituency ) . In 1973 the party created a youth movement , the Front national de la jeunesse ( National Front of the Youth , FNJ ) . The rhetoric used in the campaign stressed old far @-@ right themes and was largely uninspiring to the electorate at the time . Otherwise , its official program at this point was relatively moderate , differing little from the mainstream right . Le Pen sought the " total fusion " of the currents in the party , and warned against crude activism . The more radical elements of the ON were not persuaded , and reverted to hard activism . They were banned from the party later that year . Le Pen soon became the undisputed leader of the party , although this cost it many leading members and much of its militant base .
In the 1974 presidential election , Le Pen failed to find a mobilising theme for his campaign . Many of its major issues , such as anti @-@ communism , were shared by most of the mainstream right . Other FN issues included calls for increased French birth rates , immigration reduction ( although this was downplayed ) , establishment of a professional army , abrogation of the Évian Accords , and generally the creation of a " French and European renaissance . " Despite being the only nationalist candidate , he failed to gain the support of a united far @-@ right , as the various groups either rallied behind other candidates or called for voter abstention . The campaign further lost ground when the Revolutionary Communist League published a denunciation of Le Pen 's alleged involvement in torture during his time in Algeria . In his first presidential election , Le Pen gained only 0 @.@ 8 % of the national vote .
= = = = FN – PFN rivalry = = = =
Following the 1974 election , the FN was obscured by the appearance of the Party of New Forces ( PFN ) , founded by FN dissidents ( largely from the ON ) . Their competition weakened both parties throughout the 1970s . During the same time , the FN gained several new groups of supporters , including François Duprat and his " revolutionary nationalists " , Jean @-@ Pierre Stirbois and his " solidarists " , the Nouvelle Droite , and Bernard Anthony . Following the death of Duprat in a bomb attack , the revolutionary nationalists left the party , while Stirbois became Le Pen 's deputy as his solidarists effectively ousted the neo @-@ fascist tendency in the party leadership . The far @-@ right was marginalised altogether in the 1978 legislative elections , although the PFN was better off . For the first election for the European Parliament in 1979 , the PFN had become part of an attempt to build a " Euro @-@ Right " alliance of European far @-@ right parties , and was in the end the only one of the two that contested the election . It fielded Jean @-@ Louis Tixier @-@ Vignancour as its primary candidate , while Le Pen called for voter abstention .
For the 1981 presidential election , both Le Pen and Pascal Gauchon of the PFN declared their intentions to run . However , an increased requirement on support by elected officials had been introduced for the election , which left both Le Pen and Gauchon unable to stand for the election . ( In France , parties have to secure support from a specific number of elected officials , from a specific number of departments , in order to be eligible to run for election . In 1976 , the number of required elected officials was increased fivefold , and the number of departments threefold . ) The election was won by François Mitterrand of the Socialist Party ( PS ) , which gave the political left national power for the first time in the Fifth Republic ; he then dissolved the National Assembly to call a snap legislative election . The PS attained its best ever result with an absolute majority in the 1981 legislative election . This " socialist takeover " led to a radicalisation in centre @-@ right , anti @-@ communist , and anti @-@ socialist voters . With only three weeks to prepare its campaign , the FN fielded only a limited number of candidates and won only 0 @.@ 2 % of the national vote . The PFN was even worse off , and the election marked the effective end of competition from the party .
= = = Electoral breakthrough ( 1982 – 1988 ) = = =
While the French party system had been dominated by polarisation and competition between the clear @-@ cut ideological alternatives of two political blocs in the 1970s , the two blocs had largely moved towards the centre by the mid @-@ 1980s . This led many voters to perceive the blocs as more or less indistinguishable , in turn inciting them to seek out to new political alternatives . By October 1982 , Le Pen supported the prospect of deals with the mainstream right , provided that the FN did not have to soften its position on key issues . In the 1983 municipal elections , the centre @-@ right Rally for the Republic ( RPR ) and centrist Union for French Democracy ( UDF ) formed alliances with the FN in a number of towns . The most notable result came in the 20th arrondissement of Paris , where Le Pen was elected to the local council with 11 % of the vote . Later by @-@ elections kept media attention on the party , and it was for the first time allowed to pose as a viable component of the broader right . In a by @-@ election in Dreux in October , the FN won 17 % of the vote . With the choice of defeat to the political left or dealing with the FN , the local RPR and UDF , to a minor national sensation , agreed to form an alliance with the FN , and together won the second round with 55 % of the vote . The events in Dreux were a monumental factor for the rise of the FN .
Le Pen protested the media boycott against his party by sending letters to President Mitterrand in mid @-@ 1982 . After some letter exchanges , Mitterrand instructed the heads of the main television channels to give equitable coverage to the FN . In January 1984 , the party made its first appearance in a monthly poll of political popularity , in which 9 % of respondents held a " positive opinion " of the FN and some support for Le Pen . The next month , Le Pen was for the first time invited to a prime @-@ time television interview program , which he himself later deemed " the hour that changed everything " . The 1984 European elections in June came as a shock , as the FN won 11 % of the vote and ten seats . Notably , the election used proportional representation and had a low level of importance , which played to the party 's advantage . The FN made inroads in constituencies of both the right and left , and finished second in a number of towns . While many Socialists had arguably exploited the party in order to divide the right , Mitterrand later conceded that he had underestimated Le Pen . By July , 17 % of opinion poll respondents held a positive opinion of the FN .
By the early 1980s , the FN featured a mosaic of ideological tendencies and attracted figures who were previously resistant to the party . The party managed to draw supporters from the mainstream right , including some high @-@ profile defectors from the RPR , UDF , and National Centre of Independents and Peasants ( CNIP ) . In the 1984 European elections , eleven of the 81 FN candidates came from these parties , and the party 's list also included an Arab and a Jew ( although in unwinnable positions ) . Former collaborators were also accepted in the party , as Le Pen urged the need for " reconciliation " , arguing that forty years after the war the only important question was whether or not " they wish to serve their country " . The FN won 8 @.@ 7 % overall support in the 1985 cantonal elections , and over 30 % in some areas .
For the 1986 legislative elections the FN took advantage of a new proportional representation system that had been imposed by Mitterrand in order to moderate a foreseeable defeat for his PS . In the election , the FN won 9 @.@ 8 % of the vote and 35 seats in the National Assembly . Many of its seats could be filled by a new wave of respectable political operatives , notables , who had joined the party after its 1984 success . The RPR won a majority with smaller centre @-@ right parties , and thus avoided the need to deal with the FN . Although it was unable to exercise any real political influence , the party could project an image of political legitimacy . The party 's time in the National Assembly effectively came to an end when Jacques Chirac reinstated the two @-@ round system of majority voting for the next election . In the regional elections held on the same day , it won 137 seats , and gained representation in 21 of the 22 French regional councils . The RPR depended on FN support to win presidencies in some regional councils , and the FN won vice @-@ presidential posts in four regions .
= = = Consolidation ( 1988 – 1995 ) = = =
Le Pen 's campaign for the upcoming presidential election unofficially began in the months following the 1986 election . To promote his statesmanship credentials , he made trips to South East Asia , the United States , and Africa . The management of the formal campaign , launched in April 1987 , was entrusted to Bruno Mégret , one of the new notables . With his entourage , Le Pen traversed France for the entire period and , helped by Mégret , employed an American @-@ style campaign . Le Pen 's presidential campaign was highly successful ; no candidates came close to rival his ability to excite audiences at rallies and boost ratings at television appearances . Using a populist tone , Le Pen presented himself as the representative of the people against the " gang of four " ( RPR , UDF , PS , Communist Party ) , while the central theme of his campaign was " national preference " . In the 1988 presidential election , Le Pen won an unprecedented 14 @.@ 4 % of the vote , and double the votes from 1984 .
The FN was hurt in the snap 1988 legislative elections by the return two @-@ ballot majority voting , by the limited campaign period , and by the departure of many notables . In the election the party retained its 9 @.@ 8 % support from the previous legislative election , but was reduced to a single seat in the National Assembly . Following some anti @-@ Semitic comments made by Le Pen and the FN newspaper National Hebdo in the late 1980s , some valuable FN politicians left the party . Other quarrels soon also left the party without its remaining member of the National Assembly . In November 1988 , general secretary Jean @-@ Pierre Stirbois , who , together with his wife Marie @-@ France , had been instrumental in the FN 's early electoral successes , died in a car accident , leaving Bruno Mégret as the unrivalled de facto FN deputy leader . The FN only got 5 % in the 1988 cantonal elections , while the RPR announced it would reject any alliance with the FN , now including at local level . In the 1989 European elections , the FN held on to its ten seats as it won 11 @.@ 7 % of the vote .
In the wake of FN electoral success , the immigration debate , growing concerns over Islamic fundamentalism , and the fatwa against Salman Rushdie by Ayatollah Khomeini , the 1989 affaire du foulard was the first major test of the relations between the values of the French Republic and Islam . Following the event , surveys found that French public opinion was largely negative towards Islam . In a 1989 legislative by @-@ election in Dreux , FN candidate Marie @-@ France Stirbois , campaigning on an anti @-@ Islamism platform , returned a symbolic FN presence to the National Assembly . By the early 1990s , some mainstream politicians began employing anti @-@ immigration rhetoric . In the first round of the 1993 legislative elections the FN soared to 12 @.@ 7 % of the overall vote , but did not win a single seat due to the nature of the electoral system ( if the election had used proportional representation , it would have won 64 seats ) . In the 1995 presidential election , Le Pen rose slightly to 15 % of the vote .
= = = = 1995 municipal elections = = = =
The FN won an absolute majority ( and thus the mayorship ) in three cities in the 1995 municipal elections : Toulon , Marignane , and Orange . ( It had won a mayorship only once before , in the small town of Saint @-@ Gilles @-@ du @-@ Gard in 1989 . ) Le Pen then declared that his party would implement its " national preference " policy , with the risk of provoking the central government and being at odds with the laws of the Republic . The FN pursued interventionist policies with regards to the new cultural complexion of their towns by directly influencing artistic events , cinema schedules , and library holdings , as well as cutting or halting subsidies for multicultural associations . The party won Vitrolles , its fourth town , in a 1997 by @-@ election , where similar policies were pursued . Vitrolles ' new mayor Catherine Mégret ( fr ) ( who ran in place of her husband Bruno ) went further in one significant measure , introducing a special 5 @,@ 000 franc allowance for babies born to at least one parent of French ( or EU ) nationality . The measure was ruled illegal by a court , also giving her a suspended prison sentence , a fine , and a two @-@ year ban from public office .
= = = Turmoil , split of MNR ( 1997 – 2002 ) = = =
In the 1997 legislative elections the FN polled its best @-@ ever result with 15 @.@ 3 % support in metropolitan France , confirming its position as the third most important political force in France . It also showed that the party had become established enough to compete without its leader , who decided not to run to focus on the 2002 presidential election . Although it won only one seat in the National Assembly ( Toulon ) , thanks to a good communication director , it advanced to the second round in 132 constituencies . The FN was arguably more influential now than it had been in 1986 with its 35 seats . While Bruno Mégret and Bruno Gollnisch , in an unusual display of dissent , favoured tactical cooperation with a weakened centre @-@ right following the left 's victory , Le Pen rejected any such compromise . In the tenth FN national congress in 1997 , Mégret stepped up his position in the party as its rising star and a potential leader following Le Pen . Le Pen however refused to designate Mégret as his successor @-@ elect , and instead made his wife Jany the leader of the FN list for the upcoming European election .
Mégret and his faction left the FN in January 1999 and founded the National Republican Movement ( MNR ) , effectively splitting the FN in half at most levels . Many of those who joined the new MNR had joined the FN in the mid @-@ 1980s , in part from the Nouvelle Droite , with a vision of building bridges to the parliamentary right . Many had also been particularly influential in intellectualising the FN 's policies on immigration , identity and " national preference " , and , following the split , Le Pen denounced them as " extremist " and " racist " . Support for the parties was almost equal in the 1999 European election , as the FN polled its lowest national score since 1984 with just 5 @.@ 7 % , and the MNR won 3 @.@ 3 % . The effects of the split , and competition from more moderate nationalists , had left their combined support lower than the FN result in 1984 .
= = = 2002 presidential election = = =
For the 2002 presidential election , opinion polls had predicted a run @-@ off between incumbent President Chirac and PS candidate Lionel Jospin . The shock was thus great when Le Pen unexpectedly beat Jospin ( by 0 @.@ 7 % ) in the first round . This resulted in the first presidential run @-@ off since 1969 without a leftist candidate , and the first ever with a candidate of the far @-@ right . To Le Pen 's advantage , the election campaign had increasingly focused on law and order issues , helped by media attention on a number of violent incidents . Jospin had also been weakened due to the competition between an exceptional number of leftist parties . Nevertheless , Chirac did not even have to campaign in the second round , as widespread anti @-@ Le Pen protests from the media and public opinion culminated on May Day , with an estimated 1 @.@ 5 million demonstrators across France . Chirac also refused to debate with Le Pen , and the traditional televised debate was cancelled . In the end , Chirac won the presidential run @-@ off with an unprecedented 82 @.@ 2 % of the vote and with 71 % of his votes — according to polls — cast simply " to block Le Pen " . Following the presidential election , the main centre @-@ right parties merged to form the broad @-@ based Union for a Popular Movement ( UMP ) . The FN failed to hold on to Le Pen 's support for the 2002 legislative elections , in which it got 11 @.@ 3 % of the vote . It nevertheless outpolled Mégret 's MNR , which won a mere 1 @.@ 1 % support , even though it had fielded the same number of candidates .
= = = Late 2000s decline = = =
A new electoral system of two @-@ round voting had been introduced for the 2004 regional elections , in part in an attempt to reduce the FN 's influence in regional councils . The FN won 15 @.@ 1 % of the vote in metropolitan France , almost the same as in 1998 , but its number of councillors was almost halved due to the new electoral system . For the 2004 European elections too , a new system less favourable to the FN had been introduced . The party regained some of its strength from 1999 , earning 9 @.@ 8 % of the vote and seven seats .
For the 2007 presidential election , Le Pen and Mégret agreed to join forces . Le Pen came fourth in the election with 11 % of the vote , and the party won no seats in the legislative election of the same year . The party 's 4 @.@ 3 % support was the lowest score since the 1981 election and only one candidate , Marine Le Pen in Pas de Calais , reached the runoff ( where she was defeated by the Socialist incumbent ) . These electoral defeats partly accounted for the party 's financial problems . Le Pen announced the sale of the FN headquarters in Saint @-@ Cloud , Le Paquebot , and of his personal armoured car . Twenty permanent employees of the FN were also dismissed in 2008 . In the 2010 regional elections the FN appeared to have re @-@ emerged on the political scene after surprisingly winning almost 12 % of the overall vote and 118 seats .
= = = Marine Le Pen ( 2011 – present ) = = =
Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen announced in September 2008 that he would retire as FN president in 2010 . Le Pen 's daughter Marine Le Pen and FN executive vice @-@ president Bruno Gollnisch campaigned for the presidency to succeed Le Pen , with Marine 's candidacy backed by her father . On 15 January 2011 , it was announced that Marine Le Pen had received the two @-@ thirds vote needed to become the new leader of the FN . She sought to transform the FN into a mainstream party by softening its xenophobic image . Opinion polls showed the party 's popularity increase under Marine Le Pen , and in the 2011 cantonal elections the party won 15 % of the overall vote ( up from 4 @.@ 5 % in 2008 ) . However , due to the French electoral system , the party only won 2 of the 2 @,@ 026 seats up for election .
For the 2012 presidential election , opinion polls showed Marine Le Pen as a serious challenger , with a few polls even suggesting that she could win the first round of the election . In the event , Le Pen came third in the first round
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agglebeast , which they manage to kill . Ratchet , who had always mistrusted Qwark , blames Clank for being naive , to which Clank responds by calling him a coward for putting his personal feelings ahead of the galaxy 's survival . Despite their mutual distrust , the two continue to fight the Blarg , forcing Drek to send Qwark to destroy them with his personal warship . Following a brutal dogfight in an asteroid belt , Qwark is defeated and Ratchet and Clank patch up their friendship .
With his new planet nearly complete , Drek orders the destruction of Hoven so that he can move it into the planet 's ideal orbit . The duo successfully destroy the warhead built for this purpose , so Drek unveils his ultimate weapon : the Deplanetizer , a laser capable of reducing a planet to molecules . Learning that his new target is Ratchet 's home of Veldin , the two heroes sabotage his fleet and confront the Chairman himself on the surface . Drek admits that he was responsible for Orxon 's ecological destruction , which he engineered to force the Blarg to settle on his artificial planet for inflated prices , and that he intends to repeat the process over and over again until the entire galaxy is destroyed . Ratchet launches Drek into space , killing him when he collides with his new planet , and then destroys it with the Deplanetizer . The planetary fragments raining down upon Veldin knock both Clank and Ratchet off the platform , but Clank grabs a ledge in an attempt to save them both , injuring his arm in the process . He is unable to pull himself and Ratchet up to safety , but manages to break their fall using his thruster @-@ pack . Although the initial purpose of their partnership is done , Ratchet and Clank set aside their differences and Ratchet takes Clank home with him to fix his arm , ultimately strengthening their bond and friendship . In a post @-@ credits scene , Ratchet and Clank ( whose arm has been repaired ) watch an informercial featuring the now @-@ disgraced Qwark , who advertises a product to improve one 's hygiene , which he demonstrates , but this greatly disgusts the duo . Clank immediately turns off the television , ending the game .
= = Development and release = =
After finishing work on the Spyro the Dragon series , Insomniac originally intended to launch a game codenamed I5 ( Insomniac game # 5 ) for the PlayStation 2 . The developers , however , were never enthusiastic about it , and the idea was dropped after six months . Ratchet & Clank was based on an idea by Brian Hastings , which would feature a space @-@ traveling reptile alien who would collect various weapons as he progressed through the game ; Ratchet 's final form was decided upon after Insomniac considered a space lizard with a tail and various terrestrial creatures , including dogs and rats ; feline features stood out to the developers because of the associated sense of agility . Another early idea was to have a number of small robots attached to Ratchet , which would perform different functions . However , Insomniac realized that having the three robots was both complicated and created confusion about Ratchet 's appearance , leading them to have only one robot , Clank . Very little was cut for the final product , apart from a few weapons and gadgets that " just weren 't fun " .
Shortly after changing the game from I5 to Ratchet & Clank , Naughty Dog asked Insomniac if they would be interested in sharing the game technology used in Naughty Dog 's Jak and Daxter : The Precursor Legacy , asking that Insomniac in turn share with them any improvements that were made . Insomniac agreed , resulting in most of the Ratchet & Clank engine technology being developed in @-@ house by Insomniac , but some very important renderers were those developed by Naughty Dog . Looking back on the agreement , Ted Price said that " Naughty Dog 's generosity gave us a huge leg up and allowed us to draw the enormous vistas in the game . " Some years later , Ted Price clarified Insomniac 's stance on engine technology while obliquely mentioning the shared renderers :
" We 've always developed all our own technology . It 's been a little frustrating in the past for us to hear people say , ' Oh yeah , the Insomniac game is running on the Naughty Dog engine . ' People assumed that we were using Naughty Dog 's engine for Ratchet , and that was not true . We shared some technology with Naughty Dog way back when , and that was great , but we are a company that puts stock in developing specialized technology and we will continue to do so . " -- Ted Price , Independent PlayStation Magazine , September 2006
Pre @-@ production of the game began in late March 2001 , with a team of approximately 35 people . The game went into production in November 2001 , and by the end of the project , the team had grown to 45 . The game was first released in North America on November 4 , 2002 , and then in Australia on November 6 , 2002 . It was later released in PAL regions on November 8 , 2002 , and in Japan on December 3 , 2002 . In November 2003 , Sony added Ratchet & Clank to their Greatest hits series of games for the PlayStation 2 when Ratchet & Clank : Going Commando was released at that time , and the game was similarly added to Sony 's Platinum Range used in the PAL region on August 22 , 2003 . The game was added to Japan 's The Best range on July 3 , 2003 ; it was also the only game to be bundled with the PlayStation 2 in Japan .
= = Reception = =
Ratchet & Clank was met with positive reviews from critics upon release . After playing a preview of the game , GameSpot described it as having " excellent graphics , varied gameplay , and tight control [ s ] " . The game 's use of weapons , rather than simple melee attacks , was cited as one of the main features that made it stand out from other platform games ; Computer and Video Games said that " Going berserk with your giant ratchet [ ... ] is seriously satisfying [ ... ] Every time you thump an enemy with the hefty tool , it looks , sounds and feels remarkably solid . [ ... ] What 's more , the same can be said for all the other weapons you collect and use over the course of your intergalactic adventure " . GameSpot noted that the player does not need to follow the same paths multiple times , as was common in platformers at the time . Gameplanet said that it was " Quite simply the best platform game on the PS2 right now and possibly the best on any format ! "
Reviewers praised the game 's graphics , specifically pointing out the character and background designs as being high @-@ quality for PS2 games of the time . GameSpy called the graphics " mind @-@ blowing " , and GameSpot praised the game 's smooth frame rate . GameZone noted the animation of Ratchet , praising the details in his animation . Reviewers found that the game 's voice overs and other audio elements were generally well @-@ done . IGN commented on the game 's artificial intelligence , saying that it was not as well @-@ done as that of Jak and Daxter : The Precursor Legacy , but still " purposefully comic and somewhat sophisticated " in others . Gameplanet felt that the game 's levels were well laid @-@ out .
Criticism was aimed at the game 's camera angles , which Eurogamer felt were " idiotic " at times , giving the example of boss fights in which the camera centers on the boss rather than being freely movable . Allgame found that it was hard to form an emotional bond with Ratchet & Clank 's main characters , saying that Ratchet is " your typical teenager [ ... ] who desires nothing more than excitement and adventure " and that Clank is " the stereotypical intellectual ; stuffy and almost prudish to a fault " , feeling instead that the characters of Jak and Daxter from Jak and Daxter : The Precursor Legacy were " infinitely more likeable . " Some criticisms were also aimed at the story , with GameSpy saying that the game became predictable , boring , and " just bland " . Reviewers also noted that the first half of the game was " yawn inducing " , but once the player reaches planet Rilgar , it becomes much more intense and difficult ; GamePro found that the player does not " engage a single thought process " for the first parts of the game .
= = = Legacy = = =
In June 2014 , it was announced that the game would be re @-@ imagined for the PlayStation 4 , with the intention of remaking the original game as if Insomniac Games were to make the game again today . It has also been confirmed that the re @-@ imagining will tie @-@ in with the upcoming film . The game was originally planned to be released on the PlayStation 4 in 2015 , but was delayed along with the film to April 12 , 2016 .
= Revelations ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Revelations " is the eleventh episode of the third season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 15 , 1995 . It was written by Kim Newton and directed by David Nutter . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Revelations " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 , being watched by 15 @.@ 25 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to positive reviews .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a case where fake stigmatics are being murdered . When a boy shows signs of being a real stigmatic , Mulder and Scully attempt to protect him , fearing that he will be the latest victim .
" Revelations " became a minor storyline milestone for the series with the exploration of Scully 's faith as a devout Roman Catholic . Throughout the remainder of the series , her Catholic faith served as a cornerstone , although at times a contradiction to her otherwise rigid skepticism of the paranormal . Furthermore , while Mulder is usually the believer and Scully is usually the skeptic , " Revelations " features a role reversal with Scully becoming the believer and Mulder becoming the skeptic , a move that Duchovny called " a refreshing change of pace . "
= = Plot = =
A minister fakes stigmatic injuries to his hands during a sermon . Afterwards , he is visited by a white @-@ haired man named Simon Gates , who strangles him — his hands smoking while he does so . Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) investigate the case . Mulder says that the priest was the eleventh fake stigmatic who has been killed over the past three years in a series of international murders . Meanwhile , at an elementary school in Loveland , Ohio , a boy , Kevin Kryder starts bleeding from the palms of his hands . The agents arrive and meet with a social worker , who claims that Kevin has suffered injuries before and that his father was institutionalized , adding that Kevin was in danger from evil forces . The agents visit Kevin 's father , who claims that his son is the chosen one and that evil forces will come to kill him as part of a great war between good and evil .
Kevin is abducted by a strange @-@ looking bald man . Kevin 's mother recognizes the man 's description as that of Owen Jarvis , who had done yard work for the family in the past . Owen claims to be Kevin 's guardian angel . By the time the agents arrive , Kevin is gone . Owen claims he was asked by God to protect Kevin and criticizes Scully for her faith not being as strong as his . Owen jumps out the window and escapes . Kevin arrives at his home and is pursued by Gates , who kills Owen when he arrives to protect him . Scully performs an autopsy and finds that Owen 's corpse is not decaying , reminding her of " incorruptibles " that she learned about in Catechism . Mulder tells Scully to not let her faith cloud her judgment . Scully finds that handprints on Owen 's neck belong to Simon Gates , a rich and powerful executive .
Kevin travels with his mother in a car which breaks down . Gates arrives offering to help fix the car , and Kevin , who appears in two places at once , is able to distract him and help them escape . However , Kevin 's mother , hurt by Gates , runs the car into a ditch , dying as a result . Scully tells Kevin she 'll protect him . They bring him to a hotel where Scully finds an additional wound on Kevin 's side . Scully becomes upset at Mulder for his unwillingness to accept the possibility of a miracle . As they talk , Gates breaks into the bathroom , kidnapping Kevin by prying an opening in the barred window . Scully returns to see Kevin 's father but finds him heavily drugged .
Scully theorizes that Gates has brought Kevin to a recycling plant he owns in Jerusalem , Ohio . Mulder thinks that he has headed to the airport , as a man matching Gates ' description was reported headed there . Mulder thinks Scully believes that she 's been chosen to protect Kevin . Scully arrives at the recycling plant where Gates tells Kevin that he must die for the ' New Age ' to come . Gates attempts to jump into a paper shredding machine with Kevin , but Kevin grabs onto the side as Gates falls into the shredder . Scully is able to pull Kevin to safety . Two days later , Scully and Kevin say goodbye . Kevin tells Scully he 'll see her again . Scully goes to the confessional for the first time in years , wondering if God is speaking , but no one is listening .
= = Production = =
" Revelations " was written by Kim Newton , who would go on to write one further episode of The X @-@ Files : the third season 's " Quagmire " . The episode was directed by David Nutter and would be his final episode of The X @-@ Files . Nutter decided that , after the episode , he wished to pursue different things and that the series was in excellent hands with fellow directors Rob Bowman and Kim Manners . Actor Kenneth Welsh appears in the episode as the demonic Simon Gates . Welsh had previously appeared with Duchovny in the critically acclaimed 1990 serial drama Twin Peaks .
The episode features a role reversal with Dana Scully the believer and Fox Mulder the skeptic , which David Duchovny called " a refreshing change of pace . " Nutter said that dealing with faith permitted the show 's creators to further delve into Scully 's character . The episode was the first to discuss Scully 's faith in @-@ depth . Series creator Chris Carter later emphasized that the theme of the episode was more on personal belief rather than organized religion , noting , " [ The episode ] deals with faith , not religion with a capital ' R ' or Catholicism with a capital ' C ' " . The producers for the series were cautious about presenting an overtly religious episode of the series for fear of " pissing certain people off " , but , according to Carter , the show " handled it in such a way as to make it about miracle belief , or lack of belief . "
According to co @-@ producer Paul Rabwin the episode had script problems and went through several rewrites while the episode was still in production . The producers felt it was difficult to sell the concept of religious magic and having Kevin appear in two places at once . The episode went through a detailed editing process , which including additional tweaks to the script . These changes required actor Kevin Zegers to be flown back to Vancouver to film additional scenes . The producers claimed to be in awe by the way the episode turned out after all the additional work had been done . Several of the scenes were altered or cut during post @-@ production . The producers were unhappy with the voice of the priest in the final scene , resulting in them using a new vocal track in post @-@ production . A scene with Kevin 's father speaking in tongues — as well as quoting the famous " Klaatu barada nikto " line from The Day the Earth Stood Still — was cut in the final edit of the episode .
= = Reception = =
" Revelations " premiered on the Fox network on December 15 , 1995 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 , with a 17 share , meaning that roughly 10 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 17 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . This totaled 15 @.@ 25 million viewers .
Critical reception to the episode was moderately positive . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club gave the episode a B + and wrote positively of Scully 's portrayal , noting " Really , this works best as a Scully episode . I prefer Darin Morgan 's version of the character [ ... ] , but I doubt that version could support a full episode about God in the same way that this more searching , and lost , Scully does . " However , Handlen was critical of some of the religious aspects of the episode , noting that " If there 's a Christian God in the X @-@ Files universe , doesn 't that trump just about everything else that Mulder and Scully have spent their time on ? ... There are too many implications here for the show to support , and while it doesn 't destroy the episode , it does make it difficult for me to back it as fully as I 'd like to . " John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a 7 out of 10 rating , noting " Overall , this episode highlights Scully and her faith , and in the process , manages to presage many of the future plot developments for the series and her character . The spiritual war at the foundation of the series mythology is reflected in a situation that speaks directly to Scully and her upbringing , and though some of the religious metaphors are heavy @-@ handed , it works well enough . " Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a B + and wrote positively of the episode 's " inventiveness , " which " derives from its choice of the most mainstream paranormality of all — Christianity . " The review also wrote positively of the Mulder @-@ Scully role reversal , calling the change " always welcome " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She noted that " Scully 's search to reconcile her religious beliefs and her scientific training makes for powerful drama , and Gillian Anderson is up to the challenge . " Vitaris , however , criticized elements of the plot , most notably the " un @-@ saintly " quality of Kevin and Kevin 's lack of emotion after his mother is killed . Furthermore , she called the ending " a real mess " . Not all reviews were positive . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five , and called it a " peculiarly bloodless episode " . The two wrote that many of the traits possessed by Kevin were only helpful in certain isolated scenes , such as the ability to bilocate . Shearman and Pearson concluded that the show should " take a serious subject by all means , but then take the subject seriously . "
Director David Nutter was pleased with the finished product . He was most notably happy with Anderson 's acting , saying that she delivered a sparkling performance , particularly in the final scene . He also stated " I really love working with Gillian . She 's got such an ability to emote and give from the inside . "
Actor Michael Berryman has said that this was his favorite role in his career and credits it for reversing typecasting that always put him in the role of the monster .
= Erschallet , ihr Lieder , erklinget , ihr Saiten ! BWV 172 =
Erschallet , ihr Lieder , erklinget , ihr Saiten ! , BWV 172 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach , composed in Weimar in 1714 for Pentecost Sunday . Bach led the first performance on 20 May 1714 in the Schlosskirche , the court chapel in the ducal Schloss . Erschallet , ihr Lieder is an early work in a genre to which he later contributed complete cantata cycles for all occasions of the liturgical year . The title , pronounced [ ˌɛɐ ̯ ˈʃalət iːɐ ̯ ˈliːdɐ ɛɐ ̯ ˈklɪŋət iːɐ ̯ ˈzaɪ ̯ tn ̩ ] , translates as " Ring out , you songs ; sound , you strings ! "
Bach was appointed Konzertmeister in Weimar in the spring of 1714 , a position that called for the performance of a church cantata each month . He composed Erschallet , ihr Lieder as the third cantata in the series , to a text probably written by court poet Salomon Franck . The text reflects different aspects of the Holy Spirit . The librettist included a quotation from the day 's prescribed Gospel reading in the only recitative , and for the closing chorale he used a stanza from Philipp Nicolai 's hymn " Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern " ( 1599 ) .
The work is in six movements , and scored for four vocal soloists , four @-@ part choir , three trumpets , timpani , oboe , bassoon and a string orchestra of two violins , two violas , and basso continuo . The orchestra for the holiday occasion is festive compared to the two works previously composed in Weimar . The cantata opens with a chorus , followed by the recitative , in which words spoken by Jesus are sung by the bass as the vox Christi ( voice of Christ ) . A bass aria with trumpets addresses the Trinity , and a tenor aria then describes the Spirit that was present at the Creation . This is followed by an intimate duet of the Soul ( soprano ) and the Spirit ( alto ) , to which an oboe plays the ornamented melody of Martin Luther 's hymn " Komm , Heiliger Geist , Herre Gott " and a solo cello provides the bass line . The theme of intimacy between God and Man is developed further in the following chorale , after which Bach specified an unusual repeat of the opening chorus .
While Bach served as Thomaskantor – director of church music – in Leipzig from 1723 , he performed the cantata several times , sometimes in a different key and with changes in the scoring . Musicologists agree that he loved the cantata 's Gospel text , " If ye love me ... " , and the Pentecost hymn used in the duet , setting both the text and the hymn several times . John Eliot Gardiner writes that Bach " particularly valued " this cantata . It contains features that he used again in later compositions of cantatas , oratorios and his masses , for example movements with three trumpets and timpani in a triple meter for festive occasions , and duets as a symbol of God and man .
= = Background = =
Bach is known as a prolific composer of cantatas . When he assumed the position as Thomaskantor ( director of church music ) in Leipzig in 1723 , he began the project to write church cantatas for the occasions of the liturgical year – Sundays and feast days – a project that he pursued for three years .
Bach was appointed organist and chamber musician in Weimar at the court of the co @-@ reigning dukes in Saxe @-@ Weimar , Wilhelm Ernst and his nephew Ernst August on 25 June 1708 . He had composed sacred cantatas before , some during his tenure in Mühlhausen from 1706 to 1708 . Most were written for special occasions and were based mainly on biblical texts and hymns . Examples include : Aus der Tiefen rufe ich , Herr , zu dir , BWV 131 ; the early chorale cantata Christ lag in Todes Banden , BWV 4 for Easter ; Gott ist mein König , BWV 71 , to celebrate the inauguration of the new city council on 4 February 1708 ; and the Actus Tragicus for a funeral .
In Weimar , Bach first concentrated on the organ , composing major works for the instrument , including the Orgelbüchlein , the Toccata and Fugue in D minor , BWV 565 , and the Prelude and Fugue in E major , BWV 566 . Christoph Wolff suggests that Bach may have studied musical material belonging to the Hofkapelle , ( " court capelle " or court orchestra ) , and that he copied and studied works by Johann Philipp Krieger , Christoph Graupner , Georg Philipp Telemann , Marco Giuseppe Peranda and Johann David Heinichen in the period from 1711 to 1713 . In early 1713 Bach composed his first cantatas in the new style that included recitatives and arias : the so @-@ called Hunting Cantata , BWV 208 , as a homage cantata for Christian , Duke of Saxe @-@ Weissenfels , celebrated on 23 February , and possibly the church cantata for Sexagesima ( the second Sunday before Lent ) Gleichwie der Regen und Schnee vom Himmel fällt , BWV 18 , on a text by Erdmann Neumeister .
In 1713 , he was asked to apply for the position of music director of the Marktkirche in Halle , succeeding Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow . Zachow had taught the young George Frideric Handel , and composed many church cantatas in the new style , adopting recitatives and arias from the Italian opera . Bach was successful in his application for the position , but declined after Duke Wilhelm Ernst increased his salary and offered him a promotion .
Bach was promoted to Konzertmeister on 2 March 1714 , an honour that entailed performing a church cantata monthly in the Schlosskirche : With the appointment , he received the title Konzertmeister and new privileges :
" das praedicat eines Concert @-@ Meisters mit angezeigtem Rang nach dem Vice @-@ Capellmeister ... dargegen Er Monatlich neüe Stücke ufführen , und zu solchen Proben die Capell Musici uf sein Verlangen zu erscheinen schuldig ... gehalten seyn sollen " ( the title of a concert master , next in rank to the vice chapel master ... for which he is to perform new pieces each month , and the chapel musicians shall be under a duty to attend such rehearsals as he may require ) .
Circumstances were favourable : Bach enjoyed a " congenial and intimate " space in the court chapel , called Himmelsburg ( Heaven 's Castle ) , and a professional group of musicians in the court capelle . He was inspired by a collaboration with the court poet Salomon Franck , who provided the texts for most of his church cantatas , capturing a " pure , straightforward theological message " in " elegant poetic language " . The first two cantatas Bach composed in Weimar based on Franck 's texts were Himmelskönig , sei willkommen , BWV 182 , for Palm Sunday , which coincided with the Annunciation that year , and Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen , BWV 12 for Jubilate Sunday . One month after Erschallet , ihr Lieder , Bach performed Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis , BWV 21 , on the third Sunday after Trinity , again on a text by Franck . Erschallet , ihr Lieder , the third cantata in this series , is the first cantata for a feast day .
= = Occasion and words = =
Erschallet , ihr Lieder is the third of the Weimar cantatas . It was the first composed for a feast day , Pentecost Sunday ( Whit Sunday ) , Pentecost being a high holiday along with Christmas and Easter . The prescribed readings for the feast day are taken from the Acts of the Apostles , on the Holy Spirit ( Acts 2 : 1 – 13 ) , and from the Gospel of John , in which Jesus announces the Spirit who will teach , in his Farewell discourse ( John 14 : 23 – 31 ) . As in many Bach cantatas , the libretto is compiled from Bible text , contemporary poetry and chorale . The poetry is attributed to Salomon Franck , although the verses are not included in his printed editions . Several of Bach 's early stylistic mannerisms appear here , such as a biblical quotation in a recitative second movement rather than in a first choral movement , arias following each other without a recitative in between , and dialogue in a duet .
Franck 's text shows elements of early Pietism : the expression of extreme feelings , for example " O seligste Zeiten ! " ( O most blessed times ) in the opening chorus , and a " mystical demeanour " , for example in the duet of the Soul and the Spirit united . In the middle section of the first movement , Franck paraphrases the Gospel text , which says in verse 23 that God wants to dwell with man , to " Gott will sich die Seelen zu Tempeln bereiten " ( God Himself shall prepare our souls for His temple , more literally : " God wants to prepare [ our ] souls to become his temples " ) . The words for the recitative are the quotation of verse 23 from the Gospel of John , " Wer mich liebet , der wird mein Wort halten " ( Whoever loves Me will keep My Word , and My Father will love him , and We will come to him and make Our dwelling with him ) . Movement 3 addresses the Trinity and movement 4 the Spirit that was present at the Creation . Movement 5 is a duet of the Soul and the Spirit , underlined by an instrumental quote from Martin Luther 's Pentecost hymn " Komm , Heiliger Geist , Herre Gott " , which is based on the Latin hymn " Veni Sancte Spiritus , reple tuorum corda fidelium " . Movement 6 is a chorale , verse four of Philipp Nicolai 's hymn " Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern " . Nicolai 's " Geistlich Brautlied " ( Spiritual bridal song ) continues the theme of unity between Soul and Spirit .
= = Performances and theme = =
With Bach 's appointment to concert master and his regular monthly cantata compositions , he achieved permission to hold rehearsals in the church , to ensure high performance standards : " the rehearsing of the pieces at the home [ of the capellmeister ] has been changed , and it is ordered that it must always take place at the Kirchen @-@ Capelle [ the music gallery in the palace church ] , and this is also to be observed by the Capellmeister " . The orchestra at his disposition consisted of the members of the court cappelle , three leaders , five singers and seven instrumentalists , augmented on demand by military musicians , town musicians and choristers from a gymnasium .
Bach conducted the first performance of Erschallet , ihr Lieder on 20 May 1714 . His son Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach remembered that he often conducted and played first violin : " he played the violin cleanly and penetratingly , and thus kept the orchestra in better order than he could have done with the harpsichord " . The parts for the first performance are lost , but the score and performing material for later performances have survived . Bach performed the cantata again , possibly in Köthen between 1717 and 1722 , and several times as Thomaskantor in Leipzig . For the performance on 28 May 1724 , he changed the instrumentation slightly and transposed the work from C major to D major . He reverted to C major for a performance on 13 May 1731 . An organ part for a later performance of movement 5 is extant .
John Eliot Gardiner remarked that Bach " particularly valued " this cantata , and that it set " a pattern for his later approaches to the Pentecostal theme " . Bach set the Gospel text of the recitative in a choral movement in other cantatas for Pentecost – Wer mich liebet , der wird mein Wort halten , BWV 59 , and Wer mich liebet , der wird mein Wort halten , BWV 74 .
= = Scoring and structure = =
In the Weimar version , Bach scored the cantata four vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ) ( B ) , a four @-@ part choir , and an orchestra of three trumpets ( Tr ) , timpani ( Ti ) , recorder ( Fl ) or flauto traverso ( Ft ) , oboe d 'amore ( Oa ) , two violins ( Vl ) , two violas ( Va ) , bassoon ( Fg ) , cello ( Vc ) , and basso continuo ( Bc ) . It is a festive , rich instrumentation for the holiday , whereas the previous two cantatas in Weimar had not employed brass instruments . Bach used the French string orchestra with two viola parts , as in most cantatas until 1715 , when he started to prefer the Italian scoring with one viola . In Weimar , a recorder or flauto traverso doubled the first violin an octave higher ; in the first Leipzig performance it was a flauto traverso . A part for obbligato organ ( Org ) replacing oboe and cello in movement 5 was adopted in an even later performance . The work is about 25 minutes long . In the Weimar version and the 1724 version , Bach requested a repeat of the opening chorus , by adding after the chorale Chorus repetatur ab initio .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Weimar version of the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe , and the abbreviations for voices and instruments the list of Bach cantatas . The keys are given for the Weimar version . The time signature is provided using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) .
= = Music = =
The cantata text does not tell a story but reflects different aspects of the Holy Spirit , celebrated on Pentecost . It begins with general praise , then concentrates on one line from the Gospel , addresses the Holy Trinity , refers to the Spirit that was present at the Creation , shows a dialogue between the Soul and the Spirit , and concludes with a stanza from Nicolai 's hymn which picks up the topic of unity between God ( Spirit ) and man , as shown in the dialogue . The text thus proceeds from general to more and more personal and intimate reflection .
John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted all Bach 's church cantatas in 2000 , placed the Pentecostal cantatas in the middle of the project , which he saw as a " year @-@ long exploration of his cantatas in their seasonal context " . He described Pentecost as " the culmination of those ' great fifty days ' which follow the Resurrection , a watershed marking the completion of Jesus ' work on earth and the coming of the Holy Spirit " , and commented that Bach " comes up with music of unalloyed optimism and exuberance in celebration of ... the miraculous ignition of the divine Pentecostal spark which allows human beings to communicate across the language barrier " . Regarding Erschallet , ihr Lieder , the first cantata written for the occasion , he observed that Bach reflects the " stages in the evolving relationship of God with man " , both by scoring and by his choice of keys . In the Weimar first version , the key of the first movements is C major , lowered to A minor ( a third lower ) in the fourth , lowered further to F major ( again a third lower ) in the fifth and sixth . The scoring is majestic , with three trumpets and timpani in movement 1 and three trumpets again in movement 3 , reduced to strings in movement 4 and to single instruments in movement 5 .
= = = 1 = = =
" Erschallet , ihr Lieder " ( literally : sound , you songs ) is a festive concerto , marked Coro by Bach . Words and music are possibly based on an earlier lost secular Glückwunschkantate ( congratulatory cantata ) . A printing of Franck 's works contains a cantata for New Year 's Day , Erschallet nun wieder , glückwünschende Lieder ( Sound again , congratulating songs ) that may have served as a model . The movement is in da capo form : the first section is repeated after a contrasting middle section . It is scored for three " choirs " : one of trumpets , another of strings and bassoon , and a four @-@ part chorus . The number three , symbolizing the Trinity , appears again in the 3 / 8 time signature and in the use of three trumpets . The first part opens with trumpet fanfares , alternating with flowing coloraturas in the strings . The voices enter as a third homophonic choir . They repeat the first measure of the fanfare motif on the word " Erschallet " ( resound ! ) , as the trumpets echo the motif . The voices repeat the motif from the second measure of the fanfare on " ihr Lieder " , and the trumpets echo it again . The chorus repeats measures 3 and 4 on " erklinget , ihr Saiten " , commanding the strings to play . As a culmination , the first syllable of " seligste Zeiten " ( most blessed times ) is held on a seventh chord ( first in measure 53 ) , during which the instruments play their motifs .
In the middle section in A minor the trumpets rest while the other instruments play colla parte with the voices . Polyphonic imitation expands on the idea that God will prepare the souls to be his temples . The first sequence progresses from the lowest to the highest voice , with entrances after two or three measures . The highest voice begins the second sequence , and the other voices enter in closer succession , one or two measures apart . Gardiner interprets the polyphony as " conjuring before us the elegant tracery of those ' temples ' which God promises to make of our souls " . The first part is repeated as da capo .
The movement is comparable to the opening of Tönet , ihr Pauken ! Erschallet , Trompeten ! BWV 214 ( Resound , ye drums ! Ring out , ye trumpets ! ) composed in 1733 on another text calling instruments to sound , which Bach later used with a different text to open his Christmas Oratorio . Bach used a festive scoring with three trumpets in triple meter in his 1733 Missa for the court in Dresden , in the Gloria , in contrast to the preceding Kyrie .
= = = 2 = = =
The cantata 's only recitative quotes one line from the Gospel reading of the day : " Wer mich liebet , der wird mein Wort halten " ( Whoever loves Me will keep My Word [ , and My Father will love him , and We will come to him and make Our dwelling with him ] ) . Bach reflects Jesus ' promise to " make Our dwelling with him " in melismatic lines in counterpoint with motifs in the cello similar to motifs in movement 5 . He assigned the words of Jesus to the bass as the vox Christi ( voice of Christ ) . He illustrates the final rest in God by ending the solo line on a whole note low C , the lowest note he demanded of a soloist . The musicologist Julian Mincham describes the vocal line :
The initial bars of melody are warm and quietly authoritative , but at the mention of dwelling with Him the movement takes on a very different character . The bass line becomes enlivened with little leaps of delight ... The singer 's last note is a bottom d ( c in the transposed version ) several notes lower than a bass 's accepted range . ... when achieved it is an arresting sound , confirming the rock @-@ like certainty of the promise that we shall eventually reside with God .
= = = 3 = = =
The first aria , addressing the Trinity , " Heiligste Dreieinigkeit " ( Holiest Trinity ) , is accompanied by a choir of three trumpets and basso continuo , a rare combination that expresses the idea of the words . The trumpet is a symbol of a ruler . The three trumpets sometimes play in unison , to further illustrate the Trinity . The theme is composed of the three notes of the major chord . The aria is in three sections .
Bach wrote an aria accompanied by only an obbligato brass instrument again in his Missa ( Kyrie and Gloria in B minor ) , composed in 1733 for the court in Dresden and much later integrated into his Mass in B minor . The bass aria Quoniam tu solus sanctus , reflecting God 's holiness and majesty , is set for corno da caccia , two bassoons and basso continuo . When he assembled the complete mass , he used an aria with only woodwinds to reflect the Holy Spirit in Et in Spiritum Sanctum , also a movement with many symbols of the Trinity .
= = = 4 = = =
The second aria , for tenor , " O Seelenparadies " ( O paradise of the soul ) , also contains three sections and a triple meter , but in contrast to the previous movement , describes in continuous waves of the unison strings the Spirit that was present at the Creation , worded O Seelenparadies , das Gottes Geist durchwehet , der bei der Schöpfung blies ( O paradise of the soul , fanned by the Spirit of God , which blew at creation ) . Alfred Dürr wrote that the music " conveys the impression of release from all earthly gravity " .
= = = 5 = = =
The last solo movement , titled Aria , " Komm , laß mich nicht länger warten " ( Come , do not keep me waiting longer ) , consists of a dialogue between the Soul and the Holy Spirit , and takes a form close to a love lyric . The part of the Spirit is assigned to the alto , while similar duets of the Soul and Jesus in later cantatas are set for soprano and bass – for example in Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis , BWV 21 and Wachet auf , ruft uns die Stimme , BWV 140 .
Bach set the text in a complex structure uniting two singers , a solo oboe and a solo cello . The soprano and alto sing of their unity in " neo @-@ erotic " or " overtly erotic / Pietistic " language : " I shall die , if I have to be without you " the one ; " I am yours , and you are mine ! " the other . The cello provides an intricate counterpoint throughout , which Albert Schweitzer describes as " a motif of purified happiness " . The voices and the cello form a trio , another symbol of the Trinity . The musicologist Anne Leahy of the Dublin Institute of Technology notes that Bach had possibly stanza 3 in mind , which speaks of love , and used the instrument which is named after love .
The oboe d 'amore plays the richly ornamented melody of the Pentecost hymn " Komm , Heiliger Geist , Herre Gott " ( " Come , Holy Spirit , Lord God , fill with the goodness of Your grace the hearts , wills , and minds of Your faithful . Ignite Your burning love in them " . ) Bach set this hymn , which seems close to his heart , twice in his Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes , as BWV 651 and BWV 652 .
Bach used duets again when he composed in 1733 his Missa ( Kyrie and Gloria in B minor ) for the court in Dresden , which he later integrated into his Mass in B minor . He wrote two duets movements in the style of contemporary operatic love duets and placed two of them in the centre of each part of the Missa : Christe eleison for two sopranos in the centre of the Kyrie , Domine Deus in the centre of the symmetrical structure of the Gloria . When he compiled the Mass in B minor , he chose another duet Et in unum Dominum Jesum Christum for the Credo , scored for soprano and alto , as in Erschallet , ihr Lieder .
= = = 6 = = =
The text of the concluding chorale is taken from Nicolai 's " Geistlich Brautlied " ( Spiritual bridal song ) " Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern " , continuing the theme of unity between Soul and Spirit . " Von Gott kömmt mir ein Freudenschein " ( A joyful radiance reaches me from God ) is illustrated by a violin part added to the four @-@ part choir . The text ends with the words :
Nimm mich freundlich
In dein ' Arme , daß ich warme
Werd ' von Gnaden !
Auf dein Wort komm ' ich geladen .
( Take me like a friend / in your arms , so that I may become warm / with your grace / To your word I come invited . )
Until 1724 the opening chorus was repeated after the chorale , marked " chorus repetatur ab initio " in the manuscript .
Gardiner describes the cantata as " evidently ... a work which he particularly valued " , adding : " he comes up with music of unalloyed optimism and exuberance in celebration of the first gifts of newly @-@ awakened nature , as well as the miraculous ignition of the divine Pentecostal spark which allows human beings to communicate across the language barrier . " Dürr comments :
All the various changes he made show how much trouble Bach took over a work which – as the number of documented performances ( at least four ) suggests – he seems to have particularly loved .
= = Publication = =
The cantata was published by Breitkopf & Härtel in 1888 in volume 35 of the first complete edition of Bach 's works by the Bach Gesellschaft , edited by Alfred Dörffel . In the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe , the second complete edition of Bach 's works , in the historical @-@ critical edition , Dietrich Kilian edited both the reconstructed Weimar version ( 1959 ) and the first Leipzig version ( 1960 ) in volume 13 , adding the critical report in 1960 .
= = Selected recordings = =
The sortable table shows excerpts of the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and orchestras are roughly grouped :
Large choirs ( red background ) : Boys ( choir of all male voices )
Medium @-@ size choirs , such as Vocal ensemble
Large orchestras ( red background ) : Symphony
Chamber orchestra
Orchestra on period instruments ( green background )
= Fotos y Recuerdos =
" Fotos y Recuerdos " ( English : Pictures and Memories ) is a song recorded by American recording artist Selena for her fourth studio album , Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) . It was released by EMI Latin in January 1995 , as the fourth single . A cover version of the Pretenders ' 1983 single " Back on the Chain Gang " , " Fotos y Recuerdos " was written by Chrissie Hynde with Spanish @-@ language lyrics by Ricky Vela . Lyrically , the song describes a lonely female protagonist who " kisses the photo of her [ lover ] each night before falling asleep . "
" Fotos y Recuerdos " is a Rock en Español song with influences of dance pop and house music . The song garnered acclaim from music critics , who called it an improvement over the Pretenders ' original version . The song peaked at number one on the United States Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart for seven consecutive weeks , her fourth successive number one song . " Fotos y Recuerdos " also peaked at number one on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart , her second consecutive number one . " Fotos y Recuerdos " became Selena 's first posthumous number one song , following the shooting death of the singer in March 1995 . The recording became the second @-@ most successful Latin single of 1995 and ranks as the twentieth best Hot Latin Songs chart single of all @-@ time . Many musicians have since recorded the song and released it on their respective albums including Dominican salsa singer Jose Alberto " El Canario " and Mexican pop singer Paulina Rubio .
= = Inspiration , production and songwriting controversy = =
While flying back from New York , A.B. Quintanilla — the brother @-@ producer of Selena — heard the Pretenders ' 1983 single " Back on the Chain Gang " on the radio . At the time , A.B. was having a nervous breakdown after realizing he was running out of materials to record for Selena 's fourth studio album , Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) . He likened the idea of reworking " Back on the Chain Gang " into a Spanish @-@ language cumbia song . Keyboardist of the group , Ricky Vela wrote the Spanish lyrics into a cumbia @-@ style that A.B. envisioned for the recording . The Amor Prohibido album was pressed for a release date of March 13 , 1994 , and was halted for distribution due to the copyrighting issues with " Fotos y Recuerdos " . Vela retold in a 2002 interview how he was awaken by Selena and A.B. because they did not have the clearance for " Fotos y Recuerdos " . Singer @-@ songwriter Chrissie Hynde 's music producers reported the song to Hynde who did not allow Selena to continue with " Fotos y Recuerdos " until she received an English @-@ language writing of the song . It was only after Vela re @-@ wrote the song into English that Hynde gave Selena the clearance for the recording . Musicologist James Perone , noticed how the song was the shortest track off of Amor Prohibido . He further wrote how Vela " stripped some of the edge off of Hynde 's text but retained the basic premise of [ " Back on the Chain Gang " ] " Perone found A.B. ' s arrangement to be " an example of [ his ] universal Latin approach " .
= = Music , theme and lyrics = =
" Fotos y Recuerdos " is a mid @-@ tempo cumbia and rock song with influences of dance pop and house music . Cary Darling of the The Buffalo News noticed the mixture of house and ranchera music in " Fotos y Recuerdos " . Author and contributor to The New York Times , Joe Nick Patoski found the song to use the same melody of the Pretenders ' new wave sound . Author Lori Beth Rodriguez , also found similarities between the Pretenders ' mainstream sound and " Fotos y Recuerdos " but noticed how the song enchoed a cumbia undertone with " lyrics [ that ] are similar in theme , yet different from those in the original English version . " The song features a synth @-@ driven violin , ostinatish @-@ percussion , and a steel drum under a cumbia beat . Perone found the song to have " small hints " of music found in Jamacia , Cuba , and Trinidad and Tobago . BuzzFeed contributor Brian Galindo , called the song " upbeat and dancy " . Written in the key of D minor , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 90 beats per minute . Rebecca Thatcher of the Austin American @-@ Statesman , found the lyrical content of " Fotos y Recuerdos " to be a " lilting ode to a lost love " . Lyrically , the song describes a lonely female protagonist who " kisses the photo of her [ lover ] each night before falling asleep . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Fotos y Recuerdos " garnered acclaim from music critics , who called it an improvement over the Pretenders ' original version , and called it one of Selena 's most well @-@ known recordings . According to author Pat Bar @-@ Harrison , it was one of Selena 's most successful United States singles . Writing for the San Antonio Express @-@ News , Ramiro Burr called " Fotos y Recuerdos " an " interesting cover " . The York Dispatch believed the song " outshines " all other tracks on the Amor Prohibido album . Author Ed Morales believed the song " has a lot of personality " . Don McLeese of the Austin American @-@ Statesman wrote how the song became a popular radio song in South Texas and believed it to be one of her signature songs . Musicologist Frank Hoffman , called it a " hard @-@ edge rock " song . The Monitor editor Jon LaFollette , wrote differently ; calling the song a " simultaneous effort to celebrate multiculturalism " in a way to " grow her bank account " . Nonetheless , he listed the song as part of his " key tracks " for the Amor Prohibido album . Zach Quintance , also from The Monitor , wrote how readers of the newspaper chose Selena 's 1994 single " No Me Queda Más " and " Fotos y Recuerdos " ; citing that " fans loved the feeling and musicianship in those two songs . " Federico Martinez of La Prensa , called the song an " enduring hit " . Since its release , the song has been included on many music critics " best of Selena songs " list including the BuzzFeed ( at number six ) , and Latina ( at number eleveen ) .
= = Chart history = =
" Fotos y Recuerdos " was released in the week of January 28 , 1995 , serving as the fourth single released from Amor Prohibido . The track debuted on the U.S. Hot Latin Songs chart at number 29 on February 4 , 1995 . In its second week , the song jumped to number 12 , receiving airpower honors . As a result , it subsequently debuted on the U.S. Regional Mexican Airplay chart at number ten . " Fotos y Recuerdos " rose to number two on the Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Airplay charts , trailing Grupo Bronco 's " Que No Me Olivde " by 557 Nielsen points on February 18 , 1995 . In the following week , " Fotos y Recuerdos " remained at number two on the
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load and 1 @,@ 510 long tons ( 1 @,@ 530 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 252 feet ( 76 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 36 feet 9 inches ( 11 @.@ 2 m ) and a deep draught of 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . They were powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by two Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . The engines developed a total of 2 @,@ 880 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 150 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ; 19 @.@ 0 mph ) . The Castles carried a maximum of 480 long tons ( 490 t ) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 6 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 000 km ; 7 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ships ' complement was 99 officers and ratings .
The Castle @-@ class ships were equipped with a single QF 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk XVI gun forward , but their primary weapon was their single three @-@ barrel Squid anti @-@ submarine mortar . This was backed up by one depth charge rail and two throwers for 15 depth charges . The ships were fitted with two twin and a pair of single mounts for 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon light AA guns . Provision was made for a further four single mounts if needed . They were equipped with Type 145Q and Type 147B ASDIC sets to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water . A Type 272 search radar and a HF / DF radio direction finder rounded out the Castles ' sensor suite .
= = Construction and career = =
Flint Castle , the only ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy , was ordered on 19 January 1943 and laid down by Henry Robb at their shipyard in Leith , Scotland on 20 April . The ship was launched on 1 September and completed on 31 December . She arrived at Tobermory , Mull , Scotland , on 12 January 1944 to begin training at the Royal Navy 's Anti @-@ Submarine Training School , HMS Western Isles . Flint Castle ran aground while training on 18 January and was refloated . She arrived at Belfast , Northern Ireland , the following day to begin repairs that lasted until 9 February . The ship was then assigned to the 39th Escort Group and escorted one Atlantic convoy in mid @-@ March before being transferred to the Liverpool @-@ based Escort Group B2 to escort convoys to and from Gibraltar .
In September 1944 , Flint Castle was assigned to Escort Group B3 , which protected convoys sailing between St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador , Canada , and Britain . The ship was refitted in Cardiff , Wales , in January – March 1945 and rejoined her group in Liverpool in April . She was assigned to Rosyth Command in June as an anti @-@ submarine training ship and visited ports in Norway and Germany over the next several months . Flint Castle was transferred to the Rosyth Escort Force in June 1946 , which was employed as a training unit ; it was redesignated as the Basic Anti @-@ Submarine Training Flotilla in September . The unit was then transferred to Portland and used a variety of names before settling on the Second Training Squadron in January 1952 . On 15 June 1953 , she took part in the Fleet Review held at Spithead to celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . The ship was used to portray a German anti @-@ submarine vessel in the 1955 film The Cockleshell Heroes .
Flint Castle was taken out of service in March 1956 at Devonport Dockyard , until her demolition began , starting on 10 July 1958 at Faslane . While her service was uneventful , Flint Castle was awarded the battle honour of Atlantic 1944 – 45 .
= North Pier , Blackpool =
North Pier is the most northerly of the three coastal piers in Blackpool , England . Built in the 1860s , it is also the oldest and longest of the three . Although originally intended only as a promenade , competition forced the pier to widen its attractions to include theatres and bars . Unlike Blackpool 's other piers , which attracted the working classes with open air dancing and amusements , North Pier catered for the " better @-@ class " market , with orchestra concerts and respectable comedians . Until 2011 , it was the only Blackpool pier that consistently charged admission .
The pier is designated by English Heritage as a Grade II listed building , due to its status as the oldest surviving pier created by Eugenius Birch . As of 2015 it is still in regular use , despite having suffered damage from fires , storms and collisions with boats . Its attractions include bars , a theatre , a carousel and an arcade . One of the oldest remaining Sooty glove puppets is on display commemorating Harry Corbett buying the original puppet there .
= = Location = =
North Pier was built at the seaward end of Talbot Road , where the town 's first railway station , Blackpool North , was built . Its name reflects its location as the most northerly of Blackpool 's three piers . It is about 450 yards ( 410 m ) north of Blackpool Tower , which is roughly the midpoint of Blackpool 's promenade . The sea front is particularly straight and flat on this stretch of coastline , and the 550 yards ( 500 m ) pier extends at right angles into the Irish Sea , more or less level with the promenade .
= = History = =
The construction of Blackpool Pier ( eventually North Pier ) started in May 1862 , in Layton @-@ cum @-@ Warbreck , part of the parish of Bispham . In October 1862 severe storms suggested that the planned height of the pier was insufficient , and it was increased by 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) . North Pier was the second of fourteen piers designed by Eugenius Birch , and since Margate Pier was destroyed by a storm in 1978 , it is the oldest of the remaining examples of his work still in use . It was the first of Birch 's piers to be built by Glasgow engineering firm Richard Laidlaw and Son .
The pier , which cost £ 11 @,@ 740 to build , originally consisted of a promenade 468 yards ( 428 m ) long and 9 yards ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) wide , extending to 18 yards ( 16 m ) wide at the pier @-@ head . The bulk of the pier was constructed from cast iron , with a wooden deck laid on top . The cast iron piles on which the structure rests were inserted using Birch 's screw pile process ; the screw @-@ tipped piles were twisted into the sand until they hit bedrock . This made construction much quicker and easier , and guaranteed that the pier had a solid foundation . The cast iron columns , 12 inches ( 300 mm ) in diameter , were filled with concrete for stability at intervals of 20 yards ( 18 m ) , and supported by struts that were on average were slightly more than 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick . The pier 's promenade deck is lined with wooden benches with ornamental cast iron backs . At intervals along the pier are hexagonal kiosks built around 1900 in wood and glass with minaret roofs topped with decorative finials . On opening two of the kiosks were occupied by a bookstall and confectionery stall and the kiosks near the ends of the pier were seated shelters . The pier @-@ head is a combination of 420 tons of cast iron and 340 tons of wrought iron columns ; standing 50 feet ( 15 m ) above the low water line , it sees a regular 35 feet ( 11 m ) change in sea level due to the tide .
= = = Opening = = =
The pier was officially opened in a grand ceremony on 21 May 1863 , even though the final 50 yards ( 46 m ) had not yet been completed . All the shops in the area were closed and decorated with flags and streamers for the ceremony , which included a procession and a cannon salute , and was attended by more than 20 @,@ 000 visitors . Although the town only had a population of approximately 4 @,@ 000 , more than 200 @,@ 000 holiday makers regularly stayed there during the summer months ; this included 275 @,@ 000 admissions in 1863 , 400 @,@ 000 in 1864 and 465 @,@ 000 the following year . The pier was officially opened by Major Preston , and he and 150 officials then travelled to the Clifton Hotel for a celebratory meal .
The pier was intended primarily for leisure rather than seafaring ; for the price of 2d ( worth approximately £ 4 @.@ 90 in 2012 ) the pier provided the opportunity for visitors to walk close to the sea without distractions . This fee was insufficient to deter " trippers ' " , which led to Major Preston campaigning for a new pier to cater for the ' trippers ' . In 1866 , the government agreed that a second pier could be built , despite objections from the Blackpool Pier Company that it was close to their pier and therefore unnecessary .
= = = 19th century = = =
As permitted by the original parliamentary order , a landing jetty was built at the end of North Pier in incremental stages between 1864 and 1867 . The full length of the jetty was 158 yards ( 144 m ) , and the extensions increased the pier 's total length to its current 550 yards ( 500 m ) . The Blackpool Pier Company used the jetty to operate pleasure steamers that made trips to the surrounding areas . In 1871 swimming and diving lessons were added to the pier .
In 1874 , the pier @-@ head was extended to allow Richard Knill Freeman to incorporate a pavilion , which opened in 1877 . The interior decoration led it to be known as the " Indian Pavilion " , and it was Blackpool 's primary venue for indoor entertainment until the Winter Gardens opened in 1879 .
To differentiate itself from the new pier , North Pier focused on catering for the " better classes " , charging for entry and including attractions such as an orchestra and band concerts , in contrast to the Central Pier ( or the " People 's pier " ) , which regularly had music playing and open @-@ air dancing . The pier owners highlighted the difference , charging at least a shilling ( worth approximately £ 19 @.@ 90 in 2012 ) for concerts and ensuring that advertisements for comedians focused on their lack of vulgarity . Sundays were given over to a church parade .
On 8 October 1892 , a storm @-@ damaged vessel , Sirene , hit the southern side of the pier , causing four shops and part of the deck to collapse onto the beach below . Several columns were also dislodged , and the ship 's bowsprit hit the pier entrance . All eleven crew members were rescued when they were hauled onto the pier . Damage to the pier was estimated to be £ 5 @,@ 000 and was promptly repaired .
Nelson 's former flagship , HMS Foudroyant , was moored alongside North Pier for an exhibition , but slipped anchor and was wrecked on the shore in a violent storm on 16 June 1897 , damaging part of the jetty . The wreck of the ship broke up during December storms .
The pier was closed for the winter during 1895 – 96 as it unsafe ; as a result , the pier was widened as electric lighting was added .
= = = 20th century = = =
An Arcade Pavilion was added in 1903 at the entrance to the pier and contained a wide range of amusements to suit all tastes . Further alterations were made to the pier in 1932 @-@ 33 when the open air stand was replaced with a stage and sun lounge .
In 1936 , a pleasure steamer returning from Llandudno crashed into the pier . The collision left a 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) gap , and stranded a number of people at the far end .
The 1874 Indian Pavilion was severely damaged by fire in 1921 . It was refurbished , but was then destroyed by a second fire in 1938 . In 1939 it was replaced by a theatre , built in an Art Deco style . At around the same time , the bandstand was removed and replaced with a sun lounge .
In the 1960s , the Merrie England bar and an amusement arcade were constructed at the end of the pier nearest to the shore . The 1939 theatre , which is still in use , narrowly escaped damage in 1985 when the early stages of a fire were noticed by performer Vince Hill . In the 1980s , a Victorian @-@ styled entrance was built . In 1991 the pier gained the Carousel bar as an additional attraction , and a small tramway to ease access to the pier @-@ head . By this point , the pier had ceased to have any nautical use , but the jetty section was adapted for use as a helicopter pad in the late 1980s . The Christmas Eve storm of 1997 destroyed the landing jetty , including the helipad .
The North Pier is one of the few remaining examples of Birch 's classic pier architecture and is a Grade II Listed building , the only Blackpool pier to hold that status . It was recognised as " Pier of the Year " in 2004 by the National Piers Society .
= = Attractions = =
North Pier 's attractions include a Gypsy palm reader and an ice cream parlour , the North Pier Theatre , a Victorian tea room , and the Carousel and Merrie England bars . The arcade , built in the 1960s , has approximately eleven million coins pass through its machines each year .
One of the earliest Sooty bear puppets used by Harry Corbett is on display on the pier . Corbett bought the original Sooty puppet on North Pier for his son , Matthew . When Corbett took the puppet on BBC 's Talent Night programme , he marked the nose and ears with soot so that they would show up on the black and white television , giving the puppet its name .
The Carousel bar on the pier @-@ head has a Victorian wrought iron canopy , and its outdoor sun @-@ lounge is classified as the largest beer garden in Blackpool . Next to the bar is a two tier carousel , the " Venetian Carousel " , which is protected from sand and spray by a glass wall .
After the fire in 1938 , the pavilion was replaced with a 1 @,@ 564 seat theatre which has since hosted a number of acts including ; Frankie Vaughan , Frank Randle , Tessie O 'Shea , Dave Morris , Bernard Delfont , Morecambe and Wise , Paul Daniels , Freddie Starr , Russ Abbot , Bruce Forsyth , Des O 'Connor , Joe Longthorne , Lily Savage , Brian Conley and Hale and Pace .
In 2002 a heritage room with photographs was opened up , the foyer entrance was refurbished and a disabled lift added . By 2005 , there was no longer a live organist playing in the sun lounge although other live entertainment continues . In 2013 , the live organist was brought back into the sun lounge .
= = Ownership = =
The pier was built and owned by the Blackpool Pier Company , created with three thousand £ 5 @-@ shares in 1861 ( worth approximately £ 2 @,@ 990 in 2012 ) . The same firm operated the pier in 1953 , and the company was incorporated in 1965 . The Resorts Division of First Leisure , including the pier , was sold to Leisure Parks for £ 74 million in 1998 . In 2009 , the pier was sold to the Six Piers group , which owns Blackpool 's other two piers , and hoped to use it as a more tranquil alternative to them . The new owners opened the Victorian @-@ themed tea room , and built an eight @-@ seat shuttle running the length of the pier .
In April 2011 , the pier was sold to a Blackpool family firm , Sedgwick 's , the owners of amusement arcades and the big wheel on Blackpool 's Central Pier . Peter Sedgwick explained that he proposed to his wife on North Pier forty years ago , and promised to buy it for her one day . He said that he wants to restore the Victorian heritage of the pier and re @-@ instate the pier 's tram . An admission charge of fifty pence to access the board @-@ walk section of the pier was abolished by the Sedgwicks .
= = Liquidation = =
A petition to wind up the Northern Victorian Pier Limited ( the company used by the Sedgwick family to manage Blackpool North Pier ) was presented on 17 September 2012 by Carlsberg UK Limited , a creditor of the company , and this was to be heard at Blackpool County Court on 15 November 2012 .
At the 11th hour , an agreement to pay the outstanding balance owed to Carlsberg was made and Peter Sedgwick 's company escaped liquidation .
= Business routes of Interstate 94 in Michigan =
There are currently eight business routes of Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) in the US state of Michigan . These business routes connect I @-@ 94 to the downtown business districts of neighboring cities . These eight routes are all business loops which bear the Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) designation . These loops are former routings of I @-@ 94 's two predecessors in Michigan : US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) or US 25 . The westernmost BL I @-@ 94 runs through the twin cities of Benton Harbor and St. Joseph along the former routing of US 12 and US 31 / US 33 that now includes a section of the Lake Michigan Circle Tour in the state . The loops in Kalamazoo , Battle Creek , Marshall , Albion , and Jackson were also formerly segments of US 12 which were later designated as separate version of Business US Highway 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) through their respective cities before becoming BL I @-@ 94s in 1960 . The route of the business loop through Ann Arbor was previously US 12 and then later M @-@ 14 before receiving its current moniker . The BL I @-@ 94 through Port Huron was previously US 25 and then Business US Highway 25 ( Bus . US 25 ) .
= = Benton Harbor – St. Joseph = =
Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) is a 10 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 17 @.@ 2 km ) state trunkline highway and business loop that runs from I @-@ 94 through the downtowns of Benton Harbor and St. Joseph . The highway begins at exit 23 on I @-@ 94 in Lincoln Township where it runs along Lakeshore Drive , passing through the community of Shoreham . This section of the loop has five lanes ( two in each direction with a center turn lane ) before it drops a lane in each direction south of Shoreham , and it is part of the Lake Michigan Circle Tour ( LMCT ) . BL I @-@ 94 briefly runs concurrently with M @-@ 63 along Main Street in downtown St. Joseph . This section widens to a four @-@ lane divided street . BL I @-@ 94 separates from M @-@ 63 on the one @-@ way pairing of Ship Street ( eastbound ) and Port Street ( westbound ) for three blocks before crossing the St. Joseph River to Benton Harbor ; the LMCT concurrency ends at this point . From there it follows the five @-@ laned Main Street through downtown Benton Harbor through roundabouts at Riverview Drive and 5th Street . At the latter roundabout , the roadway narrows back to three lanes . The easternmost leg of the loop , from Urbandale Avenue easterly to the eastern terminus at exit 33 on I @-@ 94 in Benton Township , is a four @-@ lane , limited @-@ access , divided highway ; it features an unusual intersection with Crystal Avenue which is a diamond interchange built at @-@ grade .
The highway through the downtowns of Benton Harbor and St. Joseph was a part of US 12 when the United States Numbered Highway System was created in late 1926 . US 31 was also routed concurrently through the area . The US 33 designation was later added to US 31 from the state line northward to US 12 in St. Joseph in 1937 . On November 2 , 1960 , the I @-@ 94 / US 12 freeway opened around the Benton Harbor – St. Joseph area , and the former route of US 12 through downtown was renumbered BL I @-@ 94 . By the next year , US 33 was extended along BL I @-@ 94 / US 31 , and the eastern end of BL I @-@ 94 was converted to a divided highway . In 1962 , US 31 was rerouted out of downtown Benton Harbor and St. Joseph to follow a new freeway east of Benton Harbor , removing it from BL I @-@ 94 / US 33 . US 33 was truncated in 1986 , removing it from BL I @-@ 94 and replacing it with M @-@ 63 the following year when signage was updated . The Great Lakes Circle Tours were approved by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) and its counterparts in Minnesota , Ontario and Wisconsin .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Berrien County .
= = Kalamazoo = =
Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) is a state trunkline highway that forms a business loop for 11 @.@ 1 miles ( 17 @.@ 9 km ) from the I @-@ 94 freeway through downtown Kalamazoo . The western terminus is at exit 74 on I @-@ 94 in Portage . The business loop runs concurrently northward with US 131 for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) on that four @-@ lane freeway to an interchange with Bus . US 131 ( Stadium Drive ) in Oshtemo Township . From there BL I @-@ 94 separates from US 131 and follows Bus . US 131 northeasterly along the five lanes of Stadium Drive ( two in each direction with a center turn lane ) through commercial areas and a part of the campus of Western Michigan University on the west side of Kalamazoo . At the intersection with Michigan Avenue , BL I @-@ 94 / Bus . US 131 merges with M @-@ 43 and splits into a one @-@ way pairing of streets ; the eastbound direction follows Michigan Avenue , while westbound traffic uses Michikal Street to connect from Kalamazoo Avenue a few blocks north . These two streets are between three and five lanes wide as BL I @-@ 94 / Bus . US 131 / M @-@ 43 runs through the heart of downtown Kalamazoo . At the intersections with the one @-@ way pairing of Westnedge Avenue and Park Street , Bus US 131 turns northward and the unsigned M @-@ 331 runs southward . Northbound traffic uses Park Street , and Westnedges carries southbound for each of the two highways . On the eastern side of downtown , Michigan Avenue turns northwesterly to intersect with Kalamazoo Avenue near the Kalamazoo River . Now a two @-@ way , five @-@ lane street , BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 43 ( Michigan Avenue ) crosses the Portage Creek next to Rose Park ; east of this creek crossing , M @-@ 43 ( Michigan Avenue ) continues across the Kalamazoo River and BL I @-@ 94 turns southeasterly along the five @-@ lane King Highway . On the far @-@ eastern edge of the city , BL I @-@ 94 intersects the western end of M @-@ 96 . BL I @-@ 94 turns southeasterly off King Highway , which continues as M @-@ 96 . BL I @-@ 94 ( Amvets Memorial Parkway ) is a four @-@ lane expressway to its eastern terminus at I @-@ 94 's exit 81 .
On December 7 , 1959 , the I @-@ 94 / US 12 freeway opened on the south side of Kalamazoo . When US 12 was shifted to follow the new freeway , the former route through downtown Kalamazoo was redesignated Business US Highway 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) . The next year , it was renumbered BL I @-@ 94 . In 1963 , the US 131 freeway opened on the west side of Kalamazoo . Along with the creation of Bus . US 131 along a portion of the BL I @-@ 94 routing , BL I @-@ 94 was rerouted along the US 131 freeway on the west end back to I @-@ 94 . The section of Stadium Drive west of US 131 and the 9th Street routing was removed from BL I @-@ 94 . Kalamazoo and the newly built Michikal avenues were transferred to state jurisdiction in 1965 . Since then , Kalamazoo and Michigan avenues have been used as a pair of one @-@ way streets downtown . Kalamazoo and Michikal were then signed as westbound BL I @-@ 94 from Stadium Drive to Michigan Avenue while Main Street and Michigan Avenue continued to serve eastbound traffic .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Kalamazoo County .
= = Battle Creek = =
Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) is a state trunkline highway serving as a business loop from I @-@ 94 through downtown Battle Creek . The highway begins at exit 92 on I @-@ 94 near the Kalamazoo – Calhoun county line . BL I @-@ 94 runs concurrently along M @-@ 37 northwesterly from the freeway on the two @-@ lane Columbia Avenue on the eastern edge of Fort Custer . At an intersection south of the W.K. Kellogg Airport , BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 37 turns northward on the two @-@ lane Skyline Drive and runs on the western side of the airport . At the airport 's northwestern corner , the business loop intersects M @-@ 96 ( West Dickman Road ) and turns easterly , merging onto M @-@ 96 . BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 37 / M @-@ 96 follows the Battle Creek – Springfield city line on the northern edge of the airport . Dickman Road through here is four lanes wide with a center turn lane added halfway across the northern edge of the airport . At the intersection with Helmer Road North , M @-@ 37 turns northward to separate from the business loop . One block farther east , M @-@ 96 turns southward on Helmer Road South , also separating from BL I @-@ 94 at the eastern edge of the airport . From there , the business loop follows West Dickman Road along a four @-@ lane divided highway ( except between 24th and 20th streets ) through a residential area on the northern side of Battle Creek . Dickman Road turns southeasterly as a five @-@ lane undivided highway through downtown Battle Creek , parallel to a curve in the Kalamazoo River near its confluence with the Battle Creek River . BL I @-@ 94 skirts the edge of downtown by turning southward and then eastward to cross the Kalamazoo River . On the eastern side of the river , the business loop intersects I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 . East of the freeway interchange , Dickman Road narrows to three lanes and ends at Main Street . BL I @-@ 94 turns northwesterly along Main Street , northeasterly along Hamblin Avenue and then southeasterly on Michigan Avenue on the eastern side of downtown . BL I @-@ 94 follows the three @-@ lane Michigan Avenue , narrowing to two lanes east of Porter Street . BL I @-@ 94 rejoins M @-@ 96 at an intersection with Columbia Avenue in Emmett Township near the Kalamazoo River . BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 96 ( Michigan Avenue ) runs concurrently as a three @-@ lane roadway through Emmett Township . The center turn lane drops southeast of Wattles Road , and the business loop continues to its eastern terminus at exit 104 on I @-@ 94 .
In late 1940 , a southerly bypass of downtown Battle Creek opened . U.S. Highway 12 ( US 12 ) was rerouted out of downtown to follow Columbia Avenue . The former route was redesignated Business US Highway 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) . In 1958 or 1959 , a section of the route of Bus . US 12 was split onto a one @-@ way pairing of streets through downtown Battle Creek . On December 7 , 1959 , the southern I @-@ 94 / US 12 bypass of Battle Creek was dedicated and opened to traffic . The former routing of US 12 along Columbia Avenue was turned over to local control and the route of Bus . US 12 was extended via Michigan Avenue easterly and M @-@ 78 ( Capitol Avenue ) southerly to connect to the new freeway . Later the next year , this business loop was redesignated BL I @-@ 94 . When the first segment of I @-@ 194 opened in 1961 , BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 78 was rerouted to follow the freeway . In 1964 , the western end of the business loop was realigned to follow Dickman Road west to Fort Custer and south along Skyline Drive to I @-@ 94 . The next year , as I @-@ 194 was completed and M @-@ 78 was replaced by an extended M @-@ 66 , BL I @-@ 94 was rerouted through the downtown area . From Dickman Road , BL I @-@ 94 followed I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 north to the end of the freeway at Hamblin Avenue and turned along Hamblin to Michigan Avenue via Jay Street . A minor realignment in 1970 shifted the connection between Hamblin and Michigan avenues . The one @-@ way setup through downtown was removed in 1984 . M @-@ 96 and M @-@ 37 were extended in 2000 , running concurrently between Skyline Drive and the Helmer Road intersections . M @-@ 89 replaced part of M @-@ 37 but did not follow the latter 's routing to I @-@ 994 / M @-@ 66 near downtown . Then in 2008 , BL I @-@ 94 was removed from the northern segment of I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 freeway and rerouted to follow Dickman Road to Main Street back to Hamblin Avenue .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Calhoun County .
= = Marshall = =
Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) is a 5 @.@ 52 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 8 @.@ 88 km ) state trunkline highway serving as a business loop from the I @-@ 94 freeway through downtown Marshall . The highway begins at a cloverleaf interchange in Marshall Township between I @-@ 94 and I @-@ 69 , exit 108 on the former and exit 38 for the latter . The business loop turns southward running concurrently with I @-@ 69 . At the interchange with M @-@ 96 about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south , BL I @-@ 94 departs the fourl @-@ lane freeway to follow Michigan Avenue northeasterly along a four @-@ lane divided highway . Near the city limits , the highway intersects M @-@ 227 and then turns due east along a four @-@ lane undivided street . Within the city limits , Michigan Avenue is a Pure Michigan Byway named Marshall 's Territorial Road . The western half of Michigan Avenue in the city is mostly a residential neighborhood . The intersection with Kalamazoo Avenue is a roundabout around the Brooks Memorial Fountain . East of Kalamazoo Avenue , Michigan Avenue passes through the middle of downtown Marshall . East of downtown , Michigan Avenue once again passes through residential neighborhoods , narrowing to three lanes . The street angles northeasterly at the intersection with Gordon Street . At the intersection with the two @-@ lane Partello Road in Marengo Township , BL I @-@ 94 turns northerly off Michigan Avenue past several businesses to its eastern terminus at I @-@ 94 's exit 112 .
The first business loop in Marshall was a Business US Highway 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) that was designated in 1960 after the I @-@ 94 / US 12 freeway was completed north of the city . It followed US 27 ( Kalamazoo Avenue ) to Michigan Avenue . From there , Bus . US 12 followed the current routing of BL I @-@ 94 along Michigan Avenue and Partello Road . The business route was redesignated as BL I -94 in late 1961 . The section of BL I @-@ 94 along US 27 ( Kalamazoo Avenue ) became Bus . US 27 with the completion of the I @-@ 69 / US 27 freeway bypass in 1967 . BL I @-@ 94 was rerouted and cosigned with Bus . US 27 along Michigan Avenue and the new freeway on the west end . The concurrency with Bus . US 27 was removed in 1972 . On January 11 , 2001 . BL I @-@ 94 inside the city of Marshall was designated as a Michigan Heritage Route ( now called a Pure Michigan Byway ) .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Calhoun County .
= = Albion = =
Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) is a 4 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) state trunkline highway serving as a business loop from the I @-@ 94 freeway through downtown Albion . The highway begins at exit 121 on I @-@ 94 . The access from westbound I @-@ 94 is through a right @-@ in / right @-@ out connection on the north side of the freeway to C Drive North . State maintenance starts at the end of those ramps to C Drive North and runs to Eaton Avenue where the business loop turns southward to cross the freeway . The northern end of the business loop on Easton Avenue has five lanes ( two in each direction with a center turn lane ) running through a commercial area next to the freeway and continues with four lanes through residential neighborhoods southward to an intersection with M @-@ 199 ( Austin Avenue ) . BL I @-@ 94 turns southeasterly along four @-@ lane Austin Avenue for two blocks and then southward onto four @-@ lane Superior Street . About five blocks farther south in downtown Albion , BL I @-@ 94 intersects M @-@ 99 . The two highways turn eastward running concurrently along four @-@ lane Michigan Avenue out of downtown . East of downtown , BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 99 passes through residential areas and turns northeasterly at the intersection with Clark Street , narrowing to two lanes . The more rural section of Michigan Avenue carrying the business loop crosses into Parma Township in Jackson County . At exit 124 on I @-@ 94 , BL I @-@ 94 ends and M @-@ 99 continues northward .
The I @-@ 94 / US 12 freeway in opened in Calhoun County in 1960 . At this time , Eaton Avenue was transferred to state control , and the rest of the former route of US 12 through Albion was redesignated Business US Highway 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) . Later that year , Bus . US 12 was redesignated BL I @-@ 94 .
Major intersections
= = Jackson = =
Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) is a 10 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 16 @.@ 5 km ) state trunkline highway that serves as a business loop from the I @-@ 94 freeway through downtown Jackson . The western end is at exit 138 on I @-@ 94 west of Jackson in Blackman Township . This interchange is also the eastern terminus of M @-@ 60 and the two run concurrently southward along a section of four @-@ lane freeway west of the Jackson County Airport . BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 50 form a wrong @-@ way concurrency ; eastbound BL I @-@ 94 is also westbound M @-@ 60 . Less than a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of I @-@ 94 , BL I @-@ 94 turns eastward onto the two @-@ lane Michigan Avenue running south of the airport . East of Laurence Avenue , the street widens to include a center turn lane . The business loop then passes the Westwood Mall southeast of the airport and west of downtown ; west of the mall , Michigan Avenue drops the center turn lane and widens to four lanes . At an intersection with West Avenue , BL I @-@ 94 merges with Business U.S. Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) and M @-@ 50 . On the western edge of downtown Jackson , traffic follows a one @-@ way pairing of three @-@ lane streets that form a loop around the center of the business district . The southern half carrying BL I @-@ 94 east / Bus . US 127 south / M @-@ 50 east follows Washington Avenue , and the northern half follows Louis Glick Highway . East of downtown , Cooper Street rejoins the two sides of the loop . South of the loop , Cooper Street carries Bus . US 127 south / M @-@ 50 east and north of the loop , it carries M @-@ 106 . BL I @-@ 94 departs the loop north of the Grand River crossing near the Amtrak train station on the five @-@ lane Michigan Avenue . The business loop continues northeasterly through the east side of Jackson in a commercial area . East of Page Avenue , the center turn lane drops and returns east of Dettman Road . BL I @-@ 94 crosses US 127 in Leoni Township . East of that freeway , it follows two @-@ lane Ann Arbor Road past the campus of East Jackson High School . The highway turns more northerly through a rural section of Jackson County . It is bounded by fields interspersed with some businesses . Ann Arbor Road turns eastward to run parallel to the south side of I @-@ 94 near Gilletts Lake . A connector , Sargent Road , intersects Ann Arbor Road to tie the business loop northward into an interchange with I @-@ 94 at exit 145 .
The US 12 bypass of Jackson was partially completed in late 1951 or early 1952 . US 12 turned south along US 127 ( Lansing Road ) at the end of the freeway to connect back to the existing routing of US 12 through the west end of town . The former routing along Ann Arbor Road and Michigan Avenue into downtown to US 12 / US 127 / M @-@ 50 / M @-@ 60 became Business US Highway 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) at this time . The bypass of Jackson was extended west to Parma in 1953 . BUS US 12 was rerouted along US 127 / M @-@ 50 / M @-@ 60 on West Avenue to connect back to US 12 . The last routing change to Bus . US 12 with the opening of the M @-@ 60 bypass of Jackson by the middle of 1961 . Bus . US 12 was extended westward along Michigan Avenue to the new freeway west of town in Blackman Township and northerly to a new western terminus at I @-@ 94 / US 12 . The business loop was redesignated BL I @-@ 94 in late 1960 .
In 1964 , several changes were made to the business routes in downtown Jackson . Eastbound BL I @-@ 94 traffic was shifted off Michigan Avenue along Blackstone Street to Washington Avenue , and from there it ran along Washington to Francis Street and back to Michigan Avenue . The westbound traffic was shifted north at Mechanic Street to Pearl Street , continuing until turning south at Blackstone back to Michigan Avenue . The eastern end was updated further in 1968 to use Louis Glick Highway to connect to the northern half of the loop around downtown to Michigan Avenue . A set of connector streets on the western side of the downtown loop opened in November 1969 to streamline the flow of traffic further resulting in the last changes to the BL I @-@ 94 routing in Jackson . Eastbound traffic was redirected to the connector on Michigan Avenue just east of Third Street . This connector curved south then east to Washington Avenue near First Street . Louis Glick Highway was extended west from Blackstone curving south to merge into Michigan . In 2012 , the eastern terminus of the business route was shifted easterly to follow Ann Arbor and Sargent roads to exit 145 on I @-@ 94 ; as a result , the former partial interchange between I @-@ 94 and Ann Arbor Road which formerly served as the business route 's eastern terminus was obliterated .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Jackson County .
= = Ann Arbor = =
Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) is a business loop running from the I @-@ 94 freeway through downtown Ann Arbor . It starts at exit 172 on I @-@ 94 near on the western side of the city and follows four @-@ lane Jackson Road easterly through a residential area and under I @-@ 94 before passing through a commercial area next to Veterans Memorial Park . East of the park , the business loop runs east @-@ northeasterly along Jackson Road through residential areas to a Y @-@ intersection with Dexter Road and Huron Street . BL I @-@ 94 follows the four @-@ lane Huron Street eastward into downtown Ann Arbor . At the intersection with Main Street , Business US Highway 23 ( Bus . US 23 ) turns onto Huron Street , and the two designations run concurrently , adding a center turn lane to Huron Street for a few blocks . The business loop passes to the north of University of Michigan 's Central Campus and then turns southward through it on the five @-@ lane Washtenaw Avenue. near Forest Avenue at the edge of campus , BL I @-@ 94 / Bus . US 23 turns southeasterly through residential neighborhoods and drops the center turn lane again . At the intersection with Stadium Boulevard , Washtenaw Avenue turns more easterly , adds a center turn lane again and crosses County Farm Park . East of the park , BL I @-@ 94 / Bus . US 23 runs through a commercial area out to US 23 . At exit 37 on US 23 , Bus . US 23 ends and BL I @-@ 94 turns southward along US 23 . The business loop follows the four @-@ lane freeway southward through a residential area on the edge of Ann Arbor and ends at exit 180 on I @-@ 94 .
The business loop follows the former routing of US 12 . This routing was first designated as M @-@ 14 in 1956 when US 12 was moved to a freeway bypass to the south of town . I @-@ 94 was first designated by the middle of 1960 along the US 12 freeway , and a new BL I @-@ 94 designation was created by the middle of the next year . BL I @-@ 94 followed M @-@ 14 from the Jackson Road interchange to Main Street along Jackson Road and Huron Street . At Main Street , BL I @-@ 94 turned along US 23 on Huron Street , Washtenaw Avenue and Carpenter Road back to I @-@ 94 / US 12 . The US 23 freeway was finished on November 2 , 1962 . BL I @-@ 94 was rerouted on the east end to follow the new US 23 freeway , returning the Carpenter Road alignment to local control . Bus . US 23 replaced US 23 along Huron Street and Washtenaw Avenue in the city of Ann Arbor at this time . A new M @-@ 14 freeway opened on November 16 , 1965 , removing the M @-@ 14 concurrency from the routing .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Washtenaw County .
= = Port Huron = =
Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) is an 8 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) business loop serving the cities of Marysville and Port Huron . It starts southwest of Marysville near St. Clair County International Airport at exit 266 on I @-@ 94 . The highway runs northeasterly along five @-@ lane Gratiot Avenue past several businesses near the exit . BL I @-@ 94 enters Marysville and passes through the city 's downtown area . On the eastern side of the city , the business loop turns northward along the four @-@ lane divided Gratiot Boulevard near the St. Clair River . The intersection where the business loop turns is also the northern terminus of M @-@ 29 . North of Ravenswood Road , BL I @-@ 94 splits into the one @-@ way pairing of two @-@ lane Military Street ( northbound ) and Electric Avenue ( southbound ) . This area is mostly residential running along the river . Electric Avenue merges back into Military Street , which widens to four lanes , near Beard Street .
At the intersections with Oak Street ( eastbound ) and Griswold Street ( eastbound ) , BL I @-@ 69 merges in from those two one @-@ way streets . BL I @-@ 69 / BL I @-@ 94 continues northward along Military Street through downtown Port Huron . The business loop crosses the Black River near its mouth . North of the river. the business loop follows Huron Avenue through the northern side of downtown Port Huron . At the intersection with Glenwood Avenue , BL I @-@ 69 / BL I @-@ 94 turns northwesterly onto Pine Grove Avenue through a residential area on the northern side of the city . The street has five lanes ( two in each direction plus a center turn lane ) . The business loop passes under I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 at the toll and customs plazas for the Blue Water Bridge . There is a partial interchange to connect the business loop to and from the eastbound direction of the freeway and the toll plaza . North of the freeway crossing , the business loop intersects the southern end of M @-@ 25 and turns westward onto Hancock Street for two blocks . Then it turns southward along a connector freeway to terminate at an interchange with westbound I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 .
Before the completion of the freeways in the Port Huron area , the route of the business loop was part of US Highway 25 ( US 25 ) . After the freeway was completed in the area , the former route was redesignated Business US 25 ( Bus . US 25 ) in 1964 . The US 25 designation was decommissioned in 1973 , and the former Bus . US 25 through the area was designated as part of an extended M @-@ 25 . In 1986 , the BL I @-@ 94 designation was created , and the former BS I @-@ 69 was extended with it through downtown Port Huron . At the same time , M @-@ 25 was truncated to end on the north side of Port Huron .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in St. Clair County .
= Arjen Robben =
Arjen Robben ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈɑrjən ˈrɔbə ( n ) ] ; born 23 January 1984 ) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays for German club Bayern Munich and is the captain of the Netherlands national team . Robben has appeared at the 2004 , 2008 and 2012 UEFA European Championships , and the 2006 , 2010 and 2014 FIFA World Cups . He is a forward who usually plays as a left or right sided winger . Robben is known for his dribbling skills , speed , crossing ability and his accurate left foot long @-@ range shots from the right wing .
Robben first came to prominence with Groningen , for whom he was player of the year for the 2000 – 01 Eredivisie season . Two years later he signed for PSV , where he became the Netherlands ' Young Player of the Year and won an Eredivisie title . The following season Robben 's signature was pursued by leading English clubs , and after protracted transfer negotiations he joined Chelsea in 2004 .
Robben 's Chelsea debut was delayed through injury , but upon returning to fitness he helped Chelsea bring home two consecutive Premier League titles , and was the FA Premier League Player of the Month in November 2005 . After a third season in England which was punctuated by injury , Robben moved to Spanish club Real Madrid for € 35 million . In August 2009 , Robben transferred to Bayern Munich for a fee of around € 25 million , scoring two goals on his debut . In his first season in Munich , Bayern won the league title , Robben 's fifth league title in eight years , and Robben scored the winning goal in the 2013 UEFA Champions League Final . After his first season with Bayern , Robben was also named Footballer of the Year in Germany .
In 2014 , Robben was ranked the fourth @-@ best footballer in the world by The Guardian .
= = Early life = =
Robben was born in Bedum , a satellite town of Groningen , in the north @-@ eastern Netherlands . He took to football from an early age , becoming an adherent of the Coerver Method . Robben 's skill in ball control and technical footwork made him a valuable player , and he was quickly signed by regional club FC Groningen . Here , he developed his distinctive style of cutting inside from the right onto his left foot to score some quite spectacular goals .
= = Club career = =
= = = Groningen = = =
Groningen placed Robben in their first team for the 1999 – 2000 season . He scored three goals in league play . Manager Jan van Dijk added the winger to the first team before Groningen 's November 2000 away game against Twente , but he did not play until 3 December 2000 against RKC Waalwijk as a substitute for the injured Leonardo dos Santos in the 79th minute . During the winter , Robben managed to play himself into the starting lineup . In 18 starts for Groningen over the 2000 – 01 season , he scored two goals . Robben was named player of the year for his first season with the club , and with teammate Jordi Hoogstrate , he demonstrated the strength of the Groningen youth academy . Robben stayed with Groningen and improved steadily during the 2001 – 02 season , playing in 28 matches and scoring
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six goals . Robben transferred to PSV for € 3 @.@ 9 million before the 2002 – 03 season .
= = = PSV = = =
During his first season for PSV , the 2002 – 03 season , Robben played 33 matches and scored 12 goals . He was named " PSV co @-@ player of the year " along with striker Mateja Kežman , with whom he formed an attacking partnership still fondly referred to by PSV fans as " Batman and Robben . " He helped lead PSV to their 17th Dutch title , and won the Talented Player of the Year award . After this good start , PSV could not keep up with rival Ajax and were forced into a fight for second place in the Eredivisie . Robben travelled to London and met with Manchester United coach Sir Alex Ferguson . Ferguson 's offer came in much too low for PSV 's and Robben 's liking ; PSV chairman Harry van Raaij told Manchester United the most that their € 7 million offer would buy them was a shirt with Robben 's autograph . Almost immediately , Chelsea owner Roman Abramovich offered € 18 million ( £ 12 @.@ 1 million ) , and PSV accepted . The rest of his season with PSV was disappointing . He injured his hamstring twice and missed several games . By the end of the season , Robben scored five times in 23 Eredivisie matches .
= = = Chelsea = = =
= = = = 2004 – 05 season = = = =
Robben did not make his competitive debut for Chelsea until November 2004 , as he was injured in a pre @-@ season friendly match against Roma , breaking a metatarsal bone in his right foot in a challenge from Olivier Dacourt . During this time , he told club doctors that he had noticed an unfamiliar growth on one of his testicles . The medical team quickly did tests to check for testicular cancer , but he was subsequently given the all clear .
Robben proved to be a crucial player for the 2004 – 05 season ; in November 2004 , he was awarded the FA Premier League " Player of the Month " award . Robben ended the 2004 – 05 season with seven goals , his second highest professional total . He was shortlisted for the PFA Young Player of the Year , but was beaten by Wayne Rooney of Manchester United . Robben was badly injured in a league game away to Blackburn Rovers and forced to sit out Chelsea 's title run @-@ in and progress to the semi @-@ finals of the UEFA Champions League . Back to fitness for 2005 – 06 , Robben was an integral part of the Chelsea left wing . In 28 matches , Robben contributed six goals as Chelsea won a second consecutive Premier League championship , the first back @-@ to @-@ back titles for the west London club .
= = = = 2005 – 06 season = = = =
The 2005 – 06 season saw Robben involved in an unsporting incident with Liverpool goalkeeper Pepe Reina . Towards the end of a league game between Chelsea and Liverpool at Stamford Bridge , which Chelsea won 2 – 0 , Reina shoved his hand in Robben 's face after some provocative words from Robben . Robben fell theatrically to the turf , and Reina received a red card for " violent behaviour , " as violent conduct is illegal . As a result of the incident Reina commented that Robben " did well enough to win an Oscar " for his theatrics . Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez later joked in a post @-@ match interview that he " would soon be going to hospital to check on Robben 's condition . " Reina 's red card was not rescinded .
= = = = 2006 – 07 season = = = =
Robben was later named man of the match on 23 December 2006 against Wigan Athletic , a match where he got two assists and the winning goal .
Robben was inflicted with yet another injury in a match against Liverpool on 20 January 2007 . Robben made his return in a 3 – 0 victory against Middlesbrough in February , driving in a shot that took a deflection past Mark Schwarzer for an own goal by Abel Xavier . He came on as a substitute for Claude Makélélé in the 2007 League Cup Final against Arsenal and set up the winning goal for Didier Drogba . Robben scored a goal in the second round of the UEFA Champions League against Porto , which led to Chelsea winning the tie 3 – 2 on aggregate . At the end of March 2007 , Robben underwent a knee operation after sustaining a knee injury upon returning from international duty that was expected to rule him out for at least four weeks . He only made two further appearances for Chelsea , both of which were as a substitute and both of which would prove to be key games for the club . His first appearance since returning from injury was against Liverpool in the UEFA Champions League semi @-@ final second leg which went to penalties . Robben went on to have his penalty saved by Pepe Reina , and Chelsea ultimately lost . His final appearance for the club came against Manchester United in the 2007 FA Cup Final . Robben replaced Joe Cole at half time , but was then subsequently substituted himself for Ashley Cole in extra time as Chelsea emerged victorious . Spanish club Real Madrid were interested in two of Chelsea 's players . Then @-@ manager Bernd Schuster is said to have demanded Michael Ballack , while Madrid 's former president , Ramón Calderón , was known to favour Robben . Robben said to reporters of Spanish newspaper AS , " I do not know when a deal will be reached . I would like to send a message to the Madrid fans , but I can 't until my future is sorted . "
Real Madrid eventually secured Robben 's services in August 2007 . He told Chelsea 's official club website , " It was difficult to leave because I had a great time in my three years at Chelsea and I made a lot of friends . There was no time to say goodbye because the deal was closed on the Wednesday at 10 o 'clock in the evening and the following morning I had to fly . If I have one day off I would want to come back and say goodbye because to the fans I owe a big thank you because they were always good to me . In my three years I won all the prizes there are to win in England . "
= = = Real Madrid = = =
Robben completed his move to Real Madrid on a five @-@ year deal on 22 August 2007 , with the transfer fee reported as £ 24 million ( € 35 million ) . He made his debut on 18 September as a substitute for Raúl during a Champions League match against Werder Bremen , which Real Madrid won 2 – 1 . His league debut came on 23 September , this time as a substitute for Royston Drenthe in a 1 – 1 away draw against Real Valladolid . On 10 February 2008 , Robben scored his first goal , this time at home in a 7 – 0 victory against Valladolid . Robben proved crucial for many Real Madrid matches , making his famous runs down the left wing and quickly became a first choice for the left midfield position , making 28 appearances during his debut season and scoring five goals . Real Madrid won the league title with some games to spare , and were already the champions of Spain when they played their arch @-@ rivals Barcelona on 7 May 2008 . The Barcelona players formed a guard of honor as the Madrid team came onto the pitch at the Santiago Bernabéu , and Robben played an important part in Real Madrid 's subsequent 4 – 1 victory , scoring the champions ' second goal .
He retained his key role in the Real Madrid midfield during the 2008 – 09 season , playing 35 times and scoring eight goals . Although the Dutchman was one of the Spanish side 's most important players in the pre @-@ season games leading up to the 2009 – 10 season , having scored three goals and help set up another four , he was among the players whose place in the first team became threatened following the arrival of Florentino Pérez and the signings of Cristiano Ronaldo and Kaká . Real Madrid accepted a bid of around € 25 million for Robben from Bayern Munich . Robben claimed he was " forced " to leave Real Madrid , saying that he " didn 't want to go , but the club wanted to sell him . "
= = = Bayern Munich = = =
= = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = =
On 28 August 2009 , Robben moved to Bayern Munich for around € 25 million . He was given the number 10 shirt , last worn by his fellow Dutchman , Roy Makaay . His debut came the day after . He came on as a half @-@ time substitute against VfL Wolfsburg , scored two goals , and helped his team beat last season 's champions in Bayern 's first win of the 2009 – 10 season . On 9 March 2010 , Robben scored the deciding goal in Bayern 's 2 – 3 defeat ( 4 – 4 on aggregate over two legs ) against Fiorentina , taking them through to the quarter @-@ finals of the 2009 – 10 Champions League on away goals .
On 7 April 2010 , Robben sent Bayern into the semi @-@ finals of the Champions League with a stunning volley against Manchester United from the edge of the area into the corner of the net . The game ended 3 – 2 to United ( 4 – 4 on aggregate ) , with Bayern advancing again due to away goals .
On 17 April 2010 , he scored his first hat @-@ trick in the Bundesliga against Hannover 96 in the Allianz Arena . The game ended 7 – 0 to the Bavarians . On 8 May 2010 , he won his first Bundesliga title with Bayern after scoring two goals in their 3 – 1 victory over Hertha BSC , finishing as Bayern 's top scorer in the process .
A week later , Bayern played in the DFB @-@ Pokal Final against the previous champions of the tournament , Werder Bremen , in Berlin 's Olympiastadion . Bayern won the game by 4 – 0 , with Robben scoring the first of his team 's goals from a penalty kick . Robben thus helped the Bavarians achieve their 15th DFB @-@ Pokal title . On 25 May 2010 , Robben was named Footballer of the Year in Germany for 2010 . He won the award by attaining a record 72 @.@ 1 % of the vote and was the first Dutch person to win the title .
= = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = =
The 2010 – 11 started badly for Robben , after medical tests confirmed that his hamstring had not properly healed and that he would be out for two months . Bayern chairman Karl @-@ Heinz Rummenigge stated that " Of course , Bayern Munich are very angry " with the Royal Dutch Football Association ( KNVB ) , and would be seeking compensation from them , continuing . " Once again we must pay the bill as a club after a player is seriously injured playing for a national team . " On 15 January 2011 , he returned to first team action , coming on as a substitute in the 1 – 1 away draw with Wolfsburg .
Robben was nominated for the " UEFA Champions League Best Midfielder , " but the award went to his international compatriot Wesley Sneijder . He has also been nominated for the prestigious Ballon d 'Or award , and the FIFA Puskás Award , which goes to the best goal of the year , and he has also been nominated for FIFA ’ s " FIFPro World XI 2010 " squad , thanks to his fantastic season with Bayern Munich .
= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =
In the second leg of the semi @-@ finals of the 2011 – 12 UEFA Champions League , against his former club Real Madrid which was now managed by José Mourinho ( who had been his manager at Chelsea ) , after Bayern fell behind 2 – 0 , Robben converted a penalty to level the tie at 3 – 3 . Bayern advanced to the final after winning the resulting penalty shootout .
On 3 May 2012 it was reported that Robben has signed a new contract with Bayern which would last until 2015 .
Robben had an extra @-@ time penalty saved by former teammate Petr Čech in the 2012 UEFA Champions League Final at the Allianz Arena against Chelsea . Had he scored , Bayern Munich would have led Chelsea 2 – 1 . However the match ended in a penalty shootout which Chelsea won . That was the fourth major cup final that he had been on the losing side during the last two years ( World Cup final , two Champions League finals and the DFB Pokal ) . Three days later in the same stadium while playing as a second @-@ half substitute for the Netherlands in a friendly against Bayern Munich , he was jeered by some disgruntled Bayern Munich fans every time he touched the ball ( due to his penalty miss in the Champions League final , and as he did not play on Bayern 's side during that match due to a decision taken by Netherlands coach Bert van Marwijk ) . The match had been organized to compensate Bayern , since Robben aggravated an injury playing for the Netherlands at the 2010 World Cup , and went on to miss several months of the 2010 – 11 season .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
In the 2012 – 13 season , Robben had started the season on the bench , as manager Jupp Heynckes preferred to start Thomas Müller on the right wing , with Toni Kroos at the attacking midfielder position . Robben had played through the season as a substitute , but earned his chance to start again after Kroos was injured during the Champions League tie against Juventus . He started on the right wing for the rest of the season , having moved Müller back to the middle . Robben started against Borussia Dortmund in the quarterfinals of the DFB @-@ Pokal and scored the game 's lone goal in the 43rd minute . In the Champions League semi @-@ final against FC Barcelona , Robben started both games and scored in both games , including the go @-@ ahead goal in the second leg . Bayern would then go on to return to the Final . Robben atoned for his penalty miss the previous season by setting up teammate Mario Mandžukić 's goal to open the scoring in the 60th minute then netting an 89th @-@ minute winner in a 2 – 1 victory over Borussia Dortmund to give Bayern their fifth European Cup . During the presentation he was named Man of the Match by UEFA .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
Robben scored his first goals of the 2013 – 14 season in the 2013 DFL @-@ Supercup , where Bayern were beaten 4 – 2 by Borussia Dortmund . On 9 August 2013 , his opening goal helped Bayern to a 3 – 1 win over Borussia Mönchengladbach in their first match of the Bundesliga campaign . On 17 September , he scored in Bayern 's Champions League opener against CSKA Moskva at the Allianz Arena . He went on to score two further goals during the Champions League group stage ; in away wins against Manchester City and CSKA as Bayern finished as group winners . On 23 November , Robben was one of three scorers as Bayern beat title rivals Borussia Dortmund 3 – 0 at the Westfalenstadion . On 4 December , Robben was substituted with a deep cut on his right knee in a 2 – 0 DFB @-@ Pokal win away to FC Augsburg which prevented him from taking part in the 2013 FIFA Club World Cup .
On 1 March 2014 , Robben scored a hat @-@ trick in Bayern 's 5 – 1 win over FC Schalke 04 . On 19 March , he signed a contract extension with Bayern , which will keep him at the club until 2017 . On 9 April , Robben scored Bayern 's third goal in a 3 – 1 Champions League quarter @-@ final against Manchester United , to secure qualification to the semi @-@ finals . On 17 May , Robben scored Bayern 's opening goal in a 2 – 0 extra @-@ time defeat of Borussia Dortmund in the 2014 DFB @-@ Pokal Final , giving him his third league and cup double in five seasons with the club . His goal made him the first player to score in three separate DFB @-@ Pokal finals . On 13 July , after winning the third place match at the 2014 FIFA World Cup , Louis van Gaal invited Robben to follow him to Manchester United , but the latter ruled out the move .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
In Bayern 's opening match of the 2014 – 15 Bundesliga season , Robben scored one goal and assisted the other as the team defeated VfL Wolfsburg 2 – 1 on 22 August 2014 . On 1 November , he scored the winning goal from a penalty kick against Borussia Dortmund in Der Klassiker . On 16 December 2014 , Robben scored his 100th competitive goal for Bayern Munich in a home match against SC Freiburg .
On 21 February 2015 , Robben scored twice in a 6 – 0 win against SC Paderborn 07 , giving him the record of having scored against every Bundesliga team he had faced . He ended 2014 – 15 alongside teammate Robert Lewandowski as joint second @-@ top goalscorer in the Bundesliga with 17 goals . This was in spite of the player missing the last two months of the season through injury .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
Robben started his 2015 – 16 season by scoring the opening goal of the DFL – Supercup against Wolfsburg . The match finished in a 1 – 1 draw , and Robben scored in the subsequent shootout , however Bayern were defeated .
Robben 's first goal of the Bundesliga season came from a penalty kick in a 3 – 0 defeat of Bayer 04 Leverkusen on 29 August . However , an injury suffered six days later when playing for the Netherlands against Iceland in qualification for UEFA Euro 2016 kept him out of Bayern 's next nine fixtures . On 24 October , Robben returned to the Bayern team , playing 65 minutes and scoring the opening goal of a 4 – 0 win against 1 . FC Köln , the club 's 1,000th Bundesliga victory . He made his first UEFA Champions League appearance of the season on 4 November , scoring after coming on as a substitute in Bayern 's 5 – 1 win over Arsenal .
= = International career = =
In April 2003 , he made his international debut in a friendly match against Portugal at the age of 19 . On 28 August 2015 , Robben was named captain of the Netherlands national team , replacing Robin van Persie .
= = = Euro 2004 = = =
Robben 's first participation at an international tournament came at UEFA Euro 2004 when manager Dick Advocaat called up younger players , such as Wesley Sneijder and John Heitinga . During the group stage of the tournament , Advocaat substituted Robben in the 66th minute to defend a 2 – 1 lead over the Czech Republic . However , the Czech team then scored two goals and won 3 – 2 , which led to criticism about Advocaat 's decision . In the quarter @-@ finals , Robben scored the deciding kick in the penalty shootout between the Netherlands and Sweden , which ensured that at the fifth attempt , the Dutch finally won a shootout .
= = = 2006 World Cup = = =
Robben played in his first 2006 World Cup qualifier in 2006 . In six games for the Netherlands , Robben scored two goals . The Netherlands qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup and in the Netherlands opening match against Serbia and Montenegro , Robben scored the winning goal in the 18th minute , and was named the Man of the match . In the match against Côte d 'Ivoire , Robben received this award the second time , thus becoming one of the eight players in the tournament to have won the Man of the Match Award more than once .
= = = Euro 2008 = = =
During UEFA Euro 2008 , manager Marco van Basten changed the formation to 4 – 2 – 3 – 1 , preferring the midfield trio of Rafael van der Vaart , Wesley Sneijder and Dirk Kuyt . Robben was left to battle it out with Robin van Persie for a place on the wing . In the group match against France , which the Netherlands won 4 – 1 , Robben was brought on at half @-@ time . He dragged the ball out of reach of a defender near the half @-@ way line and paced his way ahead of three defenders , then crossed straight to Van Persie who powered a shot into the goal past Grégory Coupet . At 2 – 0 , Thierry Henry scored a goal , making it 2 – 1 , and almost directly after the restart , Robben was played through by Sneijder and he ran at the France goal and was forced into an acute angle , but despite the angle , he shot the ball into the net past Coupet .
= = = 2010 World Cup = = =
Robben was selected by the Netherlands manager Bert van Marwijk for the final squad of 23 for the 2010 FIFA World Cup . In the team 's last friendly match against Hungary , just before its flight to South Africa on 4 June , Robben fell awkwardly , and picked up a hamstring injury which caused concern over his fitness for the tournament . On 5 June , Van Marwijk announced that he 'd " decided not to summon any substitute for Arjen . I want to give him every chance to still participate in the World Cup . " On 12 June 2010 , Robben arrived in South Africa to join the team . He was an unused substitute for the opening game against Denmark as they coasted to a 2 – 0 victory , and again in the 1 – 0 victory against Japan . He came on in the 73rd minute against Cameroon in their 2 – 1 victory , hitting the post from which Klaas @-@ Jan Huntelaar scored from the rebound .
On 28 June 2010 , he started his first match against Slovakia in which he went on to score the first goal in the second round as the Netherlands won 2 – 1 . He also went on to pick up the man of the match award . Robben scored the third goal with a well @-@ placed header in the semi @-@ finals against Uruguay which the Netherlands won 3 – 2 to reach the final . Robben played for the full match in the final as the Netherlands lost 1 – 0 to Spain . Robben had Netherlands 's best opportunity of the match when played in on goal by Wesley Sneijder in the 62nd minute of the match , but was denied by Iker Casillas . Robben was nominated for the 2010 World Cup Golden Ball , the tournament 's best player , which was won by Diego Forlán .
= = = Euro 2012 = = =
Robben was selected to play for the Netherlands at UEFA Euro 2012 . He started in the first group stage match , a 1 – 0 loss to Denmark , in which he hit the post with a curled effort . In the next match , a 2 – 1 loss to Germany , he hopped over the advertising boards and walked the long way round after being subbed off for Dirk Kuyt because he thought he could have inspired the Netherlands to a win . After a 2 – 1 loss to Portugal , the Netherlands were knocked out with three straight defeats .
= = = 2014 World Cup = = =
In the Netherlands ' first match of the 2014 FIFA World Cup , Robben scored two goals in a 5 – 1 win over Spain . In the Netherlands ' second group stage match , a 3 – 2 win over Australia , Robben scored the team 's opening goal as they qualified for the knockout stage . In the Round of 16 knock @-@ out game with Mexico , the Netherlands won on a penalty awarded after Robben went down following a challenge from Rafael Márquez . The Associated Press said that Robben 's " theatrical " fall " did little to defuse the debate about his reputation for diving . " Robben maintained that the penalty was correct but admitted to falling easily earlier in the match , telling a Dutch TV channel that " the one [ at the end ] was a penalty , but the other one was a dive in the first half . I shouldn 't be doing that . "
In the quarter @-@ final , Robben scored the Netherlands ' second kick in a 4 – 3 penalty shootout defeat of Costa Rica . On 11 July , Robben was named on the 10 @-@ man shortlist for FIFA 's Golden Ball award for the tournament 's best player .
= = Style of play = =
Robben is regarded as one of the best wingers in the world , with ESPN stating he is " able to take on and beat defenders at the drop of a hat , Robben 's ability to get to the byline and deliver in accurate crosses instils fear into any defence . " Usually deployed on the right wing , Robben often cuts inside on his left foot to move to a more central attacking position , and uses his speed and dribbling skills to take on defenders until he finds the space to make an attempt on goal .
He is predominantly a left footed player . During a match he will often drift to the left wing , with his teammate , in the case of Bayern Munich , Franck Ribéry , switching over to the right . Another factor in his playing style is his relationship with the right @-@ fullback . At Bayern , this partnership with Philipp Lahm has had benefits for the team 's efficiency and chemistry . Robben 's defensive work improved when he went to Bayern where he often tracks back and covers for his partner when he pushes forward and becomes a temporary right back .
Robben has been often accused of diving , and he has at times openly admitted to the charges . In December 2011 , Robben apologised for a dive against VfL Bochum in a DFB @-@ Pokal match which earned him a yellow card , saying " I must not do things like this " . In July 2014 , Robben admitted to diving in the first half of Netherlands ' match against Mexico in the last 16 round of the 2014 FIFA World Cup , but maintained that he had not dived for the decisive penalty he won in stoppage time which Netherlands converted to win 2 – 1 . Following the incident , Robben 's former manager at Chelsea , José Mourinho , claimed that Robben 's speed and creativity cause opponents who cannot stop him to foul him , but " sometimes [ Robben ] tries to get an advantage , or to get a penalty " .
= = Personal life = =
Robben married his girlfriend Bernadien Eillert on 9 June 2007 in Groningen . The two met while in high school in the city , at the Kamerlingh Onnes , and have two sons , Luka born in 2008 and Kai born 2012 and a daughter , Lynn born in 2010 . Robben 's father , Hans , works as his agent .
The circumstances of Arjen and Bernadien 's first meeting have been reported by his former youth coach , Barend Beltman . ' Arjen was driven and determined at a young age . He was always on time , never late . But one Friday afternoon he showed up 15 minutes past the start of practice . I asked him what was going on . " We were at the market square , having fun " , he said . There were some girls with him and his friends , so I asked , " Was she worth it ? " " Yes , trainer , she was " , he told me . I told him to get his gear and join the training session . At his wedding , I heard the woman he met that day was now his wife and mother of his children . Bernadien is her name.'
= = Sponsorship = =
Robben has a sponsorship deal with German sportswear and equipment supplier , Adidas . Robben features in EA Sports ' FIFA video game series , and was the third highest rated player in FIFA 15 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 18 June 2016 .
1 . ^ Includes Dutch FA Cup , English FA Cup , Spanish FA Cup , German FA Cup .
2 . ^ Includes UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League .
3 . ^ Includes Eredivisie playoff , English League Cup , FA Community Shield , Spanish Super Cup , German Super Cup , and UEFA Super Cup .
= = = International = = =
As of 13 November 2015 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
PSV
Eredivisie : 2002 – 03
Johan Cruijff Schaal : 2003
Chelsea
Premier League : 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06
FA Cup : 2006 – 07
Football League Cup : 2004 – 05 , 2006 – 07
FA Community Shield : 2005
Real Madrid
La Liga : 2007 – 08
Supercopa de España : 2008
Bayern Munich
Bundesliga : 2009 – 10 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
DFB @-@ Pokal : 2009 – 10 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2015 – 16
DFB @-@ Supercup : 2010 , 2012
UEFA Champions League : 2012 – 13
UEFA Super Cup : 2013
FIFA Club World Cup : 2013
= = = International = = =
Netherlands
FIFA World Cup : Runner @-@ up 2010 ; Third Place 2014
= = = Individual = = =
Dutch Football Talent of the Year : 2002 – 03
Johan Cruijff Prijs : 2002 – 03
Premier League Player of the Month : November 2004
PFA Team of the Year : 2005
ESM Team of the Year : 2004 – 05 , 2009 – 10 , 2014 – 15
Bravo Award : 2005
Goal of the Month in Germany : January 2010 , March 2010 , April 2010 , February 2013
The kicker Man Of The Year : 2010
Footballer of the Year in Germany : 2010
UEFA Team of the Year : 2011 , 2014
UEFA Best Player in Europe Award 2013 ( 4th place )
UEFA Best Player in Europe Award 2014 ( 3rd place )
UEFA Champions League Final Man of the Match : 2013
UEFA Champions League Team of the Season : 2013 – 14
FIFA World Cup Bronze Ball : 2014
FIFA World Cup All @-@ Star Team : 2014
FIFA FIFPro World XI : 2014
FIFA Ballon d 'Or : 4th place 2014
Dutch Sportsman of the Year : 2014
= Money Jungle =
Money Jungle is a studio album by pianist Duke Ellington with double bassist Charles Mingus and drummer Max Roach . It was recorded on September 17 , 1962 , and released in February 1963 by United Artists Jazz . All but one of the compositions were written by Ellington , with four of the seven on the original LP being recorded for the first time on this album . Later releases on CD added eight tracks from the same recording session .
The album was reviewed positively at the time of its release and subsequent reviews have remained highly favorable . Negative comments have concentrated on differences in playing style among the three musicians , brought about by the generational gap between Ellington and the others , and an argument that led to Mingus leaving the studio mid @-@ session . Hundreds of musicians have been influenced by the recording , in particular by the freedom of individual expression within a small @-@ group setting .
= = Background = =
Producer Alan Douglas had helped Duke Ellington with errands when they were both working in Paris in the early 1960s . Later , after Douglas had joined United Artists and moved to New York , he received , according to his own account , a surprise visit from Ellington , who suggested recording a piano @-@ based album ( Ellington was known as a big band leader ) . Douglas suggested Charles Mingus as double bassist , who then insisted on having Max Roach as drummer . Mingus had played with Ellington before , deputising for the regular bassist in the leader 's orchestra in 1953 , but was fired after four days , following a fight with another musician , Juan Tizol .
At the time of the 1962 recording , Ellington was 63 years old , while Mingus was 40 and Roach 38 . The generational difference was strengthened by Ellington being a guiding figure for the other two , who were born when Ellington was becoming an influence on music . In 1962 , Ellington did not have a recording contract , while Mingus was signed to United Artists and had not recorded a trio album since 1957 . According to Roach , the three musicians met the day before the recording , and Ellington told them to " Think of me as the poor man 's Bud Powell " and that he would not like to play only his own material .
= = Recording and music = =
The recording was made on Monday , September 17 , 1962 , at Sound Makers Studios in New York City , on 57th Street , between Sixth Avenue and Seventh . The session was due to begin at 1 pm . Roach arrived at midday to set up his drums and found that Ellington was already there , writing out some material . Despite his suggestion the previous day , all of the compositions used were brought by Ellington . For each piece , according to Roach , he and Mingus were given " a lead sheet that just gave the basic melody and harmony " , plus a visual image described by the pianist : one example was , " crawling around on the streets are serpents who have their heads up ; these are agents and people who have exploited artists . Play that along with the music " . The musicians had declined the chance to rehearse , so the recording , which was made on three @-@ track tape , was of their first experience playing together .
Money Jungle is a post @-@ bop album . The original LP contained seven tracks – six composed by Ellington , and one , " Caravan " by Juan Tizol , strongly associated with him . The title track is a 12 @-@ bar blues that opens with strongly played notes from Mingus , then Ellington joins in with dissonant chords ; Roach supports using ride cymbal , snare and bass drum . In the final minute , Down Beat magazine observed , Mingus bends the " strings with such force that he makes the instrument sound like a cross between a berimbau and a Delta blues guitar " . " Fleurette Africaine " is a ballad developed from a simple melody stated on the piano , and features " Mingus ' floating bassline and Roach 's understated drumming " . " Very Special " is another 12 @-@ bar blues , possibly improvised . These three compositions , plus " Wig Wise
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1 @.@ 46 in ) cannons were mounted in under @-@ wing gun pods , each loaded with two six @-@ round magazines of armour @-@ piercing tungsten carbide @-@ cored ammunition . With these weapons , the Kanonenvogel ( " cannon @-@ bird " ) , as it was nicknamed , proved spectacularly successful in the hands of Stuka aces such as Rudel . The G @-@ 1 was converted from older D @-@ series airframes , retaining the smaller wing , but without the dive brakes . The G @-@ 2 was similar to the G @-@ 1 except for use of the extended wing of the D @-@ 5 . 208 G @-@ 2s were built and at least a further 22 more were converted from D @-@ 3 airframes .
Only a handful of production Gs were committed in the Battle of Kursk . On the opening day of the offensive , Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel flew the only " official " Ju 87 G , although a significant number of Ju 87D variants were fitted with the 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) cannon , and operated as unofficial Ju 87 Gs before the battle . In June 1943 , the RLM ordered 20 Ju 87Gs as production variants . The G @-@ 1 later influenced the design of the Fairchild Republic A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt II , with Hans Rudel 's book , Stuka Pilot being required reading for all members of the A @-@ X project .
= = = Night @-@ harassment variants = = =
The Soviet Air Force practice of harassing German ground forces using antiquated Polikarpov Po @-@ 2 and R @-@ 5 biplanes at night to drop flares and fragmentation bombs , inspired the Luftwaffe to form its own Störkampfstaffeln ( harassment squadrons ) . On 23 July 1942 , Junkers offered the Ju 87 B @-@ 2 , R @-@ 2 and R @-@ 4s with Flammenvernichter ( " flame eliminators " ) . On 10 November 1943 , the RLM GL / C @-@ E2 Division finally authorised the design in directive No. 1117 . This new equipment made the Ju 87 more difficult to detect from the ground in darkness .
Pilots were also asked to complete the new " Blind Flying Certificate 3 " , which was especially introduced for this new type of operation . Pilots were trained at night , over unfamiliar terrain , and forced to rely on their instruments for direction . The Ju 87 's standard Revi C12D gunsight was replaced with the new Nachtrevi ( " Nightrevi " ) C12N . On some Ju 87s , the Revi 16D was exchanged for the Nachtrevi 16D . To help the pilot see his instrument panel , a violet light was installed . On 15 November 1942 , the Auxiliary Staffel were created . By mid @-@ 1943 , Luftflotte 1 was given four Staffeln while Luftflotte 4 and Luftwaffe Kommando Ost ( Luftwaffe Command East ) were given six and two respectively . In the first half of 1943 , 12 Nachtschlachtgruppen ( " night battle groups " ) had been formed , flying a multitude of different types of aircraft , including the Ju 87 , which proved itself ideally suited to the low @-@ level slow flying needed .
= = Production = =
Despite teething problems with the Ju 87 , the RLM ordered 216 Ju 87 A @-@ 1s into production and wanted to receive delivery of all machines between January 1936 and 1938 . The Junkers production capacity was fully occupied and licensing to other production facilities became necessary . The first 35 Ju 87 A @-@ 1s were therefore produced by the Weser Flugzeugbau ( WFG ) . By 1 September 1939 , 360 Ju 87 As and Bs had been built by the Junkers factories at Dessau and Weserflug factory in Lemwerder near Bremen . By 30 September 1939 , Junkers had received 2 @,@ 365 @,@ 196 Reichsmark ( RM ) for Ju 87 construction orders . The RLM paid another 243 @,@ 646 RM for development orders . According to audit records in Berlin , by the end of the financial year on 30 September 1941 , 3 @,@ 059 @,@ 000 RM had been spent on Ju 87 airframes . By 30 June 1940 , 697 Ju 87 B @-@ 1s and 129 B @-@ 2s alone had been produced . Another 105 R @-@ 1s and seven R @-@ 2s had been built .
The range of the B @-@ 2 was not sufficient , and it was dropped in favour of the Ju 87 R long @-@ range versions in the second half of 1940 . The 105 R @-@ 1s were converted to R @-@ 2 status and a further 616 production R @-@ 2s were ordered . In May 1941 , the development of the D @-@ 1 was planned and was ordered into production by March 1942 . However , the expansion of the Junkers Ju 88 production lines to compensate for the withdrawal of Dornier Do 17 production delayed production of the Ju 87 D. The Weserflug plant in Lemwerder experienced production shortfalls . This prompted Erhard Milch to visit and threaten the company into meeting the RLM 's Ju 87 D @-@ 1 requirements on 23 February 1942 . To meet these demands , 700 skilled workers were needed . Skilled workers had been called up for military service in the Wehrmacht . Junkers were able to supply 300 German workers to the Weserflug factory , and as an interim solution , Soviet prisoners of war and Soviet civilians deported to Germany . Working around the clock , the shortfall was made good . WFG received an official commendation . By May 1942 , demand increased further . Chief of Procurement General Walter Herthel found that each unit needed 100 Ju 87s as standard strength and an average of 20 per month to cover attrition . Not until June – December 1942 did production capacity increase , and 80 Ju 87s were produced per month .
By 17 August 1942 , production had climbed rapidly after Blohm & Voss BV 138 production was scaled down and licence work had shut down at WFG . Production now reached some 150 Ju 87 D airframes per month , but spare parts were failing to reach the same production levels . Undercarriage parts were particularly in short supply . Milch ordered production to 350 Ju 87s per month in September 1942 . This was not achievable due to the insufficient production capacity in the Reich .
The RLM considered setting up production facilities in Slovakia . But this would delay production until the buildings and factories could be furnished with the machine tools . These tools were also in short supply , and the RLM hoped to purchase them from Switzerland and Italy . The Slovaks could provide 3 @,@ 500 – 4 @,@ 000 workers , but no technical personnel . The move would only produce another 25 machines per month at a time when demand was increasing . In October , production plans were dealt another blow when one of WFGs plants burned down , leaving a chronic shortage of tailwheels and undercarriage parts . Junkers director and member of the Luftwaffe industry council Carl Frytag reported that by January 1943 only 120 Ju 87s could be produced at Bremen and 230 at Berlin @-@ Tempelhof .
= = = Decline and end of production = = =
After evaluating Ju 87 operations on the Eastern Front , Hermann Göring ordered production limited to 200 per month in total . General der Schlachtflieger ( " General of Close @-@ Support Aviation " ) Ernst Kupfer decided continued development would " hardly bring any further tactical value " . Adolf Galland , a fighter pilot with operational and combat experience in strike aircraft , said that abandoning development would be premature , but 150 machines per month would be sufficient .
On 28 July 1943 , strike and bomber production was to be scaled down , and fighter and bomber destroyer production given priority . On 3 August 1943 , Milch contradicted this and declared that this increase in fighter production would not affect production of the Ju 87 , Ju 188 , Ju 288 and Ju 290 . This was an important consideration as the life expectancy of a Ju 87 had been reduced ( since 1941 ) from 9 @.@ 5 months to 5 @.@ 5 months to just 100 operational flying hours . On 26 October , General der Schlachtflieger Ernst Kupfer reported the Ju 87 could no longer survive in operations and that the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190F should take its place . Milch finally agreed and ordered the minimal continuance of Ju 87 D @-@ 3 and D @-@ 5 production for a smooth transition period . In May 1944 , production wound down . 78 Ju 87s were built in May and 69 rebuilt from damaged machines . In the next six months , 438 Ju 87 Ds and Gs were added to the Ju 87 force as new or repaired aircraft . It is unknown whether any Ju 87s were built from parts unofficially after December 1944 and the end of production .
Overall , some 550 Ju 87 As and B2s were completed at the Junkers factory in Dessau . Production of the Ju 87 R and D variants were transferred to the Weserflug company , which was to produce 5 @,@ 930 of the 6 @,@ 500 Ju 87s produced in total . During the course of the war , little damage was done to the WFG plant at Lemwerder . Attacks throughout 1940 @-@ 45 caused little lasting damage and succeeded only in damaging some Ju 87 airframes , in " contrast " to the Focke @-@ Wulf plant in Bremen . At Berlin @-@ Tempelhof , little delay and damage was caused to Ju 87 production , despite the heavy bombings and large @-@ scale destruction inflicted on other targets . The WFG again went unscathed . The Junkers factory at Dessau was heavily attacked , but not until Ju 87 production had ceased . The Ju 87 repair facility at the Wels aircraft works was destroyed on 30 May 1944 , and the site abandoned Ju 87 links .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
Among the many German aircraft designs that participated in the Condor Legion , and as part of other German involvement in the Spanish Civil War , a single Ju 87 A @-@ 0 ( the V4 prototype ) was allocated serial number 29 @-@ 1 and was assigned to the VJ / 88 , the experimental Staffel of the Legion 's fighter wing . The aircraft was secretly loaded onto the ship Usaramo and departed Hamburg harbor on the night of 1 August 1936 , arriving in Cádiz five days later . The only known information pertaining to its combat career in Spain is that it was piloted by Unteroffizier Herman Beuer , and took part in the Nationalist offensive against Bilbao in 1937 . Presumably the aircraft was then secretly returned to Germany .
In January 1938 , three Ju 87 As arrived . Several problems became evident - the spatted undercarriage sank into muddy airfield surfaces , and the spats were temporarily removed . In addition , the maximum 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bomb load could only be carried if the gunner vacated his seat , therefore the bomb load was restricted to 250 kg ( 550 lb ) . These aircraft supported the Nationalist forces and carried out anti @-@ shipping missions until they returned to Germany in October 1938 .
During the Catalonia Offensive in January 1939 , the Junkers Ju 87 returned to Spain . On the morning of 21 January 1939 , 34 Heinkel He 111 , along with some escorts and three Ju 87B , attacked the Port of Barcelona , five days before the city was captured by the Fascists . 29 Republican fighters were defending the city . There were more than 100 aircraft operating over the city and , while a Ju 87 was dive @-@ bombing a ship , a Republican Polikarpov I @-@ 15 pilot , Francisco Alférez Jiménez , claimed it destroyed near el Vendrell , in Coma @-@ ruga , but the Stuka was capable of landing on the beach without crashing . That was the only time a Stuka attacked the capital of Catalonia . On 24 January 1939 , a group of Stukas prevented the destruction of a bridge near Barcelona by strafing the demolition engineers on Molins de Rei . During the attack the Republican ground defenders , equipped with a quadruple PM M1910 mounting , hit one pilot ( Heinz Bohne ) in both legs and the Stuka crashed , seriously injuring Bohne , and his machine gunner , Albert Conrad . Those two were the only Stuka casualties of the war .
As with the Ju 87 A @-@ 0 , the B @-@ 1s were returned discreetly to the Reich . The experience of the Spanish Civil War proved invaluable - air and ground crews perfected their skills , and equipment was evaluated under combat conditions . The Ju 87 had not been tested against numerous and well @-@ coordinated fighter opposition , and this lesson was to be learned later at great cost to the Stuka crews .
= = = Second World War = = =
All Stuka units were moved to Germany 's eastern border in preparation for the invasion of Poland . On the morning of 15 August 1939 , during a mass @-@ formation dive @-@ bombing demonstration for high @-@ ranking commanders of the Luftwaffe at Neuhammer training grounds near Sagan , 13 Ju 87s and 26 crew members were lost when they crashed into the ground almost simultaneously . The planes dived through cloud , expecting to release their practice bombs and pull out of the dive once below the cloud ceiling , unaware that on that particular day the ceiling was too low and unexpected ground mist formed , leaving them no time to pull out of the dive .
= = = = Poland = = = =
On 1 September 1939 , the Wehrmacht invaded Poland , triggering World War II . Generalquartiermeister der Luftwaffe records indicate a total force of 366 Ju 87 A and Bs were available for operations on 31 August 1939 . The first Ju 87 operation was to destroy Polish demolition charges fixed to the rail bridges over the Vistula , that linked Eastern Germany to the Danzig corridor and East Prussia as well as Polish Pomerania . To do this , Ju 87s were ordered to perform a low @-@ level attack on the Polish Army Garrison headquarters . II. and III . / StG 1 targeted the cables along the embankment , the electricity plant and signal boxes at Dirschau ( now Tczew , Poland . At exactly 04 : 26 CET , a Kette ( " chain " or flight of three ) of Ju 87s of 3 . / StG 1 led by Staffelkapitän Oberleutnant Bruno Dilly carried out the first bombing attack of the war . The Stukas attacked 11 minutes before the official German declaration of hostilities and hit the targets . The Ju 87s achieved complete success . However , the mission failed as the German Army delayed their advance allowing the Poles to carry out repairs and destroy all but one of the bridges before the Germans could reach them .
A Ju 87 achieved the first air victory during World War II on the morning of 1 September 1939 , when Rottenführer Leutnant Frank Neubert of I. / StG 2 " Immelmann " shot down a Polish PZL P.11c fighter while it was taking off from Balice airfield ; its pilot , Captain Mieczysław Medwecki , was killed . In air @-@ to @-@ air combat , Ju 87 formations were well protected by German fighter aircraft and losses were light against the tenacious , but short lived opposition .
The Ju 87s reverted to ground attack missions for the campaign after the opening air attacks . Ju 87s were involved in the controversial but effective attacks at Wieluń . The lack of anti @-@ aircraft artillery in the Polish Army magnified the impact of the Ju 87 . At Piotrków Trybunalski I. / StG 76 and I. / StG 2 destroyed a Polish infantry division de @-@ training there . Troop trains were also easy targets . StG 77 destroyed one such target at Radomsko . During the Battle of Radom six Polish divisions trapped by encircling German forces were forced to surrender after a relentless four @-@ day bombardment by StG 51 , 76 and 77 . Employed in this assault were 50 kg ( 110 lb ) fragmentation bombs , which caused appalling casualties to the Polish ground troops . Demoralised , the Poles surrendered . The Stukas also participated in the Battle of Bzura which resulted in the breaking of Polish resistance . The dive bomber wings ( Sturzkampfgeschwader ) alone dropped 388 tonnes ( 428 tons ) of bombs during this battle . During the Siege of Warsaw and the Battle of Modlin , the Ju 87 wings contributed to the defeat of well @-@ entrenched and resolute Polish forces . IV ( Stuka ) . / LG 1 was particularly effective in destroying the fortified Modlin .
The Luftwaffe had a few anti @-@ shipping naval units such as 4 . ( St ) / TrGr 186 to deal with Polish naval forces . This unit performed effectively , sinking the 1540 @-@ ton destroyer Wicher and the minelayer Gryf of the Polish Navy ( both moored in a harbour ) . The torpedo boat Mazur ( 412 tons ) was sunk at Oksywie ; the gunboat General Haller ( 441 tons ) was sunk in Hel Harbour on 6 September — during the Battle of Hel — along with the minesweeper Mewa ( 183 tons ) and its sister ships Czapla and Jaskolka with several auxiliaries . The Polish naval units trapped in the Baltic were destroyed by Ju 87 operations .
Once again , enemy air opposition was light ; the Stukawaffe ( Stuka force ) lost just 31 aircraft during the campaign .
= = = = Norway = = = =
Operation Weserübung began on 9 April 1940 with the invasions of Norway and Denmark , Denmark capitulated within the day whilst Norway continued to resist with British and French help . The campaign was not a Blitzkrieg of fast @-@ moving armoured divisions supported by air power as the mountainous terrain ruled out close Panzer / Stuka cooperation . Instead , the Germans relied on paratroops , airborne troops transported by Junkers Ju 52s and specialised ski troops . The Ju 87s were given the role of ground attack and anti @-@ shipping missions . The Ju 87 proved to be the most effective weapon in the Luftwaffe 's armoury carrying out the latter task .
On 9 April , the first Stukas took off at 10 : 59 from occupied airfields to destroy Oscarsborg Fortress , after the loss of the German cruiser Blücher , which disrupted the amphibious landings in Oslo through Oslofjord . The 22 Ju 87s had helped suppress the Norwegian defenders during the ensuing Battle of Drøbak Sound , but the defenders did not surrender until after Oslo had been captured . As a result , the German naval operation failed . StG 1 caught the 735 ton Norwegian destroyer Æger off Stavanger and hit her in the engine room . Æger was run aground and scuttled . The Stuka wings were now equipped with the new Ju 87 R , which differed from the Ju 87 B by having increased internal fuel capacity and two 300l underwing drop tanks for more range .
The Stukas , however , had numerous successes against Allied naval vessels and in particular the Royal Navy which posed a formidable threat to German naval and coastal operations . The heavy cruiser Suffolk was attacked on 17 April . Her stern was virtually destroyed but she limped back to Scapa Flow with 33 dead and 38 wounded crewmen . The light cruiser squadron consisting of the sister ships Curacoa and Curlew were subjected to lengthy attacks which badly damaged the former for one Ju 87 lost . A witness later said , " they threatened to take our masthead with them in every screaming nerve @-@ racking dive " . The same fate nearly befell the sloop Black Swan . On the 27 April a bomb passed through the quarter deck , a wardroom , a water tank and 4 @-@ inch ( 10 @.@ 2 cm ) magazine and out through the hull to explode in the fjord . The muffled explosion limited the damage to her hull . Black Swan fired 1 @,@ 000 rounds but failed to shoot any of her attackers down . HMS Bittern was sunk on 30 April . The French large destroyer Bison was sunk along with HMS Afridi by Sturzkampfgeschwader 1 on 3 May 1940 during the evacuation from Namsos . Bison 's forward magazine was hit , killing 108 of the crew . Afridi , which attempted to rescue Bison 's survivors , was sunk with the loss of 63 sailors . 49 officers and men , 13 soldiers and 33 survivors from Bison were lost aboard Afridi . All ships were targeted . Armed trawlers were used under the German air umbrella in attempt to provide smaller targets . Such craft were not armoured or armed . The Ju 87 's demonstrated this on 30 April when they sank the Jardine ( 452 tons ) and Warwickshire ( 466 tons ) . On 15 May the Polish troopship Chrobry ( 11 @,@ 442 tons ) was sunk .
The Stukas also had operational effect when little damage was done . On 1 May 1940 Vice Admiral Lionel Victor Wells commanded a Home Fleet expedition of seven destroyers the heavy cruiser Berwick the aircraft carriers Glorious and Ark Royal and the battleship Valiant . The Stuka waves achieved several near misses but were unable to obtain a hit . Nevertheless , Victor ordered that no ship was to operate within range of the Ju 87 's Norwegian airfields . The Ju 87 's had , in effect , driven British sea power from the Norwegian coast . Moreover , Victor reported to the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Home Fleet Admiral Charles Forbes , that carrier operations were no longer practical under the current conditions .
In the following weeks StG 1 continued their sea operations . Off Namsos on 5 May 1940 they caught and sank the Royal Norwegian Navy transports Aafjord ( 335 tons ) and Blaafjeld ( 1 @,@ 146 tons ) . The Ju 87s then took to bombing the town and the airstrip to support the German forces under the command of Eduard Dietl . The town fell in the first week of May . In the remaining four weeks of the campaign in Norway the Ju 87s supported German forces in containing the Allied land forces in Narvik until they withdrew in early June .
= = = = France and the Low Countries = = = =
The Ju 87 units had learned some lessons from the Polish and Norwegian campaigns . The failures of Poland and the Stukas of I. / StG 1 to silence the Oscarborg fort , ensured even more attention was paid to pin @-@ point bombing during the Phoney War period . This was to pay off in the Western campaign .
When Fall Gelb ( Case yellow ) began on 10 May 1940 , the Stuka helped swiftly neutralise the fortress of Eben Emael , Belgium . The headquarters of the commander responsible for ordering the destruction of the Belgian Army @-@ held bridges along the Albert Canal was stationed in the village of Lanaken ( 14 km / mi to the north ) . However , the Stuka demonstrated its accuracy when the small building was destroyed by four direct hits . As a result , only one of the three bridges was destroyed , allowing the German Army to rapidly advance in the opening days of the Battle of Belgium . The Ju 87 proved to be a useful asset to Army Group B in the Low Countries . In pitched battles against French armoured forces at Hannut and Gembloux Ju 87s effectively neutralised artillery and armour .
The Ju 87s also assisted German forces in the Battle of the Netherlands . The Dutch Navy in concert with the British were evacuating the Dutch Royal Family and Dutch Gold reserves through the country 's ports . Ju 87s sank the Dutch Jan Van Galen ( 1 @,@ 316 tons ) and Johan Maurtis Van Nassau ( 1 @,@ 520 tons ) as they provided close @-@ shore artillery support at Waalhaven and the Zuider Zee Dyke . The British Valentine was crippled , beached and scuttled while Winchester , Whitley and Westminster were damaged . Whitley was later beached and scuttled after an air attack on 19 May .
The Ju 87 units were also instrumental in the Battle of France . It was here that most of the Ju 87 @-@ equipped units were concentrated . They assisted in the breakthrough at Sedan , the critical and first major land battle of the war on French territory . The Stukawaffe flew 300 sorties against French positions , with StG 77 alone flying 201 individual missions . The Ju 87s benefited from heavy fighter protection from Messerschmitt Bf 109 units . When resistance was organised , the Ju 87s could be vulnerable . For example , on 12 May , near Sedan , six French Curtiss H @-@ 75s from Groupe de Chasse I / 5 ( Group Interception ) attacked a formation of Ju 87s , claiming 11 out of 12 unescorted Ju 87s without loss ( the Germans recorded six losses over Sedan entire ) . For the most part , Allied opposition was disorganised . During the battles of Montcornet , Arras , Bolougne and Calais the Ju 87 operations broke @-@ up counterattacks and offered pin @-@ point aerial artillery support for German infantry .
The Luftwaffe benefited from excellent ground @-@ to @-@ air communications throughout the campaign . Radio equipped forward liaison officers could call upon the Stukas and direct them to attack enemy positions along the axis of advance . In some cases the Stukas responded in 10 – 20 minutes . Oberstleutnant Hans Seidemann ( Richthofen 's Chief of Staff ) said that " never again was such a smoothly functioning system for discussing and planning joint operations achieved " .
During the Battle of Dunkirk , many Allied ships were lost to Ju 87 attacks as the British Operation Dynamo sought to evacuate British and French armies from the pocket . The French destroyer Adroit was sunk on 21 May 1940 , followed by the paddle steamer Crested Eagle on 28 May . The French Channel @-@ steamer Côte d 'Arzur ( 3 @,@ 047 ) followed . The Ju 87s operated to maximum effectiveness when the weather allowed . RAF fighter units were held back and Allied air cover was patchy at best . On 29 May the destroyer Grenade was sunk outside the harbour with severe loss of life . The French destroyer Mistral was crippled by bomb damage the same day . Jaguar and Verity were badly damaged while the trawlers Calvi and Polly Johnson ( 363 and 290 tons ) disintegrated under bombardment . The merchant ship Fenella ( 2 @,@ 376 tons ) was sunk having taken on 600 soldiers . The attacks brought the evacuation to a halt for a time . The rail ships Lorina and Normannia ( 1 @,@ 564 and 1 @,@ 567 tons ) were sunk also . By 29 May , the Allies had lost 31 vessels sunk and 11 damaged . On 1 June the Ju 87s sank the Skipjack ( 815 tons ) while the destroyer Keith was sunk and Basilisk was crippled before being scuttled by Whitehall . Whitehall was later badly damaged and along with Ivanhoe , staggered back to Dover . Havant , commissioned for just three weeks , was sunk and in the evening the French destroyer Foudroyant sank after a mass @-@ attack . Further victories against shipping were claimed before nightfall on 1 June . The steamer Pavon was lost while carrying 1 @,@ 500 Dutch soldiers most of whom were killed . The oil tanker Niger was also destroyed . A flotilla of French minesweepers were also lost — Denis Papin ( 264 tons ) , the Le Moussaillon ( 380 tons ) and Venus ( 264 tons ) .
In total , 89 merchantmen ( of 126 @,@ 518 grt ) were lost , and the Royal Navy lost 29 of its 40 destroyers used in the battle ( 8 sunk , 23 damaged and out of service ) . The campaign ended after the French surrender on 25 June 1940 . Allied air power had been ineffective and disorganised , and as a result , Stuka losses were mainly due to ground fire . Some 120 machines , one @-@ third of the Stuka force , were destroyed or damaged by all causes from 10 May to 25 June 1940 .
= = = = Battle of Britain = = = =
For the Battle of Britain , the Luftwaffe 's Order of battle included bomber wings equipped with the Ju 87 . Lehrgeschwader 2 's IV . ( St ) , Sturzkampfgeschwader 1 's III . Gruppe and Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 's III . Gruppe , Sturzkampfgeschwader 51 and Sturzkampfgeschwader 3 's I. Gruppe were committed to the battle . As an anti @-@ shipping weapon , the Ju 87 proved a potent weapon in the early stages of the battle . On 4 July 1940 , StG 2 made a successful attack on a convoy in the English Channel , sinking four freighters : Britsum , Dallas City , Deucalion and Kolga . Six more were damaged . That afternoon , 33 Ju 87s delivered the single most deadly air assault on British territory in history , when 33 Ju 87s of III . / StG 51 , avoiding Royal Air Force ( RAF ) interception , sank the 5 @,@ 500 ton anti @-@ aircraft ship HMS Foylebank in Portland Harbour , killing 176 of its 298 crew . One of Foylebank 's gunners , Leading Seaman John F. Mantle continued to fire on the Stukas as the ship sank . He was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for remaining at his post despite being mortally wounded . Mantle may have been responsible for the single Ju 87 lost during the raid .
During August , the Ju 87s also had some success . On 13 August the opening of the main German attacks on airfields took place ; it was known to the Luftwaffe as Adlertag ( " Eagle Day " ) . Messerschmitt Bf 109s of Jagdgeschwader 26 ( JG 26 ) were sent out in advance of the main strike and successfully drew off RAF fighters , allowing 86 Ju 87s of StG 1 to attack RAF Detling in Kent unhindered . The attack killed the station commander , destroyed 20 RAF aircraft on the ground and a great many of the airfield 's buildings . However , Detling was not an RAF Fighter Command station .
The Battle of Britain proved for the first time that the Junkers Ju 87 was vulnerable in hostile skies against well @-@ organised and determined fighter opposition . The Ju 87 , like other dive bombers , was slow and possessed inadequate defences . Furthermore , it could not be effectively protected by fighters because of its low speed , and the very low altitudes at which it ended its dive bomb attacks . The Stuka depended on air superiority , the very thing being contested over Britain . It was withdrawn from attacks on Britain in August after prohibitive losses , leaving the Luftwaffe without precision ground @-@ attack aircraft .
Steady losses had occurred throughout their participation in the battle . On 18 August , known as the Hardest Day because both sides suffered heavy losses , the Stuka was withdrawn after 16 were destroyed and many others damaged . According to the Generalquartiermeister der Luftwaffe , 59 Stukas had been destroyed and 33 damaged to varying degrees in six weeks of operations . Over 20 % of the total Stuka strength had been lost between 8 and 18 August ; and the myth of the Stuka shattered . The Ju 87s did succeed in sinking six warships , 14 merchant ships , badly damaging seven airfields and three Chain Home radar stations , and destroying 49 British aircraft , mainly on the ground .
On 19 August , the units of VIII . Fliegerkorps moved up from their bases around Cherbourg @-@ Octeville and concentrated in the Pas de Calais under Luftflotte 2 , closer to the area of the proposed invasion of Britain . On 13 September , the Luftwaffe targeted airfields again , with a small number of Ju 87s crossing the coast at Selsey and heading for Tangmere . After a lull , anti @-@ shipping operations attacks were resumed by some Ju 87 units from 1 November 1940 , as part of the new winter tactic of enforcing a blockade . Over the next 10 days , seven merchant ships were sunk or damaged , mainly in the Thames Estuary , for the loss of four Ju 87s . On 14 November 19 Stukas from III . / St.G 1 with escort drawn from JG 26 and JG 51 went out against another convoy ; as no targets were found over the estuary , the Stukas proceeded to attack Dover , their alternate target .
Bad weather resulted in a decline of anti @-@ shipping operations , and before long the Ju 87 groups began re @-@ deploying to Poland , as part of the concealed build @-@ up for Operation Barbarossa . By spring 1941 , only St.G 1 with 30 Ju 87s remained facing the United Kingdom . Operations on a small scale continued throughout the winter months into March . Targets included ships at sea , the Thames Estuary , the Chatham naval dockyard and Dover and night @-@ bomber sorties made over the Channel . These attacks were resumed the following winter .
= = = = North Africa and the Mediterranean = = = =
In response to the Italian defeats in Greece and North Africa , the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ordered the deployment of some German forces to these theatres . Amongst the Luftwaffe contingent deployed was the command unit StG 3 , which touched down in Sicily in December 1940 . In the next few days , two groups - some 80 Stukas - were deployed under X. Fliegerkorps .
The first task of the Korps was to attack British shipping passing between Sicily and Africa . The Ju 87s first made their presence felt by subjecting the British aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious to heavy attack . The crews were confident that they could sink it as the flight deck had an area of about 6 @,@ 500 square metres . On 10 January 1941 , the Stuka crews were told that four direct hits with 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bombs would be enough to sink the carrier . The Ju 87s delivered six and three damaging near @-@ misses but the ship 's engines were untouched and she made for the besieged harbour of Malta .
The Italian Regia Aeronautica was equipped for a while with the Stukas . In 1939 , the Italian government asked the RLM to supply 100 Ju 87s . Italian pilots were sent to Graz in Austria to be trained for dive @-@ bombing aircraft . In the spring of 1940 , between 72 and 108 Ju 87 B @-@ 1s , some of them ex @-@ Luftwaffe aircraft , were delivered to 96 ° Gruppo Bombardamento a Tuffo . The Italian Stuka , renamed Picchiatello , was in turn assigned to Gruppi 97 ° , 101 ° and 102 ° . The Picchiatelli were used against Malta , Allied convoys in Mediterranean and in North Africa ( where they took part in conquering Tobruk ) . They were used by the Regia Aeronautica up to 1942 .
Some of the Picchiatelli saw action in the opening phase of the Italian invasion of Greece in October 1940 . Their numbers were low and ineffective in comparison to German operations . The Italian forces were quickly pushed back . By early 1941 , the Greeks had pushed into Italian occupied Albania . Once again , Hitler decided to send military aid to his ally . Before the Luftwaffe could intervene , the Italian Ju 87s achieved some successes . 97 Gruppo ( Group ) and its 239 Squadriglia ( Squadron ) sinking the Hellenic Navy freighter Susanah off Corfu on 4 April 1941 while the torpedo boat Proussa was sunk later in the day . On 21 April the Greek freighter Ioanna was sunk and they accounted for the British tanker Hekla off Tobruk on 25 May and then the Royal Australian Navy destroyer Waterhen on 20 June . The British gunboat Cricket and supply submarine Cachalot became victims . The former was crippled and later sunk by Italian warships .
In March , the pro @-@ German Yugoslav government was toppled . A furious Hitler ordered the attack to be expanded to include Yugoslavia . Operation Marita commenced on 7 April . The Luftwaffe committed StG 1 , 2 and 77 to the campaign . The Stuka once again spearheaded the air assault , with a front line strength of 300 machines , against minimal Yugoslav resistance in the air , allowing the Stukas to develop a fearsome reputation in this region . Operating unmolested , they took a heavy toll of ground forces , suffering only light losses to ground fire . The effectiveness of the dive bombers helped bring about Yugoslav capitulation in just ten days . The Stukas also took a peripheral part in Operation Punishment , Hitler 's retribution bombing of Belgrade . The dive bombers were to attack airfields and anti @-@ aircraft gun positions whilst the level bombers struck civilian targets . Belgrade was badly damaged , with 2 @,@ 271 people reported killed and 12 @,@ 000 injured .
In Greece , despite British aid , little air opposition was encountered . As the Allies withdrew and resistance collapsed , the Allies began evacuating to Crete . The Stukas inflicted severe damage on Allied shipping . On 22 April , the 1 @,@ 389 ton destroyers Psara and Ydra were sunk . In the next two days , the Greek naval base at Piraeus lost 23 vessels to Stuka attack .
During the Battle of Crete , the Ju 87s also played a significant role . On 21 – 22 May 1941 , the Germans attempted to send in reinforcements to Crete by sea but lost 10 vessels to " Force D " under the command of Rear Admiral Irvine Glennie . The force , consisting of the cruisers HMS Dido , Orion and Ajax , forced the remaining German ships to retreat . The Stukas were called upon to deal with the British naval threat . On 21 May , the destroyer HMS Juno was sunk and the next day the battleship HMS Warspite was damaged and the cruiser HMS Gloucester was sunk , with the loss of 45 officers and 648 ratings . The Ju 87s also crippled the cruiser HMS Fiji that morning , ( she was later finished off by Bf 109 fighter bombers ) while sinking the destroyer HMS Greyhound with one hit . As the Battle of Crete drew to a close , the Allies began yet another withdrawal . On 23 May , the Royal Navy lost the destroyers HMS Kashmir and Kelly , followed by HMS Hereward on 26 May ; Orion and Dido were also severely damaged . Orion had been evacuating 1 @,@ 100 soldiers to North Africa ; 260 of them were killed and another 280 wounded .
The dive bomber wing supported Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps in its two @-@ year campaign in North Africa ; its other main task was attacking Allied shipping . In 1941 , Ju 87 operations in North Africa were dominated by the Siege of Tobruk , which lasted for over seven months . It served during the Battle of Gazala and the First Battle of El Alamein , as well as the decisive Second Battle of El Alamein , which drove Rommel back to Tunisia . As the tide turned and Allied air power grew in the autumn of 1942 , the Ju 87 became very vulnerable and losses were heavy . The entry of the Americans into North Africa during Operation Torch made the situation far worse ; the Stuka was obsolete in what was now a fighter @-@ bomber 's war . The Bf 109 and Fw 190 could at least fight enemy fighters on equal terms after dropping their ordnance but the Stuka could not . The Ju 87 's vulnerability was demonstrated on 11 November 1942 , when 15 Ju 87 Ds were shot down by United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) Curtiss P @-@ 40Fs in minutes .
By 1943 , the Allies enjoyed air supremacy in North Africa . The Ju 87s ventured out in Rotte strength only , often jettisoning their bombs at the first sight of enemy aircraft . Adding to this trouble , the German fighters had only enough fuel to cover the Ju 87s on take off , their most vulnerable point . After that , the Stukas were on their own .
The dive bombers continued operations in southern Europe ; after the Italian surrender in September 1943 , the Ju 87 participated in the last campaign @-@ sized victory over the Western Allies , the Dodecanese Campaign . The Dodecanese Islands had been occupied by the British ; the Luftwaffe committed 75 Stukas of StG 3 based in Megara ( I. / StG 3 ) and Argos ( II.StG 3 ; from 17 October on Rhodos ) , to recover the islands . With the RAF bases some 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) away , the Ju 87 helped the German landing forces rapidly conquer the islands . On 5 October the minelayer Lagnano was sunk along with a patrol vessel , a steam ship and a light tank carrier Porto Di Roma . On 24 October Ju 87s sank the landing craft LCT115 and cargo ship Taganrog at Samos . On 31 October the light cruiser Aurora was put out of action for a year . The light cruisers Penelope and Carlisle were badly damaged by StG 3 and the destroyer Panther was also sunk by Ju 87s before the capitulation of the Allied force . It proved to be the Stuka 's final victory against the British .
= = = = Eastern front = = = =
= = = = = Barbarossa ; 1941 = = = = =
On 22 June 1941 , the Wehrmacht commenced Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union . The Luftwaffe order of battle of 22 June 1941 contained four dive bomber wings . VIII . Fliegerkorps under the command of General der Flieger Wolfram von Richthofen was equipped with units Stab , II. and III . / StG 1 . Also included were Stab , I. , II. and III. of Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 Immelmann . Attached to II . Fliegerkorps , under the command of General der Flieger Bruno Loerzer , were Stab , I. , II. and III. of StG 77 . Luftflotte 5 , under the command of Generaloberst Hans @-@ Jürgen Stumpff , operating from Norway 's Arctic Circle , were allotted IV . Gruppe ( St ) / Lehrgeschwader 1 ( LG 1 ) .
The first Stuka loss on the Soviet @-@ German front occurred early at 03 : 40 – 03 : 47 in the morning of the 22 June . While being escorted by Bf 109s from JG 51 to attack Brest Fortress , Oberleutnant Karl Führing of StG 77 was shot down by an I @-@ 153 . The dive bomber wing suffered only two losses on the opening day of Barbarossa . As a result of the Luftwaffe 's attention , the Soviet Air Force in the western Soviet Union was nearly destroyed . The official report claimed 1 @,@ 489 Soviet aircraft destroyed . Göring ordered this checked . After picking their way through the wreckage across the front , Luftwaffe officers found that the tally exceeded 2 @,@ 000 . In the next two days , the Soviets reported the loss of another 1 @,@ 922 aircraft . Soviet aerial resistance continued but ceased to be effective and the Luftwaffe maintained air superiority until the end of the year .
The Ju 87 took a huge toll on Soviet ground forces , helping to break up counterattacks of Soviet armour , eliminating strongpoints and disrupting the enemy supply lines . A demonstration of the Stuka 's effectiveness occurred on 5 July , when StG 77 knocked out 18 trains and 500 vehicles . As the 1st and 2nd Panzer Groups forced bridgeheads across the Dnieper river and closed in on Kiev , the Ju 87s again rendered invaluable support . On 13 September , Stukas from StG 1 destroyed the rail network in the vicinity as well as inflicting heavy casualties on escaping Red Army columns , for the loss of just one Ju 87 . On 23 September , Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel ( who was to become the most decorated serviceman in the Wehrmacht ) of StG 2 , sank the Soviet battleship Marat , during an air attack on Kronstadt harbour near Leningrad , with a hit to the bow with a single 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) bomb . During this action , Leutnant Egbert Jaeckel sank the destroyer Minsk , while the destroyer Steregushchiy and submarine M @-@ 74 were also sunk . The Stukas also crippled the battleship Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya and the destroyers Silnyy and Grozyashchiy in exchange for two Ju 87s shot down .
Elsewhere on the Eastern front , the Junkers assisted Army Group Centre in its drive toward Moscow . From 13 – 22 December , 420 vehicles and 23 tanks were destroyed by StG 77 , greatly improving the morale of the German infantry , who were by now on the defensive . StG 77 finished the campaign as the most effective dive bomber wing . It had destroyed 2 @,@ 401 vehicles , 234 tanks , 92 artillery batteries and 21 trains for the loss of 25 Ju 87s to hostile action . At the end of Barbarossa , StG 1 had lost 60 Stukas in aerial combat and one on the ground . StG 2 lost 39 Ju 87s in the air and two on the ground , StG 77 lost 29 of their dive @-@ bombers in the air and three on the ground ( 25 to enemy action ) . IV . ( St ) / LG1 , operating from Norway , lost 24 Ju 87s , all in aerial combat .
= = = = = Fall Blau to Stalingrad ; 1942 = = = = =
In early 1942 , the Ju 87s gave the German Army yet more valuable support . On 29 December 1941 , the Soviet 44th Army landed on the Kerch Peninsula . The Luftwaffe was only able to dispatch meager reinforcements of four bomber groups ( Kampfgruppen ) and two dive bomber groups belonging to StG 77 . With air superiority , the Ju 87s operated with impunity . In the first 10 days of the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula , half the landing force was destroyed , while sea lanes were blocked by the Stukas inflicting heavy losses on Soviet shipping . The Ju 87 's effectiveness against Soviet armour was not yet potent . Later versions of the T @-@ 34 tank could withstand Stuka attack in general , unless a direct hit was scored but the Soviet 44th Army had only obsolescent types with thin armour which were nearly all destroyed .
During the Battle of Sevastopol , the Stukas repeatedly bombed the trapped Soviet forces . Some Ju 87 pilots flew up to 300 sorties against the Soviet defenders . Luftflotte 4 's StG 77 flew 7 @,@ 708 combat sorties dropping 3 @,@ 537 tonnes of bombs on the city . Their efforts help secure the capitulation of Soviet forces on 4 July .
For the German summer offensive , Fall Blau , the Luftwaffe had concentrated 1 @,@ 800 aircraft into Luftflotte 4 making it the largest and most powerful air command in the world . The Stukawaffe strength stood at 151 . During the Battle of Stalingrad , Stukas flew thousands of sorties against Soviet positions in the city . StG 1 , 2 and 77 flew 320 sorties on 14 October 1942 . As the German Sixth Army pushed the Soviets into a 1 @,@ 000 metre enclave on the west bank of the Volga River , 1 @,@ 208 Stuka sorties were flown against this small strip of land . The intense air attack , though causing horrific losses on Soviet units , failed to destroy them . The Luftwaffe 's Stuka force made a maximum effort during this phase of the war . They flew an average of 500 sorties per day and caused heavy losses among Soviet forces , losing an average of only one Stuka per day . The Battle of Stalingrad marked the high point in the fortunes of the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka . As the strength of the Soviet Air Forces grew , they gradually wrested control of the skies from the Luftwaffe . From this point onward , Stuka losses increased .
= = = = = Kursk and decline ; 1943 = = = = =
The Stuka was also heavily involved in Operation Citadel , the Battle of Kursk . The Luftwaffe committed I , II , III . / St.G 1 and III . / StG 3 under the command of Luftflotte 6 . I. , II , III. of StGs 2 and 3 were committed under the command of Hans Seidemann 's Fliegerkorps VIII . Hauptmann Rudel 's cannon @-@ equipped Ju 87 Gs had a devastating effect on Soviet armour at Orel and Belgorod . The Ju 87s participated in a huge aerial counter @-@ offensive lasting from 16 – 31 July against a Soviet offensive at Khotynets and saved two German armies from encirclement , reducing the attacking Soviet 11th Guards Army to just 33 tanks by 20 July . The Soviet offensive had been completely halted from the air although losses were considerable . Fliegerkorps VIII lost eight Ju 87s on 8 July , six on 9 July , six on 10 July and another eight on 11 July . The Stuka arm also lost eight of their Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross holders . StG 77 lost 24 Ju 87s in the period 5 – 31 July ( StG had lost 23 in July – December 1942 ) , while StG 2 lost another 30 aircraft in the same period . In September 1943 , three of the Stuka units were re @-@ equipped with the Fw 190F and G ( ground attack versions ) and began to be renamed Schlachtgeschwader ( attack wings ) . In the face of overwhelming air opposition , the dive @-@ bomber required heavy protection from German fighters to counter Soviet fighters . Some units like SG 2 Immelmann continued to operate with great success throughout 1943 @-@ 45 , operating the Ju 87 G variants equipped with 37 mm cannons , which became tank killers , although in increasingly small numbers .
In the wake of the defeat at Kursk , Ju 87s played a vital defensive role on the southern wing of the Eastern Front . To combat the Luftwaffe , the Soviets could deploy some 3 @,@ 000 fighter aircraft . As a result , the Stukas suffered heavily . SG 77 lost 30 Ju 87s in August 1943 as did SG 2 Immelmann , which also reported the loss of 30 aircraft in combat operations . Despite these losses , Ju 87s helped the XXIX Army Corps break out of an encirclement near the Sea of Azov . The Battle of Kiev also included substantial use of the Ju 87 units , although again , unsuccessful in stemming the advances . Stuka units were with the loss of air superiority , becoming vulnerable on the ground as well . Some Stuka aces were lost this way . In the aftermath of Kursk , Stuka strength fell to 184 aircraft in total . This was well below 50 percent of the required strength . On 18 October 1943 , StG 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 and 77 were renamed Schlachtgeschwader ( SG ) wings , reflecting their ground @-@ attack role , as these combat wings were now also using ground @-@ attack aircraft , such as the Fw 190F @-@ series aircraft . The Luftwaffe 's dive @-@ bomber units had ceased to exist .
A small number of Ju 87s were also retained for anti @-@ shipping operations in the Black Sea , a role it had proved so successful in when operating in the Mediterranean . In October 1943 , this became evident again when StG 3 carried out several attacks against the Soviet Black Sea Fleet . On 6 October 1943 the most powerful flotilla in the fleet comprising the Lenningrad class destroyers Kharkov , Besposhchadny and Sposobny were caught and sunk by dive -bombing . After the disaster , Josef Stalin decreed that no more ships were to pass within range of German aircraft without his personal permission .
= = = = = Operation Bagration to Berlin 1944 – 45 = = = = =
Towards the end of the war , as the Allies gained air supremacy , the Stuka was being replaced by ground @-@ attack versions of the Fw 190 . By early 1944 , the number of Ju 87 units and operational aircraft terminally declined . For the Soviet summer offensive , Operation Bagration , 12 Ju 87 groups and five mixed groups ( including Fw 190s ) were on the Luftwaffe 's order of battle on 26 June 1944 . Gefechtsverband Kuhlmey , a mixed aircraft unit , which included large numbers of Stuka dive bombers , was rushed to the Finnish front in the summer of 1944 and was instrumental in halting the Soviet fourth strategic offensive . The unit claimed 200 Soviet tanks and 150 Soviet aircraft destroyed for 41 losses . By 31 January 1945 , only 104 Ju 87s remained operational with their units . The other mixed Schlacht units contained a further 70 Ju 87s and Fw 190s between them . Chronic fuel shortages kept the Stukas grounded and sorties decreased until the end of the war in May 1945 .
In the final months of the war the ground attack groups were still able to impose operational constraints upon the enemy . Most notably the aircraft participated in the defence of Berlin . On 12 January 1945 the 1st Belorussian Front initiated the Vistula – Oder Offensive . The offensive made ground in its early phases . However , the Soviets soon outran their air support which was unable to use forward , quagmire @-@ filled , airfields . The Germans , who had fallen back on air bases resplendent with good facilities and concrete runways , were able to mount uninterrupted attacks against Soviet army columns . Reminiscent of the early years , the Luftwaffe was able to inflict high losses largely unopposed . Over 800 vehicles were destroyed within two weeks . In the first three days of February 1945 , 2 @,@ 000 vehicles and 51 tanks were lost to German air attacks . The Belorussian Front was forced to abandon its attempt to capture Berlin by mid @-@ February 1945 . The Ju 87 participated in these intense battles in small numbers . It was the largest concentration of German air power since 1940 and even late as February 1945 the Germans were able to achieve and challenge for air superiority on the Eastern Front . The air offensive was instrumental in saving Berlin , albeit only for three months . The effort exhausted German fuel reserves . The contribution of the Ju 87 was exemplified by Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel , who claimed 13 enemy tanks on 8 February 1945 .
= = Operators = =
Bulgaria
Bulgarian Air Forceb
NDH
Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatskeb
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakian Air Force operated captured aircraft postwar.b
Nazi Germany
Luftwaffe
Kingdom of Hungary
Royal Hungarian Air Forceb
Kingdom of Italy
Regia Aeronauticab
Empire of Japan
Imperial Japanese Army Air Forceb
Kingdom of Romania
Royal Romanian Air Forceb
Slovak Republic
Slovak Air Forceb
Spain
Spanish Air Force
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force tested various captured variants during and after the war .
United States
United States Army Air Forces operated one in Tunisia in 1943 for a short time before it crashed and was written off .
Yugoslavia
SFR Yugoslav Air Force operated captured aircraft postwar .
= = Survivors = =
Two intact Ju 87s survive :
Ju 87 R @-@ 2 / Trop . Werk Nr. 5954
This aircraft is displayed in the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry . It was abandoned in North Africa and found by British forces in 1941 . The Ju 87 was donated by the British government and sent to the USA during the war . It was fully restored in 1974 by the EAA of Wisconsin .
Ju 87 G @-@ 2 , Werk Nr. 494083 .
A later , ground @-@ attack variant , this is displayed at the Royal Air Force Museum in London ; it was captured by British forces at Eggebek , Schleswig @-@ Holstein in May 1945 . It is thought to have been built in 1943 – 1944 as a D @-@ 5 before being rebuilt as a G @-@ 2 variant , possibly by fitting G @-@ 2 outer wings to a D @-@ 5 airframe . The wings have the hard @-@ points for Bordkanone BK 3 @,@ 7 gun @-@ pods , but these are not fitted . It was one of 12 captured German aircraft selected by the British for museum preservation and assigned to the Air Historical Branch . The aircraft was stored and displayed at various RAF sites until 1978 , when it was moved to the RAF Museum . In 1967 , permission was given to use the aircraft in the film Battle of Britain and it was repainted and modified to resemble a 1940 variant of the Ju 87 . The engine was found to be in excellent condition and there was little difficulty in starting it , but returning the aircraft to airworthiness was considered too costly for the filmmakers , and ultimately , models were used in the film to represent Stukas . In 1998 , the film modifications were removed , and the aircraft returned to the original G @-@ 2 configuration .
Other aircraft survive as wreckage , recovered from crash sites :
Junkers Ju 87 R @-@ 2 Werk Nr. 0875709 is owned by Paul Allen 's Flying Heritage Collection ( FHC ) and is believed to be under a long @-@ term restoration to fly . It served bearing the Stammkennzeichen of Code , LI + KU , Werknummer 857509 , from 1 . / St.G.5 , and was recovered to the United Kingdom in 1998 .
The Deutsches Technikmuseum in Berlin has the wreckage of two complete aircraft that were recovered from separate crash sites near Murmansk in 1990 and 1994 . These wrecks were purchased from New Zealand collector Tim Wallis , who originally planned for the remains to be restored to airworthy , in 1996 .
The Sinsheim Auto & Technik Museum displays the remains of an aircraft that crashed near Saint @-@ Tropez in 1944 and was raised from the seabed in 1989 .
In October 2006 , a Ju 87 D @-@ 3 / Trop. was recovered underwater , near Rhodes .
Junkers Ju 87 B @-@ 2 , Code 98 + 01 , Werk Nr. 870406 , is on display at the Yugoslav Aeronautical Museum , Belgrade . The parts of the three others ( S2 + ? ? ; H4 + ? ? ; 5B + ? ? ) are rumoured to have been sold to a British buyer .
Junkers Ju 87 B @-@ 3 Werk Nr. 110757 found in the village
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legs ( known as sciatica ) may be present . The first experience of acute low back pain is typically between the ages of 20 and 40 . This is often a person 's first reason to see a medical professional as an adult . Recurrent episodes occur in more than half of people with the repeated episodes being generally more painful than the first .
Other problems may occur along with low back pain . Chronic low back pain is associated with sleep problems , including a greater amount of time needed to fall asleep , disturbances during sleep , a shorter duration of sleep , and less satisfaction with sleep . In addition , a majority of those with chronic low back pain show symptoms of depression or anxiety .
= = Causes = =
Low back pain is not a specific disease but rather a complaint that may be caused by a large number of underlying problems of varying levels of seriousness . The majority of LBP does not have a clear cause but is believed to be the result of non @-@ serious muscle or skeletal issues such as sprains or strains . Obesity , smoking , weight gain during pregnancy , stress , poor physical condition , poor posture and poor sleeping position may also contribute to low back pain . A full list of possible causes includes many less common conditions . Physical causes may include osteoarthritis , degeneration of the discs between the vertebrae or a spinal disc herniation , broken vertebra ( e ) ( such as from osteoporosis ) or , rarely , an infection or tumor of the spine .
Women may have acute low back pain from medical conditions affecting the female reproductive system , including endometriosis , ovarian cysts , ovarian cancer , or uterine fibroids . Nearly half of all pregnant women report pain in the lower back or sacral area during pregnancy , due to changes in their posture and center of gravity causing muscle and ligament strain .
Low back pain can be broadly classified into four main categories :
Musculoskeletal - mechanical ( including muscle strain , muscle spasm , or osteoarthritis ) ; herniated nucleus pulposus , herniated disk ; spinal stenosis ; or compression fracture
Inflammatory - HLA @-@ B27 associated arthritis including ankylosing spondylitis , reactive arthritis , psoriatic arthritis , and inflammatory bowel disease
Malignancy - bone metastasis from lung , breast , prostate , thyroid , among others
Infectious - osteomyelitis ; abscess
= = Pathophysiology = =
= = = Back structures = = =
The lumbar ( or lower back ) region is made up of five vertebrae ( L1 @-@ L5 ) , sometimes including the sacrum . In between these vertebrae are fibrocartilaginous discs , which act as cushions , preventing the vertebrae from rubbing together while at the same time protecting the spinal cord . Nerves come from and go to the spinal cord through specific openings between the vertebrae , providing the skin with sensations and messages to muscles . Stability of the spine is provided by the ligaments and muscles of the back and abdomen . Small joints called facet joints limit and direct the motion of the spine .
The multifidus muscles run up and down along the back of the spine , and are important for keeping the spine straight and stable during many common movements such as sitting , walking and lifting . A problem with these muscles is often found in someone with chronic low back pain , because the back pain causes the person to use the back muscles improperly in trying to avoid the pain . The problem with the multifidus muscles continues even after the pain goes away , and is probably an important reason why the pain comes back . Teaching people with chronic low back pain how to use these muscles is recommended as part of a recovery program .
An intervertebral disc has a gelatinous core surrounded by a fibrous ring . When in its normal , uninjured state , most of the disc is not served by either the circulatory or nervous systems – blood and nerves only run to the outside of the disc . Specialized cells that can survive without direct blood supply are in the inside of the disc . Over time , the discs lose flexibility and the ability to absorb physical forces . This decreased ability to handle physical forces increases stresses on other parts of the spine , causing the ligaments of the spine to thicken and bony growths to develop on the vertebrae . As a result , there is less space through which the spinal cord and nerve roots may pass . When a disc degenerates as a result of injury or disease , the makeup of a disc changes : blood vessels and nerves may grow into its interior and / or herniated disc material can push directly on a nerve root . Any of these changes may result in back pain .
= = = Pain sensation = = =
Pain is generally an unpleasant feeling in response to an event that either damages or can potentially damage the body 's tissues . There are four main steps in the process of feeling pain : transduction , transmission , perception , and modulation . The nerve cells that detect pain have cell bodies located in the dorsal root ganglia and fibers that transmit these signals to the spinal cord . The process of pain sensation starts when the pain @-@ causing event triggers the endings of appropriate sensory nerve cells . This type of cell converts the event into an electrical signal by transduction . Several different types of nerve fibers carry out the transmission of the electrical signal from the transducing cell to the posterior horn of spinal cord , from there to the brain stem , and then from the brain stem to the various parts of the brain such as the thalamus and the limbic system . In the brain , the pain signals are processed and given context in the process of pain perception . Through modulation , the brain can modify the sending of further nerve impulses by decreasing or increasing the release of neurotransmitters .
Parts of the pain sensation and processing system may not function properly ; creating the feeling of pain when no outside cause exists , signaling too much pain from a particular cause , or signaling pain from a normally non @-@ painful event . Additionally , the pain modulation mechanisms may not function properly . These phenomena are involved in chronic pain .
= = Diagnosis = =
As the structure of the back is complex and the reporting of pain is subjective and affected by social factors , the diagnosis of low back pain is not straightforward . While most low back pain is caused by muscle and joint problems , this cause must be separated from neurological problems , spinal tumors , fracture of the spine , and infections , among others .
= = = Classification = = =
There are a number of ways to classify low back pain with no consensus that any one method is best . There are three general types of low back pain by cause : mechanical back pain ( including nonspecific musculoskeletal strains , herniated discs , compressed nerve roots , degenerative discs or joint disease , and broken vertebra ) , non @-@ mechanical back pain ( tumors , inflammatory conditions such as spondyloarthritis , and infections ) , and referred pain from internal organs ( gallbladder disease , kidney stones , kidney infections , and aortic aneurysm , among others ) . Mechanical or musculoskeletal problems underlie most cases ( around 90 % or more ) , and of those , most ( around 75 % ) do not have a specific cause identified , but are thought to be due to muscle strain or injury to ligaments . Rarely , complaints of low back pain result from systemic or psychological problems , such as fibromyalgia and somatoform disorders .
Low back pain may be classified based on the signs and symptoms . Diffuse pain that does not change in response to particular movements , and is localized to the lower back without radiating beyond the buttocks , is classified as nonspecific , the most common classification . Pain that radiates down the leg below the knee , is located on one side ( in the case of disc herniation ) , or is on both sides ( in spinal stenosis ) , and changes in severity in response to certain positions or maneuvers is radicular , making up 7 % of cases . Pain that is accompanied by red flags such as trauma , fever , a history of cancer or significant muscle weakness may indicate a more serious underlying problem and is classified as needing urgent or specialized attention .
The symptoms can also be classified by duration as acute , sub @-@ chronic ( also known as sub @-@ acute ) , or chronic . The specific duration required to meet each of these is not universally agreed upon , but generally pain lasting less than six weeks is classified as acute , pain lasting six to twelve weeks is sub @-@ chronic , and more than twelve weeks is chronic . Management and prognosis may change based on the duration of symptoms .
= = = Red flags = = =
The presence of certain signs , termed red flags , indicate the need for further testing to look for more serious underlying problems , which may require immediate or specific treatment . The presence of a red flag does not mean that there is a significant problem . It is only suggestive , and most people with red flags have no serious underlying problem . If no red flags are present , performing diagnostic imaging or laboratory testing in the first four weeks after the start of the symptoms has not been shown to be useful .
The usefulness of many red flags are poorly supported by evidence . The most useful for detecting a fracture are : older age , corticosteroid use , and significant trauma especially if it results in skin markings . The best determinate for the presence of cancer is a history of the same .
With other causes ruled out , people with non @-@ specific low back pain are typically treated symptomatically , without exact determination of the cause . Efforts to uncover factors that might complicate the diagnosis , such as depression , substance abuse , or an agenda concerning insurance payments may be helpful .
= = = Tests = = =
Imaging is indicated when there are red flags , ongoing neurological symptoms that do not resolve , or ongoing or worsening pain . In particular , early use of imaging ( either MRI or CT ) is recommended for suspected cancer , infection , or cauda equina syndrome . MRI is slightly better than CT for identifying disc disease ; the two technologies are equally useful for diagnosing spinal stenosis . Only a few physical diagnostic tests are helpful . The straight leg raise test is almost always positive in those with disc herniation . Lumbar provocative discography may be useful to identify a specific disc causing pain in those with chronic high levels of low back pain . Similarly , therapeutic procedures such as nerve blocks can be used to determine a specific source of pain . Some evidence supports the use of facet joint injections , transforminal epidural injections and sacroilliac injections as diagnostic tests . Most other physical tests , such as evaluating for scoliosis , muscle weakness or wasting , and impaired reflexes , are of little use .
Complaints of low back pain are one of the most common reasons people visit doctors . For pain that has lasted only a few weeks , the pain is likely to subside on its own . Thus , if a person 's medical history and physical examination do not suggest a specific disease as the cause , medical societies advise against imaging tests such as X @-@ rays , CT scans , and MRIs . Individuals may want such tests but , unless red flags are present , they are unnecessary health care . Routine imaging increases costs , is associated with higher rates of surgery with no overall benefit , and the radiation used may be harmful to one 's health . Fewer than 1 % of imaging tests identify the cause of the problem . Imaging may also detect harmless abnormalities , encouraging people to request further unnecessary testing or to worry . Even so , MRI scans of the lumbar region increased by more than 300 % among United States Medicare beneficiaries from 1994 to 2006 .
= = Prevention = =
Exercise appears to be useful for preventing low back pain . Exercise is also probably effective in preventing recurrences in those with pain that has lasted more than six weeks . Medium @-@ firm mattresses are more beneficial for chronic pain than firm mattresses . There is little to no evidence that back belts are any more helpful in preventing low back pain than education about proper lifting techniques . Shoe insoles do not help prevent low back pain .
= = Management = =
Management of low back pain depends on which of the three general categories is the cause : mechanical problems , non @-@ mechanical problems , or referred pain . For acute pain that is causing only mild to moderate problems , the goals are to restore normal function , return the individual to work , and minimize pain . The condition is normally not serious , resolves without much being done , and recovery is helped by attempting to return to normal activities as soon as possible within the limits of pain . Providing individuals with coping skills through reassurance of these facts is useful in speeding recovery . For those with sub @-@ chronic or chronic low back pain , multidisciplinary treatment programs may help .
= = = Physical management = = =
Increasing general physical activity has been recommended , but no clear relationship to pain or disability has been found when used for the treatment of an acute episode of pain . For acute pain , low- to moderate @-@ quality evidence supports walking . Treatment according to McKenzie method is somewhat effective for recurrent acute low back pain , but its benefit in the short term does not appear significant . There is tentative evidence to support the use of heat therapy for acute and sub @-@ chronic low back pain but little evidence for the use of either heat or cold therapy in chronic pain . Weak evidence suggests that back belts might decrease the number of missed workdays , but there is nothing to suggest that they will help with the pain . Ultrasound and shock wave therapies do not appear effective and therefore are not recommended .
Exercise therapy is effective in decreasing pain and improving function for those with chronic low back pain . It also appears to reduce recurrence rates for as long as six months after the completion of program and improves long @-@ term function . There is no evidence that one particular type of exercise therapy is more effective than another . The Alexander technique appears useful for chronic back pain , and there is tentative evidence to support the use of yoga . Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation ( TENS ) has not been found to be effective in chronic low back pain . Evidence for the use of shoe insoles as a treatment is inconclusive . Peripheral nerve stimulation , a minimally @-@ invasive procedure , may be useful in cases of chronic low back pain that do not respond to other measures , although the evidence supporting it is not conclusive , and it is not effective for pain that radiates into the leg .
= = = Medications = = =
The management of low back pain often includes medications for the duration that they are beneficial . With the first episode of low back pain the hope is a complete cure ; however , if the problem becomes chronic , the goals may change to pain management and the recovery of as much function as possible . As pain medications are only somewhat effective , expectations regarding their benefit may differ from reality , and this can lead to decreased satisfaction .
The medication typically recommended first is acetaminophen ( paracetamol ) or NSAIDs ( though not aspirin ) , and these are enough for most people . Standard doses of acetaminophen are very safe ; however , high doses may cause liver problems , and very high doses can be fatal . High @-@ quality reviews have found acetaminophen ( paracetamol ) to be no more effective than placebo at improving pain , quality of life , or function . NSAIDs are more effective for acute episodes than acetaminophen ; however , they carry a greater risk of side effects including : kidney failure , stomach ulcers and possibly heart problems . Thus , NSAIDs are a second choice to acetaminophen , recommended only when the pain is not handled by the latter . NSAIDs are available in several different classes ; there is no evidence to support the use of COX @-@ 2 inhibitors over any other class of NSAIDs with respect to benefits . With respect to safety naproxen may be best . Muscle relaxants may be beneficial .
If the pain is still not managed adequately , short term use of opioids such as morphine may be useful . These medications carry a risk of addiction , may have negative interactions with other drugs , and have a greater risk of side effects , including dizziness , nausea , and constipation . Opioids may be suitable for short @-@ term management of severe , acute pain that is causing significant problems . Specialist groups advise against general long @-@ term use of opioids for chronic low back pain .
For older people with chronic pain , opioids may be used in those for whom NSAIDs present too great a risk , including those with diabetes , stomach or heart problems . They may also be useful for a select group of people with neuropathic pain .
Antidepressants may be effective for treating chronic pain associated with symptoms of depression , but they have a risk of side effects . Although the antiseizure drugs gabapentin and carbamazepine are sometimes used for chronic low back pain and may relieve sciatic pain , there is insufficient evidence to support their use . Systemic oral steroids have not been shown to be useful in low back pain . Facet joint injections and steroid injections into the discs have not been found to be effective in those with persistent , non @-@ radiating pain ; however , they may be considered for those with persistent sciatic pain . Epidural corticosteroid injections provide a slight and questionable short @-@ term improvement in those with sciatica but are of no long term benefit . There are also concerns of potential side effects .
= = = Surgery = = =
Surgery may be useful in those with a herniated disc that is causing significant pain radiating into the leg , significant leg weakness , bladder problems , or loss of bowel control . It may also be useful in those with spinal stenosis . In the absence of these issues , there is no clear evidence of a benefit from surgery .
Discectomy ( the partial removal of a disc that is causing leg pain ) can provide pain relief sooner than nonsurgical treatments . Discectomy has better outcomes at one year but not at four to ten years . The less invasive microdiscectomy has not been shown to result in a different outcome than regular discectomy . For most other conditions , there is not enough evidence to provide recommendations for surgical options . The long @-@ term effect surgery has on degenerative disc disease is not clear . Less invasive surgical options have improved recovery times , but evidence regarding effectiveness is insufficient .
For those with pain localized to the lower back due to disc degeneration , fair evidence supports spinal fusion as equal to intensive physical therapy and slightly better than low @-@ intensity nonsurgical measures . Fusion may be considered for those with low back pain from acquired displaced vertebra that does not improve with conservative treatment , although only a few of those who have spinal fusion experience good results . There are a number of different surgical procedures to achieve fusion , with no clear evidence of one being better than the others . Adding spinal implant devices during fusion increases the risks but provides no added improvement in pain or function .
= = = Alternative medicine = = =
It is unclear if chiropractic care or spinal manipulation therapy ( SMT ) improves outcomes in those with low back pain more or less than other treatments . Some reviews find that SMT results in equal or better improvements in pain and function when compared with other commonly used interventions for short , intermediate , and long @-@ term follow @-@ up ; other reviews find it to be no more effective in reducing pain than either inert interventions , sham manipulation , or other treatments , and conclude that adding SMT to other treatments does improve outcomes . National guidelines reach different conclusions , with some not recommending spinal manipulation , some describing manipulation as optional , and others recommending a short course for those who do not improve with other treatments . Manipulation under anaesthesia , or medically assisted manipulation , has not enough evidence to make any confident recommendation .
Acupuncture is no better than placebo , usual care , or sham acupuncture for nonspecific acute pain or sub @-@ chronic pain . For those with chronic pain , it improves pain a little more than no treatment and about the same as medications , but it does not help with disability . This pain benefit is only present right after treatment and not at follow @-@ up . Acupuncture may be a reasonable method to try for those with chronic pain that does not respond to other treatments like conservative care and medications .
While massage therapy does not appear to provide much benefit for acute low back pain , it may help those with sub @-@ chronic and chronic pain , particularly when combined with physical exercises and education . Tentative evidence suggests that acupuncture and massage together may be better than massage alone .
Prolotherapy – the practice of injecting solutions into joints ( or other areas ) to cause inflammation and thereby stimulate the body 's healing response – has not been found to be effective by itself , although it may be helpful when added to another therapy .
Herbal medicines , as a whole , are poorly supported by evidence . The herbal treatments Devil 's claw and white willow may reduce the number of individuals reporting high levels of pain ; however , for those taking pain relievers , this difference is not significant . Capsicum , in the form of either a gel or a plaster cast , has been found to reduce pain and increase function .
Behavioral therapy may be useful for chronic pain . There are several types available , including operant conditioning , which uses reinforcement to reduce undesirable behaviors and increase desirable behaviors ; cognitive behavioral therapy , which helps people identify and correct negative thinking and behavior ; and respondent conditioning , which can modify an individual 's physiological response to pain . Medical providers may develop an integrated program of behavioral therapies . The evidence is inconclusive as to whether mindfulness @-@ based stress reduction reduces chronic back pain intensity or associated disability , although it suggests that it may be useful in improving the acceptance of existing pain .
Tentative evidence supports neuroreflexotherapy ( NRT ) , in which small pieces of metal are placed just under the skin of the ear and back , for non @-@ specific low back pain .
= = Prognosis = =
Overall , the outcome for acute low back pain is positive . Pain and disability usually improve a great deal in the first six weeks , with complete recovery reported by 40 to 90 % . In those who still have symptoms after six weeks , improvement is generally slower with only small gains up to one year . At one year , pain and disability levels are low to minimal in most people . Distress , previous low back pain , and job satisfaction are predictors of long @-@ term outcome after an episode of acute pain . Certain psychological problems such as depression , or unhappiness due to loss of employment may prolong the episode of low back pain . Following a first episode of back pain , recurrences occur in more than half of people .
For persistent low back pain , the short @-@ term outcome is also positive , with improvement in the first six weeks but very little improvement after that . At one year , those with chronic low back pain usually continue to have moderate pain and disability . People at higher risk of long @-@ term disability include those with poor coping skills or with fear of activity ( 2 @.@ 5 times more likely to have poor outcomes at one year ) , those with a poor ability to cope with pain , functional impairments , poor general health , or a significant psychiatric or psychological component to the pain ( Waddell 's signs ) .
= = Epidemiology = =
Low back pain that lasts at least one day and limits activity is a common complaint . Globally , about 40 % of people have LBP at some point in their lives , with estimates as high as 80 % of people in the developed world . Approximately 9 to 12 % of people ( 632 million ) have LBP at any given point in time , and nearly one quarter ( 23 @.@ 2 % ) report having it at some point over any one @-@ month period . Difficulty most often begins between 20 and 40 years of age . Low back pain is more common among people aged 40 – 80 years , with the overall number of individuals affected expected to increase as the population ages .
It is not clear whether men or women have higher rates of low back pain . A 2012 review reported a rate of 9 @.@ 6 % among males and 8 @.@ 7 % among females . Another 2012 review found a higher rate in females than males , which the reviewers felt was possibly due to greater rates of pains due to osteoporosis , menstruation , and pregnancy among women , or possibly because women were more willing to report pain than men . An estimated 70 % of women experience back pain during pregnancy with the rate being higher the further along in pregnancy . Current smokers – and especially those who are adolescents – are more likely to have low back pain than former smokers , and former smokers are more likely to have low back pain than those who have never smoked .
= = History = =
Low back pain has been with humans since at least the Bronze Age . The oldest known surgical treatise – the Edwin Smith Papyrus , dating to about 1500 BCE – describes a diagnostic test and treatment for a vertebral sprain . Hippocrates ( c . 460 BCE – c . 370 BCE ) was the first to use a term for sciatic pain and low back pain ; Galen ( active mid to late second century CE ) described the concept in some detail . Physicians through the end of the first millennium did not attempt back surgery and recommended watchful waiting . Through the Medieval period , folk medicine practitioners provided treatments for back pain based on the belief that it was caused by spirits .
At the start of the 20th century , physicians thought low back pain was caused by inflammation of or damage to the nerves , with neuralgia and neuritis frequently mentioned by them in the medical literature of the time . The popularity of such proposed causes decreased during the 20th century . In the early 20th century , American neurosurgeon Harvey Williams Cushing increased the acceptance of surgical treatments for low back pain . In the 1920s and 1930s , new theories of the cause arose , with physicians proposing a combination of nervous system and psychological disorders such as nerve weakness ( neurasthenia ) and female hysteria . Muscular rheumatism ( now called fibromyalgia ) was also cited with increasing frequency .
Emerging technologies such as X @-@ rays gave physicians new diagnostic tools , revealing the intervertebral disc as a source for back pain in some cases . In 1938 , orthopedic surgeon Joseph S. Barr reported on cases of disc @-@ related sciatica improved or cured with back surgery . As a result of this work , in the 1940s , the vertebral disc model of low back pain took over , dominating the literature through the 1980s , aiding further by the rise of new imaging technologies such as CT and MRI . The discussion subsided as research showed disc problems to be a relatively uncommon cause of the pain . Since then , physicians have come to realize that it is unlikely that a specific cause for low back pain can be identified in many cases and question the need to find one at all as most of the time symptoms resolve within 6 to 12 weeks regardless of treatment .
= = Society and culture = =
Low back pain results in large economic costs . In the United States , it is the most common type of pain in adults , responsible for a large number of missed work days , and is the most common musculoskeletal complaint seen in the emergency department . In 1998 , it was estimated to be responsible for $ 90 billion in annual health care costs , with 5 % of individuals incurring most ( 75 % ) of the costs . Between 1990 and 2001 there was a more than twofold increase in spinal fusion surgeries in the US , despite the fact that there were no changes to the indications for surgery or new evidence of greater usefulness . Further costs occur in the form of lost income and productivity , with low back pain responsible for 40 % of all missed work days in the United States . Low back pain causes disability in a larger percentage of the workforce in Canada , Great Britain , the Netherlands and Sweden than in the US or Germany .
Workers who experience acute low back pain as a result of a work injury may be asked by their employers to have x @-@ rays . As in other cases , testing is not indicated unless red flags are present . An employer 's concern about legal liability is not a medical indication and should not be used to justify medical testing when it is not indicated . There should be no legal reason for encouraging people to have tests which a health care provider determines are not indicated .
= = Research = =
Total disc replacement is an experimental option , but no significant evidence supports its use over lumbar fusion . Researchers are investigating the possibility of growing new intervertebral structures through the use of injected human growth factors , implanted substances , cell therapy , and tissue engineering .
= Tunnel Vision ( song ) =
" Tunnel Vision " is a song recorded by American singer Justin Timberlake for his third studio album , The 20 / 20 Experience ( 2013 ) . It was written and produced by Timberlake , Timothy " Timbaland " Mosley and Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon , with additional writing by James Fauntleroy . " Tunnel Vision " was digitally released on June 14 , 2013 by RCA Records as the third single from the album . It is a mid @-@ tempo R & B song with EDM influence and instrumentation featuring Timbaland 's signature ad @-@ libs , record @-@ scratching , heavy drums , melodic bass , orchestration and synthesizer . Its lyrics proclaim Timberlake 's tunnel vision for his love interest , with several voyeuristic references .
" Tunnel Vision " received generally positive reviews from music critics , most of whom praised Timbaland 's production , and it was cited as The 20 / 20 Experience 's highlight . After the album 's release , the song charted in South Korea and the United States because of high digital sales . It debuted on the singles chart in South Korea at number 27 , selling 6 @,@ 670 digital copies in its first week . " Tunnel Vision " peaked at number 40 on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and number eight on the UK R & B Singles Chart .
The music video for " Tunnel Vision " was directed by Jonathan Craven , Simon McLoughlin and Jeff Nicholas , and premiered on July 3 on Timberlake 's Vevo channel . In the seven @-@ minute video , Timberlake and Timbaland watch nude women and dance . Critics labeled the video NSFW and compared it to the video for Robin Thicke 's 2013 single , " Blurred Lines " . Originally banned on YouTube , it was later posted with the condition that viewers disclose their age . The song was part of the set list for Timberlake 's 2013 Legends of the Summer concert tour with rapper Jay @-@ Z and his fifth solo tour , the 2013 – 15 20 / 20 Experience World Tour .
= = Production and release = =
" Tunnel Vision " was written by Justin Timberlake , Timothy " Timbaland " Mosley , Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon and James Fauntleroy , and produced by Timbaland , Timberlake and Harmon . Timberlake arranged and produced his vocals , which were recorded at Larabee Studios in North Hollywood , California . Other instrumentalists were Harmon on keyboards and Elliot Ives on guitar . The song was engineered by Chris Godbey ( assisted by Alejandro Baima ) and mixed by Jimmy Douglass , Godbey and Timberlake at Larabee Studios .
On June 10 , 2013 Timberlake introduced the artwork for the " Tunnel Vision " single , a black @-@ and @-@ white close @-@ up of the singer 's face in the silhouette of a nude woman . Kia Macarechi of The Huffington Post found the artwork unpleasant and unusual ; according to Justin Myers of the Official Charts Company , Timberlake " seems to be playing up to his naughty nickname of Trousersnake with the cover " . Zach Dionne of New York 's Vulture website called the cover " awful boobnose single art " , committing to " the smoky naked woman vibe " . " Tunnel Vision " and its radio edit were digitally released in France and Italy on June 14 on Amazon . That day , the single was also released in Australia , Belgium , Luxembourg , The Netherlands , New Zealand and Sweden on 7 Digital and the iTunes Store . It was released on June 17 in Norway , the following day in Spain and on June 21 in Switzerland .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Tunnel Vision " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B song with an EDM influence . Billboard 's Jason Lipshutz noted that it has an instrumentation that features " fizzing beats abetted by the producer 's [ Timbaland ] signature ad @-@ libs and vocal record @-@ scratches " , while according to Sobhi Youssef of Sputnikmusic the song is build on " still @-@ existing chops with a drum heavy , syncopated backbone amidst frenetically shifting bass melodies , sweeping orchestrations , and vacuous synths that all coalesce into a fuzzed out boom @-@ bap . " Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media called the synthesizer " sinister " and , according to Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson , it has Middle Eastern tones . Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle called the beats and vocal loops on " Tunnel Vision " reminiscent of Timbaland 's past work with the late American singer Aaliyah . According to Sarah Dean of The Huffington Post , its beat resembles that on 50 Cent 's 2007 single " Ayo Technology " ( also featuring Timberlake ) .
" Tunnel Vision " features " thrilling " evolutions in production and arrangement complementing Timberlake 's vocals , and the song 's unusual , abrupt changes unite it throughout . It borrows the " dark alley " rhythm of The 20 / 20 Experience 's third track , " Don 't Hold the Wall " ; Timberlake sings in his lower register , with an " exciting " upward arpeggio . Timbaland uses the singer 's voice as a " flexible instrument to enhance his tech savvy soundscape " , constructing " layers of production elements into towers of sonic force " . Lauren Martin of Fact called the song the start of Timbaland 's " Bollywood influenced ' Indian Flute ' era " and a tease ; Timberlake 's voice is redistributed , with wider range and suspense .
The song 's lyrics describe Timberlake 's tunnel vision of his love interest , with several voyeuristic references . The singer professes his love : " I look around and everything I see is beautiful , because all I see is you . " According to The Huffington Post 's Dean , Timberlake is in happier state of mind than on his 2002 song " Cry Me a River " or his 2007 single " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " . However , his lyrics have an obsessive quality : " A million people in a crowded room , but my camera lens is only set to zoom and it all becomes so clear . " Mellisa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly wrote that on " Tunnel Vision " , Timberlake is lyrically " playing the rom @-@ com director " : " Just like a movie shoot , I ’ m zoomin ’ in on you as we ride off into the sun . " According to Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times , Timberlake uses references to " cameras and reflective surfaces " to reflect on the " changing nature of celebrity " .
= = Critical response = =
In a review of The 20 / 20 Experience , Jean Bentley of The Hollywood Reporter called " Tunnel Vision " and " Strawberry Bubblegum " " electro @-@ tinged jams " . Consequence of Sound 's Sarah H. Grant wrote that " Tunnel Vision " and " Don 't Hold the Wall " were the album 's highlights , similar to Timberlake 's best work with ' NSYNC . Clyde Erwin Barretto of Prefix Magazine praised its production , which he felt excited listeners . The Huffington Post 's Sarah Dean called " Tunnel Vision " her favorite track on the album . Jordan Sargent of Spin wrote that with the song , Timbaland proved that he could still produce otherworldly beats . In The Guardian , Kitty Empire wrote that Timbaland rejuvenated his production talents and " Kanye @-@ calibre ambition " .
In a less @-@ enthusiastic review , Brad Stern of MTV Buzzworthy dismissed " Tunnel Vision " as " the album 's most tediously grating moment " . Allan Raible of ABC News praised the track 's beat , but thought it would fit better on a song with fewer " tired ' loverman ' clichés . " Fact magazine 's Lauren Martin described " Tunnel Vision " and " Don 't Hold the Wall " as " two rousing , if mildly deja vu inducing , efforts . " Jed Gottlieb of the Boston Herald said that the song 's " electro bump " would have been innovative if it had been released a year earlier .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Tunnel Vision " sold well digitally after the release of The 20 / 20 Experience , charting in several countries . The week of March 17 , 2013 , it debuted on the South Korean Gaon International Chart at number 27 with 6 @,@ 670 digital copies sold . Although it did not reach the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States , " Tunnel Vision " peaked at number 11 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 singles chart and peaked at number 40 on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . After its release as a single , the song debuted and peaked at number 75 on the Irish Singles Chart . The week of July 20 , " Tunnel Vision " debuted at number 64 on the UK Singles Chart . Its chart position fluctuated for three weeks , peaking at number 61 on August 10 . The song was most successful on the UK R & B Singles Chart , where it debuted at number 15 and peaked at number eight by the week of August 10 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Conception and fashion = = =
" Tunnel Vision " ' s music video premiered on July 3 , 2013 on Timberlake 's Vevo YouTube channel . The singer tweeted , " Check out the new video for Tunnel Vision and be ready ... it 's explicit . -teamJT " . The video was directed by Jonathan Craven , Simon McLoughlin and Jeff Nicholas , with a cameo appearance by Timbaland . Craven and Nathan Scherrer produced the video for the Uprising Creative . Its director of photography was Sing Howe Yam , and Jacquelyn London edited the video for Sunset Edit .
The seven @-@ minute video features Timberlake and Timbaland gazing at three nude women ; according to Jason Lipshutz of Billboard , the women are wearing flesh @-@ colored G @-@ strings . In some shots , Timberlake 's face is projected onto the women 's bodies . Jordan Sargent of Spin called the set pieces where projections of Timberlake interact with the nude dancers " a fractured dynamic that mirrors ' Tunnel Vision ' itself " .
Cinya Burton of E ! wrote about Timberlake 's video wardrobe , " Apparently when Justin Timberlake isn 't in his now @-@ signature suit and tie getup , he 's donning AllSaints . " The singer wore two head @-@ to @-@ toe ensembles by the brand . The first was a gray Baxley V @-@ neck T @-@ shirt layered under a white Redono half @-@ sleeved shirt , with casual Charge Chino pants . The second , a darker combination worn while he dances against a lighter background , was a black Resident Crew T @-@ shirt , dark gray Pipe Chino pants , a Duncan denim shirt and black Trap boots . According to Burton , " While his ensembles are both dapper " , the nude models in the video attracted more attention .
= = = Critical response and ban = = =
Critics have called the video NSFW , comparing it to the 2013 video for " Blurred Lines " by Robin Thicke with Pharrell Williams and T.I .. In an interview with Capital FM , Thicke responded to a question about the videos ' similarity : " No comment . I 'll let you do all the talking . It 's a subject that has no good ending . " Fact magazine called the video 's concept simple , and said its production team was unconcerned . According to Spin 's Jordan Sargent , " Like his new album The 20 / 20 Experience , in which half the songs run longer than seven minutes , the ' Tunnel Vision ' video is self @-@ consciously artistic and mature . But the video is also at times effective , particularly when the editing gets choppier during the bridge . "
About the nude women in the video , an MTV UK reviewer said that Timberlake drew on Thicke 's video . The Huffington Post 's Sarah Dean wrote that Timberlake used a tip from Thicke to accompany a " great " song with a video objectifying women who enjoy dancing nude , criticizing the use of three women for a song with lyrics about a single love interest . According to Tamar Anitai of MTV Buzzworthy , Timberlake wanted to live his life and celebrate his album 's success : " Oh , come on ! Don 't complain . You bitched and moaned endlessly when Justin Timberlake stopped making music for six years , so don 't get all Veruca Salty when he comes back with boobs to spare and boobs to share . "
In her review , Rachel Maresca of the New York Daily News wrote that Timberlake slurred some of the song 's explicit lyrics in the video . According to Kathy McCabe of News Corp Australia , Timberlake escalated the pop @-@ porn movement with the video : " With mummy blogger outrage over Robin Thicke 's exploitation of topless women for his Blurred Lines video – and its questionable lyrics – still raging , Timberlake has gone even further in his clip " . McCabe wrote that male pop singers have been influenced by Rihanna and Katy Perry , who have " stripped down in the name of a hit . Or art . Or freedom of expression , depending on the press release spin " . Clash 's Robin Murray wrote that pop music has lacked raunchiness and sex appeal for some time , and Timberlake 's return was needed : " Lavish , lush and 21st century in a direct , shocking fashion , the video finds Justin Timberlake on perfect preening form . "
After the video 's release it was banned from YouTube with a message saying , " This video has been removed as a violation of YouTube 's policy on nudity or sexual content " . The website quickly restored the video with a content warning and the requirement that viewers sign in ( to verify their age ) . Although a YouTube representative declined to comment on individual videos , he issued a statement : " While our guidelines generally prohibit nudity , we make exceptions when it is presented in an educational , documentary or artistic context , and take care to add appropriate warnings and age restrictions " .
= = Live performances = =
Timberlake first performed " Tunnel Vision " at the Phoenix Park concert in Dublin , Ireland , as part of a set list which included " Cry Me a River " , " SexyBack " and " My Love " . In a review of the concert , John Balfe of entertainment.ie wrote : " Even the album 's more well @-@ known songs like ' Tunnel Vision ' , ' Mirrors ' and ' Suit & Tie ' don 't yet have the same weight in the setlist as some of JT 's more established hits and it was songs like ' SexyBack ' that really got the 40 @,@ 000 strong crowd to move " . On July 12 Timberlake appeared on the main stage at the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park in Stratford , London as part of the Wireless Festival , performing " Tunnel Vision " and other songs dressed in black and wearing a black fedora . The song was on the set lists of Timberlake 's 2013 Legends of the Summer Stadium Tour with rapper Jay @-@ Z and his fifth worldwide tour , the 2013 – 15 20 / 20 Experience World Tour .
= = Track listing = =
" Tunnel Vision " ( radio edit ) — 4 : 45
" Tunnel Vision " — 6 : 46
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Katie and Emily =
" Katie and Emily " is the ninth and penultimate episode of the third series of the British teen drama Skins , which first aired on 19 March 2009 on E4 in both Ireland and the United Kingdom . The episode was written by Malcolm Campbell and Bryan Elsley , and was directed by Charles Martin . The episode focuses on the characters of twins Katie and Emily Fitch ( Megan and Kathryn Prescott , respectively ) as they prepare for their college 's annual ball . Katie refuses to leave home , recovering from being hit in the head with a rock , and faces her weakening control over her sister . Emily , meanwhile , is heartbroken when her girlfriend , Naomi Campbell ( Lily Loveless ) , turns down Emily 's invitation to the ball , and comes out to her family about her sexuality .
" Katie and Emily " featured numerous cameo appearances by the series ' crew members and the winners of various Skins @-@ related competitions . While filming one of the episode 's fight scenes , according to Kathryn Prescott , the actors " did it a bit too properly " , with injuries sustained to both Megan Prescott and Giles Thomas . The episode drew just under one million viewers on its first broadcast and was E4 's highest @-@ rated programme of the week . It was received generally well by critics .
= = Plot = =
Emily , disguised as her twin sister Katie , arrives at college to take Katie 's history exam . In reality , Katie is at home , with nine stitches to the head after being hit with a rock by their friend Effy Stonem , who has disappeared . Katie is embarrassed about how her injuries look , and miserable over the loss of her boyfriend Freddie Mclair ( Luke Pasqualino ) , who only dated her to spite Effy , his real love interest . She begins to take notice of all the hints in front of her , and realises that she can no longer hide from herself the fact that Emily is homosexual . At college , Naomi uncovers Emily 's disguise ( which had not fooled JJ or Freddie either ) and tells her that she plans to spend the summer alone in Cyprus . When Emily tells Naomi that she will miss her , they kiss in an empty corridor and later find themselves at Naomi 's house where they have sex . Afterward , Emily asks Naomi to the college ball , but Naomi , still crippled by insecurity over her sexuality , refuses , leaving Emily heartbroken . Emily leaves and at the bus stop meets Thomas Tomone ( Merveille Lukeba ) , who offers her his shoes and jacket and is unconcerned when she tells him that she is gay . He tries to comfort her but admits that he believes it impossible to stop loving somebody , referring to his ex @-@ girlfriend Pandora Moon ( Lisa Backwell ) . Emily returns home and comes out to her family , telling them that she has been having sex with a girl named Naomi . Her father , Rob ( John Bishop ) , dismisses it as a joke and her mother , Jenna ( Ronni Ancona ) , is speechless , while Katie tries to deny it . She and Emily have a heated argument , leaving Katie crying .
The following morning , Naomi visits the Fitches ' house , but Jenna answers the door . She confronts Naomi , convincing her that Emily is not gay and warning Naomi to stay away from her . Naomi too denies her own sexual orientation and leaves hastily . After waking up , Katie and Emily reconcile in their own secret language , and Emily reluctantly agrees to go to the ball with Katie . While shopping for ball gowns , they meet Pandora , who is returning a dress since Thomas has not forgiven her for her infidelity with their friend James Cook . The twins run into Freddie and JJ Jones ( Ollie Barbieri ) while trying on dresses . JJ reveals to Emily that he told Freddie that he had sex with her , and Freddie inadvertently tells Katie , who was unaware of this . She guilts Freddie into accompanying her to the ball and volunteers Emily to go with JJ . Later , she is furious with Emily for having sex with JJ without her permission , still insisting that Emily is " not gay , [ just ] stupid " . Katie intercepts one of Naomi 's phone calls to Emily and tricks Naomi into meeting with her , where she reveals Emily 's affair with JJ and warns Naomi not to come to the ball .
As Katie , Emily , Freddie and JJ prepare to enter the ball , Naomi arrives , announcing that she knows about Emily and JJ 's fling before she walks in . An upset Emily leaves . Katie starts a fight with Naomi . Unaware of Emily 's presence , she admits her deceit and claims that Emily " deserved it . " Infuriated , Emily attacks Katie , wreaking havoc through the entire ball . Emily finally overpowers her sister and raises a fist to punch her , but , after a moment 's hesitation , reconsiders and instead helps Katie to stand up , declaring that she is " not her . " In front of everybody , Emily tells Katie that she is her own person and that she is in love with Naomi . Katie accepts Emily 's individuality and sexuality , and Naomi , no longer ashamed of their relationship , extends her hand to Emily . The couple leaves the ball hand @-@ in @-@ hand and Naomi tells Emily that she loves her too . Meanwhile , Pandora apologises again to Thomas and he forgives her , re @-@ introducing himself .
= = Production = =
" Katie and Emily " featured a number of cameo appearances . Phil Goldie , who won the " Skins Needs You " competition for young directors , appears as a man in the café where Naomi meets Katie . Clara Nicholls and Antonio Aakeel , the winners of a competition to win a speaking role in Skins , played the shop assistant and security guard respectively at the boutique where Katie and Emily shop for ball gowns , while another finalist from the competition , Allana Taylor , starred as a girl dancing with the students ' Head of Form , Doug ( Giles Thomas ) , at the ball . One of the series ' runners , Laurence Wigfield , played a bystander at the ball and the crew 's " jack of all trades " , Tyrone Hyman , appeared on a poster in Katie and Emily 's bedroom .
Lisa Backwell described the filming of the ball as her " most favourite , most mental day of filming " . At the end of the final take of Pandora 's dancing with Doug , the students ' head of year , the entire crew danced into shot . Director Charles Martin was initially dubious of whether Megan and Kathryn Prescott would be able to film Katie and Emily 's fight well enough , but Kathryn said that on their first rehearsal they " did it a bit too properly " , ripping out parts of Megan 's hair extensions . Emily 's accidental punching of Doug during the fight was choreographed so that when Kathryn Prescott punched the air in front of Giles Thomas 's face , the camera angle would make it appear that she was actually hitting him . While they were filming , however , Prescott genuinely punched Thomas by accident , causing him to stumble back and step on Megan Prescott 's bare foot , which she injured .
= = Reception = =
" Katie and Emily " brought in 957 @,@ 000 viewers and was E4 's highest @-@ rated programme of the week with an audience share of 4 @.@ 4 percent . Another 320 @,@ 000 viewers watched the episode an hour after its initial broadcast on E4 's timeshift channel , E4 + 1 .
Sarah Warn , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of lesbian @-@ based website AfterEllen.com , thought that the portrayal of Emily and Naomi 's relationship in the episode was " a good example of a well @-@ plotted , well @-@ executed , and well @-@ acted storyline coming to a satisfying conclusion " , which she regarded as " a noteworthy event given how few TV shows you can say that about " . She felt that Emily 's changing relationship with Katie as a significant part of her character development made her " sympathetic and relatable to those who might have otherwise have difficulty relating to a lesbian character " . One critic for PopSugar.com wrote that in this episode the " drama was still in full flow " despite the absence of principal characters Effy and Cook , and was impressed with the episode 's " uplifting ending " . They believed that Ronni Ancona was " fab " as the twins ' mother , and regarded Pandora and Doug 's dance at the ball as a " fantastic comic moment " . Ellie Newton @-@ Syms of InJournalism Magazine was " thrilled " with the conclusion of Katie and Emily 's storyline . The entertainment editor for eurOut.org , a website for European lesbians , wrote that she " almost [ felt ] like joining in " when Emily cried after breaking up with Naomi , and thought that the twins ' secret language was " very cute and adorable " . Dan French , in a review for Digital Spy , highlighted the episode 's " dramas aplenty " and believed Katie and Emily 's parents to be " slightly creepy " . The Sun 's Keeley Bolger described Katie and Emily 's falling out as " spectacular " .
= Lactifluus deceptivus =
Lactifluus deceptivus ( synonym Lactarius deceptivus ) , commonly known as the deceiving milkcap , is a common species of fungus in the Russulaceae family . It is found throughout eastern North America on the ground in coniferous forests near hemlock or deciduous forests near oak , and in oak @-@ dominated forests of Costa Rica . It produces large mushrooms with funnel @-@ shaped caps reaching up to 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , on top of hard white stems that may reach 4 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long and up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The gills are closely spaced together and yellowish @-@ cream in color . When young , the cap is white in all parts , but the depressed center becomes dull brownish in age and breaks up into scales . The edge of the cap has a roll of cottony tissue that collapses as the cap expands . The surface of the stem — especially near the base — has a velvety texture . The mushroom " bleeds " a milky white acrid latex when it is cut or injured . The fruit bodies are edible , but have a bitter taste that can be removed with cooking . Similar milk @-@ cap species with which L. deceptivus might be confused include Lactifluus piperatus , L. pseudodeceptivus , L. caeruleitinctus , L. subvellereus , Lactarius arcuatus and Lactarius parvulus .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described in the scientific literature by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1885 . The specific epithet deceptivus is derived from the Latin word for " deceptive " . The name may allude to the contrasting appearance of young and old fruit bodies . It is commonly known as the " deceptive lactarius " , the " deceiving lactarius " , or the " deceptive milkcap " . In the state of Puebla , Mexico , it is known as oreja de chivo , or " kid ear " .
Following the split @-@ off of the phylogenetically distinct genus Lactifluus from the other milk @-@ caps in the genus Lactarius , the correct combination for the species is the one made by Otto Kuntze in 1891 , Lactifluus deceptivus . Within the genus Lactifluus , L. deceptivus is classified in the subgenus Lactifluus , section Albati . Characteristics of species in this section include a white or whitish immature cap that may later turn yellow @-@ brown to cinnamon @-@ color ; white to cream @-@ colored latex that typically has an acrid taste ; a velvet @-@ textured stem due to a cuticle made of long narrow , thick @-@ walled hairs . Other species in this section include L. vellereus ( the type species ) , L. subvellereus , and L. caeruleitinctus .
Based on a morphological study published in 2005 , Lactarius tomentosomarginatus is considered synonymous with Lactifluus deceptivus . L. tomentosomarginatus , described by Hesler and Smith in their 1979 monograph of North American milk @-@ caps , was considered by them to be a " satellite species " , differing from L. deceptivus on the basis of smaller spores , smaller ornamentations on the surface of the spores , crowded and forked narrow gills , and differences in the micro @-@ structure of the cap cuticle .
= = Description = =
The cap is 7 @.@ 5 – 25 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 – 10 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , initially convex , but becomes funnel @-@ shaped in age . The margin ( cap edge ) is rolled inwards and cottony when young , concealing the immature gills . The cap surface is dry , smooth and whitish when young , often with yellowish or brownish stains , but becomes coarsely scaly and darkens to dull brownish @-@ ochre with age . The gills have an adnate to decurrent attachment to the stem , close to subdistant , white at first then cream to pale ochre . They are 5 – 65 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) long and 1 – 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 – 0 @.@ 3 in ) deep . The stem is 4 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long , up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , nearly equal in width throughout or tapered downward . It is dry , scurfy to nearly smooth and white , staining brown with age . It is initially stuffed ( as if filled with cotton ) , but later becomes hollow . The flesh is thick and white , and between 3 and 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 and 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The latex produced by the mushroom is white , and does not change color upon exposure to air , although it stains the mushroom flesh a yellowish @-@ brown color .
The odor of the flesh and latex may range from indistinct to pungent or turnip @-@ like in age ; the taste is strongly acrid — so much that it may have an anesthetizing effect in the throat . In his original description of the species , Peck reported " An experiment of its edible qualities was made without any evil consequences . " Thorough cooking removes the bitter taste , but the mushroom is not highly regarded as an edible , and as Hesler and Smith have noted " ... but even with this compensating feature some of our acquaintances have found it rather undesirable ( and indigestible ) . " The mushroom is sold at traditional markets in Puebla , Mexico .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spore print , freshly made , is white to whitish ; after drying out the spores in mass are pale yellowish . The spores are broadly ellipsoid , hyaline ( translucent ) and measure 9 – 13 by 7 – 9 µm . An apiculus is prominent . The spores are ornamented with warts and spines that do not form a reticulum ( a system of raised , net @-@ like ridges ) on the surface . The prominences are up to 1 @.@ 5 µm high , and amyloid , meaning they absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , and measure 46 – 58 by 7 – 9 µm . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia found on the face of a gill ) are very abundant , roughly club @-@ shaped to ventricose ( swollen in the middle ) , with apices often tapering ; their dimensions are 48 – 96 x 6 – 10 µm . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the edge of the gills ) are 40 – 58 x 5 – 7 µm , and more or less similar in appearance to the pleurocystidia . The cap cuticle is made of a layer of somewhat uplifted hyphae . The stem cuticle is a layer of bent @-@ over hyphae bearing thick @-@ walled , filamentous caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) , and it lacks a gelatinous layer .
= = = Similar species = = =
The fungus Lactifluus pseudodeceptivus is very similar to L. deceptivus in its external appearance , but it has spore ornamentation that forms a reticulum , and its stem is an ixocutis ( a gelatinous layer of hyphae lying parallel to the surface ) . L. caeruleitinctus is also similar in appearance , but it has a milky @-@ white stem with blue tints that develops more intense blue coloration after handling , and it lacks a cottony , inrolled margin . Other lookalike species include Lactarius arcuatus , which has a much smaller cap and smaller spores , and Lactarius parvulus , which has a small , zonate cap . Russula brevipes and R. angustispora are also somewhat similar in appearance , but they do not produce latex when cut or injured . Lactifluus subvellereus var. subdistans has more widely spaced gills , and an even cap margin . Lactifluus piperatus has densely crowded gills , a firm rather than soft and cottony cap margin , and exceedingly acrid latex .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Like all milk @-@ caps ( Lactarius and Lactifluus ) , L. deceptivus is mycorrhizal , meaning the fungus forms a mutualistic association with certain trees and shrubs . The subterranean mycelium of the fungus forms an intimate association with tree roots , enveloping them in a sheath of tissue that allows both organisms to exchange nutrients they would otherwise be unable to obtain . The fruit bodies of the fungus grow solitarily , scattered , or in groups on the ground in conifer or hardwood forests , often under oak ( Quercus ) or hemlock ( Tsuga ) . Smith has noted a preference for bogs and the edges of woodland pools in hardwood forests , and in oak stands that have an understory of blueberry bushes ( Vaccinium species ) . It is widely distributed in eastern North America , and has also been reported from southern and western Canada . It is a fairly common species , and fruits from June to October . The mushroom has also been reported from Mexico ( in Puebla and in Veracruz ) from oak and pine forests , at altitudes slightly over 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , and from Costa Rica , where it is abundant in oak forests .
= Chausath Yogini Temple , Morena =
The Chausath Yogini Temple , Morena ( Hindi : चौंशठ योगिणीं मंदिर ) , an ancient temple , also known as Ekattarso Mahadeva Temple ( Hindi : एकत ् त ् तरसो महादेव मंदिर ) , " hypetheral on plan " located in Morena district in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh , is one of the few such Yogini temples in the country which is in a very good condition . The temple is formed by a circular wall with 64 chambers and an open mandapa in the centre , separated by a courtyard , which is circular in shape , where Lord Shiva is deified It is believed that the Parliament House , known as Sansad Bhavan , built in Delhi in the 1920s , has been patterned on the lines of this circular @-@ shaped Chausath Yogini Temple , dated to 1323 AD .
The temple has been declared as an ancient historical monument by the Archaeological Survey of India .
= = Location = =
The temple is located on a hill which is about 100 feet ( 30 m ) in height and there are 100 steps to climb leading to the entrance of the temple . It is in the Mitaoli village ( also spelled Mitawali or Mitavali ) , near Padaoli in Morena district . The temple is well connected by road , rail and air services . The nearest rail head is Morena which is 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) away . The nearest airport is at Gwalior , which is 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) away .
= = History = =
According to an inscription dated to 1323 AD ( Vikram Samvat 1383 ) , the temple was built by Maharaja Devapala in 8th century . It is said that the temple was the venue of providing education in astrology and mathematics based on the transit of the Sun .
The Archaeological Survey of India has declared the temple as an ancient and historical monument under Act No . LXXI of 1951 , dt.28 / 11 / 1951 .
= = Features = =
The temple is externally circular in shape with a radius of 170 feet ( 52 m ) and within its interior part it has 64 small chambers , each with a mandapa which is open and a facia of pilasters and pillars . The roof of the entire structure is flat including that of another east facing circular temple within the outer circular wall . A large passage or courtyard lies between the outer enclosure and the central temple which is dedicated to Lord Shiva . There is an open porch entrance to this temple . The exterior surface of the outer wall has carvings of Hindu deities . Each of the 64 chambers in the outer circle has an image of Shiva deified in it . However , recent investigations have confirmed that originally these had a Yogini image deified in them and hence the temple is known as Chausath Yogini Temple ( ' Chausath ' here means " Sixty four " ) . It is said that the roof over the 64 chambers and the central shrine had towers or shikharas which were probably removed during later modifications .
Within the main central shrine there are slab coverings which have perforations in them to drain rainwater to a large underground storage . The pipe lines from the roof lead the rain water to the storage are also visible . The temple needs conservation measures to preserve the ancient monument in good shape .
The design of the temple has withstood earthquake shocks , without any damage to its circular structural features , in the past several centuries . The temple is in the Seismic Zone III . This fact was cited when the issue of safety from earthquake effect of the Parliament House which is also a circular structure , similar to the Chausath Yogini Temple , was debated in the Indian Parliament .
= Laser Beam =
" Laser Beam " ( レーザービーム , " Laser Beam " ) is a song recorded by Japanese girl group Perfume for their third studio album , JPN ( 2011 ) . It was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata . The single also included the A @-@ side track " Kasuka na Kaori " , which appeared on the parent album . Originally scheduled for an April 20 , 2011 release , it was postponed due to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami disaster . As a result , they both premiered on May 18 , 2011 as the fourth single from the album in Japan . Musically , " Laser Beam " is an electronic song , influenced by 8 @-@ bit music .
Upon its release , the track garnered positive reviews from music critics . Some critics highlighted the song as one of Perfume 's best singles from their album , and commended the composition . Some critics also labelled it one of the best Japanese songs in modern music history . It was also successful in Japan , peaking at number two on the Oricon Singles Chart and Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . An accompanying music video was shot by Kazuaki Seki ; it features the girls performing the song in a futuristic labyrinth , trying to retrieve a suitcase by a mysterious man . It was performed on the groups 2011 JPN concert tour .
= = Background and release = =
" Laser Beam " was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata . It was also recorded , mixed , and mastered by Nakata . The song was recorded in 2010 at Contemode Studios , Shibuya , Tokyo by Nakata . Alongside the album ’ s remaining material , " Laser Beam " has partial rights by Nakata through Yamaha Music Communications . It was selected as a double A @-@ side track to " Kasuka na Kaori " . Both tracks , with the former being remixed by Nakata , also appeared on the album , listed at number 3 and 8 on the tracklist .
Originally scheduled for an April 20 , 2011 release , it was postponed due to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami disaster . As a result , they both premiered on May 18 , 2011 as the fourth single from the album in Japan . It was also released on June 19 , 2013 through European and Oceanic regions , and June 25 in North America . The maxi CD of the single contains both the A @-@ side tracks , plus their instrumental versions . The cover artwork was photographed by Japanese photographer Takaki Kumada ; the CD format uses the " Kasuka na Kaori " artwork ( which has the girls surrounded by furniture , in front of a cityscape ) , whilst the DVD format uses the " Laser Beam " artwork ( which has the girls pointing lasers towards the camera ) .
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Laser Beam " is an electronic song , influenced by 8 @-@ bit music . Tetsuo Hiraga from Hot Express noted elements of 8 @-@ bit and dance music in its composition . A staff editor from Selective Hearing noted musical elements of electropop in its composition . Asian Junkie editor Random J reviewed the song on his personal blog , and stated about the album remix , " As with " Laser Beam " Yasutaka throws in some new melodic passages , arrangements and completely new key changes . " He also identified 90s – influenced music as a key element to the song . A staff editor from CD Journal noted that the song was influenced by Technopop , a musical genre that the group had developed in their earlier years . The song was noted by critics for its lack of autotune and vocoder post @-@ production tools , which was common in the group 's earlier work .
= = Critical response = =
" Laser Beam " received positive reviews from music critics . Tetsuo Hiraga from Hot Express was positive in his review , complimenting its composition and commercial appeal . Asian Junkie editor Random J reviewed the song on his personal blog , and was positive ; he stated , " ... the new melodic additions put a cool spin on the song . Yasutaka chops and stutters the absolute shit out of the post chorus sections in a way which cements his position as one of the best knob twiddlers in the music biz right now . " Laser Beam " was a great song in May . It 's still great now . " He identified it as an album highlight , and the album 's best track . Ian Martin from The Japan Times was favorable in his review , stating , " The chorus ... of " Laser Beam " are great examples of classic Japanese pop , taking the sounds of 1970s kayōkyoku and 1980s technopop and updating them in a way that manages to be at once nostalgic and defiantly modern . " He identified it as one of the best tracks on the album .
Paul Browne from Jpopgo.co.uk enjoyed the track , asserting that , " ' Laser Beam ' certainly stands out from the others with its crunchy melody and crisp production , even in its album mix incarnation here . " A staff editor from Selective Hearing was positive in their review ; he / she said , " It took some time but for Perfume fans this was definitely worth the wait . Neither track outshines each other and both are worthy of a @-@ side status . Which one you prefer depends on what your mood is . " A staff editor from CD Journal reviewed the single release , and was generally favorable ; he.she labelled it an " adorable pop tune " . Another staff editor from the same publication reviewed the album mix , and praised the " stylish " new composition . A reviewer from Imprint , a newspaper printed by the University of Waterloo , complimented the song in their review . He / she said that , " Album mixes , " Laser Beam " and " Glitter " , mark a twist to in style to fit a more punk style dance music . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Charting together with " Kasuka na Kaori " , the double A @-@ side singles debuted at number two on Japan 's Oricon Singles Chart ; it sold 93 @,@ 828 units in their first week of sales . It was the group 's fourth consecutive charting single to reach number two on that chart . The following week , the singles fell to number 10 ; it sold 13 @,@ 615 units in their second week of sales . It lasted for 16 weeks on the top 300 chart , selling 124 @,@ 613 units by the end of 2011 ; they were the 58th best selling single 's in that region . Singularly , " Laser Beam " peaked at number two on Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 chart . In South Korea , " Laser Beam " reached number 48 on their Gaon Digital Chart ; it marks the group 's first charting appearance in that region . The double A @-
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@ side singles were certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units .
= = Music video = =
The music video was shot by Kazuaki Seki , in Yokohama on 11 March 2011 . A power blackout caused from the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake prevented them from continuing filming , and the music video wasn 't completed . Filming was then slightly reduced two weeks before the release . The concept of the video was " female spies " , which is reflected in the makeup and clothing . The music video appeared on the DVD single . The music video also appeared on Perfume 's DVD compilation sets for JPN , and Perfume Clips ( 2014 ) . The music video appeared on a YouTube reaction video , hosted by The Fine Brothers ; the video was part of the " Teens React to J @-@ Pop " compilation .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video opens with a mysterious man holding a briefcase , walking down a futuristic hallway . As the music starts , the girls start dancing in a dark office with lights flashing in the background . As the chorus starts , the girls start shooting laser beams from their fingers , and dance to the song . The girls teleport into the futuristic labyrinth , looking for the man with the briefcase . Inter cut scenes features the group dancing and singing to the song , whilst in several different hallways . During the second chorus , the girls continue to search for him without any luck . The man enters the office , sits down on a sofa , with a helmet piece of shiny – coloured plastic on his head . The girls find the office entrance , with CCTV footage catching them enter the room .
As they enter the room , the man stands up and holds the briefcase . During the third chorus , they engage in battle and circulate the room for defence . Inter cut scenes have the group dancing to the song in the room . Perfume member Kashiyuka summons a mini version of herself , holding onto it , and casting a spell against the man , making him fall to the ground . As they celebrate , Perfume member Nocchi goes towards him and retrieves the briefcase . However , the man stands up and transforms into a polar bear ; he then pushes Nocchi to the ground . Perfume member A @-@ Chan throws an apple as a detraction , and the group attacks the bear by using laser beams . Defeated , the polar bear shrinks and transforms into a plush toy . A @-@ Chan picks up the plush toy , and Kashiyuka opens the briefcase to witness a small gold ornament . The video ends with the group exiting the office .
= = Promotion and live performances = =
" Laser Beam " was used in Kirin Brewery 's Hyoketsu ads since on February 2 , 2011 . " Kasuka na Kaori " is also used in the ad for " Kirin Chu @-@ hi Hyoketsu Yasashii Kajitsu no Three Percent " . The single was performed on their 2011 JPN concert tour , where it was included during the first segment . It was included on the live DVD , released in mid 2012 . The song was included on the groups 180 Gram vinyl compilation box set , Perfume : Complete LP Box ( 2016 ) .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Details adapted from the liner notes of the parent album .
Ayano Ōmoto ( Nocchi ) – vocals
Yuka Kashino ( Kashiyuka ) – vocals
Ayaka Nishiwaki ( A @-@ Chan ) – vocals
Yasutaka Nakata – producer , composer , arranger , mixing , mastering .
Kaizuaki Seki – video director
Tokuma Japan Communications – record label
= = Chart and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Battarrea phalloides =
Battarrea phalloides is an inedible species of mushroom in the family Agaricaceae , and the type species of the genus Battarrea . Known in the vernacular as the scaley @-@ stalked puffball , sandy stiltball , or desert stalked puffball , it has a woody , slender , and shaggy or scaly stem that is typically up to 40 centimeters ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) in length . Although its general appearance resembles an agaric with stem and gills , atop the stem is a spore sac , consisting of an peridium and a powdery internal gleba . In maturity , the spore sac ruptures to release the spores . Battarrea phalloides is found in dry , sandy locations throughout the world , and has been collected from Africa , Asia , Australia , Europe , North America ( primarily in western regions ) , and South America . There is currently some disagreement in the literature as to whether the European B. stevensii is the same species as B. phalloides .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first mentioned in the scientific literature in 1784 , when Thomas Jenkinson Woodward described a new species found by Mr. Humphreys of Norwich . It was named by James Dickson in 1785 as Lycoperdon phalloides , and the type locality was Suffolk , England . Christian Hendrik Persoon sanctioned the name when he transferred to Battarrea in his 1801 Synopsis Methodica Fungorum , a newly circumscribed genus named after the Italian mycologist Giovanni Antonio Battarra . Synonyms include Phallus campanulatus , published by Miles Berkeley in 1842 based on collections made by Charles Darwin in Maldonado ( Uruguay ) in 1833 , and Ithyphallus campanulatus , a new combination based on Berkeley 's name , published by Diederich Franz Leonhard von Schlechtendal in 1933 .
The specific epithet phalloides means phallus @-@ like , and refers to the similarity of the volva to the genus Phallus . Battarrea phalloides is commonly known as the " scaly @-@ stalked puffball " and the " sandy stiltball " ; a common name given to the species B. stevenii is the " desert drumstick " . In Cyprus , it is known locally as " Donkey fungus " , a name that may be derived from the fact that the spores were once used as a natural antiseptic and antipruritic agent applied to the backs of donkeys , or for their morphological resemblance to the animal 's penis .
Historically , there has been uncertainty as to whether the European species known as Battarrea stevenii is a unique species or merely a polymorphic variant of B. phalloides . The taxon has been described as both a variety ( as B. phalloides var. stevenii by Cleland and Cheel in 1916 ) and as a form ( as B. phalloides f. stevenii by Calonge in 2004 ) . In 1995 , mycologist Roy Watling opined that B. stevenii differs in having spores that are colored more orange @-@ tawny , slightly larger ( 5 – 6 @.@ 5 by 5 @.@ 75 – 7 µm , as opposed to 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 25 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 75 µm ) , and less ornamented . Further , B. stevenii is thought to have a larger fruit body size , a more coarsely scaly stipe , and lack of mucilage in the volva and the innermost parts of the stem . The presence or absence of mucilage has been traditionally considered the significant characteristic separating the species . In 1904 , Lászlo Hollós proposed the idea of a single polymorphic species ; in 1942 , Paul Marshall Rea , after studying 25 specimens from southern California , concluded that B. stevenii was conspecific with B. phalloides and represented a single species . An analysis of a number of European specimens — using both macroscopic and microscopic characteristics in addition to molecular analysis of ITS regions of the 5.8S rDNA — also suggested both to be conspecific . The authors of this study considered the differences in spore ornamentation and stipe hyphae to be insufficient to discriminate them as two species ; they did , however , note that their inability to locate the type material for both species limited the conclusiveness of their suggestion . The conspecificity of the species was supported in a later study that used traditional and molecular methods to compare field @-@ collected English specimens and an extensive range of herbarium material collected from around the world . They found that material labeled B. stevenii generally had a greater range of cap and stem sizes , while that labeled B. phalloides was generally more consistent , and smaller . However , the B. phalloides material they studied was generally from similar habitats in the UK , while the B. stevenii material originated from a wide variety of locales and habitats , suggesting that environmental factors influence fruit body morphology . Evidence pointing to conspecificity included the continuum of spore sizes between the two , and the lack of any significant differences between their DNA . In 2006 , however , based on a study of specimens collected in China , other scientists considered them to be independent species .
= = Description = =
Mature specimens of Battarrea phalloides roughly resemble the typical agaric mushroom stature of stem and cap . However , rather than a cap with gills , this species has a spore sac atop the stem . When young , the fruit body is roughly spherical and completely encased in an outer wall ( exoperidium ) that later splits in a circumscissile fashion ( along a circular or equatorial line ) , the lower wall forming a volva and the upper part forming scales that cover the inner wall . The upper part rolls upward and backward and eventually falls away in one piece , exposing a spore sac lined with a narrow ring of capillitium and spores . The spores are sticky . As these are carried away by the wind , the drying action of the latter cause the edges of the peridium to shrivel and roll up more , exposing more spores . This is continued until the upper half of the peridium has shriveled and blown away and there remains only a few spores , which may be washed away by rain .
The fruit body develops rapidly ; when mature , it is rust @-@ colored , with a hemispherical to somewhat conical " head " 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter , and with a stalk up to 40 cm ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) long by 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick .
One study reported a specimen found in Mexico with a length of 65 cm ( 25 @.@ 6 in ) . Typically , the spore case is 3 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) broad by 1 to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 4 in ) tall . The hollow stalk is pale brown to brown , woody , and has a fibrous , scaly , or even woolly surface . The mature gleba , which is eventually exposed when the peridial cap is shed , has a rust @-@ brown color . The cap may persist after the spore mass is dispersed and form a disc @-@ like unit that slides down the stalk like a ring . The fragile sac @-@ shaped volva is up to 15 by 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 by 5 @.@ 1 in ) broad , unattached to the stalk , and formed by two distinct , separated tissue layers . The inner layer resembles the scales of the stem , consisting of hyphae that are 3 – 18 µm in diameter , closely arranged ( nearly parallel ) , septate , sparsely branched , yellowish ochre , with clamps at some septa . The outer layer of fungal tissue is thicker , membranous , sometimes with a corky texture when dry , and dirty white . It consists of pale yellow intertwined hyphae that are difficult to distinguish individually , and without remains of a gelatinous matrix . Fruit bodies may persist for several months after they have dried .
The thick @-@ walled spores are roughly spherical , rusty @-@ brown , finely and densely warted , and have diameters of 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm . Elaters are 50 – 80 by 4 – 6 µm , and have ring @-@ like or spiral thickenings . The endoperidium consists of densely interwoven hyphae that are 3 – 9 µm in diameter and walls less than 1 µm thick ; they are septate , branched , pale yellow , with clamp connections .
The gleba is largely made up of two types of threads . The pseudocapillitium has hyphae up to 5 µm diameter , mostly thin walled , smooth , septate , sparsely branched , hyaline to pale yellow , with clamps . The elaters have diameters of 3 @.@ 5 – 7 µm and are 32 – 70 µm long ; they are pale yellow , smooth @-@ walled , tapered and cylindrical with spiral thickenings . Glebal elaters are aseptate and not branched .
= = = Edibility = = =
Battarrea phalloides ( as well as Battarrea stevenii ) is typically described as unknown edibility , or inedible . In Cyprus , the immature egg @-@ form of the fruit body is eaten . Older specimens may smell unpleasant . The spores of B. stevenii are used as a cicatrizant — a product that promotes healing through the formation of scar tissue – by the Criollo herdsmen of Gran Chaco in northern Argentina .
= = = Similar species = = =
The closely related species Battarrea diguettii is known in the United States from the Mojave desert , and differs from B. phalloides in that the spore sac emerges by ripping through the top of the exoperidium , rather than by circumscissile rupture . The endoperidium of B. diguettii is also smaller , and the spores emerge through a number of pores on the upper surface of the spore sac . Battarrea stevenii can grow taller , up to 70 centimeters ( 27 @.@ 6 in ) . Podaxis pistillaris , commonly known as the " desert shaggy mane " , occurs in dry locales similar to B. phalloides , but can be distinguished by its shaggy , elongated cap .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Battarrea phalloides may be found growing solitary to scattered on dry , sandy hedgebanks ( raised or mounded boundary feature , often topped by a hedgerow ) , sometimes growing amongst elm suckers . It is a relatively rare species , but may be locally abundant in some locations . In Mexico , where it is only known from the north and central part of the country , it has been usually collected in arid and semiarid areas , on coastal dunes , found from sea level up to 2 @,@ 550 m ( 8 @,@ 370 ft ) high . The mushroom has been associated with the quick @-@ growing evergreen tree Schinus molle , as well as Lycium brevipes , Solanum hindsianum , Salicornia subterminalis , Atriplex linearis , Quercus agrifolia and Opuntia species , in coastal dunes . The largest fruit bodies were found on floodplains with halophilic ( i.e. , thriving in high @-@ salt conditions ) vegetation . In Belgium , specimens were found on sandy soil under dead elderflower bushes .
In North America , Battarrea phalloides has been collected from the Yukon Territory , western Canada ; the USA , where it is confined to the west — Southern California , New Mexico , and Arizona — Mexico , and Hawaii . It has also been reported growing in South America ( Brazil ) , Africa ( Morocco ) , Europe ( Belgium ) , China , and Australia . Due to a decline in sightings , B. phalloides was granted legal protection in Hungary in 2005 , making it a finable offense to pick them . It received similar protected status in the United Kingdom in 1998 .
The habitat and range of Battarrea stevenii include arid regions of the western and southwestern United States , Australia , South Africa , and several European countries , including Russia .
= From This Moment On ( Shania Twain song ) =
" From This Moment On " is a song by Canadian recording artist Shania Twain , taken from her third studio album , Come On Over ( 1997 ) . The song was written by Twain , while additional production and songwriting was done by Robert John " Mutt " Lange . After finishing the track , both Twain and Lange concluded that the song would work best as a duet . Despite their first choice for the duet being Elton John , they chose country singer Bryan White instead , who took the opportunity . It was then released on March 14 , 1998 in North America and Oceania .
" From This Moment On " is a country pop track which received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who deemed it as one of the album 's highlights . The song achieved moderate commercial success , reaching the top ten in Australia , Canada , United Kingdom and United States . It also charted in France , Netherlands , New Zealand , and Sweden , as well on several Billboard component charts . An accompanying music video was directed by Paul Boyd , which depicts Twain walking on a hallway until she 's joined by an orchestra to perform the song . " From This Moment On " has been performed on every tour by Twain since its release .
= = Background and composition = =
" From This Moment On " was written during a soccer game in Italy . Twain once explained “ We were in Italy at a soccer game . My husband loves sports . I don ’ t know the game that well , so my mind drifted and I started writing . ” Initially , Twain thought " From This Moment On " would be perfect for singer Celine Dion ; however , as Twain and Lange developed the song , they concluded that it would work best as a duet . Despite their first choice for the duet being Elton John , they chose country singer Bryan White instead , who took the opportunity . Twain later described White as " the best male voice in country music . Beyond country music ! He 's an excellent singer . So he needed to be on this record , because the song soars . It demands that . It demands dynamics . " White explained that , by the time he went to the recording , the song was mostly finalized , and , vocally , described it as " extremely challenging . "
Initial first @-@ run pressings of the international version of Come On Over during March 1998 featured White on the song , while subsequent pressings soon after began featuring the song as a solo recording . The reason is because in early 1998 , Mercury executives were informed that White would be unable to promote the song alongside Twain ; therefore Twain had to return to the studio to re @-@ record White 's parts on her own . According to White 's spokesman at Asylum Records , " We 've certainly heard knocking on our door about " From This Moment On " being too contemporary for Bryan 's sake . So it 's fine if they want to go to top 40 without him . " White later claimed that he had no hard feelings towards Twain for him being excluded from the international version of the song , stating " They 're releasing this song as a pop record , and I 'm not a pop artist , so my feelings aren 't hurt . "
" From This Moment On " was released as the fourth single from Come On Over on March 14 , 1998 in North America and Oceania , while being released in Europe on November 16 , 1998 only . Musically , " From This Moment On " is a country pop ballad and is set in common time with a slow tempo of 72 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of G major with Twain 's vocal range spanning from the low note of D3 to the high note of C5 . Nick Reynolds of BBC Music described the song as a power new country ballad with " a beautiful melody " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" From This Moment On " received generally favorable reviews from music critics . Matt Bjorke of About.com deemed the song as one of the album 's highlights , while Elizabeth Kessler of Yahoo ! commented that " hardly any song can compare to this love anthem ! ... Everyone feels their insides tug as they listen to this heart wrenching song . " Country Universe writer Kevin John Coyne did separate reviews for " From This Moment On " . While reviewing the duet , Coyne graded it a B and commented that it was mostly a showcase of White 's vocals , " who turns in some signature licks and makes Twain seem a bit bland in comparison . However , it also gives the song a bit of a mid @-@ eighties Peter Cetera vibe , which hasn ’ t held up well over time . " Coyne concluded , however , that the single release turned the track " into a potent solo number , " and noted that " the addition of a Spanish @-@ flavored guitar that borrowed heavily from ' Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman ' gave the ballad added oomph . " He graded the single release an A- . At the 1999 Canadian Country Music Awards , " From This Moment On " won the award for Vocal / Instrumental Collaboration of the Year .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" From This Moment On " achieved moderate commercial success . In the United States , the track was able to reach number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one in both Adult Contemporary and Country Songs component charts . However , it failed to peak inside the top ten on the Pop Songs and Adult Pop Songs component charts , peaking at number 16 and 22 , respectively . On the chart compiled by Nielsen Soundscan , " From This Moment On " reached number four on the Canadian Hot 100 , while reaching number one on RPM 's Country Songs and Adult Contemporary charts . In Australia , the track debuted at number 32 , and climbed to a new peak of number two on its eleventh week on the chart . It stayed on the chart for a total of 32 weeks , and was the tenth best selling single of 1998 in the country . " From This Moment On " also peaked inside the top ten in New Zealand , where it reached the position of number seven . The song failed to chart inside the top ten of a few European countries , such as France , Netherlands , and Sweden . In the United Kingdom , it debuted and peaked at number nine on the chart issue of November 28 , 1998 .
= = Music video and live performances = =
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Paul Boyd . It depicts Twain wearing a long dress and a bindi . She is walking down a hallway , trying to go through several doors ; however , they are all locked . Finally she finds an unlocked door , proceeds through it and finds an orchestra being led by a conductor . She stands in front and finishes singing the song . The video uses The Right Mix of the song . This re @-@ recorded solo version features slightly more contemporized instrumentation and removes White 's vocals . The version shown on Twain 's video compilations " Come On Over : Video Collection " and " The Platinum Collection " adds a short outtake during filming , in which Twain accidentally broke off a doorknob , to the end of the video . " From This Moment On " has been performed on live with the Backstreet Boys and on every tour by Twain since its release .
= = Track listings = =
= = Official versions = =
Album Version ( with Bryan White ) — 4 : 43
Album Version Radio Edit ( with Bryan White ) — 3 : 42
International Version — 4 : 43
The Single Mix ( International Version Radio Edit ) — 3 : 42
Solo / Vocal Remix — 3 : 42
International Version ( with Bryan White ) — 4 : 43
The Single Mix ( with Bryan White ) — 3 : 42
The Right Album Mix ( North American International Version ) — 5 : 00 ( Known as ' The I.V. Mix in USA and Canada )
The Right Single Mix — 4 : 01 ( Known as ' Pop Radio Mix ' in USA and Canada )
Tempo Mix — 4 : 03
Dance Mix — 6 : 22
Soul Solution Extended Mix — 7 : 23
Soul Solution Radio Edit — 4 : 00
Soul Solution Bonus Beats — 3 : 32
Live from Still the One : Live from Vegas 4 : 23
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Chart precession and succession = = =
= Trams in Adelaide =
Until 1958 , Trams in Adelaide formed a network spanning most of suburban Adelaide , with a history dating back to 1878 . Adelaide ran horse trams from 1878 to 1914 and electric trams from 1909 , but has primarily relied on buses for public transport since 1958 . Electric trams and trolleybuses were Adelaide 's main public transport throughout the life of the electric tram network . All trams except the Glenelg Tram were closed in the 1950s . The Glenelg line remains in operation and was upgraded and extended in 2007 @-@ 2010 .
The early use of trams was for recreation as well as daily travel , by entire families and tourists . Until the 1950s , trams were used for family outings to the extent that the Municipal Tramways Trust ( MTT ) constructed gardens in the suburb of Kensington Gardens , extending the Kensington line to attract customers . By 1945 the MTT was collecting fares for 95 million trips annually — 295 trips per head of population .
After the Great Depression , the maintenance of the tramway system and the purchase of new trams suffered . Competition from private buses , the MTT 's own bus fleet and the growth of private car ownership all took patrons from the tram network . By the 1950s , the tram network was losing money and being replaced by an electric and petrol @-@ driven bus fleet . Adelaide 's tram history is preserved by the volunteer @-@ run the Adelaide Tramway Museum at St Kilda ( commonly called the " St Kilda tram museum " ) , and the continuing use of 1929 H type trams on the remaining Glenelg tram line .
The Glenelg Tram was extended to Adelaide railway station in 2007 and to Adelaide Entertainment Centre in Hindmarsh in 2010 . The upgrade included the first new tram purchases in more than 50 years . Three types of electric tram , built in 1929 , 2006 and 2009 respectively , now run on the line .
= = Horse trams = =
In early 1855 , less than twenty years after the colony was founded , South Australia 's first horse tram began operating between Goolwa and Port Elliot on the Fleurieu Peninsula . Just over twenty years later Adelaide became the first city in Australia to introduce horse trams , and eventually the last to discard them for more modern public transport . Although two trials of street level trains were run , the state of Adelaide 's streets , with mud in winter and dust in summer , led to the decision that they would not be reliable .
Sir Edwin T. Smith and W. C. Buik , both prominent in Kensington and Norwood Corporation then Adelaide City Council ( and both later mayors of Adelaide , spent some time inspecting European tramways during the 1870s . They were impressed with horse tram systems and , on returning to Adelaide , they promoted the concept leading to a prospectus being issued for the Adelaide and Suburban Tramway Co . ( A & ST ) . Private commercial interests lobbied government for legislative support , over Adelaide council 's objections related to licensing and control . As a result , the Government of South Australia passed an 1876 private act , authorising construction of Adelaide 's first horse tram network . It was scheduled for completion within two years , with 10 @.@ 8 miles ( 17 @.@ 4 km ) of lines from Adelaide 's city @-@ centre to the suburbs of Kensington and North Adelaide . Completed in May 1878 , services began in June from Adelaide to Kensington Park with trams imported from John Stephenson Co. of New York , United States .
Until 1907 all horse tram operations were by private companies , with the government passing legislation authorising line construction . Growth of the network and rolling stock was driven largely by commercial considerations . On the opening day , the newly founded Adelaide and Suburban Tramway Co . ( A & ST ) began with six trams , expanding to 90 trams and 650 horses by 1907 with its own tram manufacturing facility at Kensington .
A Private act , passed in September 1881 , allowed the construction of more private horse tramways and additional acts were passed authorising more line construction and services by more companies . Most of the companies operated double @-@ decker tram , although some were single level cabs with many built by John Stephenson Co . , Duncan and Fraser of Adelaide , and from 1897 by the A & ST at Kensington . The trams ran at an average speed of 5 miles per hour ( 8 km / h ) , usually two horses pulling each tram from a pool of four to ten .
= = = Horse tram network = = =
Various companies expanded the network from its initial line to Kensington , with eleven companies operating within six years , three more having already failed before constructing tracks . The Adelaide to North Adelaide line opened in December 1878 , a separate one from Port Adelaide to Albert Park in 1879 , Adelaide to Mitcham and Hindmarsh in 1881 , Walkerville 1882 , Burnside , Prospect , Nailsworth and Enfield in 1883 , and Maylands in 1892 . Various streets were widened especially for the tram lines including Brougham place , North Adelaide by 10 feet ( 3 m ) and Prospect road to a total width of 60 feet ( 18 m ) .
All but one line was built in 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge with the exception from Port Adelaide to Albert Park . This line was built in 5 ft 3 in ( 1 @,@ 600 mm ) to accommodate steam engines , also requiring some of the line to be raised on embankments to avoid swampy ground and flooding . There were 74 miles ( 119 km ) of tramlines with 1062 horses and 162 cars by 1901 and isolated lines from Port Adelaide to Albert Park and Glenelg to Brighton , as well as a network joining many suburbs to Adelaide 's CBD by 1907 .
The network had termini in Henley Beach , Hindmarsh , Prospect , Nailsworth , Paradise , Magill , Burnside , Glen Osmond , Mitcham , Clarence Park , Hyde Park and Walkerville . To accommodate the specific needs of horses , most streets were left unsealed . The horses ' urine needed an unsealed surface for absorption and their hooves a soft surface for good traction .
= = Electric trams = =
Adelaide 's first experiment with electric powered trams was a demonstration run on the Adelaide and Hindmarsh Tramway company 's line . A battery powered tram fitted with " Julien 's Patent Electric Traction " ran in 1889 to Henley Beach . The trial was unsuccessful due to the batteries poor capacity , and the promoters ' deaths in a level crossing accident shortly after precluded further experiments .
As with horse trams , commercial interests pursued government support for the introduction of electric tramways . The most influential was the " Snow scheme " , promoted by Francis H. Snow largely on behalf of two London companies , British Westinghouse and Callender 's Cable Construction . The scheme involved the purchase of major horse tramways , merging into an electric tramway company with twenty @-@ one years of exclusive running rights . Legislation was passed in 1901 , a referendum held in 1902 , but the required funds had been spent and the scheme collapsed . Adelaide 's council proposed their own scheme backed by different companies , but couldn 't raise the required capital , and J.H. Packard promoted various plans of his own devising that also never eventuated .
By 1901 Adelaide 's horse trams were seen by the public as a blot on the city 's image . With a population of 162 @,@ 000 the slow speed of the trams , and the lines subsequent low traffic capacity , made them inadequate for public transport needs . The unsealed roads the horses required became quagmires in winter and sources of dust in summer . The 10 pounds of manure each horse left behind daily , was also not well regarded . Under these various pressures the government negotiated to purchase the horse tramway companies . A 28 March 1906 newspaper notice announced that the government had purchased all of the city tramways for £ 280 @,@ 000 . Bill No.913 , passed 22 December 1906 , created the Municipal Tramways Trust ( MTT ) with the authority to build new and purchase existing tramways .
Not all tramway companies were purchased , as the Glenelg to Marino company continued operating separately until its failure in 1914 . The government purchased the properties , plant and equipment of existing tramways but did not purchase the companies themselves . The equipment included 162 trams , 22 other vehicles and 1056 horses . By 1909 at the launch of Adelaide 's electric tram services there remained 163 horse trams and 650 horses under the control of the MTT .
Due to the time required to electrify the network the MTT continued to run horse trams until 1914 . The cost of purchasing the tramways was funded by treasury bills and the act capped total construction costs at £ 12 @,@ 000 per mile of track . £ 457 @,@ 000 was let in contracts to March 1908 for construction of the tramways , trams , strengthening the Adelaide bridge over the River Torrens and associated works . The official ceremony starting track construction was in May 1908 , with tracks originally laid on Jarrah sleepers .
On Monday 30 November 1908 there were two trial runs , from the MTT 's depot on Hackney Road to the nearby Adelaide Botanic Garden and back , the evening trial carrying the Premier and Governor . At the official opening ceremony on 9 March 1909 , Electric Tram 1 was driven by Mrs. Price , wife of Premier Thomas Price . Mrs Price opened the tramway and drove the tram from the Hackney Depot to Kensington and back , assisted by the MTT 's chief engineer .
= = = Municipal Tramways Trust = = =
The MTT was created in 1906 and became part of the State Transport Authority in 1975 . It was created as a tax @-@ exempt body with eight members , mostly by appointed local councils but with some government appointees . They established a 9 acres ( 3 @.@ 6 ha ) tram depot site near the corner of Hackney Road and Botanic Road with a depot building , twenty @-@ four incoming tracks and a large administration office . William George Toop Goodman was appointed as its first engineer , later general manager and remained as general manager until his 1950 retirement .
To cater for family outings the MTT constructed gardens in the current suburb of Kensington Gardens , extending the Kensington line to attract customers . By 1945 the MTT was collecting fares for 95 million trips annually , representing 295 trips per head of population ( 350 @,@ 000 ) .
By 1958 the tram network was reduced to just the Glenelg line ( see Decline of the network ) . The MTT continued to operate most of the local bus routes in the inner metropolitan area . In 1975 the services of the MTT became the Bus and Tram division of the State Transport Authority and the MTT ceased to exist .
= = = Electric tram network = = =
At the 1909 opening , 35 miles ( 56 kilometres ) of track had been completed with electricity supplied by the Electric Lighting and Supply Co . The electric tram system ran on 600 Volts DC supplied at first from two converter stations , No.1 converter station on East Terrace with 2 @,@ 500 kW of AC to DC capacity and No.2 station at Thebarton with a capacity of 900 kW . To cope with variable loads on the system , very large storage lead – acid batteries were installed , the initial one at East Terrace comprising 293 cells and a 50 ton tank of sulphuric acid .
The Adelaide @-@ Glenelg line was , from 1873 , a 5 ft 3 in ( 1 @,@ 600 mm ) steam railway that ran at street level into Victoria Square . Originally privately owned it was taken over by the South Australian Railways then transferred to the MTT in 1927 . The line was closed to be rebuilt to 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge , electrified at 600 Volts DC and converted to tramway operation , reopening in late 1929 .
The Port Adelaide line , which until that time had still used horse trams , began to be converted to electric operation in 1914 and opened 3 April 1917 A line from Magill to Morialta opened in 1915 for weekend tourist traffic with only a single return service on weekdays . The line ran in the valley of 4th creek , a tributary of the River Torrens , across farmland and along unmade and ungazetted roads .
All services on the Morialta line were replaced by buses in 1956 . The last tram line built in Adelaide was the Erindale line which opened in early 1944 . At maximum extent the lines connected Adelaide with the sea at Henley Beach , Grange and Glenelg , reached the base of the Adelaide Hills at Morialta and Mitcham and had Northern and Southern limits of Prospect and Colonel Light Gardens .
= = = Electric tram types = = =
From 1908 to 1909 , a hundred electric trams were manufactured by Duncan and Fraser of Adelaide at a cost of approximately £ 100 each . Up to its last tram purchase in 1953 , the MTT commissioned over three hundred electric trams , some of which have been kept in service for over seventy @-@ five years . TransAdelaide , the publicly owned company now operating Adelaide trams , began introducing a new type of tram in January 2006 in the form of the Bombardier Flexity Classic . Another new series of trams ( Alstom Citadis ) started to enter service in December 2009 .
* The original 103 was damaged during shipping from Germany . In its damaged form , it is now held for parts at TransAdelaide 's Glengowrie depot . The replacement 103 was the final tram that was delivered , and is now in service . Type 100 Note : The Type 100 trams are occasionally referred to a S type trams due to their resemblance to VGF 's S class trams in use in Frankfurt am Main or NGT8 trams which is the designation used in Dortmund
* The 6 Citadis trams in Adelaide were originally purchased for use in Madrid by Mintra / MetroLigero for use on their system as part of an order for 70 Citadis trams . At the time of arrival , these 6
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a distance . The company was financially successful , but Riley was continually drawn to poetry . In October he traveled to South Bend where he took a job at Stockford & Blowney painting verses on signs for a month ; the short duration of his job may have been due to his frequent drunkenness at that time .
In early 1874 , Riley returned to Greenfield to become a writer full @-@ time . In February he submitted a poem entitled " At Last " to the Danbury News , a Connecticut newspaper . The editors accepted his poem , paid him for it , and wrote him a letter encouraging him to submit more . Riley found the note and his first payment inspiring . He began submitting poems regularly to the editors , but after the newspaper shut down in 1875 , Riley was left without a paying publisher . He began traveling and performing with the Adelphians around central Indiana to earn an income while he searched for a new publisher . In August 1875 he joined another traveling tonic show run by the Wizard Oil Company .
= = Early career = =
= = = Newspaper work = = =
Riley began sending correspondence to the famous American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow during late 1875 seeking his endorsement to help him start a career as a poet . He submitted many poems to Longfellow , whom he considered to be the greatest living poet . Not receiving a prompt response , he sent similar letters to John Townsend Trowbridge , and several other prominent writers askng for an endorsement . Longfellow finally replied in a brief letter , telling Riley that " I have read [ the poems ] in great pleasure , and think they show a true poetic faculty and insight . " Riley carried the letter with him everywhere and , hoping to receive a job offer and to create a market for his poetry , he began sending poems to dozens of newspapers touting Longfellow 's endorsement . Among the newspapers to take an interest in the poems was the Indianapolis Journal , a major Republican Party metropolitan newspaper in Indiana . Among the first poems the newspaper purchased from Riley were " Song of the New Year " , " An Empty Nest " , and a short story entitled " A Remarkable Man " .
The editors of the Anderson Democrat discovered Riley 's poems in the Indianapolis Journal and offered him a job as a reporter in February 1877 . Riley accepted . He worked as a normal reporter gathering local news , writing articles , and assisting in setting the typecast on the printing press . He continued to write poems regularly for the newspaper and to sell other poems to larger newspapers . During the year Riley spent working in Anderson , he met and began to court Edora Mysers . The couple became engaged , but terminated the relationship after they decided against marriage in August .
After a rejection of his poems by an eastern periodical , Riley began to formulate a plot to prove his work was of good quality and that it was being rejected only because his name was unknown in the east . Riley authored a poem imitating the style of Edgar Allan Poe and submitted it to the Kokomo Dispatch under a fictitious name claiming it was a long lost Poe poem . The Dispatch published the poem and reported it as such . Riley and two other men who were part of the plot waited two weeks for the poem to be published by major newspapers in Chicago , Boston , and New York to gauge their reaction ; they were disappointed . While a few newspapers believed the poem to be authentic , the majority did not , claiming the quality was too poor to be authored by Poe . An employee of the Dispatch learned the truth of the incident and reported it to the Kokomo Tribune , which published an expose that outed Riley as a conspirator behind the hoax . The revelation damaged the credibility of the Dispatch and harmed Riley 's reputation .
In the aftermath of the Poe plot , Riley was dismissed from the Democrat , so he returned to Greenfield to spend time writing poetry . Back home , he met Clara Louise Bottsford , a school teacher boarding in his father 's home . They found they had much in common , particularly their love of literature . The couple began a twelve @-@ year intermittent relationship which would be Riley 's longest lasting . In mid @-@ 1878 the couple had their first breakup , caused partly by Riley 's alcohol addiction . The event led Riley to make his first attempt to give up liquor . He joined a local temperance organization , but quit after a few weeks .
= = = Performing poet = = =
Without a steady income , his financial situation began to deteriorate . He began submitting his poems to more prominent literary magazines , including Scribner 's Monthly , but was informed that although he showed promise , his work was still short of the standards required for use in their publications . Locally , he was still dealing with the stigma of the Poe plot . The Indianapolis Journal and other newspapers refused to accept his poetry , leaving Riley desperate for income . In January 1878 on the advice of a friend , Riley paid an entrance fee to join a traveling lecture circuit where he could give poetry readings . In exchange , he received a portion of the profit his performances earned . Such circuits were popular at the time , and Riley quickly earned a local reputation for his entertaining readings .
In August 1878 , Riley followed Indiana Governor James D. Williams as speaker at a civic event in a small town near Indianapolis . He recited a recently composed poem , " A Childhood Home of Long Ago , " telling of life in pioneer Indiana . The poem was well received and was given good reviews by several newspapers .
" Flying Islands of the Night " is the only play that Riley wrote and published . Authored while Riley was traveling with the Adelphians , but never performed , the play has similarities to A Midsummer Night 's Dream , which Riley may have used as a model . Flying Islands concerns a kingdom besieged by evil forces of a sinister queen who is defeated eventually by an angel @-@ like heroine . Most reviews were positive . Riley published the play and it became popular in the central Indiana area during late 1878 , helping Riley to convince newspapers to again accept his poetry . In November 1879 he was offered a position as a columnist at the Indianapolis Journal and accepted after being encouraged by E.B. Matindale , the paper 's chief editor .
Although the play and his newspaper work helped expose him to a wider audience , the chief source of his increasing popularity was his performances on the lecture circuit . He made both dramatic and comedic readings of his poetry , and by early 1879 could guarantee large crowds whenever he performed . In an 1894 article , Hamlin Garland wrote that Riley 's celebrity resulted from his reading talent , saying " his vibrant individual voice , his flexible lips , his droll glance , united to make him at once poet and comedian — comedian in the sense in which makes for tears as well as for laughter . " Although he was a good performer , his acts were not entirely original in style ; he frequently copied practices developed by Samuel Clemens and Will Carleton . His tour in 1880 took him to every city in Indiana where he was introduced by local dignitaries and other popular figures , including Maurice Thompson with whom he began to develop a close friendship .
Developing and maintaining his publicity became a constant job , and received more of his attention as his fame grew . Keeping his alcohol addiction secret , maintaining the persona of a simple rural poet and a friendly common person became most important . Riley identified these traits as the basis of his popularity during the mid @-@ 1880s , and wrote of his need to maintain a fictional persona . He encouraged the stereotype by authoring poetry he thought would help build his identity . He was aided by editorials he authored and submitted to the Indianapolis Journal offering observations on events from his perspective as a " humble rural poet " . He changed his appearance to look more mainstream , and began by shaving his mustache off and abandoning the flamboyant dress he employed in his early circuit tours .
By 1880 his poems were beginning to be published nationally and were receiving positive reviews . " Tom Johnson 's Quit " was carried by newspapers in twenty states , thanks in part to the careful cultivation of his popularity . Riley became frustrated that despite his growing acclaim , he found it difficult to achieve financial success . In the early 1880s , in addition to his steady performing , Riley began producing many poems to increase his income . Half of his poems were written during the period . The constant labor had adverse effects on his health , which was worsened by his drinking . At the urging of Maurice Thompson , he again attempted to stop drinking liquor , but was only able to give it up for a few months .
= = Indianapolis Journal = =
= = = Newspaper poet = = =
Riley moved to Indianapolis at the end of 1879 to begin his employment with the Journal . It was the only metropolitan newspaper in Indianapolis with daily editions , and had wide readership . For the newspaper he wrote a regular society column that often included verses of poetry . Thereafter Riley met many prominent people , and began a close friendship with Eugene V. Debs . Debs enjoyed Riley 's works and often complimented his sentiments . Riley had been using the pseudonym " Jay Whit " since he started authoring poetry , but finally began to write under his own name in April 1881 .
Riley renewed his relationship with Bottsford in 1880 , and the two corresponded frequently . Their relationship remained unstable , but Riley became deeply attached to her . She inspired his poem " The Werewife , " which told of a perfect wife who could suddenly become a demonic monster . Bottsford pressed Riley for marriage several times , but Riley refused . They broke off their relationship a second time in 1881 when she discovered his correspondence with two other women , and found that he had taken a secret vacation to Wisconsin with one of them .
Riley 's alcohol addiction influenced some of his poems during his time working for the Journal , including " On Quitting California , " " John Golliher 's Third Womern , " [ sic ] and " The Dismal Fate of Tit . " Each made references to the delirium caused by drinking . Although Riley rarely published anything controversial , some of his poems published from the same period , including " Afterwhiles " , allude to drug usage and make vague sexual references . During the early 1880s , Riley still made submissions to the elite literary periodicals , but continued to be rejected . Riley found the rejection discouraging , but persevered . He believed he would never be recognized as a true literary figure until one of the prestigious periodicals published his work .
= = = Lyceum circuit = = =
Riley made occasional reading tours around Indiana , and in August 1880 was invited to perform at Asbury University . His performance there so impressed the local Phi Kappa Psi chapter , he was invited to join as an honorary member . Through the fraternity he met Robert Jones Burdette , a writer and minister in the Indianapolis area . Burdette was a member of the Redpath Lyceum Bureau of Boston , a prominent lecture circuit whose regular speakers included Ralph Waldo Emerson . Burdette encouraged Riley to join the circuit through its Chicago branch . Riley 's accumulated debt and low income began causing him trouble in 1881 , and he decided rejoining a lecture circuit would provide much needed funds . His agreement for continued employment with the circuit depended on his ability to draw audiences during the first season , beginning in April 1881 . He succeeded , drawing the largest crowds in Chicago and Indianapolis .
Because of his success in the midwest , the circuit leaders invited him to make an east coast tour , starting in Boston at the Tremont Temple in February 1882 . Riley agreed , signing a ten @-@ year agreement and granting half his receipts to his agent . Before his performance , he traveled to Longfellow 's home in Massachusetts and convinced him to agree to a meeting . Their brief meeting was one of Riley 's fondest memories , and he wrote a lengthy article on it after Longfellow 's death only a month later . Longfellow encouraged Riley to focus on poetry , and gave him advice for his upcoming performance . At the performance , Riley was well received and his poems were greeted with laughter and given praise in the city 's newspaper reviews . Boston was the literary center of the United States at the time , and Riley 's impression on the city 's literary community helped him finally to get his work accepted by prestigious periodicals . The Century Magazine was the first such periodical to accept his work , running " In Swimming @-@ Time " in its September 1883 issue . Until the 1890s , it remained the only major literary magazine to publish Riley 's work . Knowing the high standards of the magazine , Riley reserved his best work each year to submit , including one of his favorites , " The Old Man and Jim " in 1887 .
By the end of 1882 , Riley 's finances began to improve dramatically , thanks largely to the income from his performances . During 1883 he began writing his " Boone County " poems by the pseudonym " Benjamin F. Johnson of Boone . " The poems were almost entirely written in dialect and emphasized topics of rural life during the early nineteenth century , often employing nostalgia and the simplicity of country life as elements . " The Old Swimmin ' -Hole " and " When the Frost Is on the Punkin ' " were the most popular , and helped earn the entire series critical acclaim . The topics were popular with readers , reminding many of them of their childhood . Merrill , Meigs & Company ( later renamed Bobbs @-@ Merrill Company ) approached Riley to compile the poems into a book . Riley agreed and printing of his first book began in August 1883 , titled " The Old Swimmin ' -Hole and ' Leven More Poems " . The book 's popularity necessitated a second printing before the end of the year . During this period Riley determined that his most popular poems were those on topics of rural life , and he began to use that as a common theme throughout his future work .
The income from Riley 's book allowed him to ease his busy work schedule ; he submitted articles to the Journal less frequently and made fewer lecture stops . His poems became fewer but the quality of his poetry improved ; he wrote his most famous poems during the mid @-@ 1880s , including " Little Orphant Annie " [ sic ] . Riley attempted to secure a new job at a periodical and leave the Journal , but the magazines to which he submitted would not hire him unless he was willing to relocate . Riley was steadfast in his refusal to leave Indiana , and told reporters that his rural home was his inspiration and to leave would ruin his poetry .
Riley renewed his relationship with Bottsworth for a third and final time in 1883 . The two corresponded frequently and had secret lovers ' rendezvous . He stopped visiting other women and their relationship became more dedicated and stable . Bottsworth , however , became convinced Riley was seeing another woman , and they terminated their relationship in January 1885 . Riley 's sister , Mary , had become a close friend of Bottsworth and scolded him for his mistreatment of her . Her reputation was tarnished by the affair and she found it difficult to find employment once their relationship ended .
In 1884 , Riley made another tour of the major cities in the eastern United States . Following the lectures , he began compiling a second book of poetry . He completed it during July and Bowen @-@ Merrill published it in December with the title The Boss Girl , A Christmas Story and Other Sketches . The book , which contained humorous poetry and short stories , received mixed reviews . It was popular around Indiana , where the majority of its copies were sold . One reviewer , however , called the poems " weird , nightmarish , and eerie , " and compared them to Edgar Allan Poe 's works .
While Riley was working on his book , he was unexpectedly invited by James B. Pond , the agent for many of the nations major performers , to join a one @-@ hundred nights ' engagement in New York City in a show that included Samuel Clemens and Dudley Warner . Riley , however , was unable to agree with the Redpath Bureau who had to authorize any other performance under the terms of their contract . Riley believed his contract with Redpath Bureau was limiting his opportunities , and his relationship with his agent became strained .
= = = Western Association of Writers = = =
Due partly to the limited success of his latest book outside Indiana , Riley was persuaded to begin working with other midwestern writers to attempt to form an association to promote their work . Popular Indiana writer Lew Wallace , author of Ben @-@ Hur , was a major promoter of the effort . During 1885 , more than one hundred writers joined the group . They held their first meeting in July , naming themselves the Western Association of Writers . At the meeting Maurice Thompson was named president , and Riley vice president . The association never succeeded in its goals of creating a powerful advertising force , but became a social club and a rival literary community to the eastern writing establishment . Riley was disappointed with the shortcomings of the group , but came to depend on its regular meetings as a escape from his normally hectic schedule .
Through the association , Riley became acquainted with most of the notable writers in the midwestern United States , including humorist Edgar Wilson Nye of Chicago . After completing his lecture circuit in 1885 , Riley formed a partnership with Nye and his agent to begin a new tour . The Redpath Bureau agreed to allow Riley to tour with Nye , provided he maintained his financial agreements with them . In addition to touring , Riley and Nye collaborated to write a book , Nye and Riley 's Railway Guide , a collection of humorous anecdotes and poems intended to parody popular tourist literature of the day . Published in 1888 , the book was somewhat successful and had three reprints .
In October 1887 , Riley and the association joined with other writers to petition the United States Congress to attempt to negotiate international treaties to protect American copyrights abroad . The group became known as the International Copyright League and had significant success in its efforts . When traveling to one of the league 's meetings in New York City that year , Riley was struck by Bell 's palsy . He recovered after three weeks , but remained secluded to hide the effects of the sickness which he believed was caused by his alcohol addiction . He made another attempt to stop drinking alcohol with the help of a minister , but again soon returned to his old habit .
After recovering , Riley remained briefly in New York to participate in a show at Chickering Hall with Edgar Nye , Samuel Clemens , and several others . Riley was introduced by James Russell Lowell before his performance , and Lowell gave Riley a glowing endorsement to the crowd . Riley 's poetry brought both tears and laughter according to The New York Sun . Critic Edmund Clarence Stedman , one of the foremost literary critics of the era , was present and wrote that Riley 's dialect poems were the finest he had ever heard , " in which a homely dramatis [ sic ] persona 's heart is laid open by subtle indirect , absolutely sure and tender " poetry . As a result of his New York performance , his name and picture were carried in all the major eastern papers and he quickly became well known throughout the United States . Sales of The Boss Girl increased , resulting in the fifth and largest printing , and Riley finally began to achieve the widespread fame he sought .
Clemens disliked being upstaged by Riley , and thereafter attempted to avoid any future joint performances with him . According to one review , Clemens " shriveled up into a bitter patch of melancholy in the fierce light of Mr. Riley 's humour . "
After returning home from his tour in early 1888 , Riley finished compiling his third book , titled Old @-@ Fashioned Roses . Arranged to appeal to British readers , it included only a few of his dialect poems and consisted mostly of sonnets . The book reprinted many poems Riley had already published , but included some new ones he wrote specifically for the book , including " The Days Gone By , " " The Little White Hearse , " and " The Serenade . " The book was Riley 's favorite because it included his finest works and was published by the prestigious Longmans , Green Publishers in a high quality binding and print .
In late 1888 he finished work on a fourth book , Pipes o ' Pan at Zekesbury which was released to great acclaim in the United States . Based on a fictional town in Indiana , Riley presented many stories and poems about its citizens and way of life . It received mixed reviews among literary critics who wrote of it that Riley 's stories were not of the same quality as his poetry . The book was very popular with the public and went through numerous reprints .
Riley was quickly becoming wealthy from his books and touring , earning nearly $ 20 @,@ 000 in 1888 . He no longer needed his job at the journal , and he left the job near the end of that year . The newspaper had served to earn him fame and had published hundreds of his articles , stories , and poems .
= = National fame = =
= = = Politics = = =
In March 1888 , Riley traveled to Washington , D.C. where he had dinner at the White House with other members of the International Copyright League and President of the United States Grover Cleveland . Riley made a brief performance for the dignitaries at the event before speaking about the need for international copyright protections . Cleveland was enamored by Riley 's performance and invited him back for a private meeting during which the two men discussed cultural topics . In the 1888 Presidential Election campaign , Riley 's acquaintance Benjamin Harrison was nominated as the Republican candidate . Although Riley had shunned politics for most of his life , he gave Harrison a personal endorsement and participated in fund @-@ raising events and vote stumping . The election was exceptionally partisan in Indiana , and Riley found the atmosphere of the campaign stressful ; he vowed never to become involved with politics again .
Upon Harrison 's election , he suggested Riley be named the national poet laureate , but Congress failed to act on the request . Riley was still honored by Harrison and visited him at the White House on several occasions to perform at civic events .
= = = Pay problems and scandal = = =
Riley and Nye made arrangements with James Pond to make two national tours during 1888 and 1889 . The tours were popular and generally sold out , with hundreds having to be turned away . The shows were usually forty @-@ five minutes to an hour long and featured Riley reading often humorous poetry interspersed by stories and jokes from Nye . The shows were informal and the two men adjusted their performances based on their audiences reactions . Riley memorized forty of his poems for the shows to add to his own versatility . Many prominent literary and theatrical people attended the shows . At a New York City show in March 1888 , Augustin Daly was so enthralled by the show he insisted on hosting the two men at a banquet with several leading Broadway theatre actors .
Despite Riley serving as the act 's main draw , he was not permitted to become an equal partner in the venture . Nye and Pond both received a percentage of the net profit , while Riley was paid a flat rate for each performance . In addition , because of Riley 's past agreements with the Redpath Lyceum Bureau , he was required to pay half of his fee to his agent Amos Walker . This caused the other men to profit more than Riley from his own work .
To remedy this situation , Riley hired his brother @-@ in @-@ law Henry Eitel , an Indianapolis banker , to manage his finances and act on his behalf to try and extricate him from his contract . Despite discussions and assurances from Pond that he would work to address the problem , Eitel had no success . Pond ultimately made the situation worse by booking months of solid performances , not allowing Riley and Nye a day of rest . These events affected Riley physically and emotionally ; he became despondent and began his worst period of alcoholism . During November 1889 , the tour was forced to cancel several shows after Riley became severely inebriated at a stop in Madison , Wisconsin .
Walker began monitoring Riley and denying him access to liquor , but Riley found ways to evade Walker . At a stop at the Masonic Temple Theatre in Louisville , Kentucky , in January 1890 , Riley paid the hotel 's bartender to sneak whiskey to his room . He became too drunk to perform , and was unable to travel to the next stop . Nye terminated the partnership and tour in response . The reason for the breakup could not be kept secret , and hotel staff reported to the Louisville Courier @-@ Journal that they saw Riley in a drunken stupor walking around the hotel . The story made national news and Riley feared his career was ruined .
He secretly left Louisville at night and returned to Indianapolis by train . Eitel defended Riley to the press in an effort to gain sympathy for Riley , explaining the abusive financial arrangements his partners had made . Riley however refused to speak to reporters and hid himself for weeks . Much to Riley 's surprise , the news reports made him more popular than ever . Many people thought the stories were exaggerated , and Riley 's carefully cultivated image made it difficult for the public to believe he was an alcoholic . Riley had stopped sending poetry to newspapers and magazines in the aftermath , but they soon began corresponding with him requesting that he resume writing . This encouraged Riley , and he made another attempt to give up liquor as he returned to his public career .
The negative press did not end however , as Nye and Pond threatened to sue Riley for causing their tour to end prematurely . They claimed to have lost $ 20 @,@ 000 . Walker threatened a separate suit demanding $ 1 @,@ 000 . Riley hired Indianapolis lawyer William P. Fishback to represent him and the men settled out of court . The full details of the settlement were never disclosed , but whatever the case , Riley finally extricated himself from his old contracts and became a free agent . The exorbitant amount Riley was being sued for only reinforced public opinion that Riley had been mistreated by his partners , and helped him maintain his image . Nye and Riley remained good friends , and Riley later wrote that Pond and Walker were the source of the problems .
Riley 's poetry had become popular in Britain , in large part due to his book Old @-@ Fashioned Roses . In May 1891 he traveled to England to make a tour and what he considered a literary pilgrimage . He landed in Liverpool and traveled first to Dumfries , Scotland , the home and burial place of Robert Burns . Riley had long been compared to Burns by critics because they both used dialect in their poetry and drew inspiration from their rural homes . He then traveled to Edinburgh , York , and London , reciting poetry for gatherings at each stop . Augustin Daly arranged for him to give a poetry reading to prominent British actors in London . Riley was warmly welcomed by its literary and theatrical community and he toured places that Shakespeare had frequented .
Riley quickly tired of traveling abroad and began longing for home , writing to his nephew that he regretted having left the United States . He curtailed his journey and returned to New York City in August . He spent the next months in his Greenfield home attempting to write an epic poem , but after several attempts gave up , believing he did not possess the ability .
By 1890 , Riley had authored almost all of his famous poems . The few poems he did write during the 1890s were generally less well received by the public . As a solution , Riley and his publishers began reusing poetry from other books and printing some of his earliest works . When Neighborly Poems was published in 1891 , a critic working for the Chicago Tribune pointed out the use of Riley 's earliest works , commenting that Riley was using his popularity to push his crude earlier works onto the public only to make money . Riley 's newest poems published in the 1894 book Armazindy received very negative reviews that referred to poems like " The Little Dog @-@ Woggy " and " Jargon @-@ Jingle " as " drivel " and to Riley as a " worn out genius . " Most of his growing number of critics suggested that he ignored the quality of the poems for the sake of making money .
= = = Last tours = = =
Although Riley was wealthy from his books , he was able to triple his annual income by touring . He found the lure hard to resist and decided to return to the lecture circuit in 1892 . He hired William C. Glass to assist Henry Eitel in managing his affairs . While Eitel handled the finances , Glass worked to organize his lecture tours . Glass worked closely with Riley 's publishers to have his tours coincide with the release of new books , and ensured his tours were geographically varied enough to maintain his popularity in all regions of the nation . He was careful not to book busy schedules ; Riley only performed four times a week and the tours were short , lasting only three months .
During his 1893 tour , Riley lectured mostly in the western United States , and in his 1894 tour in the east . His performances were major events , and generally sold out within days of their announcements . In 1894 he allowed author Douglass Sherley to join his tour . Sherley was a millionaire who published his own books . The literary community had dismissed his work , but Riley was instrumental in helping him to be accepted .
In 1895 Riley made his last tour , making stops in most of the major cities in the United States . Advertised as his final performances , there was incredible demand for tickets and Riley performed before his largest audiences during the tour . He and Sherley continued a show very similar to those that he and Nye had done . Riley often lamented the lack of change in the program , but found when he tried to introduce new material , or left out any of his most popular poems , the crowds would demand encores until he agreed to recite their favorites .
= = = Children 's poet = = =
Following the death of his father in 1894 , Riley began regretting his choice not to marry or have children . To compensate for the lack of his own children , he became a doting uncle , showering gifts on his nieces and nephews . He had repurchased his childhood home in 1893 and allowed his divorced sister , Mary , his widowed sister @-@ in @-@ law , Julia , and their daughters to live in the home . He provided for all their needs and spent the summer months of 1893 living with them . He took his nephew Edmund Eital as a personal secretary and gave him a $ 50 @,@ 000 wedding gift in 1912 . Riley was well loved by his family .
Riley returned to live near Indianapolis later in 1893 , boarding in a private home in the Lockerbie district , then a small suburb . He developed a close friendship with his landlords , the Nickum and Holstein families . The home became a destination for local schoolchildren to whom Riley would regularly recite poetry and tell stories . Riley 's friends frequently visited his home , and he developed a closer relationship with Eugene Debs .
The same year , he began compiling his poems of most interest to children into a new book entitled Rhymes of Childhood . The book was richly illustrated by Howard Chandler Christy and Riley authored a few new poems for the book under the pseudonym " Uncle Sydney . " Rhymes of Childhood became Riley 's best selling book , and sold millions of copies . It has remained in print continually since 1912 , and helped earn Riley the nickname the " Children 's Poet . " Even Riley 's rival , Clemens , commented that the book was " charming " and made him weep for his " lost youth . "
= = Later life = =
= = = National poet = = =
Riley had become very wealthy by the time he ended touring in 1895 , and was earning $ 1 @,@ 000 a week . Although he retired , he continued to make minor appearances . In 1896 , Riley performed four shows in Denver . Most of the performances of his later life were at civic celebrations . He was a regular speaker at Decoration Day events and delivered poetry before the unveiling of monuments in Washington , D.C. Newspapers began referring to him as the " National Poet " , " the poet laureate of America " , and " the people 's poet laureate " . Riley wrote many of his patriotic poems for such events , including " The Soldier " , " The Name of Old Glory " , and his most famous such poem , " America ! " . The 1902 poem " America , Messiah of Nations " was written and read by Riley for the dedication of the Indianapolis Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Monument .
The only new poetry Riley published after the end of the century were elegies for famous friends . The poetic qualities of the poems were often poor , but they contained many popular sentiments concerning the deceased . Among those he eulogized were Benjamin Harrison , Lew Wallace , and Henry Lawton . Because of the poor quality of the poems , his friends and publishers requested that he stop writing them , but he refused .
In 1897 , Riley 's publishers suggested that he create a multi @-@ volume series of books containing his complete life works . With the help of his nephew , Riley began working to compile the books , which eventually totaled sixteen volumes and were finally completed in 1914 . Such works were uncommon during the lives of writers , attesting to the uncommon popularity Riley had achieved .
His works had become staples for Ivy League literature courses and universities began offering him honorary degrees . The first was Yale in 1902 , followed by a Doctorate of Letters from the University of Pennsylvania in 1904 . Wabash College and Indiana University granted him similar awards . In 1908 he was elected member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters , and in 1912 they conferred upon him a special medal for poetry .
Riley was influential in helping other poets start their careers , having particularly strong influences on Hamlin Garland , William Allen White , and Edgar Lee Masters . He discovered aspiring African American poet Paul Laurence Dunbar in 1892 . Riley thought Dunbar 's work was " worthy of applause " , and wrote him letters of recommendation to help him get his work published .
= = = Declining health = = =
In 1901 , Riley 's doctor diagnosed him with neurasthenia , a nervous disorder , and recommended long periods of rest as a cure . Riley remained ill for the rest of his life and relied on his landlords and family to aid in his care . During the winter months he moved to Miami , Florida , and during summer spent time with his family in Greenfield . He made only a few trips during the decade , including one to Mexico in 1906 . He became very depressed by his condition , writing to his friends that he thought he could die at any moment , and often used alcohol for relief .
In March 1909 , Riley was stricken a second time with Bell 's palsy , and partial deafness , the symptoms only gradually eased over the course of the year . Riley was a difficult patient , and generally refused to take any medicine except the patent medicines he had sold in his earlier years ; the medicines often worsened his conditions , but his doctors could not sway his opinion . On July 10 , 1910 he suffered a stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body . Hoping for a quick recovery , his family kept the news from the press until September . Riley found the loss of use of his writing hand the worst part of the stroke , which served only to further depress him . With his health so poor , he decided to work on a legacy by which to be remembered in Indianapolis . In 1911 he donated land and funds to build a new library on Pennsylvania Avenue . By 1913 , with the aid of a cane , Riley began to recover his ability to walk . His inability to write , however , nearly ended his production of poems . George Ade worked with him from 1910 through 1916 to write his last five poems and several short autobiographical sketches as Riley dictated . His publisher continued recycling old works into new books , which remained in high demand .
Since the mid @-@ 1880s , Riley had been the nation 's most read poet , a trend that accelerated at the turn of the century . In 1912 Riley recorded readings of his most popular poetry to be sold by Victor Records . Riley was the subject of three paintings by T. C. Steele . The Indianapolis Arts Association commissioned a portrait of Riley to be created by world famous painter John Singer Sargent . Riley 's image became a nationally known icon and many businesses capitalized on his popularity to sell their products ; Hoosier Poet brand vegetables became a major trade @-@ name in the midwest .
In 1912 , the governor of Indiana instituted Riley Day on the poet 's birthday . Schools were required to teach Riley 's poems to their children , and banquet events were held in his honor around the state . In 1915 and 1916 the celebration was national after being proclaimed in most states . The annual celebration continued in Indiana until 1968 . In early 1916 Riley was filmed as part of a movie to celebrate Indiana 's centennial , the video is on display at the Indiana State Library .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
On July 22 , 1916 , Riley suffered a second stroke . He recovered enough during the day to speak and joke with his companions . He died before dawn the next morning , July 23 . Riley 's death shocked the nation and made front page headlines in major newspapers . President Woodrow Wilson wrote a brief note to Riley 's family offering condolences on behalf the entire nation . Indiana Governor Samuel M. Ralston offered to allow Riley to lie in state at the Indiana Statehouse — Abraham Lincoln being the only other person to have previously received such an honor . During the ten hours he lay in state on July 24 , more than thirty @-@ five thousand people filed past his bronze casket ; the line was still miles long at the end of the day and thousands were turned away . The next day a private funeral ceremony was held and attended by many dignitaries . A large funeral procession then carried him to Crown Hill Cemetery where he was buried in a tomb at the top of the hill , the highest point in the city of Indianapolis .
Within a year of Riley 's death many memorials were created , including several by the James Whitcomb Riley Memorial Association . The James Whitcomb Riley Hospital for Children was created and named in his honor by a group of wealthy benefactors and opened in 1924 . In the following years , other memorials intended to benefit children were created , including Camp Riley for youth with disabilities .
The memorial foundation purchased the poet 's Lockerbie home in Indianapolis and it is now maintained as a museum . The James Whitcomb Riley Museum Home is the only late @-@ Victorian home in Indiana that is open to the public and the United States ' only late @-@ Victorian preservation , featuring authentic furniture and decor from that era . His birthplace and boyhood home , now the James Whitcomb Riley House , is preserved as a historical site . A Liberty ship , commissioned April 23 , 1942 , was christened the SS James Whitcomb Riley . It served with the United States Maritime Commission until being scrapped in 1971 .
James Whitcomb Riley High School opened in South Bend , Indiana in 1924 . In 1950 , there was a James Whitcomb Riley Elementary School in Hammond , Indiana , but it was torn down in 2006 . East Chicago , Indiana had a Riley School at one time , as did neighboring Gary , Indiana and Anderson , Indiana . One of New Castle , Indiana 's elementary schools is named for Riley as is the road on which it is located . The former Greenfield High School was converted to Riley Elementary School and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 .
In 1940 , the U.S. Postal Service issued a 10 @-@ cent stamp honoring Riley .
As a lasting tribute , the citizens of Greenfield hold a festival every year in Riley 's honor . Taking place the first or second weekend of October , the " Riley Days " festival traditionally commences with a flower parade in which local school children place flowers around Myra Reynolds Richards ' statue of Riley on the county courthouse lawn , while a band plays lively music in honor of the poet . Weeks before the festival , the festival board has a queen contest . The 2010 – 2011 queen was Corinne Butler . The pageant has been going on many years in honor of the Hoosier poet
According to historian Elizabeth Van Allen , Riley was instrumental in helping form a midwestern cultural identity . The midwestern United States had no significant literary community before the 1880s . The works of the Western Association of Writers , most notably those of Riley and Wallace , helped create the midwest 's cultural identity and create a rival literary community to the established eastern literari . For this reason , and the publicity Riley 's work created , he was commonly known as the " Hoosier Poet . "
= = Critical reception and style = =
Riley was among the most popular writers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century , known for his " uncomplicated , sentimental , and humorous " writing . Often writing his verses in dialect , his poetry caused readers to recall a nostalgic and simpler time in earlier American history . This gave his poetry a unique appeal during a period of rapid industrialization and urbanization in the United States . Riley was a prolific writer who " achieved mass appeal partly due to his canny sense of marketing and publicity . " He published more than fifty books , mostly of poetry and humorous short stories , and sold millions of copies .
Riley is often remembered for his most famous poems , including the " The Raggedy Man " and " Little Orphant Annie " . Many of his poems , including those , where partially autobiographical , as he used events and people from his childhood as an inspiration for subject matter . His poems often contained morals and warnings for children , containing messages telling children to care for the less fortunate of society . David Galens and Van Allen both see these messages as Riley 's subtle response to the turbulent economic times of the Gilded Age and the growing progressive movement . Riley believed that urbanization robbed children of their innocence and sincerity , and in his poems he attempted to introduce and idolize characters who had not lost those qualities . His children 's poems are " exuberant , performative , and often display Riley 's penchant for using humorous characterization , repetition , and dialect to make his poetry accessible to a wide @-@ ranging audience . "
Although hinted at indirectly in some poems , Riley wrote very little on serious subject matter , and actually mocked attempts at serious poetry . Only a few of his sentimental poems concerned serious subjects . " Little Mandy 's Christmas @-@ Tree " , " The Absence of Little Wesley " , and " The Happy Little Cripple " were about poverty , the death of a child , and disabilities . Like his children 's poems , they too contained morals , suggesting society should pity the downtrodden and be charitable .
Riley wrote gentle and romantic poems that were not in dialect . They generally consisted of sonnets and were strongly influenced by the works of John Greenleaf Whittier , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , and Alfred , Lord Tennyson . His standard English poetry was never as popular as his Hoosier dialect poems . Still less popular were the poems Riley authored in his later years ; most were to commemorate important events of American history and to eulogize the dead .
Riley 's contemporaries acclaimed him " America 's best @-@ loved poet " . In 1920 , Henry Beers lauded the works of Riley " as natural and unaffected , with none of the discontent and deep thought of cultured song . " Samuel Clemens , William Dean Howells , and Hamlin Garland , each praised Riley 's work and the idealism he expressed in his poetry . Only a few critics of the period found fault with Riley 's works . Ambrose Bierce criticized Riley for his frequent use of dialect . Bierce accused Riley of using dialect to " cover up [ the ] faulty construction " of his poems . Edgar Lee Masters found Riley 's work to be superficial , claiming it lacked irony and that he had only a " narrow emotional range " . By the 1930s popular critical opinion towards Riley 's works began to shift in favor of the negative reviews . In 1951 , James T. Farrell said Riley 's works were " cliched . " Galens wrote that modern critics consider Riley to be a " minor poet , whose work — provincial , sentimental , and superficial though it may have been — nevertheless struck a chord with a mass audience in a time of enormous cultural change . " Thomas C. Johnson wrote that what most interests modern critics was Riley 's ability to market his work , saying he had a unique understanding of " how to commodify his own image and the nostalgic dreams of an anxious nation . "
Among the earliest widespread criticisms of Riley were opinions that his dialect writing did not actually represent the true dialect of central Indiana . In 1970 Peter Revell wrote that Riley 's dialect was more similar to the poor speech of a child rather than the dialect of his region . Revell made extensive comparison to historical texts and Riley 's dialect usage . Philip Greasley wrote that that while " some critics have dismissed him as sub @-@ literary , insincere , and an artificial entertainer , his defenders reply that an author so popular with millions of people in different walks of life must contribute something of value , and that his faults , if any , can be ignored . "
= Australian Army during World War I =
The Australian Army was the largest service in the Australian military during World War I. The First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) was the Army 's main expeditionary force and was formed from 15 August 1914 with an initial strength of 20 @,@ 000 men , following Britain 's declaration of war on Germany . Meanwhile , the separate , hastily raised 2 @,@ 000 @-@ man Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN & MEF ) , landed near Rabaul in German New Guinea on 11 September 1914 and obtained the surrender of the German garrison after ten days ; it later provided occupation forces for the duration of the war . In addition , small military forces based on the pre @-@ war Permanent Forces and part @-@ time Citizen Forces were maintained in Australia to defend the country from attack .
The AIF initially consisted of one infantry division and one light horse brigade . The first contingent departed Australia by ship for Egypt on 1 November 1914 , where it formed part of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) . The infantry division fought during the Gallipoli Campaign between April and December 1915 , reinforced by a second division which was later raised , as well as three light horse brigades . After being evacuated to Egypt the AIF was expanded to five infantry divisions , forming part of the I and II ANZAC Corps , which were committed to the fighting in France and Belgium along the Western Front in March 1916 . Meanwhile , two mounted divisions remained in the Middle East to fight against Turkish forces in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign .
Later combined into the Australian Corps in 1917 , the AIF divisions in France and Belgium were often used to spearhead operations , playing a significant role in the defeat of the German Army in 1918 . By the end of the war the AIF had gained a reputation as a highly effective military force . Following the armistice on 11 November 1918 , a process of demobilisation began , with the last Australian personnel being repatriated in late 1919 . In all , 416 @,@ 809 Australians enlisted during the war and 334 @,@ 000 served overseas . The AIF sustained approximately 210 @,@ 000 casualties , of which 61 @,@ 519 were killed or died of wounds , a casualty rate among the highest of any belligerent for the war .
= = Background = =
The Commonwealth of Australia was founded on 1 January 1901 . On 1 March , 29 @,@ 010 colonial soldiers , consisting of 1 @,@ 544 professional soldiers , 16 @,@ 105 paid militia and 11 @,@ 361 unpaid volunteers , were transferred to the new Australian Army . However , the units continued to be administered under the various colonial Acts . Major General Sir Edward Hutton , a former commander of the New South Wales Military Forces , was appointed as the first commander of the Commonwealth Forces . The Defence Act 1903 brought all of the state units under one piece of legislation ; although more significantly , it prevented the raising of standing infantry units , only allowing the establishment of permanent administrative and instructional staff for headquarters , garrison artillery , fortress engineers , submarine mining engineers , and service , medical and ordnance units . It also stipulated that the force could only be maintained by voluntary enlistment and that it could not serve outside Australia . In this it effectively established the pre @-@ eminence of the Citizen Forces , ensuring that the Australian Army would primarily consist of part @-@ time militia and volunteer forces , which would be supported by a small permanent force limited to filling staff , training and garrison roles . It equally ensured that any force sent overseas could only be done so on a voluntary basis .
Yet despite significant reorganisations of the post @-@ Federation Army in 1903 and 1906 , the force @-@ in @-@ being was increasingly seen as dysfunctional and inadequate , suffering from perceived institutional problems regarding structure , command and administration , as well as limited financial resources and poor training . In time this led the government to decide to adopt an entirely new military system . In 1911 , two significant changes followed a report by Lord Kitchener following his inspection of local forces in 1909 . The Royal Military College , Duntroon was established to train staff officers , and a system of universal national service began with boys aged 12 to 18 becoming cadets , and men aged 18 to 26 serving in the Citizen Forces . These reforms were part of a process of raising a large civilian militia to defend the country against a feared attack by Japan . This force was based on conscription , and was intended to be complete in 1920 . The resources devoted to this plan greatly exceeded those allocated to preparations to raise an expeditionary force to serve outside Australia . In total , a peace @-@ time force of around 80 @,@ 000 citizen soldiers , with a war @-@ time establishment of 135 @,@ 000 , was to be raised and would include 84 infantry battalions ( later increased to 92 ) , 28 light horse regiments ( subsequently raised to 31 ) , 49 field batteries and seven howitzer batteries ( total of 224 guns ) , 14 field engineer companies , seven communication companies , and various support troops .
This force was to be organised into brigades , with no divisional headquarters raised , although it was envisioned that up to six divisions could be formed if required . The infantry was planned to be organised into 21 brigades ( later 23 ) of four battalions each , while the light horse would initially form seven brigades ( later eight ) . The field artillery be organised into 14 brigades , while eight of the field batteries would be attached to the light horse brigades , and the howitizer batteries would not be brigaded . A small permanent force of 3 @,@ 200 men would operate in support . The new scheme also entailed reorganisation of the military districts , with the 1st Military District based on Queensland , the 2nd on New South Wales , the 3rd on Victoria , the 4th on South Australia , the 5th on Western Australia and the 6th on Tasmania . The Northern Territory and New Guinea were initially unalloted , but were later incorporated into the 1st Military District .
Steps had also been taken to expand the pre @-@ Federation network of coastal defences to provide protection against raids from Japanese or German warships prior to World War I. In 1912 , these defences were manned by 14 companies of the Australian Garrison Artillery , each of which had a strength of over 100 men . Meanwhile , in September 1912 the government officially approved the formation of an Australian military air arm . In so doing Australia became the first of the Dominions , and one of the few nations outside of Europe , to begin to develop such a capability , even if it was initially only a modest one . The Central Flying School was established at Point Cook , Victoria in 1913 . Flying training did not begin immediately , though , and it was not until 1914 , that the first class of pilots were accepted . No. 1 Flight of the Australian Flying Corps was raised in the 3rd Military District on 14 July 1914 .
Following Britain 's declaration of war on Imperial Germany on 4 August 1914 at the outbreak of the World War I , Australia and the other members of the British Empire were automatically involved , with Prime Minister Joseph Cook stating on 5 August that " ... when the Empire is at war , so also is Australia . " Within days , Brigadier General William Bridges and his staff officer , Major Brudenell White , had completed plans for the creation of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . White proposed an expeditionary force of 18 @,@ 000 men , including 12 @,@ 000 Australians and 6 @,@ 000 New Zealanders . Cook subsequently approved the proposal , although he increased the offer to 20 @,@ 000 men to serve in any destination desired by the British government . On 6 August 1914 , London cabled its acceptance of the force and asked that it be sent as soon as possible . Recruiting offices opened on 10 August and by the end of 1914 , 52 @,@ 561 volunteers had been accepted , despite strict physical fitness guidelines . Meanwhile , after an additional British request for assistance on 6 August 1914 , the Australian government hurriedly prepared another expeditionary force , known as the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN & MEF ) , to destroy the German wireless stations at Yap in the Caroline Islands , Nauru , and Rabaul in New Britain .
= = Organisation = =
= = = Home Army = = =
Despite some progress , by 1914 the Citizen Forces were still incomplete , numbering approximately 45 @,@ 915 men , with many units still to be raised . During the precautionary stage on 2 August 1914 prior to the outbreak of war , Citizen Forces units were called up to guard key infrastructure and essential points and man coastal forts and harbour defences . Militia fortress companies assisted the permanent artillery and engineers in manning defence electric lights at Port Jackson , Port Phillip , Fort Lytton , Fremantle and on the Derwent River . All coastal defence batteries were activated hours before the declaration of war against Germany ( which took place at 9 : 00 am Melbourne time on 4 August ) . The next morning the first Allied shots of the war were fired by the garrison at Fort Nepean , which was located at the opening of Port Phillip Bay , after the examination battery there fired a shell over the bows of the German cargo ship SS Pfalz when the ship failed to stop . In accordance with pre @-@ war plans mines were ready to be laid by the Royal Australian Engineers to protect Port Jackson and Port Phillip ; however , the risk of attack was not considered sufficient to justify the establishment of the minefields and their ongoing maintenance .
After the initial call @-@ up of reservists to man the garrison artillery , the commanding officers of the other militia units were directed to begin preparations to raise an infantry division and a light horse division for home defence tasks . By the end of August 1914 the Government had judged that a force of this size was unnecessary given that Australia was distant from the war zones . Instead , it was decided to maintain only a small number of infantry battalions and light horse regiments on active duty at any one time . By the end of 1914 the home defence force comprised 100 @,@ 000 reservists , of whom 56 @,@ 000 were members of the Citizen Forces and 51 @,@ 000 were rifle club volunteers . Despite fears of sabotage and uprisings by German @-@ Australians , no domestic threat eventuated . From 1915 , only skeleton garrisons were maintained at coastal forts , but the personnel manning them were forbidden to enlist in the AIF . This ban was lifted in April 1915 but the presence of a German commerce raider in Australian waters caused a mobilisation from February to April 1916 , while another occurred in April 1918 for the same reason . In June 1918 , 9 @,@ 215 home service troops were on active duty in Australia , alongside 2 @,@ 476 regular soldiers . Up to 50 @,@ 000 militiamen enlisted in the AIF during the war .
= = = Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force = = =
The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN & MEF ) began forming following a request by the British government on 6 August 1914 . The AN & MEF comprised one battalion of infantry of 1 @,@ 000 men enlisted in Sydney — known as the 1st Battalion , AN & MEF — plus 500 naval reservists and ex @-@ sailors who would serve as infantry . Another battalion of militia from the Queensland @-@ based Kennedy Regiment , which had been hurriedly dispatched to garrison Thursday Island , also contributed 500 volunteers to the force . Under the command of Colonel William Holmes , the AN & MEF departed Sydney on 19 August aboard HMAS Berrima and halted at Palm Island off Townsville until the New Zealand force , escorted by the battlecruiser HMAS Australia , cruiser HMAS Melbourne , and the French cruiser Montcalm , occupied Samoa on 30 August . The AN & MEF then moved to Port Moresby where it met the Queensland contingent aboard the transport TSS Kanowna . The force then sailed for German New Guinea on 7 September but the Kanowna was left behind when her stokers refused to work . The soldiers from the Kennedy Regiment were also left in Port Moresby as Holmes felt that they were not trained or equipped well enough to be committed to the fighting that was expected . Following the capture of German possessions in the region in September , the AN & MEF provided occupation forces for the duration of the war . Holmes returned to Australia in early 1915 and re @-@ enlisted in the AIF , as did most of his men . They were replaced by the 3rd Battalion , AN & MEF , which was known as the " Tropical Force " because it had been specially enlisted for service in the tropics .
= = = First Australian Imperial Force = = =
At the start of the war , Australia 's military forces were focused upon the part @-@ time militia . The small number of regular personnel were mostly artillerymen or engineers , and were generally assigned to the task of coastal defence . Due to the provisions of the Defence Act 1903 , which precluded sending conscripts overseas , upon the outbreak of war it was realised that a totally separate , all volunteer force would need to be raised . The Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) began forming shortly after the outbreak of war , officially coming into being on 15 August 1914 . Upon formation , the AIF consisted of the 1st Division and the 1st Light Horse Brigade . As part of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) , the 1st Division subsequently fought alongside the combined New Zealand and Australian Division at Gallipoli between April and December 1915 , being reinforced by the 2nd Division which was later raised , as well as three light horse brigades . After being evacuated to Egypt the AIF was expanded to five infantry divisions , which were committed to the fighting in France and Belgium along the Western Front in March 1916 as part of the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) . Meanwhile , two mounted divisions remained in the Middle East to fight against Turkish forces in the Sinai and Palestine , serving with the Egyptian Expeditionary Force . In contrast to the static trench warfare that developed in Europe , the troops in the Middle East mostly experienced a more fluid form of warfare involving manoeuvre and combined arms tactics .
Continuing to grow through the war , the AIF eventually consisted of five infantry divisions , two mounted divisions and a mixture of other units . At the start of the Gallipoli Campaign , the AIF had four infantry brigades with the first three making up the 1st Division . The 4th Brigade was joined with the sole New Zealand infantry brigade to form the New Zealand and Australian Division . The 2nd Division was formed in Egypt in 1915 and was sent to Gallipoli in August to reinforce the 1st Division , doing so without its artillery and having only partially completed its training . After Gallipoli , the infantry underwent a major expansion . The 3rd Division was formed in Australia and sent to France . The New Zealand and Australian Division was broken up with the New Zealand elements forming the New Zealand Division , while the original Australian infantry brigades ( 1st to 4th ) were split in half to form another four brigades which were used to form the 4th and 5th Divisions . This ensured the battalions of the two new divisions had a core of experienced soldiers . Organised into I and II ANZAC Corps , the divisions were subsequently deployed to the Western Front . The 6th Division commenced forming in England in February 1917 , but was never deployed to France and was broken up in September of that year to provide reinforcements to the other five divisions . In November 1917 the five Australian divisions of I and II ANZAC Corps merged to become the Australian Corps .
During the Gallipoli Campaign four light horse brigades had been dismounted and fought alongside the infantry divisions . However , in March 1916 the ANZAC Mounted Division was formed in Egypt ( so named because it contained one mounted brigade from New Zealand ) . Likewise , the Australian Mounted Division — formed in February 1917 — was originally named the Imperial Mounted Division because it contained the British 5th and 6th Mounted Brigades . Each division consisted of three mounted light horse brigades , each of which consisted of three regiments . Following the expansion of the Desert Column in August 1917 these divisions formed part of the Desert Mounted Corps , which consisted of the ANZAC Mounted Division , Australian Mounted Division and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade ( which included a number of Australian , British and New Zealand camel companies ) . The AIF also included the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) , which consisted of four operational squadrons — Nos. 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 , and four training squadrons — Nos. 5 , 6 , 7 and 8 . More than 2 @,@ 000 women served with the AIF , mainly in the Australian Army Nursing Service . In addition , a number of other specialist units were also raised , including tunnelling companies , motor transport units , railway , ordnance , workshops and service units , and hospitals and other specialist medical and dental units . One small armoured unit was also raised .
The AIF was an all volunteer force for the duration of the war . Australia was one of only two belligerents on either side not to introduce conscription during the war ( along with South Africa ) . Although a system of compulsory training had been introduced in 1911 for home service , under Australian law it did not extend to overseas service . In Australia , two plebiscites on using conscription to expand the AIF were defeated in October 1916 and December 1917 , thereby preserving the volunteer status but stretching the AIF 's reserves towards the end of the war . Ultimately , the voluntary system of recruitment proved unable to sustain the force structure of the AIF , failing to provide sufficient replacements for the heavy casualties it sustained and requiring a number of units to be disbanded towards the end of the war . Each infantry battalion originated from a geographical region , with men recruited from that area . New South Wales and Victoria , the most populous states , filled their own battalions ( and even whole brigades ) while the " Outer States " — Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia and Tasmania — often combined to assemble a battalion . The light horse and artillery were also recruited on a territorial basis .
Hastily deployed , the first contingent of AIF was essentially untrained and suffered from widespread equipment shortages . In early 1915 the AIF was largely an inexperienced force , with only a small percentage of its members having previous combat experience . However , many officers and non @-@ commissioned personnel ( NCOs ) had previously served in the pre @-@ war permanent or part @-@ time forces , and a significant proportion of the enlisted personnel had received some basic military instruction as part of Australia 's compulsory training scheme . Predominantly a fighting force based on infantry battalions and light horse regiments , the AIF had a high proportion of close combat troops to support personnel . Nevertheless , the AIF eventually included a large number of logistics and administrative units which were capable of meeting most of the force 's needs , and in some circumstances provided support to nearby allied units . Each division also included a range of combat support and service units , including artillery , machine @-@ gun , mortar , engineer , pioneer , signals , logistic , medical , veterinary and administrative units . Corps troops included light horse , army artillery , and cyclists . Regardless , the AIF mainly relied on the British Army for medium and heavy artillery support and other weapons systems necessary for combined arms warfare that were developed later in the war , including aircraft and tanks .
Although operationally placed at the disposal of the British , the AIF was administered as a separate national force , with the Australian government reserving the responsibility for the promotion , pay , clothing , equipment and feeding of its personnel . The AIF was administered separately from the home @-@ based army in Australia , and a parallel system was set up to deal with non @-@ operational matters including record @-@ keeping , finance , ordnance , personnel , quartermaster and other issues . The AIF also had separate conditions of service , rules regarding promotion and seniority , and graduation list for officers . This responsibility initially fell to Bridges , in addition to his duties as its commander ; however , an Administrative Headquarters was later set up in Cairo in Egypt . Following the redeployment of the Australian infantry divisions to the Western Front it was relocated to London . Additional responsibilities included liaison with the British War Office as well as the Australian Department of Defence in Melbourne , whilst also being tasked with the command of all Australian troops in Britain . A training headquarters was also established at Salisbury .
By the end of the war the AIF had gained a reputation as a well @-@ trained and highly effective military force , enduring more than two years of costly fighting on the Western Front before playing a significant role in the final Allied victory in 1918 , albeit as a smaller part of the wider British Empire war effort . Like the other Dominion divisions from Canada and New Zealand , the Australians were viewed as being among the best of the British forces in France , and were often used to spearhead operations . The exploits of the AIF at Gallipoli , and then on the Western Front , subsequently became central to the national mythology . Commemorating and celebrating the AIF became an entrenched tradition following World War I , with Anzac Day forming the centrepiece of remembrance of the war . The soldiers who served in the AIF , known colloquially as " Diggers " , in time became " ... one of the paramount Australian archetypes . "
= = Campaigns = =
= = = Occupation of German New Guinea = = =
Following the outbreak of war Australian forces moved quickly to reduce the threat to shipping posed by the proximity of Germany 's Pacific colonies . The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN & MEF ) , a 2000 @-@ man volunteer force — separate from the AIF — and consisting of an infantry battalion plus 500 naval reservists and ex @-@ sailors , was rapidly formed under the command of Colonel William Holmes . The objectives of the force were the wireless stations on Nauru , and those at Yap in the Caroline Islands , and at Rabaul in German New Guinea . The force reached Rabaul on 11 September 1914 and occupied it the next day , encountering only brief resistance from the German and native defenders during fighting at Bita Paka and Toma . German New Guinea surrendered on 17 September 1914 . Australian losses were light , including six killed during the fighting .
= = = Gallipoli = = =
After a period of rudimentary training in Australia , the first contingent of the AIF departed by ship in a single convoy from Albany on 1 November 1914 . Although they were originally bound for England to undergo further training prior to employment on the Western Front , the Australians were instead sent to British @-@ controlled Egypt in order to pre @-@ empt any Turkish attack against the strategically important Suez Canal , and with a view to opening another front against the Central Powers . Aiming to knock Turkey out of the war the British then decided to stage an amphibious lodgement at Gallipoli and following a period of training and reorganisation the Australians were included amongst the British , Indian and French forces committed to the campaign . The combined Australian and New Zealand Army Corps — commanded by British general William Birdwood — subsequently landed at Anzac Cove on the Gallipoli peninsula on 25 April 1915 . Although promising to transform the war if successful , the Gallipoli Campaign was ill @-@ conceived and shortly after the landing a blood stalemate developed . This ultimately lasted eight months before Allied commanders decided to evacuate the troops without having achieved the campaign 's objectives . Australian casualties totalled 26 @,@ 111 , including 8 @,@ 141 killed .
= = = Egypt and Palestine = = =
After the withdrawal from Gallipoli the Australians returned to Egypt and the AIF underwent a major expansion . In 1916 , the infantry began to move to France while the mounted infantry units remained in the Middle East to fight the Turks . Australian troops of the ANZAC Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division saw action in all the major battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign , playing a pivotal role in fighting the Turkish troops that were threatening British control of Egypt . The Australians first saw combat during the Senussi Uprising in the Libyan Desert and the Nile Valley , during which the combined British forces successfully put down the primitive pro @-@ Turkish Islamic sect with heavy casualties . The ANZAC Mounted Division subsequently saw considerable action in the Battle of Romani between 3 and 5 August 1916 against the Turks who were eventually pushed back . Following this victory the British forces went on the
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on themes of love , insight , and tension , and on overcoming difficulties . Angelou writes about ordinary objects and experiences , and with deep feelings , about a variety of racial themes and concerns .
= = Background = =
Oh Pray My Wings are Gonna Fit Me Well is Maya Angelou 's second volume of poetry . She studied and began writing poetry at a young age . After her rape at the age of eight , as recounted in her first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) , she dealt with her trauma by memorizing and reciting great works of literature , including poetry , which helped bring her out of her self @-@ imposed muteness . Angelou 's film Georgia , Georgia , produced by a Swedish film company and filmed in Sweden , was the first screenplay written by a Black woman , and was released in 1972 . Angelou married Welsh carpenter and ex @-@ husband of Germaine Greer , Paul du Feu , in San Francisco in 1973 .
Although Angelou considered herself a playwright and poet when her editor Robert Loomis challenged her to write Caged Bird , she has been best known for her autobiographies . Many of Angelou 's readers identify her as a poet first and an autobiographer second , but like Lynn Z. Bloom , many critics consider her autobiographies more important than her poetry . Critic William Sylvester agrees , and states that although her books have been best @-@ sellers , her poetry has " received little serious critical attention " . Bloom also believes that Angelou 's poetry is more interesting when she recites it . Bloom calls Angelou 's performances " characteristically dynamic " , and says that she " moves exuberantly , vigorously to reinforce the rhythms of the lines , the tone of the words . Her singing and dancing and electrifying stage presence transcend the predictable words and phrases " .
Angelou began , early in her writing career , alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Her first volume of poetry , Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) , which was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize , followed her first autobiography , and Oh Pray followed the publication of her second autobiography , Gather Together in My Name ( 1974 ) . Her publisher , Random House , placed the poems in Oh Pray in her first collection of poetry , The Complete Collected Poems of Maya Angelou ( 1994 ) , perhaps to capitalize on her popularity following her reading of her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at President Bill Clinton 's inauguration in 1993 . Also in the 1994 collection was Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie and two more published after Oh Pray , And Still I Rise ( 1978 ) and Shaker , Why Don 't You Sing ? ( 1983 ) . Angelou 's publisher placed four more poems in a smaller volume , entitled Phenomenal Woman , in 1995 .
= = Themes = =
Many of Angelou 's poems can be characterized as light verse . For example , Hagen characterizes " On Reaching Forty " as a light rumination about growing older . Angelou expresses sadness about having already reaching milestones in her youth , and ends the poem unexpectedly by humorously and ironically expressing admiration for those who die early . In this volume and in others , Angelou pairs poems together ( " America " and " Africa " ; " Communication I " and Communication II " ) to strengthen her themes .
The poems in this volume , like her poems in other volumes and contexts , contain universal identifications with ordinary objects . For example , " The Telephone " describes her relationship with an object , and how it has intruded upon the silence and solitude of her life . In this poem , which is three structured stanzas long , Angelou demands that the telephone ring , despite her resentment of its intrusion and her dependency upon it . She uses familiar and feminine metaphors , and themes also found in blues songs , such as the colors black and blue and weekend loneliness . In the poem " Poor Girl " , Angelou uses the vernacular to express universal themes , in the voice of a teenage girl who has lost her boyfriend .
Scholar Yasmin Y. DeGout cites " The Couple " as an example of Angelou 's practice of subtly including more than one level of meaning in her poems , of her ability to translate her personal experience into political discourse , and her placement of themes of racism and liberation . Angelou combines liberation ideology and poetic technique to challenge society 's concepts of gender identity , especially in how it affects women . She varies the length of the poem 's lines , beginning in the first stanza and continuing throughout the poem , to convey ambiguity and doubt , and to demand that the reader question their perceptions of gender and power . " The Couple " , starting in its second stanza , attacks class @-@ based ideals of masculinity in society . The poem ends by demanding that the social constructs surrounding gender and class end , and insists that human survival depends upon recognizing shared emotions and experience , regardless of one 's gender or position in society .
= = Poems = =
Oh Pray My Wings are Gonna Fit Me Well is divided into five parts , and consists of 36 poems . The volume is dedicated to " Paul " .
= = Critical response = =
Kathryn Gibbs Harris , in her review in Library Journal , states that the poems in Oh Pray , like " Child Dead in Old Seas " , are good heritage ballads with excellent lyrics . She calls " This Winter Day " colorful and pleasant , and states that it reminds her of a genre painting . She , like many critics about much of Angelou 's poetry , says , " The poems work best read aloud " . The critic in Booklist considers the way in which the poems are organized distracting , but says that it " does not diminish the street @-@ wise soundings infused with a particular pain and pride " . According to the review , the rhyme in " Here 's to Adhering " is simple , but its structure is deceptively complex . The critic also says , " The sardonic quality of ' On Reaching Forty ' reduces age to a minor milestone ; nationhood is elevated to a higher yet deeper plane in ' Africa ' and in ' America . ' ' The Pusher ' is a typical Angelou acceleration , but it is ' Chicken @-@ Licken ' that causes a dead halt " . Poetry critic Sandra Gilbert says that Angelou 's poems , " when they 're not awkward or stilted , are corny " .
According to a reviewer in Choice , the poems in Oh Pray focus on themes of love , insight , and tension . They also focus on " the black condition celebrated triumphant over difficulties " . The reviewer finds some poems uneven , sometimes banal , also best if read aloud , and meant to " be reread and laughed over and thought about " . Reviewer James Finn Cotter states that this volume suffers from " the dangers of success " that happen when poets gain too much fame too soon . Gilbert blames Angelou 's publishers for capitalizing on her success as an autobiographer , stating that Oh Pray " ... is such a painfully untalented collection of poems that I can 't think of any reason other than the Maya myth for it to be in print " . Writer Lyman B. Hagen responds to Gilbert 's criticism by stating that Angelou had been a poet long before she began writing prose and that Angelou 's audience is comfortable with her sparse lines . He insists that Angelou 's critics have missed the power of her poems ' message in her apparently simple lines . Hagen calls Angelou 's poetry light verse . He states that she writes about ordinary objects and experiences , and with deep feelings , about a variety of racial themes and concerns .
= Islands ( The xx song ) =
" Islands " is a song recorded by English indie pop band The xx for their self @-@ titled debut studio album . Written by band @-@ members Jamie Smith , Oliver Sim , Romy Madley Croft and then @-@ member Baria Qureshi , " Islands " is a dark and simple indie pop track . It also contains influences from house music and features instrumentation from guitars and synthesizers . Croft and Sim , who provided vocals in the track , sing about themes related to loyalty and love . " Islands " was released on 26 October 2009 as the third single from the album by Young Turks in 7 @-@ inch single and digital download formats . In March 2010 , the song was re @-@ released as a 12 @-@ inch single .
Upon its release , " Islands " received critical acclaim from music critics , many of whom praised Croft and Sim 's vocal delivery . It was ranked at number 28 by music publication NME on their list of " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " . The song became the band 's highest peaking single in the United Kingdom after it reached number 34 on the UK Singles Chart . It also peaked at number three on the UK Indie Chart . An accompanying music video for " Islands " was directed by Saam Farahmand , and consists of numerous tracking shots that show six dancers performing a dance routine around the members of the band . Every different shot features a slight change in the expression , gestures , and movement of the dancers and band @-@ members . Critics complimented the concept of the video , and felt it was representative of The xx 's musical style . The band performed the song live at the iTunes Festival in 2010 and it was also included on the setlist of their 2010 and 2013 tour .
A cover version of " Islands " was recorded by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira for inclusion in her ninth studio album Sale el Sol ( 2010 ) . The cover followed a very similar instrumentation to the original version , but featured a faster tempo and more house elements . Shakira performed the cover live at the 2010 Glastonbury Festival in Pilton , Somerset .
= = Background and composition = =
" Islands " was written by The xx band @-@ members Jamie Smith , Oliver Sim , Romy Madley Croft and then @-@ member Baria Qureshi , for the English indie pop band 's self @-@ titled debut album ( 2009 ) . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , the song is composed in the key of C # minor and has a metronome of 123 beats per minute . Sim and Croft provide vocals in the track , and their range spans from G # 3 to E4 . Similar to the band 's usual style of production , " Islands " is dark and " nocturnal " in nature and follows a " simple , effective " beat . It features instrumentation from guitars which " twirl like dance floor partners in the background " and synthesisers that " play like a musical shadow " . According to BBC Music 's Lou Thomas , the song features house rhythms and a melody similar to that of Tom Petty 's 1989 song " I Won 't Back Down " . Lyrically , " Islands " is a " psycho @-@ geographical love song " and contains themes of loyalty , which are heard in lines like " I am yours now , so I don ’ t ever have to leave " . The duo 's vocals were described as " girl @-@ boy " , with Croft 's vocal delivery taking on a " pleasant soft @-@ pop vibe " . Sim momentarily interrupts the verses with " four short thumbings " . A " typically heartfelt and bed @-@ cuddly " refrain " I am yours now " is repeated throughout the song , and UK @-@ based online publication Muso 's Guide regarded it as " the closest thing The xx has produced to a hook " .
The song was released as the third single from xx on 26 October 2009 by Young Turks in 7 @-@ inch single and digital download formats . A minimalistic and " sexy " track named " Do You Mind ? " was included as the B @-@ side to " Islands " , and is composed of " untypically brash drums " . On 15 March 2010 , Young Turks released a 12 @-@ inch single version " Islands " , which contained various remixes of the song .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The song received critical acclaim . Lou Thomas from BBC Music said there is a " sense of quiet triumph " in what he felt was a musical reference to " I Won 't Back Down " by Tom Petty in the song 's melody , " despite the incongruity " . The Muso 's Guide review of " Islands " approved of the song 's release as a single and complimented Croft and Sim 's vocal delivery , saying they " provide a superb introduction to what the band is all about " . They particularly appreciated its " I am yours now " refrain , naming it " a typically heartfelt and bed @-@ cuddly line that makes The xx the perfect alternative lovers band " . Emily Mackay from NME called the song " gorgeous " and felt it was " the perfect soundtrack for wandering aimlessly along rainy London streets " . Andrew Gaerig from Pitchfork Media chose " Islands " as one of the highlights from the album and complimented Croft 's vocals and Sim 's involvement . In 2011 , NME ranked " Islands " at number 28 on their list of " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " , naming it the band 's " finest moment thus far " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United Kingdom , " Islands " reached number 34 on the singles chart and is The xx 's highest @-@ peaking single in the region to date . Its total stay inside the top 40 of the chart lasted for eight weeks . " Islands " was more successful on the UK Indie chart and peaked at number three . The song also peaked at number 16 on Ultratop chart of the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders region of Belgium , and stayed on the chart for a total of two weeks .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and synopsis = = =
The accompanying music video for " Islands " was directed by Saam Farahmand , who had previously worked with artists like Simian Mobile Disco and Klaxons . It premiered on MTV on 21 April 2010 . Composed of a series of tracking shots , the video shows Croft , Sim , and Smith " listlessly " sitting on a couch with six dancers performing a choreographed dance routine behind them . The dancers carry out the same routine with every next tracking shot , but a slight change in their expressions , gestures , and movement takes place . Similarly , the band @-@ members repeatedly change their positions and facial expressions " with differing fervour " . Near to the end of the video , the pattern begins modifying and " the comfortable habits get broken up / break up " as the dancers and band @-@ members leave one by one . The backdrop , which consists of several small " X " letters , also catches fire .
= = = Reception = = =
The video received positive reviews from critics . Katie Hasty from HitFix praised the choreography , calling it " eye @-@ popping " , and labelled the video as " classy , contained , and borderline claustrophobic " . She complimented Farahmand for directing a risky concept and commented that the tracking shots were like " an inhale and exhale with each new take " . Furthermore , she felt that the video was representative of The xx 's sound , calling it " morose and hypnotic , just like the band , the aural equivalent of a mumblecore movie " , and opined that the end of the video showed how " love goes " . Chris Ryan from MTV also found the video similar to the band 's musical style , and commented that the slight changes in its pattern " suggest unrest under the surface -- much like the band 's pristine , subtly menacing sound " . He also noted that while " it 's often hard to imagine what visuals would go well " with The xx 's songs , the music video for " Islands " " trumps anything we could have ever imagined " .
= = Live performances and usage in media = =
On 2 October 2009 , The xx performed " Islands " live on British music television show Later ... with Jools Holland , along with " Night Time " . The song was included on the setlist of their 2010 tour , and was also performed at the ITunes Festival held at The Roundhouse in London in the same year ; the band later released a digital EP of their performance . " Islands " was also included on the setlist of the band 's 2013 tour , and a more rock @-@ oriented version of the song was performed .
" Islands " was played during the closing monologue of the fourteenth episode of the sixth season of American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , entitled " Valentine 's Day Massacre " . It was also a part of the soundtrack of the tenth episode of the second season of comedy @-@ drama television series Parenthood , entitled " Happy Thanksgiving " .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Shakira cover = =
Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira recorded a cover version of " Islands " for inclusion in her ninth studio album Sale el Sol , which was released on October 19 , 2010 . Although there was initial speculation that the cover would be entitled " Explore " , it appeared on the final tracklist of the album using its original name . In comparison to the original version , Shakira 's cover of " Islands " follows a largely similar and " fairly faithful " instrumentation , but features a faster tempo , " hopeful @-@ sounding " vocals , and " pseudo @-@ house " elements . Prior to Shakira recording the cover of " Islands " , Croft had briefly met her at the London BBC Studios ; the former talked about her meeting , saying " We were sitting on a wall outside the BBC and she came up and her bodyguards parted and it was little Shakira , and she says , " Hi ! " And I was like , Wow ! I found out recently that she ’ s a big fan of The Cure and stuff " .
Shakira 's cover of " Islands " drew generally favourable reception from critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic felt it was a highlight on the album , and commented that Shakira " finds warmth within the art pop of The xx , whose " Islands " is a shimmering peak here " . Mikael Wood from Entertainment Weekly appreciated the cover , and opined that " [ Shakira ] discovers the beating heart inside that band 's subdued electro @-@ goth jam " . Becky Bain from Idolator called Shakira 's version of " Islands " " sunnier than the original " and regarded it as " brilliantly subdued " , complimenting the singer 's overall reworking of the original track . In 2011 , Stereogum included the cover on their list of " The 10 Best xx Covers " . Shakira 's cover of " Islands " appeared on the US Billboard Latin Digital Songs chart , peaking at number 39 for one week .
In June 2010 , Shakira performed the cover live at the Glastonbury Festival in Pilton , Somerset . Alex Needham from The Guardian called the performance " a slinky cover " that " is a nod to the indie kids " . Maria Schurr from PopMatters felt the performance was " less intimate than the original " , but " managed to amplify the tremendous pop sensibilities embedded beneath Romy Madley Croft " s and Oliver Sim 's hushed coos " . She concluded by saying that " as great as The xx are , it ’ s probably safe to say that Shakira can cut a rug better " .
= Ascall mac Ragnaill =
Ascall mac Ragnaill meic Torcaill ( died 1171 ) , also known as Ascall Mac Torcaill , was the last Norse @-@ Gaelic King of Dublin . He was a member of the Meic Torcaill , a Dublin family of significance since the early twelfth century .
Control of the wealthy coastal kingdom was bitterly contested during Ascall 's floruit , with members of his immediate family , as well as Islesmen and Irishmen , all securing power for brief periods of time . Throughout much of this period , however , the overlord of Dublin was Diarmait Mac Murchada , King of Leinster . In 1166 , after the death of his close ally Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn , High King of Ireland , Mac Murchada was beset by his enemies . At this critical point of his reign , Mac Murchada lost the support of the Dubliners , which contributed to his expulsion from Ireland that year . Not long afterwards , however , he made his return with significant military assistance from mercenary English adventurers . In the latter half of 1170 , Dublin itself fell to the combined forces of Mac Murchada and the powerful English magnate Richard de Clare , Earl of Pembroke .
With the collapse of the Norse @-@ Gaelic kingdom , Ascall and the Dublin elite were forced to flee into what one source calls the " northern islands " , a reference to either the Kingdom of the Isles or the Earldom of Orkney . About a year later , not long after Mac Murchada 's death , Ascall attempted to regain his patrimony from the English . Unfortunately for himself , his invasion of Dublin ended in utter failure , and he was executed by the English governor of the town . Immediately following his fall , Dublin was besieged by a combined force of Irishmen and Islesmen . The town , however , remained firmly in the hands of the English ; and before the end of the year , Dublin passed into the direct control of Henry II , King of England , who converted it into an English royal town .
= = Background = =
Ascall 's father was Ragnall mac Torcaill ( died 1146 ) , a man who may well have ruled as King of Dublin . The men were members of the Meic Torcaill , a substantial landholding kindred in the kingdom . Several members of this Norse @-@ Gaelic family held the kingship in the twelfth century . One such man was Ascall 's uncle , Brodar mac Torcaill , King of Dublin , who was slain in 1160 .
At the midpoint of the twelfth century , the kingdom was under the overlordship of Diarmait Mac Murchada , King of Leinster ( died 1171 ) . The latter 's ultimate overking , however , was Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn , King of Cenél nEógain ( died 1166 ) . The year after Brodar 's death , numerous sources indicate that Mac Murchada , with a force of Dubliners in tow , formally rendered submission to Mac Lochlainn . In 1162 , the Annals of Ulster reveals that Mac Murchada gained an almost @-@ unprecedented authority over Dublin . There is reason to suspect that his success stemmed from assistance received from Mac Lochlainn . The latter , for example , is recorded by the same source to have laid siege to the town within the year . In fact , this military campaign may have been undertaken to counter the Dubliners ' attempt to install Gofraid mac Amlaíb , King of the Isles ( died 1187 ) to the kingship of Dublin , as recounted by the Chronicle of Mann .
The record of events during the mid part of the twelfth century suggests that Leinster @-@ based overkings of Dublin enjoyed the cooperation of the indigenous leaders of Dublin , and the emergence of the Meic Torcaill during this period may well fit into such a context . When an indigenous ruler was not to be found , however , the Dubliners seem to have sought leadership from the Isles , rather than endure a non @-@ Leinster overking , as evidenced by the aforesaid episode concerning Gofraid . Mac Murchada 's considerable authority in Dublin at this point is apparent through several ecclesiastical grants , foundations , and appointments . Furthermore , two major military operations undertaken by Dublin 's forces in 1164 and 1165 were almost certainly conducted under Mac Murchada 's authority . The former campaign , recorded by Brut y Tywysogion and Brenhinedd y Saesson , concerned naval manoeuvres off Wales , in the service of Henry II , King of England ( died 1189 ) . The latter campaign , recorded by the Annals of Ulster , consisted of involvement in the ill @-@ fated invasion of mainland Scotland , launched by Somairle mac Gilla Brigte , King of the Isles ( died 1164 ) .
= = Fall of Mac Murchada and rise of Ua Conchobair = =
Mac Lochlainn was slain in 1166 , leaving Mac Murchada to fend off his own enemies alone . Other than Mac Murchada himself , another man making a bid for the high @-@ kingship was Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair , King of Connacht ( died 1198 ) . Within the same year as Mac Lochlainn 's demise , Ua Conchobair and his allies expulsed Mac Murchada from not only Dublin , but Ireland altogether ; and Ua Conchobair himself was duly recognised as High King of Ireland .
According to the Annals of the Four Masters , he had secured the cooperation of Dublin , and perhaps gained the kingship of the town itself , through a stipend of 4 @,@ 000 cows . In consequence , Dubliners formed part of Ua Conchobair 's forces when he marched to Drogheda and Leinster , where he forced the submissions of the kings of Airgialla and Leinster respectively . In fact , Dublin appears to have formed a key part of Ua Conchobair 's arsenal , and it is apparent that Mac Murchada was doomed without the support of this coastal @-@ kingdom . Certainly , the Song of Dermot and the Earl relates that Ascall ( " MacTurkyl de Diveline " ) had abandoned his former overlord , and the Annals of Inisfallen specify that Mac Murchada was only expulsed from Ireland after the Leinstermen and Dubliners had turned against him . Although Ua Conchobair appears to have allowed Mac Murchada to retain his patrimonial lordship of Uí Chennselaig , the Annals of the Four Masters reveals that the Leinstermen and Dubliners assisted Tigernán Ua Ruairc , King of Bréifne ( died 1172 ) in forcing Mac Murchada from this final vestige of authority and into exile .
The following year , Ua Conchobair convened a great assembly at Athboy . The Annals of the Four Masters states that 13 @,@ 000 horsemen attended the meeting — 1 @,@ 000 of which were supplied from Dublin . One of the many rulers recorded to have attended this gathering is a certain Ragnall mac Ragnaill , styled tigerna Gall ( " lord of the foreigners " ) . The latter 's name and title suggest that he was either an otherwise unattested brother of Ascall , or else an annalist 's mistake for Ascall himself . Meanwhile , after his expulsion from Ireland , Mac Murchada sought out Henry on the Continent , and gained permission to recruit military aid from the latter 's subjects . In the autumn of 1167 , Mac Murchada and his English allies arrived in Ireland , where they established themselves at Ferns . Ua Conchobair responded by penetrating Uí Chennselaig in a campaign , recounted by the Annals of Tigernach , that included military support from Dublin . With Mac Murchada temporally kept in check , a preoccupied Ua Conchobair allowed him to hold onto at least part of his patrimony .
= = Arrival of the English and Dublin 's fall = =
The situation in Ireland remained relatively unchanged until the arrival of a significant force of mercenaries in the summer of 1169 , after which some of Mac Murchada 's former vassals began to come over to his side . According to the Song of Dermot and the Earl , however , the kings of Uí Fáeláin and Osraige , and Ascall — described by this source as the " lord " of Dublin — stubbornly refused to support Mac Murchada 's cause . In an apparent show of force that may have been designed to keep the Dubliners onside , the Annals of the Four Masters states that Ua Conchobair led an army to Tara , where he was joined by the forces of the kings of Ulaid and Airgialla , after which the combined army marched upon Dublin . The following year , however , saw the arrival of even more English support for Mac Murchada ; and in August 1170 , Richard de Clare , Earl of Pembroke ( died 1176 ) landed in Ireland and took Waterford by storm . Soon after , Clare married Mac Murchada 's daughter , Aífe , and effectively became heir to kingship of Leinster and the overlordship of Dublin . Unsurprisingly , later in September , the combined forces of Mac Murchada and Clare marched on Dublin , where they confronted Ua Conchobair and his forces .
If the account of the Annals of the Four Masters is to be believed , the Dubliners switched sides at this point , deserted the cause of Ua Conchobair , and further suffered an act of divine justice as their town went up in flames . On the other hand , Expugnatio Hibernica specifies that , whilst negotiations were under way between the forces of Ua Conchobair and the coalition of Mac Murchada and Clare , an English force under the command of Miles de Cogan and Raymond le Gros ( died 1189 × 1192 ) successfully assaulted the town , and caused considerable carnage amongst the inhabitants . Although the Annals of the Four Masters specifies that the Dubliners were slaughtered in their fortress , after which the English carried off their cattle and goods , Expugnatio Hibernica instead states that the majority of the Dubliners escaped the massacre and retained most of their possessions . The same source states that Ascall and the Dubliners managed to escape into the " northern islands " . This term could well refer to Orkney . On the other hand , it is also possible that the term refers to the Hebrides or Mann ; if so , this source would appear to be evidence that the Dubliners had retained close links with the Isles . According to the version of events preserved by the Song of Dermot and the Earl , the coalition 's conquest of Dublin took place on 21 September .
= = Final defeat and death = =
Within weeks of Mac Murchada 's death at the beginning of May , Expugnatio Hibernica reveals that Ascall made his return to Dublin . The account of events recorded by Expugnatio Hibernica and the Song of Dermot and the Earl indicate that Ascall 's forces consisted of heavily armoured Islesmen and Norwegians . The former source numbers Ascall 's forces at sixty ships , whilst the latter gives one hundred . According to both sources , Ascall 's followers included a notable warrior named " John the Mad " , a figure who may or may not be identical to the Orcadian saga @-@ character Sveinn Ásleifarson .
According to the Song of Dermot and the Earl , the invaders made landfall at the " Steine " , located on the southern bank of the River Liffey , and proceeded to encamp themselves outside the town 's walls . Expugnatio Hibernica relates that they assaulted the walls of the eastern gate , a location that corresponds to St Mary 's Gate , the focus of assault identified by the Song of Dermot and the Earl . Unfortunately for Ascall , the operation was an utter failure that resulted in his capture and death . Both sources relate that the town 's defenders , led by Cogan and his brother Richard , successfully repulsed the invaders , slew John , and captured Ascall as he fled to his fleet . Although Expugnatio Hibernica reveals that Ascall 's life had originally been reserved for ransom , both this source , and the Song of Dermot and the Earl , report that he was soon beheaded on account of his recalcitrance .
The successive deaths of Mac Murchada and Ascall appear to have left a power vacuum in Dublin that others strived to fill . Immediately after Ascall 's fall , Ua Conchobair had the English @-@ controlled town besieged . Expugnatio Hibernica records that he and Lorcán Ua Tuathail , Archbishop of Dublin ( died 1180 ) sent for Gofraid and others in the Isles , asking them to blockade Dublin by sea . According to the aforesaid source , " the threat of English domination , inspired by the successes of the English , made the men of the Isles act all the more quickly , and with the wind in the north @-@ west they immediately sailed about thirty ships full of warriors into the harbour of the Liffey " . Unfortunately for the Irish , Islesmen , and Dubliners , the blockade was ultimately a failure , and Dublin remained firmly in the hands of the English . Ascall was the last Norse @-@ Gaelic King of Dublin ; and before the end of the year , Clare relinquished possession to his own liege lord , Henry , who converted it into an English royal town .
= Leonid Brezhnev =
Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev ( / ˈbrɛʒnɛf / ; Russian : Леони ́ д Ильи ́ ч Бре ́ жнев ; IPA : [ lʲɪɐˈnʲid ɪˈlʲjitɕ ˈbrʲɛʐnʲɪf ] ; Ukrainian : Леоні ́ д Іллі ́ ч Бре ́ жнєв , 19 December 1906 ( O.S. 6 December ) – 10 November 1982 ) was the General Secretary of the Central Committee ( CC ) of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) , presiding over the country from 1964 until his death in 1982 . His eighteen @-@ year term as General Secretary was second only to that of Joseph Stalin in duration . During Brezhnev 's rule , the global influence of the Soviet Union grew dramatically , in part because of the expansion of the Soviet military during this time . His tenure as leader was marked by the beginning of an era of economic and social stagnation in the Soviet Union .
Brezhnev was born in Kamenskoe into a Russian worker 's family . After graduating from the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum , he became a metallurgical engineer in the iron and steel industry , in Ukraine . He joined Komsomol in 1923 , and in 1929 became an active member of the CPSU . He was drafted into immediate military service during World War II and left the army in 1946 with the rank of major general . In 1952 Brezhnev became a member of the Central Committee , and during 1964 , Brezhnev succeeded Nikita Khrushchev as First Secretary , while Alexei Kosygin succeeded Khrushchev in his post as Soviet premier .
As a leader , Brezhnev took care to consult his colleagues before acting , but his attempt to govern without meaningful economic reforms led to a national decline by the mid @-@ 1970s , a period referred to as the Era of Stagnation . A significant increase in military expenditure , which by the time of Brezhnev 's death stood at approximately 12 @.@ 5 % of the country 's GNP , and an aging and ineffective leadership set the stage for a dwindling GNP compared to Western nations . While at the helm of the USSR , Brezhnev pushed for détente between the Eastern and Western countries . At the same time he presided over the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia to stop the Prague Spring , and he sent the Soviet military to Afghanistan in an attempt to save the fragile regime , which was fighting a war against the mujahideen . However , in December 1981 he decided not to militarily intervene in Poland , instead allowing the country 's government to impose martial law , and effectively marking the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine .
After years of declining health , Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982 and was quickly succeeded in his post as General Secretary by Yuri Andropov . Brezhnev had fostered a cult of personality , although not nearly to the same degree as Stalin . Mikhail Gorbachev , who would lead the USSR from 1985 to 1991 , denounced his legacy and drove the process of liberalisation of the Soviet Union . In spite of this , opinion polls in Russia show Brezhnev to be the most popular Russian leader of the 20th century .
= = Early life and career = =
= = = Origins and education = = =
Brezhnev was born on 19 December 1906 in Kamenskoye ( now Dniprodzerzhynsk in Ukraine ) , to metalworker Ilya Yakovlevich Brezhnev and his wife , Natalia Denisovna Mazalova . His parents used to live in Brezhnevo ( Kursky District , Kursk Oblast , Russia ) before moving to Kamenskoe . Brezhnev 's ethnicity was specified as Ukrainian in some documents , including his passport , and Russian in others . Like many youths in the years after the Russian Revolution of 1917 , he received a technical education , at first in land management where he started as a land surveyor and then in metallurgy . He graduated from the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum in 1935 and became a metallurgical engineer in the iron and steel industries of eastern Ukraine .
= = = Political development = = =
Brezhnev joined the Communist Party youth organisation , the Komsomol , in 1923 , and the Party itself in 1929 . In 1935 and 1936 , Brezhnev served his compulsory military service , and after taking courses at a tank school , he served as a political commissar in a tank factory . Later in 1936 , he became director of the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum ( technical college ) . In 1936 , he was transferred to the regional center of Dnipropetrovsk and , in 1939 , he became Party Secretary in Dnipropetrovsk , in charge of the city 's important defence industries . As a survivor of Stalin 's Great Purge of 1937 – 39 , he was able to advance quickly as the purges created numerous openings in the senior and middle ranks of the Party and state governments .
= = = World War II = = =
When Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 , Brezhnev was , like most middle @-@ ranking Party officials , immediately drafted . He worked to evacuate Dnipropetrovsk 's industries to the east of the Soviet Union before the city fell to the Germans on 26 August , and then was assigned as a political commissar . In October , Brezhnev was made deputy of political administration for the Southern Front , with the rank of Brigade @-@ Commissar ( Colonel ) .
When Ukraine was occupied by the Germans in 1942 , Brezhnev was sent to the Caucasus as deputy head of political administration of the Transcaucasian Front . In April 1943 , he became head of the Political Department of the 18th Army . Later that year , the 18th Army became part of the 1st Ukrainian Front , as the Red Army regained the initiative and advanced westward through Ukraine . The Front 's senior political commissar was Nikita Khrushchev , who had supported Brezhnev 's career since the pre @-@ war years . Brezhnev had met Khrushchev in 1931 , shortly after joining the Party , and before long , as he continued his rise through the ranks , he became Khrushchev 's protégé . At the end of the war in Europe , Brezhnev was chief political commissar of the 4th Ukrainian Front , which entered Prague in May 1945 , after the German surrender .
= = = Immediate post war = = =
Brezhnev temporarily left the Soviet Army with the rank of Major General in August 1946 . He had spent the entire war as a political commissar rather than a military commander . After working on reconstruction projects in Ukraine , he again became General Secretary in Dnipropetrovsk . In 1950 , he became a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union , the Soviet Union 's highest legislative body . Later that year he was appointed Party First Secretary in Moldavia . In 1952 , he had a meeting with Stalin after which Stalin promoted Brezhnev to the Communist Party 's Central Committee as a candidate member of the Presidium ( formerly the Politburo ) .
Stalin died in March 1953 , and in the reorganisation that followed , the Presidium was abolished and a smaller Politburo reconstituted . Although Brezhnev was not made a Politburo member , he was appointed head of the Political Directorate of the Army and the Navy with the rank of Lieutenant @-@ General , a very senior position . Brezhnev 's patron Khrushchev succeeded Stalin as General Secretary , while Khrushchev 's opponent Malenkov succeeded Stalin as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet . Brezhnev sided with Khrushchev against Malenkov , but only for several years . On 7 May 1955 , Brezhnev was made General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR . On the surface , his brief was simple : to make the new lands agriculturally productive . In reality , Brezhnev became involved in the development of the Soviet missile and nuclear arms programs , including the Baykonur Cosmodrome . The initially successful Virgin Lands Campaign soon became unproductive and failed to solve the growing Soviet food crisis . Brezhnev was recalled to Moscow in 1956 . The harvest in the years following the Virgin Lands Campaign was disappointing , which would have hurt his political career had he remained in Kazakhstan .
In February 1956 , Brezhnev returned to Moscow , was made candidate member of the Politburo assigned in control of the defense industry , the space program including the Baykonur Cosmodrome , heavy industry , and capital construction . He was now a senior member of Khrushchev 's entourage , and in June 1957 , he backed Khrushchev in his struggle with Malenkov 's Stalinist old guard in the Party leadership , the so @-@ called " Anti @-@ Party Group " . Following the defeat of the Stalinists , Brezhnev became a full member of the Politburo . Brezhnev became Second Secretary of the Central Committee in 1959 , and in May 1960 was promoted to the post of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , making him the nominal head of state , although the real power resided with Khrushchev as First Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party . In 1962 , Brezhnev became an honorary citizen of Belgrade .
= = = Removal of Khrushchev = = =
Until about 1962 , Khrushchev 's position as Party leader was secure ; but as the leader aged , he grew more erratic and his performance undermined the confidence of his fellow leaders . The Soviet Union 's mounting economic problems also increased the pressure on Khrushchev 's leadership . Outwardly , Brezhnev remained loyal to Khrushchev , but became involved in a 1963 plot to remove the leader from power , possibly playing a leading role . Also in 1963 , Brezhnev succeeded Frol Kozlov , another Khrushchev protégé , as Secretary of the Central Committee , positioning him as Khrushchev 's likely successor . Khrushchev made him Second Secretary , literally deputy party leader , in 1964 .
After returning from Scandinavia and Czechoslovakia in October 1964 , Khrushchev , unaware of the plot , went on holiday in Pitsunda resort on the Black Sea . Upon his return , his Presidium officers congratulated him for his work in office . Anastas Mikoyan visited Khrushchev , hinting that he should not be too complacent about his present situation . Vladimir Semichastny , head of the KGB , was a crucial part of the conspiracy , as it was his duty to inform Khrushchev if anyone was plotting against his leadership . Nikolay Ignatov , who had been sacked by Khrushchev , discreetly requested the opinion of several Central Committee members . After some false starts , fellow conspirator Mikhail Suslov phoned Khrushchev on 12 October and requested that he return to Moscow to discuss the state of Soviet agriculture . Finally Khrushchev understood what was happening , and said to Mikoyan , " If it 's me who is the question , I will not make a fight of it . " While a minority headed by Mikoyan wanted to remove Khrushchev from the office of First Secretary but retain him as the Chairman of the Council of Ministers , the majority , headed by Brezhnev , wanted to remove him from active politics altogether .
Brezhnev and Nikolai Podgorny appealed to the Central Committee , blaming Khrushchev for economic failures , and accusing him of voluntarism and immodest behavior . Influenced by the Brezhnev allies , Politburo members voted to remove Khrushchev from office . In addition , some members of the Central Committee wanted him to undergo punishment of some kind . But Brezhnev , who had already been assured the office of the General Secretary , saw little reason to punish his old mentor further . Brezhnev was appointed First Secretary , but at the time was believed to be a transition leader of sorts , who would only " keep the shop " until another leader was appointed . Alexei Kosygin was appointed head of government , and Mikoyan was retained as head of state . Brezhnev and his companions supported the general party line taken after Joseph Stalin 's death , but felt that Khrushchev 's reforms had removed much of the Soviet Union 's stability . One reason for Khrushchev 's ousting was that he continually overruled other party members , and was , according to the plotters , " in contempt of the party 's collective ideals " . Pravda , a newspaper in the Soviet Union , wrote of new enduring themes such as collective leadership , scientific planning , consultation with experts , organisational regularity and the ending of schemes . When Khrushchev left the public spotlight , there was no popular commotion , as most Soviet citizens , including the intelligentsia , anticipated a period of stabilisation , steady development of Soviet society and continuing economic growth in the years ahead .
= = Leader ( 1964 – 1982 ) = =
= = = Consolidation of power = = =
As Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev as the new General Secretary of the Communist Party , he held ultimate political authority as the leader of the Soviet Union . However , he shared collective leadership with Nikolai Podgorny ( the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet and nominal head of state ) and Alexsei Kosygin , the Premier . Brezhnev soon would maximize his grip on power and would be the dominating authority in the collective leadership . Early policy reforms were seen as predictable . In 1964 , a plenum of the Central Committee forbade any single individual to hold the two most powerful posts of the country ( the office of the General Secretary and the Premier ) . Former Chairman of the State Committee for State Security ( KGB ) Alexander Shelepin disliked the new collective leadership and its reforms . He made a bid for the supreme leadership in 1965 by calling for restoration of " obedience and order " . Shelepin failed to gather support in the Presidium and Brezhnev 's position was fairly secure ; he was able to remove Shelepin from office in 1967 .
Khrushchev was removed mainly because of his disregard of many high @-@ ranking organisations within the CPSU and the Soviet government . Throughout the Brezhnev era , the Soviet Union was controlled by a collective leadership ( officially coined " Collectivity of leadership " ) at least through the late 1960s and 1970s . The consensus within the party was that the collective leadership prevailed over the supreme leadership of one individual . T.H. Rigby argued that by the end of the 1960s , a stable oligarchic system had emerged in the Soviet Union , with most power vested around Brezhnev , Kosygin and Podgorny . While the assessment was true at the time , it coincided with Brezhnev 's strengthening of power by means of an apparent clash with Central Committee Secretariat Mikhail Suslov . American Henry A. Kissinger , in the 1960s , mistakenly believed Kosygin to be the dominant leader of Soviet foreign policy in the Politburo . During this period , Brezhnev was gathering enough support to strengthen his position within Soviet politics . In the meantime , Kosygin was in charge of economic administration in his role as Chairman of the Council of Ministers . Kosygin 's position was weakened when he proposed an economic reform in 1965 , which was widely referred to as the " Kosygin reform " within the Communist Party . The reform led to a backlash , and party conservatives continued to oppose Kosygin after witnessing the results of reforms leading up to the Prague Spring . His opponents then flocked to Brezhnev , and they helped him in his task of strengthening his position within the Soviet system .
Brezhnev was adept at the politics within the Soviet power structure . He was a team player and never acted rashly or hastily ; unlike Khrushchev , he did not make decisions without substantial consultation from his colleagues , and was always willing to hear their opinions . During the early 1970s , Brezhnev consolidated his domestic position . In 1977 , he forced the retirement of Podgorny and became once again Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union , making this position equivalent to that of an executive president . While Kosygin remained Premier until shortly before his death in 1980 ( replaced by Nikolai Tikhonov as Premier ) , Brezhnev was the dominant driving force of the Soviet Union from the mid @-@ 1970s to his death in 1982 .
= = = Domestic policies = = =
= = = = Repression = = = =
Brezhnev 's stabilisation policy included ending the liberalising reforms of Khrushchev , and clamping down on cultural freedom . During the Khrushchev years , Brezhnev had supported the leader 's denunciations of Stalin 's arbitrary rule , the rehabilitation of many of the victims of Stalin 's purges , and the cautious liberalisation of Soviet intellectual and cultural policy . But as soon as he became leader , Brezhnev began to reverse this process , and developed an increasingly conservative and regressive attitude .
The trial of the writers Yuli Daniel and Andrei Sinyavsky in 1966 — the first such public trials since Stalin 's day — marked the reversion to a repressive cultural policy . Under Yuri Andropov the state security service ( in the form of the KGB ) regained some of the powers it had enjoyed under Stalin , although there was no return to the purges of the 1930s and 1940s , and Stalin 's legacy remained largely discredited among the Soviet intelligentsia .
By the mid @-@ 1970s , there were an estimated 1 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 political and religious prisoners across the Soviet Union , living in grievous conditions and suffering from malnutrition . Many of these prisoners were considered by the Soviet state to be mentally unfit and were hospitalised in mental asylums across the Soviet Union . Under Brezhnev 's rule , the KGB infiltrated most , if not all , anti @-@ government organisations , which ensured that there was little to no opposition against him or his power base . However , Brezhnev refrained from the all @-@ out violence seen under the rule of Stalin .
= = = = Economics = = = =
= = = = = Economic growth until 1973 = = = = =
Between 1960 and 1970 , Soviet agriculture output increased by 3 % annually . Industry also improved ; during the Eighth Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1966 – 1970 ) , the output of factories and mines increased by 138 % , compared to 1960 . While the Politburo became aggressively anti @-@ reformist , Kosygin was able to convince both Brezhnev and the politburo to leave the reformist communist leader János Kádár of the People 's Republic of Hungary alone because of an economic reform entitled New Economic Mechanism ( NEM ) , which granted limited permission for the establishment of retail markets . In the People 's Republic of Poland , another approach was taken in 1970 under the leadership of Edward Gierek ; he believed that the government needed Western loans to facilitate the rapid growth of heavy industry . The Soviet leadership gave its approval for this , as the Soviet Union could not afford to maintain its massive subsidy for the Eastern Bloc in the form of cheap oil and gas exports . The Soviet Union did not accept all kinds of reforms , an example being the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 in response to Alexander Dubček 's reforms . Under Brezhnev , the Politburo abandoned Khrushchev 's decentralisation experiments . By 1966 , two years after taking power , Brezhnev abolished the Regional Economic Councils , which were organized to manage the regional economies of the Soviet Union .
The Ninth Five @-@ Year Plan delivered a change : for the first time industrial consumer products out @-@ produced industrial capital goods . Consumer goods such as watches , furniture and radios were produced in abundance . The plan still left the bulk of the state 's investment in industrial capital @-@ goods production . This outcome was not seen as a positive sign for the future of the Soviet state by the majority of top party functionaries within the government ; by 1975 consumer goods were expanding 9 % slower than industrial capital @-@ goods . The policy continued despite Brezhnev 's commitment to make a rapid shift of investment to satisfy Soviet consumers and lead to an even higher standard of living . This did not happen .
During 1928 – 1973 , the Soviet Union was growing economically at a pace that would eventually catch up with the United States and Western Europe . This was true despite the advantage the United States had — the USSR was hampered by the effects of World War II , which had left most of Western USSR in ruins . In 1973 , the process of catching up with the rest of the West came to an abrupt end , and 1973 was seen by some scholars as the start of the Era of Stagnation . The beginning of the stagnation coincided with a financial crisis in Western Europe and the U.S. By the early 1970s , the Soviet Union had the world 's second largest industrial capacity , and produced more steel , oil , pig @-@ iron , cement and tractors than any other country . Before 1973 , the Soviet economy was expanding at a rate faster , by a small margin , than that of the United States . The USSR also kept a steady pace with the economies of Western Europe . Between 1964 and 1973 , the Soviet economy stood at roughly half the output per head of Western Europe and a little more than one third that of the U.S.
= = = = = Agricultural policy = = = = =
Brezhnev 's agricultural policy reinforced the conventional methods for organising the collective farms . Output quotas continued to be imposed centrally . Khrushchev 's policy of amalgamating farms was continued by Brezhnev , because he shared Khrushchev 's belief that bigger kolkhozes would increase productivity . Brezhnev pushed for an increase in state investments in farming , which mounted to an all @-@ time high in the 1970s of 27 % of all state investment – this figure did not include investments in farm equipment . In 1981 alone , 33 billion U.S. dollars ( by contemporary exchange rate ) was invested into agriculture .
Agricultural output in 1980 was 21 % higher than the average production rate between 1966 and 1970 . Cereal crop output increased by 18 % . These improved results were not encouraging . In the Soviet Union the criterion for assessing agricultural output was the grain harvest . The import of cereal , which began under Khrushchev , had in fact become a normal phenomenon by Soviet standards . When Brezhnev had difficulties sealing commercial trade agreements with the United States , he went elsewhere , such as to Argentina . Trade was necessary because the Soviet Union 's domestic production of fodder crops was severely deficient . Another sector that was hitting the wall was the sugar beet harvest , which had declined by 2 % in the 1970s . Brezhnev 's way of resolving these issues was to increase state investment . Politburo member Gennady Voronov advocated for the division of each farm 's work @-@ force into what he called " links " . These " links " would be entrusted with specific functions , such as to run a farm 's dairy unit . His argument was that the larger the work force , the less responsible they felt . This program had been proposed to Joseph Stalin by Andrey Andreyev in the 1940s , and had been opposed by Khrushchev before and after Stalin 's death . Voronov was also unsuccessful ; Brezhnev turned him down , and in 1973 he was removed from the Politburo .
Experimentation with " links " was not disallowed on a local basis , with Mikhail Gorbachev , the then First Secretary of the Stavropol Regional Committee , experimenting with links in his region . In the meantime , the Soviet government 's involvement in agriculture was , according to Robert Service , otherwise " unimaginative " and " incompetent " . Facing mounting problems with agriculture , the Politburo issued a resolution titled ; " On the Further Development of Specialisation and Concentration of Agricultural Production on the Basis of Inter @-@ Farm Co @-@ operation and Agro @-@ Industrial Integration " . The resolution ordered kolkhozes close to each other to collaborate in their efforts to increase production . In the meantime , the state 's subsidies to the food @-@ and @-@ agriculture sector did not prevent bankrupt farms from operating : rises in the price of produce were offset by rises in the cost of oil and other resources . By 1977 , oil cost 84 % more than it did in the late 1960s . The cost of other resources had also climbed by the late 1970s .
Brezhnev 's answer to these problems was to issue two decrees , one in 1977 and one in 1981 , which called for an increase in the maximum size of privately owned plots within the Soviet Union to half a hectare . These measures removed important obstacles for the expansion of agricultural output , but did not solve the problem . Under Brezhnev , private plots yielded 30 % of the national agricultural production when they only cultivated 4 % of the land . This was seen by some as proof that de @-@ collectivisation was necessary to prevent Soviet agriculture from collapsing , but leading Soviet politicians shrank from supporting such drastic measures due to ideological and political interests . The underlying problems were the growing shortage of skilled workers , a wrecked rural culture , the payment of workers in proportion to the quantity rather than the quality of their work , too large farm machinery for the small collective farms and the roadless countryside . In the face of this , Brezhnev 's only options were schemes such as large land reclamation and irrigation projects , or of course , radical reform .
= = = = = Economic stagnation = = = = =
The Era of Stagnation , a term coined by Mikhail Gorbachev , was seen as the result of a compilation of factors , including the ongoing " arms race " between the two superpowers , the Soviet Union and the United States ; the decision of the Soviet Union to participate in international trade ( thus abandoning the idea of economic isolation ) while ignoring the changes occurring in Western societies ; the increasing harshness of its policies , such as sending Soviet tanks to crush the Prague Spring in 1968 ; the intervention in Afghanistan ; the stifling domestic bureaucracy overseen by a cadre of elderly men ; the lack of economic reform ; the political corruption , supply bottlenecks , and other unaddressed structural problems with the economy under Brezhnev 's rule . Social stagnation domestically was stimulated by the growing demands of unskilled workers , labour shortages and a decline in productivity and labour discipline . While Brezhnev , albeit " sporadically " , through Alexei Kosygin , attempted to reform the economy in the late 1960s and 1970s , he ultimately failed to produce any positive results . One of these reforms was the economic reform of 1965 , initiated by Kosygin , though its origins are often traced back to the Khrushchev Era . The reform was cancelled by the Central Committee , though the Committee admitted that economic problems did exist .
In 1973 , the Soviet economy slowed , and began to lag behind that of the West due to the high level of expenditure on the armed forces and too little spending on light industry and consumer goods . Soviet agriculture could not feed the urban population , let alone provide for the rising standard of living , which the government promised as the fruits of " mature socialism " , and on which industrial productivity depended . One of the most prominent critics of Brezhnev 's economical policies was Mikhail Gorbachev who , when leader , called the economy under Brezhnev 's rule " the lowest stage of socialism " . Soviet GNP growth rates began to decrease in the 1970s from the level it held in the 1950s and 1960s ; its growth rates began to lag behind Western Europe and the United States . The GNP growth rate was slowing to 1 % to 2 % per year , and with Soviet technology falling ever farther behind that of the West , the Soviet Union was facing economic stagnation by the early 1980s . During Brezhnev 's last years in power , the CIA monitored the Soviet Union 's economic growth , and reported that the Soviet economy peaked in the 1970s , calculating that it had then reached 57 % of the American GNP . The development gap between the two nations widened , with the United States growing an average of 1 % per year above the growth rate of the Soviet Union .
The last significant reform undertaken by the Kosygin government , and some believe the pre @-@ perestroika era , was a joint decision of the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers named " Improving planning and reinforcing the effects of the economic mechanism on raising the effectiveness in production and improving the quality of work " , more commonly known as the 1979 reform . The reform , in contrast to the 1965 reform , sought to increase the central government 's economic involvement by enhancing the duties and responsibilities of the ministries . With Kosygin 's death in 1980 , and due to his successor Nikolai Tikhonov 's conservative approach to economics , very little of the reform was actually carried out .
The Eleventh Five @-@ Year Plan of the Soviet Union delivered a disappointing result : a change in growth from 5 to 4 % . During the earlier Tenth Five @-@ Year Plan , they had tried to meet the target of 6 @.@ 1 % growth , but failed . Brezhnev was able to defer economic collapse by trading with Western Europe and the Arab World . The Soviet Union still out @-@ produced the United States in the heavy industry sector during the Brezhnev era . Another dramatic result of Brezhnev 's rule was that certain Eastern Bloc countries became more economically advanced than the Soviet Union .
= = = = Society = = = =
Over the eighteen years that Brezhnev ruled the Soviet Union , average income per head increased by half ; three @-@ quarters of this growth came in the 1960s and early 1970s . During the second half of Brezhnev 's reign , average income per head grew by one @-@ quarter . In the first half of the Brezhnev period , income per head increased by 3 @.@ 5 % per annum ; slightly less growth than what it had been the previous years . This can be explained by Brezhnev 's reversal of most of Khrushchev 's policies . Consumption per head rose by an estimated 70 % under Brezhnev , but with three @-@ quarters of this growth happening before 1973 and only one @-@ quarter in the second half of his rule . Most of the increase in consumer production in the early Brezhnev era can be attributed to the Kosygin reform .
When the USSR 's economic growth stalled in the 1970s , the standard of living and housing quality improved significantly . Instead of paying more attention to the economy , the Soviet leadership under Brezhnev tried to improve the living standard in the Soviet Union by extending social benefits . This led to an increase , though a minor one , in public support . The standard of living in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) had fallen behind that of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic ( GSSR ) and the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic ( ESSR ) under Brezhnev ; this led many Russians to believe that the policies of the Soviet Government were hurting the Russian population . The state usually moved workers from one job to another , which ultimately became an ineradicable feature in Soviet industry . Government industries such as factories , mines and offices were staffed by undisciplined personnel who put a great effort into not doing their jobs ; this ultimately led , according to Robert Service , to a " work @-@ shy workforce " . The Soviet Government had no effective counter @-@ measure because of the country 's lack of unemployment .
While some areas improved during the Brezhnev era , the majority of civilian services deteriorated and living conditions for Soviet citizens fell rapidly . Diseases were on the rise because of the decaying healthcare system . The living space remained rather small by First World standards , with the average Soviet person living on 13 @.@ 4 square metres . Thousands of Moscow inhabitants became homeless , most of them living in shacks , doorways and parked trams . Nutrition ceased to improve in the late 1970s , while rationing of staple food products returned to Sverdlovsk for instance .
The state provided recreation facilities and annual holidays for hard @-@ working citizens . Soviet trade unions rewarded hard @-@ working members and their families with beach vacations in Crimea and Georgia .
Social rigidification became a common feature of Soviet society . During the Stalin era in the 1930s and 1940s , a common labourer could expect promotion to a white @-@ collar job if he studied and obeyed Soviet authorities . In Brezhnev 's Soviet Union this was not the case . Holders of attractive positions clung to them as long as possible ; mere incompetence was not seen as a good reason to dismiss anyone . In this way , too , the Soviet society Brezhnev passed on had become static .
= = = Foreign and defence policies = = =
= = = = Soviet – U.S. relations = = = =
During his eighteen years as Leader of the USSR , Brezhnev 's only major foreign policy innovation was détente . This did not differ much from the Khrushchev Thaw , a domestic and foreign policy relaxation started by Nikita Khrushchev . Historian Robert Service sees détente simply as a continuation of Khrushchev 's foreign policy . Despite some increased tension under Khrushchev , East – West relations had generally improved , as evidenced by the Partial Test Ban Treaty , and the installation of the red telephone line between the White House and the Kremlin . But Brezhnev 's détente policy differed from that of Khrushchev in two ways . The first was that it was more comprehensive and wide @-@ ranging in its aims , and included signing agreements on arms control , crisis prevention , East – West trade , European security and human rights . The second part of the policy was based on the importance of equalising the military strength of the United States and the Soviet Union . Defence spending under Brezhnev between 1965 and 1970 increased by 40 % , and annual increases continued thereafter . In the year of Brezhnev 's death in 1982 , 15 % of GNP was spent on the military .
By the mid @-@ 1970s , it had become clear that Henry Kissinger 's policy of détente towards the Soviet Union had failed . The détente had rested on the assumption that a " linkage " of some type could be found between the two countries , with the U.S. hoping that the signing of SALT I and an increase in Soviet – U.S. trade would stop the aggressive growth of communism in the third world . This did not happen , and the Soviet Union started funding the communist guerillas who fought actively against the U.S. during the Vietnam War . The U.S. ended the Vietnam War in a stalemate and lost Cambodia , Laos and Vietnam to communism . After Gerald Ford lost the presidential election to Jimmy Carter , American foreign policies became more hostile towards the Soviet Union and the communist world , though attempts were also made to stop funding for some repressive anti @-@ communist governments the United States supported . While at first standing for a decrease in all defense initiatives , the later years of Carter 's presidency would increase spending on the U.S. military .
In the 1970s , the Soviet Union reached the peak of its political and strategic power in relation to the United States . The first SALT Treaty effectively established parity in nuclear weapons between the two superpowers , the Helsinki Treaty legitimised Soviet hegemony over Eastern Europe , and the United States defeat in Vietnam and the Watergate scandal weakened the prestige of the United States . Brezhnev and Nixon also agreed to pass the Anti @-@ Ballistic Missile Treaty , which banned both countries from designing systems that would intercept incoming missiles so that neither the U.S. or the Soviet Union would be tempted to strike the other without the fear of retaliation . The Soviet Union extended its diplomatic and political influence in the Middle East and Africa .
= = = = = The Vietnam War = = = = =
Nikita Khrushchev had initially supported North Vietnam out of " fraternal solidarity " , but as the war escalated he had urged the North Vietnamese leadership to give up the quest of liberating South Vietnam . He continued by rejecting an offer of assistance made by the North Vietnamese government , and instead told them to enter negotiations in the United Nations Security Council . After Khrushchev 's ousting , Brezhnev resumed aiding the communist resistance in Vietnam . In February 1965 , Kosygin travelled to Hanoi with a dozen Soviet air force generals and economic experts . During the Soviet visit , President Lyndon B. Johnson had authorised U.S. bombing raids on North Vietnamese soil in retaliation for a recent attack by the Viet Cong . Johnson privately suggested to Brezhnev that he would guarantee an end to South Vietnamese hostility if Brezhnev would guarantee a North Vietnamese one . Brezhnev was interested in this offer initially , but after being told by Andrei Gromyko that the North Vietnamese government was not interested in a diplomatic solution to the war , Brezhnev rejected the offer . The Johnson administration responded to this rejection by expanding the American presence in Vietnam , but later invited the USSR to negotiate a treaty concerning arms control . The USSR simply did not respond , initially because Brezhnev and Kosygin were fighting over which of them had the right to represent the USSR abroad , but later because of the escalation of the " dirty war " in Vietnam . In early 1967 , Johnson offered to make a deal with Ho Chi Minh , and said he was prepared to end U.S. bombing raids in North Vietnam if Ho ended his infiltration of South Vietnam . The U.S. bombing raids halted for a few days and Kosygin publicly announced his support for this offer . The North Vietnamese government failed to respond , and because of this , the U.S. continued its raids in North Vietnam . The Brezhnev leadership concluded from this event that seeking diplomatic solutions to the ongoing war in Vietnam was hopeless . Later in 1968 , Johnson invited Kosygin to the United States to discuss ongoing problems in Vietnam and the arms race . The summit was marked by a friendly atmosphere , but there were no concrete breakthroughs by either side .
In the aftermath of the Sino – Soviet border conflict , the Chinese continued to aid the North Vietnamese regime , but with the death of Ho Chi Minh in
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following renewed unrest there . On 4 March 2007 , along with the commandos , SASR personnel took part in the Battle of Same during which five rebels were killed during an unsuccessful attempt to apprehend the rebel leader , Alfredo Reinado . It was reported in October 2006 that 20 SASR operators were in the southern Philippines , supporting Filipino operations against the Abu Sayyaf and Jemaah Islamiah terrorist groups , but this was denied by the Department of Defence . Meanwhile , following tensions in Fiji between the military and the government the Australian Government dispatched three naval vessels in November and December 2006 as part of Operation Quickstep , in preparation for a potential evacuation of Australian citizens . On 29 November 2006 , a Blackhawk helicopter from the 171st Aviation Squadron carrying four crew and six soldiers from the SASR crashed while attempting to land on HMAS Kanimbla and sank in international waters off Fiji . The helicopter 's pilot and a soldier from SASR were killed in the crash .
= = = Africa = = =
In March 2012 , the Sydney Morning Herald claimed that operators from 4 Squadron — reportedly reformed in 2005 and based at Swan Island in Victoria — had been operating in Africa , specifically Zimbabwe , Nigeria and Kenya , gathering intelligence on terrorism and developing plans to rescue kidnapped Australian civilians . Professor Hugh White from the Australian National University was quoted as saying that , as soldiers , they would not have the legal cover ASIS would have if caught . The Herald also reported that the then Minister for Foreign Affairs Kevin Rudd had argued for 4 Squadron to be used in Libya during the civil war , but was overruled by the Minister for Defence , Stephen Smith , and the Chief of the Defence Force , General David Hurley . Smith denied SASR personnel were operating " at the outer reaches of Australian and international law " but did not confirm or deny the operation in Africa .
= = Organisation = =
The size of the SASR is classified and its reported strength varies , with figures of between 500 and 700 personnel appearing in different sources . Based at Campbell Barracks in Swanbourne , it is a battalion @-@ sized element and is known to be made up of a regimental headquarters , four sabre squadrons , an operational support squadron , a base squadron and a signals squadron . Two sabre squadrons maintain the regiment 's warfighting capability and train for operational contingencies , while a third squadron is maintained on rotation for counter terrorist or recovery operations in support of State or Federal police forces . The existence of the SASR 's fourth sabre squadron has been reported in the media but has never been officially acknowledged . The regiment is currently believed to be organised as follows :
Regimental headquarters
1 Squadron
2 Squadron
3 Squadron
4 Squadron
Base Squadron
Operation Support Squadron
152 Signal Squadron
Each sabre squadron is approximately 90 @-@ strong and is divided into three troops ( Water Troop , Free @-@ Fall Troop and Land Troop ) . A troop comprises four patrols with five or six operators in each patrol , and is commanded by a captain with each patrol commanded by a sergeant . For surveillance operations the SASR usually operates in patrols ; however , for CT operations it usually employs larger force elements . Support personnel include signallers , mechanics and technicians , medical staff , storemen , drivers , caterers and various specialists . It was reported in 2012 that six female soldiers were being trained in the United States for their work with 4 Squadron . As of 2003 , 152 Signal Squadron comprised four troops . Military dogs , designated Special Operations Military Working Dog ( SOMWD ) , are new members of the SASR since 2005 , seeing service in Afghanistan and have their own memorial .
While the SASR is a regular army unit , it also has a pool of Army Reserve personnel . These soldiers are former regular Army members of the SASR or specialists .
= = Uniform and equipment = =
The standard dress of the regiment is the new Multicam @-@ design camouflage which became standard issue to special forces troops in 2012 , and is now being introduced to all other Australian Army soldiers in Afghanistan and will eventually become the standard Operational Combat Uniform ( OCU ) . Although SASR parade , working and field uniforms are generally the same as those used by the rest of the Australian Army , special uniforms — including black coveralls — are used depending on the tactical situation . Qualified SASR members wear a sandy @-@ coloured beret with a metal , gold and silver badge , depicting the sword Excalibur , with flames issuing upwards from below the hilt , with a scroll across the front of blade inscribed with the regimental motto " Who Dares Wins " , on a black shield . This differs from the British Special Air Service , which wears a woven cloth cap badge of the same design . SAS ' Ibis ' -style parachute wings ( rounded at the bottom and straight on top ) are worn on the right shoulder on general duty , ceremonial and mess dress uniforms only . A garter blue lanyard is worn . Members of the regiment often dispense with rank , use first names , and wear long hair and beards on operations or when in the field .
Soldiers are armed with a variety of weapons systems depending on what the mission dictates . These include the M4A1 carbine ( designated as the M4A5 in Australia ) , which is used as their primary weapon . The shortened version of the M4 , known as the Mk 18 CQBR , is also used . Primary weapons are complemented with the two issued sidearms , the Hk USP Tactical and the Glock 19 . For medium to long range engagements the Heckler & Koch HK417 , SR @-@ 25 marksman rifle , and Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle are also used . Support weapons used include the Mk48 Maximi Modular , MAG 58 and the Para Minimi . The regiment also uses a number of direct and indirect fire support weapons including the 66 mm M72 rockets , 84 mm M3 MAAWS , FGM @-@ 148 Javelin , M2 @-@ QCB Browning .50 calibre machine guns , Mk 19 grenade launcher , and mortars .
A range of different vehicles are used , including the Supacat High Mobility Transporter ( HMT ) Extenda purchased in 2008 designated the Special Operations Vehicle @-@ Special Reconnaissance ( SOV @-@ SR ) , named " Nary " after a SASR warrant officer killed during pre @-@ deployment training in 2005 , which due to technical problems did not enter service until 2011 replacing the Long Range Patrol Vehicle ( LRPV ) which had seen extensive service in Afghanistan and Iraq . New SOV @-@ Logistics trucks are being acquired to replace the Mercedes @-@ Benz Unimog for supply , support and recovery of the SOV @-@ SR . A lighter , less protected vehicle , more akin to the LRPV — the Polaris Defense DAGOR ( Deployable Advanced Ground Off @-@ road ) — was being trialled in 2015 . Motorcycles are also used for long range strategic reconnaissance seeing service in Afghanistan . Polaris six @-@ wheel all @-@ terrain vehicles are also used , seeing service in Afghanistan . Heavily modified up @-@ armoured Toyota Land Cruiser four wheel drive vehicles designated SOV @-@ Support are used for domestic counter @-@ terrorism and special recovery .
= = Selection and training = =
The SASR regiment has high personnel standards , and selection into the regiment is considered the most demanding of any entry test in the Australian Army . Members of the SASR are required to work in small teams for extended periods and often without support , and are specially selected for their ability to work in this environment , rather than as individuals . Selection is open to all serving Australian Defence Force personnel . After initial screening candidates must complete the " Special Forces Barrier Test " , which tests their physical fitness . About 80 to 85 percent of applicants pass this phase . Successful candidates then continue on to the 21 @-@ day SASR selection course conducted at Bindoon , Western Australia which assesses both the individual 's strength and endurance ( mental and physical ) , as well as overall fitness , ability to remain calm in combat , and to work effectively in small teams . The course is conducted by staff from the Special Forces Training Centre , which was established in 1998 . Only 25 to 30 percent pass selection . These candidates then progress onto the 18 month reinforcement cycle , during which they will complete a range of courses including weapons , basic patrolling , parachuting , combat survival , signaller / medic , heavy weapons , demolitions , method of entry , and urban combat , before posting to a sabre squadron if successful . Officers must complete additional courses to qualify as an officer in the regiment , with requisite expertise in operations , administration and command . Most candidates are generally in their late @-@ 20s and are on average older than most soldiers . Despite a possible reduction in rank , SASR operators receive significant allowances , which make them among the highest @-@ paid soldiers in the Australian Defence Force , with a trooper ( equivalent to a private ) earning about $ 100 @,@ 000 per annum .
All members of the SASR are parachute qualified , and each member of a patrol has at least one specialisation , including medic , signaller , explosive expert or linguist . Each of the three sabre squadrons works on a three @-@ year training and operational cycle , although the system is flexible and can be accelerated or varied depending on operational requirements and deployments . In the first year new members of the regiment develop their individual skills and practice the new techniques they have been taught , while more experienced members undertake advanced courses . In the second year mission skill sets for conventional warfare are trained , while in the third year clandestine tasks are practiced and the squadron becomes the online counter terrorist squadron . Counter terrorist training includes close quarters battle ( CQB ) , explosive entry , tubular assault ( in vehicles such as in buses , trains and aircraft ) and in high rise buildings , as well as room and building clearance . This training is conducted in a range of advanced facilities , including electronic indoor and outdoor CQB ranges , outdoor sniper range , and urban training facilities at Swanbourne . Additional facilities include a special urban complex , vertical plunging range , method of entry house , and simulated oil rig and aircraft mock @-@ ups in order to provide realistic training environments for potential operational scenarios . SASR personnel also provide training in weapons handling and the use of explosives to intelligence agents and members of elite police units at Swan Island in Victoria .
The SASR maintains close links with special forces from the United States , United Kingdom and New Zealand , regularly participating in joint exercises and individual personnel exchange programs with the British SAS and SBS , as well as the New Zealand SAS , US Navy SEALs and United States Special Forces . The regiment also regularly conducts exercises with and trains soldiers from South East Asian nations , and participates in exercises with regional special forces . From 1992 this has included close links with the Indonesian Kopassus , a relationship which has at times been politically controversial . Since its formation the SASR has lost more men in training than in combat , due to the nature of the training regime . In 2014 , the regiment celebrated its 50th anniversary . During this period 48 soldiers have been killed during operations or in training accidents , while another 20 died in " other circumstances " . More than 200 have been wounded . The names of those killed are recorded on a plaque on a memorial made of a large piece of granite outside the SASR headquarters at Campbell Barracks , known as " The Rock " .
= = Alliances = =
United Kingdom – Special Air Service
= Mountaineer ( train ) =
The Mountaineer was a passenger train operated by Amtrak between Norfolk , Virginia , and Chicago , Illinois , via Cincinnati , Ohio . It was the first train to use the Norfolk and Western Railway 's tracks since the creation of Amtrak in 1971 and followed the route of the Pocahontas , the N & W 's last passenger train . Service began in 1975 and ended in 1977 . A new train , the Hilltopper , operated over much of the Mountaineer 's route but was itself discontinued in 1979 .
= = History = =
The Norfolk and Western Railway was one of the twenty railroads which joined Amtrak in 1971 but in the first four years hosted no passenger service over its route , the centerpiece of which was its main line between Norfolk and Cincinnati which passed through the state of West Virginia . The main driving force behind the establishment of the Mountaineer was then @-@ United States Senator Robert Byrd ( D @-@ West Virginia ) , who wanted additional rail service for his constituents and pressured the Department of Transportation to add the route .
The Mountaineer operated in conjunction with the Chicago – Washington / Newport News James Whitcomb Riley between Chicago and Cincinnati . Beyond Cincinnati , at a Chesapeake & Ohio Railway ( C & O ) yard in Ashland , Kentucky , the two trains were decoupled and then proceeded separately to Catlettsburg , Kentucky and points east , with the Mountaineer roughly twenty @-@ five minutes behind the Riley . Westbound the procedure was reversed .
The first trains ran on March 24 , 1975 , marking the return of rail passenger service to the Norfolk & Western . Amtrak guaranteed two years of operation , while warning that the train would " habitually lose money . " Amtrak president Paul Reistrup projected costs of $ 4 @.@ 5 million / year while taking in $ 900 @,@ 000 in the first year . To make the run viable the Mountaineer would need to carry 150 – 300 people daily between Norfolk and Cincinnati .
In 1976 Amtrak announced several possible changes to the Mountaineer , including a later schedule through West Virginia and combined operation west of Cincinnati with both the Riley and an unnamed ( and never implemented ) Washington – Denver train . Under this plan the Mountaineer would receive new Amfleet equipment but lose its sleeping car . The schedule changes never took place , but Amtrak was forced to re @-@ equip the Mountaineer after a harsh winter damaged many of its old steam @-@ heated coaches and locomotives . The Mountaineer was one of eight routes suspended in January 1977 , and it returned with an all @-@ Amfleet consist , minus the sleeping car .
Ridership on the Mountaineer over its two @-@ year probationary period was disappointing : 58 @,@ 991 in 1975 and 53 @,@ 400 in 1976 . Averaged over a 365 @-@ day year , this was 161 passengers per day in 1975 and 146 in 1976 . By 1977 daily ridership had dwindled to 35 . Monetary losses were far higher than expected : $ 5 @.@ 7 million in FY1975 and $ 14 @.@ 9 million in FY1976 . After a brief respite , Amtrak discontinued the Mountaineer on May 31 , 1977 . A new train , the Hilltopper , operated over much of the same route until 1979 .
= = Stations = =
None of the fourteen stations east of Cincinnati had seen Amtrak service before . Catlettsburg , also known as " Tri @-@ State Station " ( for the states of Kentucky , Ohio and West Virginia ) , replaced an existing stop at Ashland , Kentucky . Amtrak built new stations at Roanoke and Bluefield . The remaining stops all used existing Norfolk & Western stations , with varying degrees of refurbishment and renovation . Two cities , Petersburg and Lynchburg , Virginia , had additional rail service at different stations . Amtrak 's Florida @-@ bound trains used the ex @-@ Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Petersburg station , while the Southern Railway 's remaining trains used Kemper Street station in Lynchburg .
= = Equipment = =
The Mountaineer 's typical consist ( at first ) was five cars : a baggage @-@ dormitory , two coaches , a grill diner and a 10 @-@ roomette 6 @-@ bedroom ( 10 @-@ 6 ) sleeping car . When available , one of the coaches was a dome car . Starting in January 1977 Amtrak ran a consist of three new Amfleet cars , typically two coaches and a cafe .
= Christ Church , Newton =
Christ Church , Newton , also known as Christ Episcopal Church , is a Christian house of worship located on the corner of Church Street and Main Street ( U.S. Route 206 ) in Newton , New Jersey . It is a parish overseen by the Episcopal Diocese of Newark , a diocese of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America . The congregation first met on 28 December 1769 and was granted a charter by New Jersey 's last Royal Governor William Franklin on behalf of Britain 's King George III . Christ Church is the oldest church in Newton and the third oldest parish in the Diocese of Newark .
The current church building , erected in 1868 – 1869 , is the second structure built at the site , and is an example of the Broken Ashlar or Rustic mode of Gothic Revival architecture patterned after medieval English parish churches . The interior nave features several stained @-@ glass windows depicting scenes from the life of Jesus of Nazareth fabricated by J & R Lamb Studios . On 24 September 1992 , Christ Church , Newton was included on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places as part of the Newton Town Plot Historic District which was approved and entered on the National Register of Historic Places on 12 November 1992 .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
In a 1770 letter , the Rev 'd Dr Thomas B. Chandler , rector of St John 's Church in the provincial capital Elizabethtown ( now Elizabeth ) , reported that he had visited Sussex County in the northwestern part of the province of New Jersey in November 1769 and found that there were 50 families belonging to the Church of England in the region . Chandler reported that " they frequently assemble in private houses and read the Liturgy " and that an Anglican clergyman " had never been in those parts before . " Many of these families met at Newton , the county seat of Sussex County , on 28 December 1769 , to establish an Anglican parish .
On 15 August 1774 , Christ Church was formally incorporated as The Rector , Church Wardens , and Vestrymen of Christ 's Church at New Town , in the county of Sussex and province of New Jersey . The colony 's last royal governor , William Franklin , granted and signed a charter on behalf of Britain 's King George III . The congregation petitioned the East Jersey Board of Proprietors , a colonial land agency , asking for their assistance to establish a church . The board granted a warrant for 200 acres ( 81 ha ) of land yet unappropriated in Sussex County to serve as an income @-@ generating glebe to support the church . The tract chosen by the congregation was located approximately 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) south of Newton ( in present @-@ day Fredon Township , then part of Hardwick Township ) and conveyed to the church on 16 December 1774 by the colony 's last royal attorney general , Cortlandt Skinner , and John Johnston . Jonathan Hampton ( 1716 – 1777 ) , a landowner , coachmaker , and merchant from Elizabethtown , deeded lands from his surveyed town plot to the congregation on 14 December 1774 " for the encouragement of the Episcopal religion ... and toward the maintenance & support of a parson officiating in said church " .
= = = Early history ( 1769 – 1869 ) = = =
The congregation called for a clergyman , and the Rev 'd Uzal Ogden , Jr . ( 1744 – 1822 ) was sent as a missionary lay reader and catechist in 1770 to the area on behalf of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel . He would become rector in 1773 after his ordination . According to local historian Kevin Wright , the parsonage was built circa 1770 by local land agent John Pettit . During his tenure , Ogden held services at Newton on the third Sunday each month as he served an area of roughly 2 @,@ 000 square miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km2 ) and divided other Sundays among congregations in Roxbury , Knowlton , and Hackettstown . Services were held in the County Court House ( built 1762 – 1765 ) , which he described in 1771 as " very commodious and serves us to perform Divine Service in " . During the Revolution , Ogden supported the cause of American independence , and according to tradition quartered sheep in the parsonage basement for the use of the Continental Army . Ogden left Christ Church in 1784 to become an assistant at Trinity Church in New York City , and later served as rector of Trinity Church , Newark , where his father served as warden .
Although Ogden was listed as Christ Church 's rector until as late as 1792 and preached infrequently in the area , the rectorate in Newton remained without a clergyman until the appointment of the Rev 'd Clarkson Dunn in 1820 . During the 36 years , services were held irregularly , at the court house ; this was an era described as " a long period of discouragement , almost of dissolution . " The congregation reported only six communicants during this time . Dunn would operate a school at the rectory beginning in December 1823 . Assisted by William Rankin , an English teacher , Dunn taught Classics . Dunn remained in this charge until 1857 when his son @-@ in @-@ law , the Rev 'd Nathaniel Pettit , assumed the pulpit .
The congregation 's first church building was erected beginning in May 1823 and consecrated a few months later on 19 November 1823 by the Rt Rev 'd John Croes , Bishop of New Jersey . This building was located at the corner of Church and Main streets , on a tract of land conveyed to the congregation by William T. Anderson , a local attorney . The Gothic structure was described as small ; it accommodated 250 worshipers . Toward the end of Pettit 's tenure , the congregation was compelled to build a new church building as their current building had become unstable and unsafe . During the construction , the congregation met at the county courthouse and at Rinker 's Hall , a building located near the courthouse on the Newton Town Green .
= = = Current church ( 1869 – present ) = = =
According to Snell , during the forty @-@ five @-@ year tenures of Dunn and Pettit as rectors , " parochial statistics from 1820 to 1867 show an aggregate of 510 baptisms , 241 confirmations , 334 marriages , and 468 funerals " . The growth in membership necessitated a new , larger edifice . To fund the construction of a new church building , the congregation sought the permission of the state legislature to sell the lands granted to it by warrant . Permission was given in 1867 . The congregation sold this property on 10 May 1868 for $ 15 @,@ 579 . The congregation also sold its parsonage and accompanying lands for $ 17 @,@ 600 to prominent lawyer , Levi Shepherd in October . A loan to support the construction was provided by Robert Hamilton ( 1809 – 1878 ) , a vestryman and warden and generous financial contributor to the parish . Hamilton was a prominent political figure , serving in the New Jersey General Assembly in 1863 and 1864 , the latter year as Speaker , and from 1873 to 1877 , he represented the New Jersey 's 4th congressional district ( covering northwestern New Jersey ) in the United States House of Representatives . In 1879 , a year after Hamilton 's death , his widow Sarah forgave the loan , which left the church debt free after the construction .
Local historian Frank Greenagel writes that " the Episcopal church formalized its adherence to the English Gothic style in the late 1840s under the influence of a powerful bishop , George Washington Doane " , and that the parish at Newton among many in the state adhere to that style . The vestry and diocese contracted " for the building of a new church ... for $ 23 @,@ 000 " on the site of the old church building by contractor Isaac L. Overton of Newark , New Jersey from a design by architect Jonathan V. Nichols . The first service was held on 11 July 1869 , and the building was consecrated by the Bishop of New Jersey , the Rt Rev 'd , William Henry Odenheimer ( 1817 – 1879 ) on 20 October 1869 . Today the structure boasts a three @-@ story bell tower , but previously the tower was topped by a 108 @-@ foot high spire surmounted by a 12 @-@ foot high cross . This spire was removed after being struck by lightning on three occasions .
A rectory , built in 1868 – 1869 , was used for that purpose for thirty years before being renovated for activity space for church organizations and fellowship . In October 1901 , the Vestry of Christ Church authorised purchase of a new rectory located on Liberty Street . Holley Hall , the central facility for parish activities , was constructed with a 1965 bequest from the estate of Alice Herbert Holley , daughter @-@ in @-@ law of the Rev 'd William Welles Holley , fourth rector , who was the first to reside in the former rectory after its completion in 1869 .
= = Architecture , furnishings and fittings = =
On 24 September 1992 , Christ Church , Newton was placed on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places as part of the Newton Town Plot Historic District which was approved and entered on the National Register of Historic Places on 12 November 1992 . The 17 @.@ 2 @-@ acre ( 7 @.@ 0 ha ) historic district comprises 56 contributing structures which were built on Jonathan Hampton 's surveyed town plot for the town of Newton ( then Sussex Court House ) .
Designed by architect Jonathan V. Nichols , the current church building was erected 1868 – 1869 and is an example of the Broken Ashlar or Rustic mode of Gothic Revival architecture . It was designed in a " simple basilican style of nave flanked by shed aisles ( no clerestory ) " , that was " patterned upon medieval English parish churches " . The cornerstone was laid on 21 August 1868 and the building was constructed of native blue limestone , with trimmings in Newark sandstone , with a roof of patterned or traceried black slate that was quarried in Newton .
Christ Church 's contribution to the historic district includes the church building and a Gothic Revival style rectory , built in 1868 . The site also includes an eighteenth @-@ century Federal @-@ style townhouse that was the home of Colonel Thomas Anderson ( c.1743 – 1805 ) , deputy assistant quartermaster general of the Continental Army during the American Revolution , one of the parish 's original vestrymen ( elected in 1769 ) and warden of Christ Church from 1784 to 1794 . A Newton attorney with statewide prominence , Anderson was the first Surrogate of Sussex County ( appointed in 1768 ) and also served as County Clerk from 1770 to 1777 . His home , built about 1785 , was originally located on Park Place one @-@ half block to the north of the church property and faced Newton 's town green before being relocated adjacent to the church property at 62 Main Street in 1896 . In 1965 , it was purchased by Christ Church and serves as the parish office . The Anderson House in 1958 was marked with an historical plaque by the Society of Daughters of Colonial Wars in New Jersey .
When completed in 1869 , the church 's interior could accommodate 400 parishioners , and featured a tint @-@ glass chancel window by Fredericks of Brooklyn . Today , the interior is adorned with a Tiffany @-@ style window above the altar , dedicated in 1919 , and several pictorial stained @-@ glass windows ( dedicated in 1968 ) around the nave featuring scenes associated with the life of Jesus of Nazareth . The nave windows are the works of the United States ' oldest continuously @-@ run decorative arts firm , J & R. Lamb Studios , and include work designed by stained @-@ glass artist Heinrich Jan Van de Burgh . They including depictions of :
= = Rectors = =
Eighteen clergymen have served as rector of Christ Church , Newton . The first , Uzal Ogden , Jr . , was the son of Newark merchant and churchwarden . Ogden began to serve in northwestern New Jersey in 1770 and , in addition to Newton , covered an area of 2 @,@ 000 square miles including St James Episcopal Church in Knowlton Township , New Jersey ( founded in 1769 ) . Because of the lack of a bishop in Britain 's North American colonies , Ogden traveled to England to be ordained by the Rt Rev 'd Richard Terrick , the Bishop of London , who had jurisdiction over all parishes of the Church of England in North America . After his departure in 1784 , the pulpit remained unfilled until 1823 . During this time , several clergymen , including the Reverend John Croes ( 1762 – 1832 ) , later the first Bishop of New Jersey , officiated on occasion .
The second rector , Clarkson Dunn , served both the Newton congregation and St James in Knowlton . Dunn , who died in 1870 , was honored by the town of Newton with the naming of two streets , Clarkson Street and Dunn Place , which frame the property of the parish 's old parsonage . After a ten @-@ year tenure , Dunn 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Nathaniel Pettit , resigned in 1867 to become Sussex County 's first Superintendent of Schools . Moffett , who served as rector for fifteen years , resigned from the pulpit to accept an appointment from President Grover Cleveland to become the American minister ( essentially ambassador ) to Greece in 1885 .
The current rector , Robert T. Griner , received a bachelor 's degree in Psychology from Drew University and studied at the University of Oxford before completing a Master of Divinity degree at Yale University .
= Bridgeport Harbor Light =
The Bridgeport Harbor Light , later the Bridgeport Harbor Lighthouse , was a lighthouse in Bridgeport , Connecticut , United States . It is located on the west side of the Bridgeport Harbor entrance and the north side of Long Island Sound . Originally constructed in 1851 and rebuilt in 1871 with a dwelling , it had a red @-@ fixed light throughout its service life . The builder and first keeper of the light was Abraham A. McNeil who is also credited as improvising the first light for the Bridgeport Harbor in 1844 . By 1953 , the lighthouse was in poor condition and the United States Coast Guard opted to build a skeleton tower in its place . In the 2014 edition of the Light List Volume 1 , the skeleton tower is marked as " Light 13A " with a height of 57 feet ( 17 m ) and a visual marker of a square green dayboard with a green reflective border . The lighthouse was sold and an attempt was made to move it to serve as a monument for Connecticut 's maritime history , but it was later decided to scrap the structure . The lighthouse caught fire and was destroyed during the dismantling in 1953 .
= = 1851 light = =
According to Waldo 's History of Bridgeport and Vicinity , Volume 1 , Abraham A. McNeil first set a light atop a mast to mark the Bridgeport Harbor in 1844 . The next day Captain John Brooks Jr. set up his own improvised light with another boat . Constructed in 1851 , the first Bridgeport Harbor Light was an octagonal tower on a box @-@ like structure stood on iron piles . The exact details of its construction are not recorded and there is no complete description , but it is known to have had a fixed red light . Waldo identifies Abraham A. McNeil as the builder of the light . The light had no keeper 's quarters and was only accessible by boat . By 1870 , a new lighthouse was needed , partly because of the increased maritime traffic .
= = 1871 lighthouse = =
Completed in 1871 , the rebuilt light had a dwelling with the attached tower containing a fourth @-@ order Fresnel lens . It retained the original fixed red light , but also included a fog bell . In 1900 , the lighthouse was identified in the Light List as having a red screw @-@ pile structure , a white tower and dwelling with a slate @-@ gray Mansard roof topped with a black lantern . The lighthouse had a fog signal that sounded every 15 seconds and was operated by machinery . Although the focal height of the light is unlisted , the center of the light stood 34 ft ( 10 m ) above the ground .
In 1873 , a request for $ 5 @,@ 500 , equivalent to $ 109 @,@ 000 in 2015 was submitted to Congress for the " additional protection " of the " screw @-@ pile light house " . During the first session of the 43rd Congress , the $ 5 @,@ 500 was appropriated for the lighthouse . In 1898 , during the Spanish – American War the lighthouse was equipped with 10 @-@ inch guns to ward off enemy attacks , making it one of the few armed American lighthouses in history . These guns never saw action as there was no attack on the coast . In 1920 , $ 5925 was estimated to be needed for riprap protection .
By 1953 , the lighthouse was in poor condition and the U.S. Coast Guard opted to replace it with a skeleton tower . The lighthouse was sold to the Fairfield Dock Company , which initially planned to move it ashore , but it was later decided to dismantle and scrap it . A plan existed to move the lighthouse ashore to a city park as a monument to Connecticut 's maritime heritage , but the location could not be agreed upon .
= = Skeleton tower = =
The skeleton tower constructed from 1953 continues to serve Bridgeport Harbor . In the 2014 edition of the Light List Volume 1 , the skeleton tower is marked as " Light 13A " with a height of 57 feet ( 17 m ) and a visual marker of a square green dayboard with a green reflective border .
= = List of keepers = =
= Chartjackers =
Chartjackers is a British documentary series , produced by Hat Trick Productions and commissioned by BBC Switch . It documents the lives of four teenage video bloggers over the course of ten weeks , as they attempt to write , record and release a pop song for charity , with the goal to " sell an estimated 25 @,@ 000 singles to achieve their dream of a number one single " . It premiered in the UK on 12 September 2009 on BBC Two , and ran for a single series of eleven weekly episodes . When first broadcast , the programme ran in real time : its first ten episodes documented the events of the previous seven days , while the final episode was an extended compilation that summarised all ten weeks .
The Chartjackers single was written entirely through crowdsourcing , with the song 's title , lyrics , melody , singers , band , production , cover art and music video all being solicited from the global online community . The crowdsourcing took the format of the four bloggers — Alex Day , Johnny Haggart , Jimmy Hill and Charlie McDonnell — posting videos to a dedicated YouTube channel named ChartJackersProject , where they invited viewers to suggest various ideas for the final song . After receiving advice from industry experts such as Charlie Simpson and David and Carrie Grant , the completed Chartjackers single , entitled " I 've Got Nothing " , was released through the iTunes Store at the end of the ten @-@ week period on 9 November . The track received mainly negative reviews from music critics and sold approximately 8 @,@ 400 copies in the UK , earning it a peak position of number 36 on the UK Singles Chart .
Chartjackers garnered a viewing figures peak of almost half a million with its final episode and was critically panned by reviewers . Some commentators felt that the programme 's concept was ridiculous and doomed from the start , others felt that the series showed a contempt for music and the general public , and other critics questioned whether the point of the project was to raise money for charity or for the four bloggers to promote themselves . The show was nominated for a 2010 Broadcast Digital Award in the Best Multi @-@ Platform Project category , but lost out to The Operation ... Surgery Live .
= = Production = =
= = = Concept = = =
Chartjackers was devised in 2009 by Jonathan Davenport and Andy Mettam of the British production company Hat Trick Productions . It was commissioned by Geoffrey Goodwin and Jo Twist of the television brand BBC Switch , and was featured as part of a season of multi @-@ platform content intended to appeal to teenagers . The show was billed as a " YouTube X Factor " , with its main focus being its direct link to the 2009 annual appeal for the British charity Children in Need – profits from sales of the completed single were donated to the charity . Chartjackers was executively produced by Davenport , Hat Trick 's digital department head , who had previously worked on similar cross @-@ platform projects that incorporated both television and online media , such as the video podcast of Have I Got News For You and the YouTube @-@ based series Bryony Makes a Zombie Movie . Digital agency Fish in a bottle were commissioned to provide creative content for the online platforms , such as the YouTube channel and Twitter account .
= = = Casting = = =
As a cross @-@ platform project that incorporated YouTube , it was important that the video bloggers cast for the leading team already had a large fanbase – the four bloggers chosen had a combined YouTube subscriber total of over 200 @,@ 000 . They were selected for their familiarity to young British YouTube viewers and to " act as Pied Pipers to the teen audience " . Miranda Chartrand and Adam Nichols , the vocalists who sang on the completed Chartjackers single , were cast halfway through the programme 's series as part of an audition process and were featured in the remainder of the episodes .
= = = Filming locations = = =
Although much of Chartjackers was filmed in and around London — such as a gathering at music venue 93 Feet East during episode nine and the music video for " I 've Got Nothing " during episode seven — various locations were featured throughout the series . Vocalist auditions in episode five took place at the Wellfield Working Men 's Club in Rochdale , and the single itself was recorded at the University of Wales in Newport . During episode nine , some of the team visited the Three Ways School in Bath , Somerset .
= = Series overview = =
Chartjackers documented the lives of Day , Haggart , Hill and McDonnell as they attempted to write , record and release a charity single through crowdsourcing . The series was shown in real time , with each of the first ten episodes detailing the events of the previous seven days . On 5 September 2009 , one week before the programme 's first episode aired , the group announced on the YouTube channel ChartJackersProject their intention to release a number one single within their ten @-@ week time frame . A different task would be undertaken each week , so that , by the end of the project , the song would be completed .
The first episode of Chartjackers documented the events of the first week of the project and explained what its ultimate goal was . To generate potential lyrics , viewers were asked each to post one line as a comment to a video on ChartJackersProject . Viewers posted more than 4 @,@ 000 comments , from which were selected the winning lines . These lyrics were posted to the Internet the following episode , with the chorus having been composed by YouTube user blakeisno1 and the repeated phrase " I 've Got Nothing " chosen for the song 's title . ChartJackersProject viewers were then asked to create a melody for the lyrics and submit it in a video response , so that one could be selected for the single .
Out of a total of 51 melodies that had been sent in , the winning entry by Jonny Dark was chosen from them during episode three . It was also revealed that a band would be put together to perform the Chartjackers single and that any potential members should apply by submitting video auditions . Episode four documented some of the hundreds of auditions that had been sent in – the group reviewed these auditions and selected from them their ten favourites to go through as finalists . These ten finalists performed for the four boys during episode five , where Chartrand , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old au pair from Stroud , Gloucestershire , and Nichols , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old musician from Essex , were selected to sing on the official release . During episode six , " I 've Got Nothing " was recorded in Newport by record producer Marc Dowding , and the group received advice from video director Corin Hardy on how to film the official music video .
Taking Hardy 's advice , the music video for " I 've Got Nothing " was filmed during the seventh episode of Chartjackers . To begin promoting its release , the team also petitioned 95 @.@ 8 Capital FM and BBC Radio 1 to try to get the radio coverage for the single , but it was not playlisted and received no airplay . The boys feared that the song would not chart at all , so , during episode eight , they urged viewers to spam the Twitter feeds of radio DJs who could play the single on their shows . In the next episode , a gathering took place at 93 Feet East in London on 4 November , where the single was performed live for the first time by Chartrand and Nichols . During the tenth episode , " I 've Got Nothing " was released online . The midweek charts placed the single at Number 39 , but its sales increased after comedian Stephen Fry — who provides an outro for McDonnell 's YouTube videos — was convinced to promote it on his Twitter profile . Episode eleven , the final compilation episode , revealed on The Radio 1 Chart Show that " I 've Got Nothing " had reached number 36 on the UK Singles Chart , which disappointed the boys .
= = = Celebrity guests = = =
Over the course of the series , several figures from both the music and entertainment industry made an appearance on Chartjackers , usually to offer advice or encouragement to the four boys . The first celebrity to feature on the show was former pop star Chesney Hawkes , who remarked that he felt that the team had " every experience between [ them ] to actually pull [ their aim of reaching number one ] off " . During the fourth episode , vocal coaches David and Carrie Grant offered advice to the group on what criteria to use when judging the submitted video auditions , and indie rock band The Young Knives sent in a video message , wishing the team success . The following episode , Charlie Simpson of Fightstar explained to the boys the differences between releasing music through major and independent labels . During episode six , the team met with Peter Oakley , who spoke about his own chart success as part of The Zimmers , and Hardy , who advised ways in which the music video could be filmed . The next episode , the group received advice from celebrity stylist Hannah Sandling , who suggested how Chartrand and Nichols should be styled for the video , and entertainment journalist Rav Singh , who discussed how to get airplay for " I 've Got Nothing " through publicity stunts .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reaction to Chartjackers was overwhelmingly negative . Although radio stations , newspapers and magazines were all canvassed , the show was largely ignored by the mainstream media and received generally negative reviews . It was misrepresented in an article on The Times 's website , which mistook the four boys for a new boy band . Fraser McAlpine of BBC Radio 1 's Chart Blog said that the project showed a basic " contempt for music " and " the public at large " . James Masterton of Yahoo ! Music called Chartjackers " something of a failure " and its charting " lacklustre " . He did not mention it at all in his weekly chart podcast . Neither Reggie Yates nor Scott Mills , two of the DJs whose Twitter feeds were spammed during episode eight , were impressed by the way that the Chartjackers team had tried to get their attention .
Similarly negative reviews came from Eammon Forde of Music Week , who said the decision to release the single without management was " ridiculous " and that the campaign was " doomed " , and Pocket @-@ lint , who described the show as a " car crash " . In the week of the single 's release , Irish television personality Stephen Byrne questioned on his Twitter profile whether the main motivation for the project really was " charity " – British comedian David Bass agreed with him . The project was quickly overshadowed by a similar , more successful campaign to get " Killing in the Name " by American metal band Rage Against the Machine to top the UK Singles Chart for Christmas 2009 .
= = = Awards = = =
Chartjackers received one nomination at the 2010 Broadcast Digital Awards , a British awards event commemorating success and creativity in digital television . The show was submitted in the Best Multi @-@ Platform Project category , but was beaten by The Operation : Surgery Live . It was not nominated for any further awards .
= = Distribution = =
Chartjackers was distributed both on television and online . It ran for a single series of eleven episodes : the first ten episodes lasted for five minutes each , with the final compilation episode running for half an hour and gaining a viewership peak of half a million . Chartjackers premiered on BBC Two on 12 September 2009 at 12 : 50 p.m. , as part of the channel 's two @-@ hour @-@ long BBC Switch segment – it was uploaded to the YouTube channel BBCSwitch the same day . This practice of broadcasting an episode on BBC Two and uploading it to the BBCSwitch channel the same day continued throughout the series . Episodes were also streamed online through BBC iPlayer to UK residents for seven days after their initial broadcast . The show was not broadcast outside of the UK and , as of 20 September 2013 , is not available on DVD .
= = I 've Got Nothing = =
The completed Chartjackers single was released worldwide exclusively through the iTunes Store at midnight on 9 November 2009 . Each copy was sold for £ 0 @.@ 79 in the UK and $ 0 @.@ 99 in the US . Just under 8 @,@ 400 copies were downloaded in the UK , giving " I 've Got Nothing " a chart placing of number 36 in the UK Singles Chart . The song sold approximately 20 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , but did not make the singles chart in any other country .
Like the series from which it originated , " I 've Got Nothing " was poorly received by critics . Some called the effort " very bad " and others predicted that it was " unlikely to make much of a top 40 impact " . The music video for " I 've Got Nothing " featured footage of Chartrand and Nichols singing the song in a London park , along with an actor dressed as Children in Need mascot Pudsey Bear . This footage , along with clips of viewers miming to the song , was then used to construct the final music video for the single , which McDonnell edited .
" I 've Got Nothing " was performed live twice . The first occasion was at the 93 Feet East gathering on 4 November 2009 , during the promotion of the single 's release . The gathering featured performances from other YouTube users and was headlined by Hawkes . The second occurrence was four days later at Switch Live 2009 , an awards show organised by BBC Switch at the HMV Hammersmith Apollo , where a performance of " I 've Got Nothing " opened the event .
= Clackline Bridge =
Clackline Bridge is a road bridge in Clackline , Western Australia , 77 kilometres ( 48 mi ) east of Perth in the Shire of Northam , that carried the Great Eastern Highway until 2008 . It is the only bridge in Western Australia to have spanned both a waterway and railway , the Clackline Brook and the former Eastern Railway alignment . The mainly timber bridge has a unique curved and sloped design , due to the difficult topography and the route of the former railway . The bridge was designed in 1934 to replace two dangerous rail crossings and a rudimentary water crossing . Construction began in January 1935 , and was completed relatively quickly , with the opening ceremony held in August 1935 . The bridge has undergone various improvement and maintenance works since then , including widening by three metres ( 10 ft ) in 1959 – 60 , but remained a safety hazard , with increasing severity and numbers of accidents through the 1970s and 1980s . Planning for a highway bypass of Clackline and the Clackline Bridge began in the 1990s , and it was constructed between January 2007 and February 2008 . The local community had been concerned that the historic bridge would be lost , but it remains in use as part of the local road network , and has been listed on both the Northam Municipal Heritage Inventory and the Heritage Council of Western Australia 's Register of Heritage Places .
= = Description = =
Clackline Bridge is a timber bridge spanning the Clackline Brook and the former Eastern Railway alignment , in the Shire of Northam , 77 kilometres ( 48 mi ) east of Perth . Constrained by the topography of the site , the route of the Eastern Railway tracks , and the previous alignment of Great Eastern Highway , the bridge has a unique curved and sloping design . It has 18 spans over a 126 @-@ metre ( 413 ft ) length , with a 1 in 20 slope and a horizontal curve radius of 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) . There are 18 numbered piers , starting from pier 1 at the eastern end . The double tracks of the Eastern Railway , which linked Perth and Northam until its removal in 1981 , passed between piers 16 and 17 . Piers 14 to 17 are parallel to that former railway , at an angle of approximately 40 degrees to the bridge . This resulted in spans of various lengths : 7 @.@ 6 metres ( 25 ft ) heading out from the western abutment , then a 14 @-@ metre ( 46 ft ) span between piers 16 and 17 , followed by a 4 @.@ 8 @-@ metre ( 16 ft ) length , two 5 @.@ 2 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 17 ft ) spans , and 13 spans of 6 metres ( 20 ft ) .
The bridge has undergone multiple alterations , but the original piers remain . They were constructed as " four rounded braced wandoo piles supported from horizontal 450mm timber sills , adzed to 400mm , fixed to concrete footings " , with the footings designed to bear on foundation rocks one and a half metres ( 4 ft 11 in ) beneath the surface . The bridge 's original spans were made up of seven rounded timber wandoo stringers , of at least 400 millimetres ( 16 in ) diameter , bearing on jarrah corbels , supported by jarrah half caps 600 by 150 millimetres ( 23 @.@ 6 by 5 @.@ 9 in ) in size . The 14 @-@ metre ( 46 ft ) span over the railway alignment was originally supported on four 610 @-@ by @-@ 190 @-@ millimetre ( 24 @.@ 0 by 7 @.@ 5 in ) steel beams , weighing 41 kilograms ( 90 lb ) each .
Various aspects of Clackline Bridge have since been modified . Originally five and a half metres ( 18 ft ) wide , with a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ metre @-@ wide ( 3 @.@ 5 ft ) footpath , the bridge was widened by three metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , with two additional piles installed at each pier . At the same time the railway span was strengthened , with eight additional steel beams installed , and steel plates welded to the flanges of the existing girders . The approaches to the bridge were also widened , over a length of 150 metres ( 490 ft ) to the west , and 60 metres ( 200 ft ) to the east . The timber decking was upgraded to a concrete slab that has been repaired a number of times , especially around pier 13 . Some of the connecting bolts in the structure have been replaced , and a concrete approach slab was installed at the western end . In 2008 , the bridge was assessed as being in a well @-@ maintained condition .
Main Roads Western Australia identifies Clackline Bridge as Structure Number 0608 . As of 2014 , the bridge dimensions are recorded as 133 @.@ 6 metres ( 438 ft ) in length and 8 @.@ 98 metres ( 29 @.@ 5 ft ) in width , with a distance of 8 @.@ 75 metres ( 28 @.@ 7 ft ) between kerbs , a deck area of 119 @.@ 73 square metres ( 1 @,@ 288 @.@ 8 sq ft ) , and maximum span length of 14 @.@ 2 metres ( 47 ft ) . As of 2008 , it is the only bridge in Western Australia to have crossed both a railway line and a waterway .
= = History = =
The settlement of Clackline began as a stopping point on the Spencers Brook to Northam section of the Eastern Railway line , which opened on 13 October 1886 . It was also the point where the road to Newcastle ( now Toodyay ) departed the Perth to Kalgoorlie road . Both the road and railway crossed the adjacent Clackline Brook . In 1926 , the newly formed Main Roads Department 's Engineer for Roads and Bridges , A. Fotheringham , described the majority of the Wooroloo to Clackline road as " simply a bush track widened out from time to time by the traffic " . The road crossed the railway line twice , and Clackline Brook via a small bedlog bridge , in the vicinity of the town , but the rail crossings were " awkwardly and dangerously situated in regard to road traffic , owing to limited visibility " , and the water crossing was described in 1935 as " a primitive and inadequate culvert " .
Though the need to improve this section of road was recognised in 1926 , funding was limited . Only part of the required improvement work was undertaken , and included rerouting the highway along Lockyer Road , resuming several town lots , and resurfacing the road , at a cost of ₤ 8000 . In March 1934 , torrential rain caused widespread flooding in the Wheatbelt , affecting Northam , Toodyay , York , Beverley , and surrounding areas . Rail services were disrupted , and main roads were cut off at many points , including at Clackline . Some cars managed to bypass the flooded road by driving along the railway line , but such practice was described by the Royal Automobile Club as " highly dangerous " and " against the railway regulations " . The Main Roads Department had been considering completing the remaining improvements in November 1933 , but the flooding made the situation more urgent . It prompted Albert Hawke , MLA for Northam , to write to the Commissioner for Main Roads , E. W. Tindale , urging that the Clackline works commence , especially since works at nearby Northam had almost been finished .
= = = Design and construction = = =
Main Roads engineer Ernest Godfrey completed a design for the Clackline Deviation , a single bridge over the waterway and railway , in August 1934 . Godfrey was the first bridge engineer for Main Roads , and is credited with introducing concrete and steel bridges into Western Australia ; however , for Clackline Bridge , he proposed using timber – the standard material for the preceding hundred years – with steel construction only for the longer span over the railway . He also suggested that a footpath be included on the bridge , so that schoolchildren and other pedestrians would have a safer railway crossing . The cost was estimated at ₤ 8500 , plus an additional ₤ 700 for the footpath . The initial design was moved 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) south , to satisfy the Railways Department 's requirement that the route not be too close to the Toodyay railway line ( a spur line off the Eastern Railway ) that ran parallel to the highway . This shift increased the curve radius , but required " the destruction of some well developed pine trees inside the old boundary fence of the [ Clackline School ] playground " .
Construction was undertaken by Main Roads Department day labourers , starting in January 1935 , as part of an unemployment relief works program . The Western Australian Government Railways ( WAGR ) was involved in various aspects of the project – some railway land acquisition was required , and WAGR supplied and supervised a five @-@ ton crane , used to erect the railway span girders . The bridge was completed less than one year after construction began , which would later be described as " a considerable achievement of the management and workforce for such a complex structure " . Clackline Bridge was opened on 30 August 1935 by Acting Minister for Works H. Millington , having cost £ 9000 . The first vehicle to cross the bridge was Millington 's car , carrying himself and Albert Hawke on the front bumper , and a small boy who decided to take a ride on the rear bumper . Afterwards , there was an official lunchtime party in Northam , hosted by the Northam Roads Board .
= = = Safety concerns and upgrades = = =
Within two decades the bridge was considered a safety hazard , due to increased traffic volume , speed , and truck sizes . The primary concerns were deficiency in the width and curve radius . The bridge was strengthened as well as widened in 1959 – 60 . Removing the footpath and using that space for the road had been suggested , but instead the structure itself was widened by ten feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , leaving the footpath intact . The approaches to the bridges were widened , new piers were erected either side of the railway span , and eight new girders were installed – six of which were part of the previous Causeway structure . The work was undertaken from a suspended platform , which had to be quickly pulled up when trains went past . The widening , designed by Main Road 's second bridge engineer Gilbert Marsh , cost approximately ₤ 20 @,@ 000 .
Clackline Bridge continued to be a safety concern , with several accidents occurring in the 1970s . The narrow road and small curve radius were considered major factors in the accidents , and there was roughness in the road surface between the original and widened sections . A reinforced concrete overlay was installed on the bridge in 1978 , initially with a single coat surface , but then upgraded to a 40 @-@ millimetre @-@ thick ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) bituminous concrete surface in 1987 . The 1980s saw the closure and removal of the Perth – Northam railway line , as well a number of major and sometimes fatal accidents involving prime movers . There were also several car accidents , and the " screaming brakes of cars and hiss of airbrakes " were often heard at night in Clackline . After each accident , damaged sections of the bridge – usually the guardrails , handrails , or bridge entry section – needed to be repaired . A 1989 prime mover accident severely damaged the footpath . Rather than repair the narrow footpath , and given that the railway had been removed , a new pedestrian path was constructed on the ground below the bridge .
A bushfire burnt through the area in December 1993 , destroying the former railway 's bridge over Clackline Brook . Clackline Bridge survived , weakened but in a reasonable condition . The damage included internal expansion joints that had failed , split bedlogs , and other deteriorated timbers . Steel props were installed to support the bridge , and the substructure was repaired in 1995 , which mainly involved replacing connecting bolts . A concrete approach slab was installed adjacent to the western abutment in 1998 , and in 2013 the concrete deck near pier 13 was repaired . Clackline Bridge was the crossing point for Great Eastern Highway until the highway 's bypass of Clackline opened in February 2008 . The bridge remains open to traffic , as part of the local road network . In July 2012 it once more carried highway traffic , excluding heavy vehicles , when an accident temporarily closed Great Eastern Highway at Spencers Brook Road .
= = Replacement = =
In the wake of the accidents of the 1970s and 1980s , replacement of Clackline Bridge seemed inevitable ; however , both Main Roads and the Shire of Northam received letters from residents asking for the bridge to be kept . In 1988 , the Shire requested that Main Roads note the preservation value of the bridge , and retain it in any plans for road realignment . A decade later , in 1998 , the bridge was placed on the Northam Municipal Heritage Inventory , in category C – " conserve if possible " . In that same year , it was included in an Institute of Engineers survey of the state 's large timber structures , as a current structure with " very high heritage value " . By this time Great Eastern Highway 's bypass of Clackline was being planned , but maintenance works continued to be undertaken as needed . The bypass was eventually constructed , with works beginning in January 2007 , and the project completed in February 2008 . The Clackline community welcomed the bypass , but there were still concerns that the historic Clackline Bridge would be lost . The bridge has since received a permanent entry on the Heritage Council of Western Australia 's Register of Heritage Places , in November 2008 . The new highway alignment crosses Clackline Brook on a large box culvert , giving vehicles a safer crossing than Clackline Bridge .
= 1973 CECAFA Cup =
The 1973 CECAFA Cup was the inaugural edition of the CECAFA Cup , and was held in Uganda . The CECAFA Cup is considered Africa 's oldest football tournament , and involves teams from Central and Southern Africa . The matches in the 1973 tournament were played from 22 September 1973 until 29 September 1973 . The tournament was originally the Gossage Cup , contested by the four nations of Kenya , Uganda , Tanzania , and Zanzibar , running from 1929 until 1965 . In 1967 , this became the East and Central African Senior Challenge Cup , often shortened to simply the Challenge Cup , which was competed for five years , until 1971 , before the CECAFA Cup was introduced in 1973 . Uganda , the hosts , won the Cup , beating Tanzania 2 – 1 in the final . The tournament lacked a third @-@ place play @-@ off , so the runners @-@ up in the group stages , Kenya and Zambia , shared third place . After Uganda and Zambia drew in the group stages with the same number of points , goals conceded and goals scored , a play @-@ off occurred , which Uganda won . The tournament has been expanded , and the modern @-@ day tournament consists of 12 different teams ( Ethiopia , South Sudan , Burundi , Rwanda , Sudan , and Eritrea have joined since 1973 ) .
= = Participants = =
Six nations competed : the original four teams from the Gossage Cup , plus two more teams :
= = Group stages = =
The group stage began on 22 September and ended on 28 September with Group A 's play @-@ off . The matchdays alternated between group A and group B throughout the week , finishing with the group A play @-@ off . After the end of the scheduled matches in group A , Uganda and Zanzibar were level on the traditional deciders listed below , so to decide which team qualified for the final a play @-@ off was arranged , won by Uganda .
= Release ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Release " is the seventeenth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode originally aired on the Fox network on May 5 , 2002 . The teleplay for the episode was written by David Amann , from a story by John Shiban and Amann
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